title: Republic of China Navy

text: The ROC Navy currently lacks a modern fleet defense system. Its destroyers currently use obsolete Mark 26 missile launchers designed from the 1970s and does not currently have a modern centralized air defense combat system like the Aegis. Past US administrations rejected the sale of Aegis radar system and Arleigh Burke-class destroyers, including George W. Bush in 2001. Under the George W. Bush administration, the US instead sold Taiwan four Kidd-class destroyers, which did not carry the Aegis and were no longer in service in the US Navy at the time. However, in January 2019, the US government delivered two sets of Mk 41 VLS to Taiwan. The ROC government plans to integrate the MK41 VLS and locally developed Tien-Kung III (Sky Bow III) with its indigenously developed Hsun Lien naval combat system, which is similar to Aegis, to upgrade its ship air defense capabilities. Taiwan has acquired the license and technology to produce additional MK 41 VLS launchers. The ROC Navy currently as of 2019 possesses at least 14 warships compatible with the Mk41. Additionally, the AN/SLQ-32 system on the Kee Lung class guided missile destroyers (formerly Kidd-Class Destroyers) will be upgraded and is expected to be completed by 2023. In November 2019 it was reported that the decommissioned amphibious landing ship Kao Hsiung (LCC-1) was being used as a test ship for the Hsun Lien naval combat system project and had been fitted with a large phased array radar system and the Mark 41 Vertical Launching System. In January 2020, it is reported the Tien-Kung III (Sky Bow III) is successfully fired from the Mark 41 Vertical Launching System.


title: Republic of China Navy

text: In November 2020, President Tsai Ing-wen opened the submarine construction facility in Kaohsiung with plans to build eight submarines. Construction was to begin with a prototype boat which was to be built over 78 months. The first boat is scheduled to enter service in 2025. Between December 2020 and February 2021, the United States reportedly approved the export of three key systems to Taiwan for the program: digital sonar systems, integrated combat systems and auxiliary equipment systems (periscopes).


title: Republic of China Navy

text: All remaining bases are small naval stations supporting PCL class small patrol boats and Fast Attack Boat:


title: Republic of China Navy

text: The Naval Maritime and Surveillance Command overseas a network of surveillance radar stations across Taiwan. These include high altitude sites like Hsiaohsuehshan which is located at more than 3,000m above sea level. The high altitude sites pose unique challenges to the Navy as they are often located in inaccessible areas and experience extreme weather including months of snow in the winter.


title: Republic of China Navy

text: In May 2021 the navy ordered a new series of shore based medium-to-long range maritime surveillance radars from NCSIST. Because the radar system will likely come under attack in a war the navy has been pulling staff back to central command centers.


title: Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona

text: Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona (Juan Carlos Teresa Silverio Alfonso de Borbón y Battenberg; 20 June 1913 – 1 April 1993), also known as Don Juan, was a claimant to the Spanish throne as Juan III. He was the third son and designated heir of King Alfonso XIII of Spain and Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg. His father was replaced by the Second Spanish Republic in 1931. Juan's son Juan Carlos I became king when Spain's constitutional monarchy was restored in 1975.


title: Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona

text: Juan was born at the Palace of San Ildefonso. His father was forced into exile when the Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed on 14 April 1931. Owing to the renunciations of his brothers Alfonso, Prince of Asturias, and Infante Jaime, Duke of Segovia, Infante Juan was thus next in line to the defunct Spanish throne. He thus received the title Prince of Asturias when he was serving with the Royal Navy in Bombay.


title: Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona

text: In March 1935, he passed his naval exams in gunnery and navigation, which would have entitled him to a lieutenant’s commission in the Royal Navy if he gave up his Spanish nationality. This, however, he refused to do.


title: Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona

text: He met his future wife at a party hosted by Victor Emmanuel III of Italy on the day before his sister (Infanta Beatriz) was to be married. He married Princess María de las Mercedes of Bourbon-Two Sicilies (1910–2000), known in Spain as Doña María de las Mercedes de Borbón Dos-Sicilias y Orleans, in Rome on 12 October 1935.


title: Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona

text: Just before the birth of the Infante Juan Carlos, the Count of Barcelona decided to go hunting, with the doctor telling him and his wife that the future king would not be born for weeks. When he was told of the birth, he drove to the hospital so quickly that he broke an axle spring.


title: Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona

text: They lived in Cannes and Rome, and, with the outbreak of World War II, they moved to Lausanne to live with his mother, Queen Victoria Eugenie. Afterwards, they resided at Estoril, on the Portuguese Riviera.


title: Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona

text: In 1931 Juan was subject to dynastic negotiations between the Alfonsists and the Carlists, concluded in so-called Pact of Territet; it has never been implemented. Juan became heir apparent to the defunct Spanish throne after the renunciations of his two older brothers, Alfonso and Jaime, in 1933. To assert his claim to the throne, following his father's death he used the title of Count of Barcelona, a sovereign title associated with the Spanish crown.


title: Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona

text: In 1936, his father sent him to participate in the Spanish Civil War but he was arrested near the French border, and sent back by General Emilio Mola.


title: Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona

text: When General Francisco Franco declared Spain a monarchy in 1947, he characterized it as a "restoration". However, Franco was afraid that Juan would roll back the Spanish State because he favoured constitutional monarchy, which would restore parliamentary democracy. As a result, in 1969, Franco passed over Juan in favour of Juan's son, Juan Carlos, who Franco believed would be more likely to continue the dictatorship after his death. Juan Carlos later surprised many by his support of democratising Spain. Franco and Juan did not have a good relationship, with the latter constantly pressing Franco to restore the monarchy. Relations soured further when Juan called Franco an "illegitimate usurper".


title: Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona

text: Juan formally renounced his rights to the Spanish throne eight years after being displaced as recognised heir to the throne by Franco, and two years after his son, Juan Carlos, had become king. In return, his son officially granted him the title of Count of Barcelona, which he had claimed for so long.


title: Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona

text: After his death in 1993, he was buried with honours due a king, under the name "Juan III" (his title if he had become king) in the Royal Crypt of the monastery of San Lorenzo del Escorial, near Madrid. His wife survived him by seven years.


title: Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona

text: He was fond of the sea, and joined the Naval School at San Fernando, Cádiz, and had tattoos of a marine theme from his time in the British Royal Navy.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (novel)

text: Bridge to Terabithia is a novel written by Katherine Paterson, about two children named Leslie and Jesse who create a magical forest kingdom in their imaginations. The book was originally published in 1977 by Thomas Crowell, and in 1978, it won the Newbery Medal. Paterson drew inspiration for the novel from a real event that occurred in August 1974 when her son’s friend was struck dead by lightning.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (novel)

text: The novel tells the story of fifth grader Jesse Aarons, who becomes friends with his new neighbor, Leslie Burke, after he loses a footrace to her at school. Leslie is a tomboy from a wealthy family, and Jesse thinks highly of her. Jesse is an artistic boy from a poorer family who, in the beginning, is fearful and angry. After meeting Leslie, however, his life is transformed. He becomes courageous and learns to let go of his frustration. The two children create a kingdom for themselves, which Leslie names "Terabithia."


title: Bridge to Terabithia (novel)

text: The novel's content has been the frequent target of censorship and appears at number eight on the American Library Association list of the 100 Most Frequently Challenged Books for the decade 1990–2000.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (novel)

text: It has been adapted for the screen twice: a 1985 PBS TV movie and a 2007 Disney/Walden Media feature film.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (novel)

text: Katherine Paterson lived for a time in Takoma Park, Maryland, a suburb of Washington, D.C. The novel was inspired by an incident during that time: on August 14, 1974, her son David's best friend, Lisa Christina Hill, died after being struck by lightning in Bethany Beach, Delaware. She was eight years old.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (novel)

text: The name of the imaginary kingdom is similar to that of the Narnian island Terebinthia, created by C. S. Lewis in 1951 or earlier for "Prince Caspian" and "The Voyage of the Dawn Treader". Paterson observed in 2005:


title: Bridge to Terabithia (novel)

text: I thought I had made it up. Then, rereading "The Voyage of the Dawn Treader" by C. S. Lewis, I realized that I had probably gotten it from the island of Terebinthia in that book. However, Lewis probably got that name from the terebinth tree in the Bible, so both of us pinched from somewhere else, probably unconsciously.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (novel)

text: The novel makes a direct reference to "The Chronicles of Narnia" as a series of books Leslie lends to Jess, in order to help him learn to behave like a king.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (novel)

text: Ten-year-old Jesse "Jess" Aarons has trained all summer to be the fastest runner in his rural school. Secretly, he wants to be an artist, but his father disapproves. He has a crush on the school music teacher, Miss Edmunds, the only person who encourages him to draw.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (novel)

text: Jess's new neighbor, Leslie Burke, is a wealthy tomboy from Arlington, Virginia. At recess on the first day of school, Leslie outruns everyone. The other students mock her for being a teacher's pet and for not owning a television. When Jess defends Leslie from Janice Avery, a seventh grade bully, they become friends. They play by a dry creek behind Leslie's house. They pretend they are the king and queen of a hidden magical kingdom, Terabithia, that can be entered only by swinging over the creek bed on an old rope.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (novel)

text: When Jess's six-year-old sister May Belle brings Twinkies to school for lunch, Janice Avery steals them. At Terabithia, Jess and Leslie forge a love letter to Janice from a boy she likes. The letter asks for a date, and Janice is humiliated when he does not show up. Months later, Leslie hears Janice crying in the bathroom. Jess convinces Leslie to help Janice. Janice tells Leslie that she is abusively beaten by her father, and her so-called friends have just gossipped about it to the entire seventh grade. Leslie comforts Janice by telling her that everyone will forget about it in a week. That night, May Belle tells Jess that she followed him and Leslie to the creek. He makes her swear never to follow them again nor to tell their mother.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (novel)

text: On Easter, Leslie goes to church with Jess's family. While she calls the story of Jesus "beautiful," she doubts it. This upsets May Belle, who believes God will damn Leslie to hell when she dies. That week, rain turns the dry creek bed into a rushing river. By Wednesday evening, Jess is too scared to swing over the river, while Leslie remains unafraid. On Thursday morning, Miss Edmunds calls Jess and invites him to Washington to visit the Smithsonian. When he returns home, Leslie is dead: The rope broke as she swung over the river, and she drowned.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (novel)

text: Jess asks his father whether Leslie is in hell, and his father assures him she isn't. Using a large branch, Jess crosses the stream to Terabithia, where he makes a funeral wreath for Leslie. May Belle, who has followed him, makes it halfway across the branch before becoming too scared to continue. Jess guides her backwards to land.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (novel)

text: Jess's teacher, Mrs. Myers, tells him that when her husband died, people tried to make her forget, but she didn't want to. Using scrap lumber left behind by the Burkes, Jess builds a bridge across the dry creek bed. He puts flowers in May Belle's hair, leads her across the bridge, and begins to play Terabithia, with May Belle as the new queen.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (novel)

text: At the time of the book's publication, "Kirkus Reviews" said, "Paterson, who has already earned regard with her historical fiction set in Japan, proves to be just as eloquent and assured when dealing with contemporary American children--and Americans of very different backgrounds at that." According to "The Horn Book Magazine", "Jess and his family are magnificently characterized; the book abounds in descriptive vignettes, humorous sidelights on the clash of cultures, and realistic depictions of rural school life. The symbolism of falling and of building bridges forms a theme throughout the story, which is one of remarkable richness and depth, beautifully written." In a retrospective essay about the Newbery Medal-winning books from 1976 to 1985, literary critic Zena Sutherland wrote of "Bridge to Terabithia", "The poignant story is all the more effective because Paterson lets Jesse express his grief and guilt rather than telling readers that he feels them. There is no glossing-over; nor is there a reaching for dramatic effect."


title: Bridge to Terabithia (novel)

text: The novel's content has been the frequent target of censors. It ranks number 8 on the American Library Association list of most commonly challenged books in the United States for 1990–1999. On the ALA list for 2000–2009 it ranks No. 28. The challenges stem from death being a part of the plot; Jesse's frequent use of the word "lord" outside of prayer; allegations that it promotes secular humanism, New Age religion, occultism, and Satanism; and for use of offensive language.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (novel)

text: The novel is often featured in English studies classes in Ireland, Singapore, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the Philippines, Ecuador, the United Kingdom, Costa Rica, Panama, South Africa and the United States.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (novel)

text: In 2012, the novel was ranked number ten among all-time best children's novels in a survey published by "School Library Journal", a monthly with primarily U.S. audience. Two other books by Paterson made the top 100.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (novel)

text: Two films have been made based on the novel, both with the original title. One was a PBS TV movie made in 1985, starring Annette O'Toole, Julian Coutts, and Julie Beaulieu.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (novel)

text: The second was a theatrical film released on February 16, 2007, directed by the co-creator of Nickelodeon's "Rugrats" and former Hanna-Barbera animator Gabor Csupo and starring Josh Hutcherson, AnnaSophia Robb, Robert Patrick, Bailee Madison, and Zooey Deschanel; the adaptation was done in part by David Paterson himself. While the giant troll was adapted, the Dark Master, Squogres (a race of squirrel/ogre-like creatures), Hairy Vultures, and many unidentified creatures were created for the film.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (novel)

text: A musical stage adaptation ("supported by a lyrical score") entitled "The Bridge to Terabithia" is listed for sale by Stageplays.com, credited to Paterson and Stephanie S. Tolan, another children's writer. It was catalogued by the Library of Congress in 1993, with primary credit to Steve Liebman for the music, as "Bridge to Terabithia: a play with music" (New York: S. French, c1992).


title: Dry cleaning

text: Dry cleaning still involves liquid, but clothes are instead soaked in a water-free liquid solvent. Tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene), known in the industry as "perc", is the most widely used solvent. Alternative solvents are 1-bromopropane and petroleum spirits.


title: Dry cleaning

text: Most natural fibers can be washed in water but some synthetics (e.g., viscose, lyocell, modal, and cupro) react poorly with water and must be dry-cleaned.


title: Dry cleaning

text: Dry cleaning originated with American entrepreneur Thomas L. Jennings. Jennings referred to his method as “dry scouring”.


title: Dry cleaning

text: French dye-works operator Jean Baptiste Jolly developed his own method using kerosene and gasoline to clean fabrics. He opened the first dry-cleaners in Paris in 1845.


title: Dry cleaning

text: Flammability concerns led William Joseph Stoddard, a dry cleaner from Atlanta, to develop Stoddard solvent (white spirit) as a slightly less flammable alternative to gasoline-based solvents. The use of highly flammable petroleum solvents caused many fires and explosions, resulting in government regulation of dry cleaners. After World War I, dry cleaners began using chlorinated solvents. These solvents were much less flammable than petroleum solvents and had improved cleaning power.


title: Dry cleaning

text: By the mid-1930s, the dry cleaning industry had adopted tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene), or PCE for short, as the solvent. It has excellent cleaning power and is nonflammable and compatible with most garments. Because it is stable, tetrachloroethylene is readily recycled.


title: Dry cleaning

text: From the customer's perspective, dry cleaning businesses are either "plants" or "drop shops". A plant does on-site cleaning. A drop shop receives garments from customers, sends them to a large plant, and then has the cleaned garments returned to the shop for collection by the customer. This cycle minimized the risk of fire or dangerous fumes created by the cleaning process. At this time, dry cleaning was carried out in two machines—one for the cleaning process and the second to remove the solvent from the garments.


title: Dry cleaning

text: Machines of this era were described as "vented"; their drying exhausts were expelled into the atmosphere, the same as many modern tumble-dryer exhausts. This contributed to environmental contamination, and much potentially reusable PCE was lost to the atmosphere. Much stricter controls on solvent emissions have ensured that all dry cleaning machines in the Western world are now fully enclosed, and no solvent fumes are vented to the atmosphere. In enclosed machines, solvent recovered during the drying process is returned condensed and distilled, so it can be reused to clean further loads or safely disposed of. Most modern enclosed machines also incorporate a computer-controlled drying sensor, which automatically senses when all detectable traces of PCE have been removed. This system ensures that only small amounts of PCE fumes are released at the end of the cycle.


title: Dry cleaning

text: In terms of mechanism, dry cleaning selectively solubilizes stains on the article. The solvents are non-polar and tend to selectively extract compounds that cause stains. These stains would otherwise only dissolve in aqueous detergents mixtures at high temperatures, potentially damaging delicate fabrics.


title: Dry cleaning

text: Non-polar solvents are also good for some fabrics, especially natural fabrics, as the solvent does not interact with any polar groups within the fabric. Water binds to these polar groups which results in the swelling and stretching of proteins within fibers during laundering. Also, the binding of water molecules interferes with weak attractions within the fiber, resulting in the loss of the fiber's original shape. After the laundry cycle, water molecules will dry off. However, the original shape of the fibers has already been distorted and this commonly results in shrinkage. Non-polar solvents prevent this interaction, protecting more delicate fabrics.


title: Dry cleaning

text: The usage of an effective solvent coupled with mechanical friction from tumbling effectively removes stains.


title: Dry cleaning

text: A dry cleaning machine is similar to a combination of a domestic washing machine and clothes dryer. Garments are placed in the washing or extraction chamber (referred to as the 'basket' or 'drum'), which constitutes the core of the machine. The washing chamber contains a horizontal, perforated drum that rotates within an outer shell. The shell holds the solvent while the rotating drum holds the garment load. The basket capacity is between about 10 and 40 kg (22 to 88 lb).


title: Dry cleaning

text: During the wash cycle, the chamber is filled approximately one-third full of solvent and begins to rotate, agitating the clothing. The solvent temperature is maintained at or lower, as a higher temperature may damage it. During the wash cycle, the solvent in the chamber (commonly known as the 'cage' or 'tackle box') is passed through a filtration chamber and then fed back into the 'cage'. This is known as the cycle and is continued for the wash duration. The solvent is then removed and sent to a distillation unit consisting of a boiler and condenser. The condensed solvent is fed into a separator unit where any remaining water is separated from the solvent and then fed into the clean solvent tank. The ideal flow rate is roughly 8 liters of solvent per kilogram of garments per minute, depending on the size of the machine.


title: Dry cleaning

text: Garments are also checked for foreign objects. Items such as plastic pens may dissolve in the solvent bath, damaging the textiles. Some textile dyes are "loose" and will shed dye during solvent immersion. Fragile items, such as feather bedspreads or tasseled rugs or hangings, may be enclosed in a loose mesh bag. The density of perchloroethylene is around 1.7 g/cm at room temperature (70% heavier than water), and the sheer weight of absorbed solvent may cause the textile to fail under normal force during the extraction cycle unless the mesh bag provides mechanical support.


title: Dry cleaning

text: Not all stains can be removed by dry cleaning. Some need to be treated with spotting solventssometimes by steam jet or by soaking in special stain-remover liquidsbefore garments are washed or dry cleaned. Also, garments stored in soiled condition for a long time are difficult to bring back to their original color and texture.


title: Dry cleaning

text: A typical wash cycle lasts for 8–15 minutes depending on the type of garments and degree of soiling. During the first three minutes, solvent-soluble soils dissolve into the perchloroethylene and loose, insoluble soil comes off. It takes 10–12 minutes after the loose soil has come off to remove the ground-in insoluble soil from garments. Machines using hydrocarbon solvents require a wash cycle of at least 25 minutes because of the much slower rate of solvation of solvent-soluble soils. A dry cleaning surfactant "soap" may also be added.


title: Dry cleaning

text: At the end of the wash cycle, the machine starts a rinse cycle where the garment load is rinsed with freshly distilled solvent dispensed from the solvent tank. This pure solvent rinse prevents discoloration caused by soil particles being absorbed back onto the garment surface from the 'dirty' working solvent.


title: Dry cleaning

text: After the rinse cycle, the machine begins the extraction process, which recovers the solvent for reuse. Modern machines recover approximately 99.99% of the solvent employed. The extraction cycle begins by draining the solvent from the washing chamber and accelerating the basket to 350–450 rpm, causing much of the solvent to spin free of the fabric. Until this time, the cleaning is done in normal temperature, as the solvent is never heated in dry cleaning process. When no more solvent can be spun out, the machine starts the drying cycle.


title: Dry cleaning

text: During the drying cycle, the garments are tumbled in a stream of warm air (60–63 °C/140–145 °F) that circulates through the basket, evaporating traces of solvent left after the spin cycle. The air temperature is controlled to prevent heat damage to the garments. The exhausted warm air from the machine then passes through a chiller unit where solvent vapors are condensed and returned to the distilled solvent tank. Modern dry cleaning machines use a closed-loop system in which the chilled air is reheated and recirculated. This results in high solvent recovery rates and reduced air pollution. In the early days of dry cleaning, large amounts of perchloroethylene were vented to the atmosphere because it was regarded as cheap and believed to be harmless.


title: Dry cleaning

text: After the drying cycle is complete, a deodorizing (aeration) cycle cools the garments and removes further traces of solvent by circulating cool outside air over the garments and then through a vapor recovery filter made from activated carbon and polymer resins. After the aeration cycle, the garments are clean and ready for pressing and finishing.


title: Dry cleaning

text: Working solvent from the washing chamber passes through several filtration steps before it is returned to the washing chamber. The first step is a button trap, which prevents small objects such as lint, fasteners, buttons, and coins from entering the solvent pump.


title: Dry cleaning

text: Over time, a thin layer of filter cake (called "muck") accumulates on the lint filter. The muck is removed regularly (commonly once per day) and then processed to recover solvent trapped in the muck. Many machines use "spin disk filters", which remove the muck from the filter by centrifugal force while it is back washed with solvent.


title: Dry cleaning

text: After the lint filter, the solvent passes through an absorptive cartridge filter. This filter, which contains activated clays and charcoal, removes fine insoluble soil and non-volatile residues, along with dyes from the solvent. Finally, the solvent passes through a polishing filter, which removes any soil not previously removed. The clean solvent is then returned to the working solvent tank. Cooked powder residue is the name for the waste material generated by cooking down or distilling muck. It will contain solvent, powdered filter material (diatomite), carbon, non-volatile residues, lint, dyes, grease, soils, and water. The waste sludge or solid residue from the still contains solvent, water, soils, carbon, and other non-volatile residues. Used filters are another form of waste as is waste water.


title: Dry cleaning

text: To enhance cleaning power, small amounts of detergent (0.5–1.5%) are added to the working solvent and are essential to its functionality. These detergents emulsify hydrophobic soils and keep soil from redepositing on garments. Depending on the machine's design, either an anionic or a cationic detergent is used.


title: Dry cleaning

text: The international GINETEX laundry symbol for dry cleaning is a circle. It may have the letter P inside it to indicate perchloroethylene solvent, or the letter F to indicate a flammable solvent ("Feuergefährliches Schwerbenzin"). A bar underneath the circle indicates that only mild cleaning processes is recommended. A crossed-out empty circle indicates that an item should not be dry cleaned.


title: Dry cleaning

text: Perchloroethylene (PCE, or tetrachloroethylene) has been in use since the 1930s. PCE is the most common solvent, the "standard" for cleaning performance. It is a highly effective cleaning solvent. It is thermally stable, recyclable, and has low toxicity. It can, however, cause color bleeding/loss, especially at higher temperatures. In some cases it may damage special trims, buttons, and beads on some garments. It is better for oil-based stains (which account for about 10% of stains) than more common water-soluble stains (coffee, wine, blood, etc.). The toxicity of tetrachloroethylene "is moderate to low" and "Reports of human injury are uncommon despite its wide usage in dry cleaning and degreasing".


title: Dry cleaning

text: Hydrocarbons are represented by products such as Exxon-Mobil's DF-2000 or Chevron Phillips' EcoSolv, and Pure Dry. These petroleum-based solvents are less aggressive but also less effective than PCE. Although combustible, risk of fire or explosion can be minimized when used properly. Hydrocarbons are however pollutants. Hydrocarbons retain about 10-12% of the market.


title: Dry cleaning

text: Trichloroethylene is more aggressive than PCE but is very rarely used. With superior degreasing properties, it was often used for industrial workwear/overalls cleaning in the past. TCE is classified as carcinogenic to humans by the United States Environmental Protection Agency.


title: Dry cleaning

text: Supercritical is an alternative to PCE; however, it is inferior in removing some forms of grime. Additive surfactants improve the efficacy of . Carbon dioxide is almost entirely nontoxic. The greenhouse gas potential is also lower than that of many organic solvents.


title: Dry cleaning

text: The dry cleaning process involves charging a sealed chamber which is loaded with clothes using gaseous carbon dioxide from a storage vessel to approximately . This step in the process is initiated as a precaution to avoid thermal shock to the cleaning chamber. Liquid carbon dioxide is then pumped into the cleaning chamber from a separate storage vessel by a hydraulic, or electrically driven pump (which preferably has dual pistons). The pump increases the pressure of the liquid carbon dioxide to approximately . A separate sub-cooler reduces the temperature of the carbon dioxide by below the boiling point in an effort to prevent cavitation which could lead to premature degradation of the pump.


title: Dry cleaning

text: "Consumer Reports" rated supercritical superior to conventional methods, but the Drycleaning and Laundry Institute commented on its "fairly low cleaning ability" in a 2007 report. Supercritical is, overall, a mild solvent which lowers its ability to aggressively attack stains.


title: Dry cleaning

text: One deficiency with supercritical is that its electrical conductivity is low. As mentioned in the Mechanisms section, dry cleaning utilizes both chemical and mechanical properties to remove stains. When solvent interacts with the fabric's surface, the friction dislocates dirt. At the same time, the friction also builds up an electrical charge. Fabrics are very poor conductors and so usually, this build-up is discharged through the solvent. This discharge does not occur in liquid carbon dioxide and the build-up of an electrical charge on the surface of the fabric attracts the dirt back on to the surface, which diminishes its cleaning efficiency. To compensate for the poor solubility and conductivity of supercritical carbon dioxide, research has focused on additives. For increased solubility, 2-propanol has shown increased cleaning effects for liquid carbon dioxide as it increases the ability of the solvent to dissolve polar compounds.


title: Dry cleaning

text: Machinery for use of supercritical is expensiveup to $90,000 more than a PCE machine, making affordability difficult for small businesses. Some cleaners with these machines keep traditional machines on-site for more heavily soiled textiles, but others find plant enzymes to be equally effective and more environmentally sustainable.


title: Dry cleaning

text: For decades, efforts have been made to replace PCE. These alternatives have not proven economical thus far:


title: Chiranjivi

text: Chiranjivi (, ) are the eight immortals who are to remain alive on Earth until the end of the current Kali Yuga, according to Hinduism. The Sanskrit term Chiranjivi means “immortal”, even though it does not correspond with “eternal”. The term is a combination of "chiram" (long) and jivi (lived).


title: Chiranjivi

text: The term is a combination of "chiram", or 'permanent', and "jīvi", or 'lived'. It is similar to "amaratva", which refers to true immortality. At the end of the last Manvantara, a demon attempted to become immortal by swallowing the sacred pages of Vedas, as they escaped from the mouth of Brahma. The scripture was retrieved by the first avatar (Matsya) of Vishnu. Incarnations of Vishnu (Narasimha and Rama) also later fought and killed two asuras, Hiranyakasipu and Ravana, who tried to become immortal through obeisance to Brahma and Shiva, respectively. In one sense immortal can mean "to live eternally until the destruction of universes", i.e., all physical bodies are foretold to become immaterial at the end of time, along with the Brahma himself, with the destruction of the universe.


title: Chiranjivi

text: The extant Puranas, the Ramayana, and the Mahabharata describe seven long-lived personalities in the Hindu pantheon. There are others as well, which are not included in the one particular "shloka". Each represents a different attribute of man, which as long as they live, will exist amongst humanity.


title: Chiranjivi

text: The mantra states that the remembrance of the eight immortals (Ashwatthama, Mahabali, Vyasa, Hanuman, Vibhishana, Kripa, Parashurama, and Markandaya) offers one freedom from ailments and longevity.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: The terms genital modification and genital mutilation can refer to permanent or temporary changes to human sex organs. Some forms of genital alteration are performed on adults with their informed consent at their own behest, usually for aesthetic reasons or to enhance stimulation. However, other forms are performed on people who do not give informed consent, including infants or children. Any of these procedures may be considered modifications or mutilations in different cultural contexts and by different groups of people.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: The vast majority of genital cutting in the world is done for religious motives (though not all members of genital cutting religions adhere to the practice). Genital cutting is performed for reasons such as:


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Many types of genital modification are performed at the behest of the individual, for personal, sexual, aesthetic or cultural reasons. Penile subincision, or splitting of the underside of the penis, is widespread in the traditional cultures of Indigenous Australians. This procedure has taken root in Western body modification culture, the modern primitives. Meatotomy is a form that involves splitting of the glans penis alone, while bisection is a more extreme form that splits the penis entirely in half.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Genital piercings and genital tattooing may be performed for aesthetic reasons, but piercings have the benefit of increasing sexual pleasure for the pierced individual or their sex partners.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Similarly, pearling involves surgical insertion of small, inert spheres under the skin along the shaft of the penis for the purpose of providing sexual stimulation to the walls of the vagina. Similar to tattooing, genital scarification is primarily done for aesthetic reasons by adding cosmetic scars to the skin. The genital decoration by scars is an ancient tradition in many cultures, both for men and women. The Hanabira-style (Japanese for petal) is a special form of scarification originating in Japan; it involves the decoration of the mons pubis.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Clitoris enlargement may be achieved temporarily through the use of a clitoral pump, or it may be achieved permanently through the application or injection of testosterone. Penis enlargement is a term for various techniques used to attempt to increase the size of the penis, though the safety and efficacy of these techniques are debated.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: People who are transgender or intersex may undergo sex reassignment surgery to alter their bodies to match their gender identity. Not all transgender people elect to have these surgeries. Some of the surgical procedures are breast augmentation and vaginoplasty (creation of a vagina) for trans women and mastectomy (breast removal), metoidioplasty (elongation of the clitoris), and phalloplasty (creation of a penis) for trans men. Trans women may also benefit from hair removal and facial feminization surgery, while some trans men may have liposuction to remove fat deposits around their hips and thighs.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Intersex children and children with ambiguous genitalia may be subjected to surgeries to "normalize" the appearance of their genitalia. These surgeries are usually performed for cosmetic benefit rather than for therapeutic reasons. Most surgeries involving children with ambiguous genitalia are sexually damaging and may render them infertile. For example, in cases involving male children with micropenis, doctors may recommend the child be reassigned as female. The Intersex Society of North America objects to elective surgeries performed on people without their informed consent on grounds that such surgeries subject patients to unnecessary harm and risk.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: In some cases, a child's gender may be reassigned due to genital injury. There have been at least seven cases of unambiguously male infants being reassigned as female due to circumcision damaging their penises beyond repair, including David Reimer (born Bruce Reimer, later Brenda Reimer), who was the subject of John Money's John/Joan case.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: If the genitals become diseased, as in the case of cancer, sometimes the diseased areas are surgically removed. Females may undergo vaginectomy or vulvectomy (to the vagina and vulva, respectively), while males may undergo penectomy or orchiectomy (removal of the penis and testicles, respectively). Reconstructive surgery may be performed to restore what was lost, often with techniques similar to those used in sex reassignment surgery.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: During childbirth, an episiotomy (cutting part of the tissue between the vagina and the anus) is sometimes performed to increase the amount of space through which the baby may emerge. Advocates of natural childbirth and unassisted birth state that this intervention is often performed without medical necessity, with significant damage to the female giving birth.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Hymenotomy is the surgical perforation of an imperforate hymen. It may be performed to allow menstruation to occur. An adult individual may opt for increasing the size of her hymenal opening, or removal of the hymen altogether, to facilitate sexual penetration of her vagina.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: The world's first penis reduction surgery was performed in 2015, on a 17-year-old boy who had an American football-shaped penis as a result of recurrent priapism.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: A person may engage in self-inflicted genital injury or mutilation such as castration, penectomy, or clitoridectomy. The motivation behind such actions vary widely; it may be done due to skoptic syndrome, personal crisis related to gender identity, mental illness, self-mutilation, body dysmorphia, or social reasons.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Genital mutilation is common in some situations of war or armed conflict, with perpetrators using violence against the genitals of men, women, and non-binary people. These different forms of sexual violence can terrorize targeted individuals and communities, prevent individuals from reproducing, and cause tremendous pain and psychological anguish for victims.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Female genital mutilation (FGM), also known as female genital cutting (FGC), female circumcision, or female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C), refers to "all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other surgery of the female genital organs whether for cultural, religious or other non-therapeutic reasons." It is not the same as the procedures used in gender reassignment surgery or the genital modification of intersex persons. It is practised in several parts of the world, but the practice is concentrated more heavily in Africa, parts of the Middle East, and some other parts of Asia. Over 125 million women and girls have experienced FGM in the 29 countries in which it is concentrated.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Over eight million have been infibulated, a practice found largely in Djibouti, Eritrea, Somalia and Sudan. Infibulation, the most extreme form of FGM (known as Type III), consists of the removal of the inner and outer labia and closure of the vulva, while a small hole is left for the passage of urine and menstrual blood; afterwards the vagina will be opened after the wedding for sexual intercourse and childbirth (see episiotomy). In the past several decades, efforts have been made by global health organizations, such as the WHO, to end the practice. FGM is condemned by international human rights organizations. The Istanbul Convention prohibits FGM (Article 38).


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: FGM is also considered a form a violence against women by the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women, which was adopted by the United Nations in 1993; it states: "Article Two: Violence against women shall be understood to encompass, but not be limited to, the following: (a) Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family, including ... female genital mutilation ...". However, because of its importance in traditional life, it continues to be practised in many societies.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Hymenorrhaphy refers to the practice of thickening the hymen, or, in some cases, implanting a capsule of red liquid within the newly created vaginal tissue. This new hymen is created to cause physical resistance, blood, or the appearance of blood, at the time that the individual's new husband inserts his penis into her vagina. This is done in cultures where a high value is placed on female virginity at the time of marriage. In these cultures, a woman may be punished, perhaps violently, if the community leaders deem that she was not virginal at the time of consummation of her marriage. Individuals who are victims of rape, who were virginal at the time of their rape, may elect for hymenorrhaphy.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Labia stretching is the act of elongating the "labia minora" through manual manipulation (pulling) or physical equipment (such as weights). It is a familial cultural practice in Rwanda, common in Sub-Saharan Africa, and a body modification practice elsewhere. It is performed for sexual enhancement of both partners, aesthetics, symmetry and gratification.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Cosmetic surgery of female genitalia, known as "elective genitoplasty", has become pejoratively known as ""designer vagina"". In May 2007, an article published in the "British Medical Journal" strongly criticised this craze, citing its popularity being rooted in commercial and media influences. Similar concerns have been expressed in Australia.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Some women undergo vaginoplasty or labiaplasty procedures to alter the shape of their vulvas to meet personal or societal aesthetic standards. The surgery itself is controversial, and critics refer to the procedures as "designer vagina".


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: In the article Designer Vaginas by Simone Weil Davis, she talks about the modification of woman's vagina and the outside influences women are pressured with, which can cause them to feel shame towards their labia minora. She states that the media, such as pornography, creates an unhealthy view of what a "good looking vagina" is and how women feel that their privates are inferior and are therefore pressured to act upon that mindset. These insecurities are forced upon women by their partners and other women as well. Also leading to a surge of these types of procedures is increased interest in non-surgical genital alterations, such as Brazilian waxing, that make the vulva more visible to judgment. The incentive to participate in labia- and vaginoplasty may also come about in an effort to manage women's physical attributes and their sexual behavior, treating their vagina as something needing to be managed or controlled and ultimately deemed "acceptable".


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Clitoral hood reduction is a form of hoodplasty. When performed with the consent of the adult individual, it can be considered an elective plastic surgery procedure for reducing the size and the area of the clitoral hood (prepuce) in order to further expose the clitoral glans of the clitoris; the therapeutic goal is thought to improve the sexual functioning of the woman, and the aesthetic appeal of her vulva. The reduction of the clitoral prepuce tissues usually is a sub-ordinate surgery within a labiaplasty procedure for reducing the labia minora; and occasionally within a vaginoplasty procedure. When these procedures are performed on individuals without their consent, they are considered a form of female genital mutilation.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Castration in the genital modification and mutilation context is the removal of the testicles. Occasionally the term is also used to refer to penis removal, but that is less common. Castration has been performed in many cultures throughout history, but is now rare. It should not be confused with chemical castration.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: The removal of one testicle (sometimes referred to as "unilateral castration") is usually done in the modern world only for medical reasons.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Circumcision is the surgical removal of part or all of the foreskin from the penis. It is usually performed for religious, cultural or medical reasons and leaves some or all of the glans permanently exposed. Jews and many Americans typically have their infants circumcised during the neonatal period, while Filipinos, most Muslims and African communities such as the Maasai and Xhosa circumcise in teenage years or childhood as an initiation into adulthood.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: In modern medicine, circumcision may be used as treatment for severe phimosis or recurrent balanitis that has not responded to more conservative treatments. Advocacy is often centered on preventive medicine, while opposition is often centered on human rights (particularly the bodily integrity of the infant when circumcision is performed in the neonatal period) and the potentially harmful side effects of the procedure. Neonatal circumcision is generally safe when done by an experienced practitioner, with complications being rare, though death has been reported in some cases.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: The World Health Organization estimates that one third of the world's men are circumcised; the majority of circumcised male population is located in Muslim countries and in the United States, although there are various explanations for why the infant circumcision rate in the US is different from comparable countries.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: In 2012, the American Academy of Pediatrics stated that health benefits of non-therapeutic circumcision were not great enough to recommend it for every newborn, that the benefits outweighed the risks, and that the procedure may be done for families who choose it.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Foreskin restoration is the partial recreation of the foreskin after its removal by circumcision. Surgical restoration involves grafting skin taken from the scrotum onto a portion of the penile shaft. Nonsurgical methods involve tissue expansion by stretching the penile skin forward over the glans penis with the aid of tension. Nonsurgical restoration is the preferred method as it is less costly and typically yields better results than surgical restoration. A foreskin restoration device may be of help to men pursuing nonsurgical foreskin restoration. While restoration cannot recreate the nerves or tissues lost to circumcision, it can recreate the appearance and some of the function of a natural foreskin.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: "Infibulation" literally means "to close with a clasp or a pin". The word is used to include suturing of the foreskin over the head of the penis.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Early Greek infibulation consisted of piercing the foreskin and applying a gold, silver or bronze ring ("annulus"), a metal clasp ("fibula") or pin. This was done for aesthetic reasons. The Greeks also used a nonsurgical form of infibulation by wearing a . Infibulation in Romano-Greek culture is attested as early as Aulus Cornelius Celcus (25 BC–50 AD) and as late as Oribasisus (325–405 AD).


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: In the Victorian era, both in the UK and in the United States, routine infibulation was second only to circumcision in the "war on masturbation" and was used in orphanages and mental institutions, supported by leading physicians.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Also known as "total castration" or "nullification", emasculation is the combination of castration and penectomy.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Due to the high risk of death from bleeding and infection, it was often considered a punishment equivalent to a death sentence. It was part of the eunuch-making of the Chinese court, and it was widespread in the Arab slave trade. A castrated slave was worth more, and this offset the losses from death.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Nullification is the term used by the modern body modification community to describe the procedure of emasculation. "Nullo" is the term used to describe those who have undergone nullification.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: In modern-day South Asia, some members of hijra communities reportedly undergo emasculation. It is called "nirwaan" and seen as a rite of passage.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Pearling or genital beading is a form of body modification, the practice of permanently inserting small beads made of various materials beneath the skin of the genitals—of the labia, or of the shaft or foreskin of the penis. As well as being an aesthetic practice, this is usually intended to enhance the sexual pleasure of the receptive partner(s) during vaginal or anal intercourse.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Penectomy involves the partial or total amputation of penis. Sometimes, the removal of the entire penis was done in conjunction with castration, or incorrectly referred to as castration. Removing the penis was often performed on eunuchs and high ranking men who would frequently be in contact with women, such as those belonging to a harem. The hijra of India may remove their penis as an expression of their gender identity. In the medical field, removal of the penis may be performed for reasons of gangrene or cancer. Penis removal may occur through unintentional genital injury, such as during routine neonatal circumcision mishaps.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: In the ulwaluko circumcision ceremony, which is performed by spear, accidental penectomy is a serious risk.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Penis removal for purposes of assault or revenge is overwhelmingly a female-on-male crime, particularly in Thailand. In the United States In 1907 Bertha Boronda sliced off her husband's penis with a straight razor. Lorena Bobbit infamously removed her husband's penis in 1993. In some circumstances it may be possible to reattach the penis.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: Penile subincision is a form of genital modification involves a urethrotomy and vertically slitting the underside of the penis from the meatus towards to the base. It was performed by people of some cultures, such as the Indigenous Australians, the Arrente, the Luritja, the Samburu, the Samoans, and the Native Hawaiians. It may also be performed for personal preference. Penile subincision may leave a man with an increased risk of sexually transmitted diseases, issues with fertility (due to lack of control over what direction the sperm goes after ejaculation), and may require a man to sit down while urinating. When the surgery is not performed in a hospital or by a licensed medical professional, complications such as infection, exsanguination, or permanent damage are major concerns.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: A rectal slit (also known as superincision) is an incision made along the upper length of the foreskin with the intention to expose the glans penis without removing skin or tissue.


title: Genital modification and mutilation

text: It may be performed as a part of traditional customs, such as those in the Pacific Islands and the Philippines. In the medical field, it may be performed for as an alternative to circumcision when circumcision is undesired or impractical. It remains a rare surgery and practice overall.


title: Czechs

text: The Czechs (, ; singular Czech, masculine: "Čech" , singular feminine: "Češka" ), or the Czech people (), are a West Slavic ethnic group and a nation native to the Czech Republic in Central Europe, who share a common ancestry, culture, history, and the Czech language.


title: Czechs

text: Ethnic Czechs were called Bohemians in English until the early 20th century, referring to the former name of their country, Bohemia, which in turn was adapted from the late Iron Age tribe of Celtic Boii. During the Migration Period, West Slavic tribes settled in the area, "assimilated the remaining Celtic and Germanic populations", and formed a principality in the 9th century, which was initially part of Great Moravia, in form of Duchy of Bohemia and later Kingdom of Bohemia, the predecessors of the modern republic.


title: Czechs

text: The Czech diaspora is found in notable numbers in the United States, Canada, Israel, Austria, Germany, Slovakia, Ukraine, Switzerland, Italy, the United Kingdom, Australia, France, Russia, Argentina, Romania and Brazil, among others.


title: Czechs

text: The Czech ethnic group is part of the West Slavic subgroup of the larger Slavic ethno-linguistical group. The West Slavs have their origin in early Slavic tribes which settled in Central Europe after East Germanic tribes had left this area during the migration period. The West Slavic tribe of Czechs settled in the area of Bohemia during the migration period, and assimilated the remaining Celtic and Germanic populations. In the 9th century the Duchy of Bohemia, under the Přemyslid dynasty, was formed, which had been part of Great Moravia under Svatopluk I. According to mythology, the founding father of the Czech people was Forefather Čech, who according to legend brought the tribe of Czechs into its land.


title: Czechs

text: The Czech are closely related to the neighbouring Slovaks (with whom they constituted Czechoslovakia 1918–1993). The Czech–Slovak languages form a dialect continuum rather than being two clearly distinct languages. Czech cultural influence in Slovak culture is noted as having been much higher than the other way around. Czech (Slavic) people have a long history of coexistence with the Germanic people. In the 17th century, German replaced Czech in central and local administration; upper classes in Bohemia and Moravia were Germanized, and espoused a political identity (""), while Czech ethnic identity survived among the lower and lower-middle classes. The Czech National Revival took place in the 18th and 19th centuries aiming to revive Czech language, culture and national identity. The Czech were the initiators of Pan-Slavism.


title: Czechs

text: The Czech ethnonym (archaic "Čechové") was the name of a Slavic tribe in central Bohemia that subdued the surrounding tribes in the late 9th century and created the Czech/Bohemian state. The origin of the name of the tribe itself is unknown. According to legend, it comes from their leader Čech, who brought them to Bohemia. Research regards "Čech" as a derivative of the root "čel-" (member of the people, kinsman). The Czech ethnonym was adopted by the Moravians in the 19th century.


title: Czechs

text: The population of the Czech lands has been influenced by different human migrations that wide-crossed Europe over time. In their Y-DNA haplogroups, which are inherited along the male line, Czechs have shown a mix of Eastern and Western European traits. According to a 2007 study, 34.2% of Czech men belong to R1a. Within the Czech Republic, the proportion of R1a seems to gradually increase from west to east According to a 2000 study, 35.6% of Czech men have haplogroup R1b, which is very common in Western Europe among Germanic and Celtic nations, but rare among Slavic nations. A mtDNA study of 179 individuals from Western Bohemia showed that 3% had East Eurasian lineages that perhaps entered the gene pool through admixture with Central Asian nomadic tribes in the early Middle Ages. A group of scientists suggested that the high frequency of a gene mutation causing cystic fibrosis in Central European (including Czech R.) and Celtic populations supports the theory of some Celtic ancestry among the Czech population.


title: Czechs

text: The population of the Czech Republic descends from diverse peoples of Slavic, Celtic and Germanic origin. Presence of West Slavs in the 6th century during the Migration Period has been documented on the Czech territory. Slavs settled in Bohemia, Moravia and Austria sometime during the 6th or 7th centuries, and "assimilated the remaining Celtic and Germanic populations". According to a popular myth, the Slavs came with Forefather Čech who settled at the Říp Mountain.


title: Czechs

text: During the 7th century, the Frankish merchant Samo, supporting the Slavs fighting against nearby settled Avars, became the ruler of the first known Slav state in Central Europe, Samo's Empire. The principality Great Moravia, controlled by the Moymir dynasty, arose in the 8th century and reached its zenith in the 9th (during the reign of Svatopluk I of Moravia) when it held off the influence of the Franks. Great Moravia was Christianized, the crucial role played Byzantine mission of Cyril and Methodius. The Duchy of Bohemia emerged in the late 9th century. In 880, Prague Castle was constructed by Prince Bořivoj, founder of the Přemyslid dynasty and the city of Prague was established. Vratislav II was the first Czech king in 1085 and the duchy was raised to a hereditary kingdom under Ottokar I in 1198.


title: Czechs

text: The second half of the 13th century was a period of advancing German immigration into the Czech lands. The number of Czechs who have at least partly German ancestry today probably runs into hundreds of thousands. The Habsburg Monarchy focused much of its power on religious wars against the Protestants. While these religious wars were taking place, the Czech estates revolted against Habsburg from 1546 to 1547 but were ultimately defeated.


title: Czechs

text: Defenestrations of Prague in 1618, signaled an open revolt by the Bohemian estates against the Habsburgs and started the Thirty Years' War. After the Battle of White Mountain in 1620, all Czech lands were declared hereditary property of the Habsburg family. The German language was made equal to the Czech language.


title: Czechs

text: Czech patriotic authors tend to call the following period, from 1620 to 1648 until the late 18th century, the "Dark Age". It is characterized by devastation by foreign troops; Germanization; and economic and political decline. It is estimated that the population of the Czech lands declined by a third.


title: Czechs

text: The 18th and 19th century is characterized by the Czech National Revival, focusing to revive Czech culture and national identity.


title: Czechs

text: Since the turn of the 20th century, Chicago is the city with the third largest Czech population, after Prague and Vienna.


title: Czechs

text: During World War I, Czechoslovak Legions fought in France, Italy and Russia against the Central Powers. In 1918 the independent state of Czechoslovakia was proclaimed. Czechs formed the leading class in the new state emerging from the remnants of the Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy.


title: Czechs

text: After 1933, Czechoslovakia remained the only democracy in central and eastern Europe. However, in 1938 the Munich Agreement severed the Sudetenland, with a considerable Czech minority, from Czechoslovakia, and in 1939 the German Nazi regime established the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia for "Resttschechei" (the rump Czech state). Emil Hácha became president of the protectorate under Nazi domination, which only allowed pro-Nazi Czech associations and tended to stress ties of the Czechs with the Bohemian Germans and other parts of the German people, in order to facilitate assimilation by Germanization. In Lidice, Ležáky and Javoříčko the Nazi authorities committed war crimes against the local Czech population. On 2 May 1945, the Prague Uprising reached its peak, supported by the Russian Liberation Army. The post-war expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia and the immediate reprisals against Germans and Nazi collaborators by Czech resistance and the Czechoslovak state authorities, made Czechs—especially in the early 1950s—settle alongside Slovaks and Romani people in the former lands of the Sudeten Germans, who had been deported to East Germany, West Germany and Austria according to the Potsdam Conference and Yalta Conference.


title: Czechs

text: The Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 was followed by a wave of emigration, unseen before and stopped shortly after in 1969 (estimate: 70,000 immediately, 300,000 in total), typically of highly qualified people.


title: Czechs

text: Tens of thousands of Czechs had repatriated from Volhynia and Banat after World War II. Since the 1990s, the Czech Republic has been working to repatriate Romania and Kazakhstan's ethnic Czechs.


title: Czechs

text: Following the Czech Republic's entry into the European Union in May 2004, Czechs gradually gained the right to work in EU countries without a work permit.


title: Czechs

text: The last five Přemyslids were kings: Ottokar I of Bohemia, Wenceslaus I of Bohemia, Ottokar II of Bohemia, Wenceslaus II of Bohemia and Wenceslaus III of Bohemia. The most successful and influential of all Czech kings was Charles IV, who also became the Holy Roman Emperor. The Luxembourg dynasty represents the heights of Czech (Bohemian) statehood territorial and influence as well as advancement in many areas of human endeavors.


title: Czechs

text: Many people are considered national heroes and cultural icons, many national stories concern their lives. Jan Hus was a religious reformist from the 15th century and spiritual father of the Hussite Movement. Jan Žižka and Prokop the Great were leaders of hussite army, George of Poděbrady was a hussite king. Albrecht von Wallenstein was a notable military leader during the Thirty Years' War. The "teacher of nations" Jan Amos Komenský is also considered a notable figure in Czech history. Joseph Radetzky von Radetz was an Austrian general staff during the later period of the Napoleonic Wars. Josef Jungmann is often credited for expanding the modern Czech language, and preventing its extinction. The most famous Czech historian was František Palacký, often called "father of nation".


title: Czechs

text: One of the most notable figures are founders of Czechoslovakia, modern state of independence of Czech and Slovak nations, Presidents Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk and Edvard Beneš, who was also leader of exile government in World War II. Ludvík Svoboda was a head of the Czechoslovak military units on the Eastern Front during the World War II (later president of Czechoslovakia). The key figures of the Communist regime were Klement Gottwald, Antonín Zápotocký, Antonín Novotný (and Slovak Gustáv Husák), the most famous victims of this regime were Milada Horáková and Rudolf Slánský. Jan Palach committed self-immolation as a political protest against the end of the Prague Spring resulting from the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia by the Warsaw Pact armies.


title: Czechs

text: Another notable politician after the fall of the communist regime is Václav Havel, last President of Czechoslovakia and first President of the Czech Republic. The current first directly elected president is Miloš Zeman.


title: Czechs

text: The Czech Republic has had multiple Prime Ministers the first of which was latter Presidents Václav Klaus and Miloš Zeman. Another Prime Ministers of the Czech Republic were conservative politicians such as Mirek Topolánek, Petr Nečas and social democratic such as Vladimír Špidla, Jiří Paroubek, Bohuslav Sobotka.


title: Czechs

text: Diplomat Madeleine Albright is of Czech origin and fluent in Czech. Other well-known Czech diplomats were Jan Masaryk or Jiří Dienstbier.


title: Czechs

text: Sports have also been a contributor to famous Czechs especially tennis, football, hockey, and athletics:


title: Czechs

text: Czech music had its first significant pieces created in the 11th century. The great progress of Czech artificial music began with the end of the Renaissance and the early Baroque era, concretely in works of Adam Václav Michna z Otradovic, where the specific character of Czech music was rising up by using the influence of genuine folk music. This tradition determined the development of Czech music and has remained the main sign in the works of great Czech composers of almost all eras – Jan Dismas Zelenka and Josef Mysliveček in Baroque, Bedřich Smetana and Antonín Dvořák in Romanticism, Leoš Janáček, Bohuslav Martinů and Josef Suk in modern classical or Petr Eben and Miloslav Kabeláč in contemporary classical music.


title: Czechs

text: Czech musicians also played an important role in the development of European music. Jan Václav Antonín Stamic in 18th-century contributed to the creation of Classicism in music by innovations of compositional forms and the founding of the Mannheim school. Similarly, Antonín Rejcha's experiments prefigured new compositional techniques in the 19th century. The influence of Czech musicians expanded beyond the borders of the European continent, when Antonín Dvořák created a new American classical music style, using the richness of ethnic music of that country during his mission in the US. The contribution of Alois Hába to microtonal music in the 20th century must be also mentioned.


title: Czechs

text: Czech music reached as far as Qing China. Karel Slavíček was a Jesuit missionary, scientist and sinologist who was introduced to the Kangxi Emperor on 3 February 1717, in Beijing. The emperor favored him and employed him as court musician. (Slavíček was a Spinet player).


title: Czechs

text: Some notable modern Czech musicians are US-based composer and guitarist Ivan Král, musician and composer Jan Hammer and the rock band The Plastic People of the Universe which played an important part in the underground movement during the communist regime.


title: Czechs

text: The Czech Republic first entered the Eurovision Song Contest in 2007. Czech performer qualified for the grand final for the first time in 2016 when singer Gabriela Gunčíková finished in 25th place. In 2018 the singer Mikolas Josef reached the 6th place in the contest being the best result of the Czech Republic until today.


title: Czechs

text: Other important names: Franz Benda, Rafael Kubelík, Jan Ladislav Dussek, Vítězslav Novák, Zdeněk Fibich, Jan Kubelík, Jiří Antonín Benda, Julius Fučík, Karel Svoboda, Karel Kryl, Václav Neumann, Václav Talich, František Xaver Richter, Jan Křtitel Vaňhal, Vojtěch Živný, Josef Bohuslav Foerster, Magdalena Kožená, Karel Ančerl, Ema Destinnová, Maria Jeritza, František Xaver Brixi, Jiří Bělohlávek, Oskar Nedbal, Karel Gott.


title: Czechs

text: Jaroslav Seifert was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for his poetry. Božena Němcová has become a cultural icon and gained much fame for her book "Babička (The Grandmother)".


title: Czechs

text: Other important Czech writers include Milan Kundera, Karel Čapek, Jaroslav Hašek, Jan Neruda, Franz Kafka, Bohumil Hrabal, Viktor Dyk, Kosmas, Pavel Kohout, Alois Jirásek, Josef Škvorecký, Karel Jaromír Erben, Jiří Wolker, Karel Hynek Mácha, Vítězslav Nezval, Arnošt Lustig, Jaroslav Vrchlický, Karel Havlíček Borovský, Ivan Klíma, Egon Erwin Kisch, Vladimír Holan, Julius Zeyer or Svatopluk Čech. From contemporary Czech writers can be mentioned Jáchym Topol, Patrik Ouředník, Michal Viewegh or Daniela Hodrová. Important playwrights were Karel Čapek, František Langer or Josef Kajetán Tyl. Strong was also the theatrical avant-garde (Jan Werich, Jiří Voskovec, Emil František Burian). Known journalists were Julius Fučík, Milena Jesenská or Ferdinand Peroutka.


title: Czechs

text: Mikoláš Aleš was a painter, known for redesigning the Prague National Theatre. Alphonse Mucha was an influential artist in the Art Nouveau movement of the Edwardian period. František Kupka was a pioneer and co-founder of the abstract art movement. Other well-known painters are Josef Čapek, Josef Lada, Theodoric of Prague, Wenceslaus Hollar, Toyen, Jan Kupecký, Petr Brandl, Vladimír Vašíček, Václav Brožík, Josef Mánes, Karel Škréta or Max Švabinský. Renowned sculptors were Josef Václav Myslbek or Matyáš Bernard Braun, photographers Jan Saudek, Josef Sudek, František Drtikol or Josef Koudelka, illustrators Zdeněk Burian or Adolf Born, architects Jan Kotěra or Josef Gočár. Jiří Kylián was an important ballet choreographer.


title: Czechs

text: Film director Miloš Forman, known best for his movie, "One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest" is of Czech origin and started his career in Czechoslovakia. Forman was a member of the so-called Czech New Wave. Other members included Jiří Menzel (Oscar 1967), Ivan Passer, Věra Chytilová and Elmar Klos (Oscar 1965). Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film has also Jan Svěrák (1996). The influential surrealist filmmaker and animator Jan Švankmajer was born in Prague and has resided in the Czech Republic throughout his life. In the field of animation and puppet film made famous Zdeněk Miler, Karel Zeman and Jiří Trnka.


title: Czechs

text: Actors Zdeněk Svěrák, Vlastimil Brodský, Vladimír Menšík, Libuše Šafránková or Karel Roden have also made a mark in modern Czech history. The most successful Czech erotic actress is Silvia Saint.


title: Czechs

text: The first Czech models have made a breakthrough in the international modeling were Paulina Porizkova or Ivana Trump. After the fall of communism in Czechoslovakia many other models succeeded: Karolína Kurková, Eva Herzigová, Taťána Kuchařová, Petra Němcová and Daniela Peštová.


title: Czechs

text: Czech culture involves many saints, most notably St. Wenceslaus (Václav), patron of the Czech nation, St. John of Nepomuk (Jan Nepomucký), St. Adalbert (Vojtěch), Saint Procopius or St. Agnes of Bohemia (Anežka Česká). Although not a Christian, rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel of Prague, a 16th Century scholar and one of the most influential figures of Jewish history, is considered to be part of the country's religious legacy as well.


title: Czechs

text: The modern Czech nation was formed through the process of the Czech national revival. Through this was created the linguistic concept of the Czech nation (particularly promoted by Jungmann), i.e. "a Czech = one who has the Czech language as their first language: naturally or by choice." (That is why Slovaks who have chosen Czech as their literary language, such as Ján Kollár or Pavel Jozef Šafařík, are often considered to be Czechs.) Like other nations, Czechs also speak of two alternative concepts: the landed concept (a Czech is someone who was born in the historic Czech territory), which in Jungmann's time primarily denoted nobility, and the ethnic concept. Definition by territory is still discussed alternative, from time to time is indicated for Czechs number of natives (speaking mostly German, English or otherwise) – these include US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, film director Karel Reisz, actor Herbert Lom, the founder of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud, the founder of genetics Gregor Mendel, logician and mathematician Kurt Gödel, the philosopher Edmund Husserl, scientists Gerty Cori, Carl Cori and Peter Grünberg (all Nobel Prize winners) and Ernst Mach, economists Joseph Schumpeter and Eugen Böhm von Bawerk, philosophers Bernard Bolzano, Ernest Gellner, Vilém Flusser and Herbert Feigl, Marxist theoretician Karl Kautsky, astronomer Johann Palisa, legal theorist Hans Kelsen, inventors Alois Senefelder and Viktor Kaplan, automotive designer Ferdinand Porsche, psychologist Max Wertheimer, a geologist Karl von Terzaghi, musicologists Eduard Hanslick and Guido Adler, chemist Johann Josef Loschmidt, biologists Heinrich Wilhelm Schott and Georg Joseph Kamel, the founder of the dermatology Ferdinand Ritter von Hebra, peace activist Bertha von Suttner (Nobel Peace Prize), the composers Gustav Mahler, Heinrich Biber, Viktor Ullmann, Ervin Schulhoff, Pavel Haas, Erich Wolfgang Korngold and Ralph Benatzky, writers Franz Kafka, Reiner Maria Rilke, Max Brod, Karl Kraus, Franz Werfel, Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach, Leo Perutz, Tom Stoppard and Egon Erwin Kisch, painters Anton Raphael Mengs and Emil Orlik, architects Adolf Loos, Peter Parler, Josef Hoffmann, Jan Santini Aichel and Kilian Ignaz Dientzenhofer, cellist David Popper, violist Heinrich Wilhelm Ernst, pianists Alice Herz-Sommer and Rudolf Serkin, president of Austria Karl Renner, Prime Minister of Poland Jerzy Buzek, industrialist Oskar Schindler, or chess player Wilhelm Steinitz.


title: Czechs

text: People with Czech ancestry include the astronauts Eugene Cernan and Jim Lovell, film directors Chris Columbus and Jim Jarmusch, swimmer Katie Ledecky, politicians John Forbes Kerry and Caspar Weinberger, chemist and Nobel Prize laureate Thomas Cech, physicist Karl Guthe Jansky, economist Friedrich Hayek, painters Jan Matejko, Gustav Klimt, Egon Schiele and Oskar Kokoschka, actors Ashton Kutcher, Sissy Spacek and Kim Novak, tennis players Richard Krajicek, Jakob Hlasek and Stan Wawrinka, singer Jason Mraz, Brazil president Juscelino Kubitschek, founder of McDonald's company Ray Kroc, writers Georg Trakl and Robert Musil, mayor of Chicago Anton Cermak and Ivanka Trump and her brother Donald Trump Jr.


title: Czechs

text: The Czechs live in three historical lands: Bohemia, Moravia, and Czech Silesia; these regions make up the modern Czech Republic. However, the country is now divided into 14 administrative regions. The local culture varies somewhat in each of the historical regions. Moravians are usually more nationalistic regional patriots of Moravia, but they also speak Czech. Local dialects (such as Central Bohemian, the Chod dialect, Moravian dialects, Cieszyn Silesian, etc.) are found in various parts of the country.


title: Czechs

text: The Czech language is spoken by approximately 12 million people around the world, but the vast majority are in the Czech Republic. It developed from the Proto-Slavic language in the 10th century and is mutually intelligible with the Slovak language.


title: Czechs

text: In 1977, Richard Felix Staar described Czechs as "tolerant and even indifferent towards religion as a rule".


title: Czechs

text: After the Bohemian Reformation, most Czechs (about 85%) became followers of Jan Hus, Petr Chelčický and other regional Protestant Reformers. Bohemian Estates' defeat in the Battle of White Mountain brought radical religious changes and started a series of intense actions taken by the Habsburgs in order to bring the Czech population back to the Roman Catholic Church. After the Habsburgs regained control of Bohemia, Czech people were forcibly converted to Roman Catholicism. All kinds of Protestant communities including the various branches of Hussites, Lutherans and Reformed were either expelled, killed, or converted to Catholicism. The Catholic Church lost the bulk of its adherents during the Communist era.


title: Czechs

text: As of 2015, Pew Research Center found in that 72% of the population of Czech Republic declared to be irreligious, a category which includes atheists, agnostics and those who describe their religion as "nothing in particular", 26% were Christians (vast majority Catholics), while 2% belonged to other faiths.


title: Czechs

text: In the Czech Republic, the nation state of the Czech people, 6,732,104 (63.7%) declared as ethnic Czech according to the 2011 census. Notably, another 2,742,669 (26%) were undeclared, and 522,474 (4.9%) declared as Moravians. There is a large Czech diaspora, which includes 1,703,930 Americans of Czech/Czechoslovak ancestry, 94,805 Canadians of Czech ancestry, an estimated 45,000 Czech-born residents in the United Kingdom, and ca. 31,000 in Australia. There are smaller communities throughout Europe. Number of Israelis of Czech-Jewish ancestry is estimated to be about 50,000 to 100,000, with notable individuals such as Max Brod, Yosef Chaim Sonnenfeld or Yehuda Bauer.


title: Sonic Forces

text: Development of "Sonic Forces" began after the release of "Sonic Lost World" in 2013. The game's title was chosen to signify its themes of power, teamwork, and armies. The game was intended to have a darker tone compared to previous entries in the franchise, and the character creation system was inspired by "Sonic" fan art the developers had come across over the years. The game was primarily developed by staff who had worked on "Sonic Colors" and "Sonic Generations" (2011), using an updated version of the Hedgehog Engine, used in "Sonic Unleashed" and "Generations". It was announced, alongside "Sonic Mania", under the working title of "Project Sonic 2017" during the "Sonic" 25th anniversary event at the 2016 San Diego Comic-Con. Through "Sonic Mania" entered development years later than "Forces", it affected the development, so the games have connected plots.


title: Sonic Forces

text: The game was released for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One in November 2017. "Sonic Forces" received mixed reviews from critics. They praised its presentation, music, voice acting, character creation system, and the Modern Sonic gameplay, but criticized the plot, overly scripted level design and gameplay, technical problems, short length, the inclusion of Classic Sonic, and Infinite's underdeveloped characterization. Many critics called it a disappointment in the wake of the positively received "Sonic Mania", released earlier that year. The critical feedback influenced the development of the "Sonic" series' next entry, "Sonic Frontiers" (2022).


title: Sonic Forces

text: "Sonic Forces" is an action-adventure platform game similar in gameplay and style to prior "Sonic the Hedgehog" games. The player's goal is to liberate the world from the newly established reign of Doctor Eggman. The game features three playable characters: two variants of Sonic the Hedgehog ("Classic" and "Modern") and the "Avatar" (the player's custom character). Each has unique abilities and attributes: Classic Sonic is restricted to side-scrolling gameplay reminiscent of the Sega Genesis "Sonic" games and can perform a spin dash on the ground and a drop dash in mid-air to gain speed. Modern Sonic's gameplay follows a similar style to "Sonic Unleashed" and "Sonic Colors": he can double jump, perform a homing attack on enemies, springs, and grappling hooks, and a speed boost by collecting White Wisps. The Avatar is created from a base of seven animal types, which each possess a unique ability; they also wield a grappling hook and can equip weapons known as Wispons, including flamethrowers, whips, and hammers. Depending on the Wispon, Avatars can use temporary abilities by collecting a corresponding Wisp type. Certain parts see players controlling both Modern Sonic and the Avatar, switching between them as necessary, similar to "Sonic Heroes".


title: Sonic Forces

text: The game is split into several themed levels, some of which are based on locations from past games, such as Green Hill Zone. Players must complete each level while fighting waves of enemies, and (with the exception of Classic Sonic) seamlessly shift from side-scrolling to third-person perspectives. Stages are filled with features such as spring boards, rails, and boost pads, and obstacles such as spikes, bottomless pits, and robots. Scattered around levels are golden rings, which serve as a form of health: rings protect players from damage caused by robots or other hazards, though they lose their rings upon being hit; being hit with no rings kills the player. The game does not use a traditional life system, instead deducting from the player's score depending on the number of deaths. Players are given a grade dependent on their performance; an "S" rank is the best and a "C" is the worst. Certain levels feature a boss, which must be defeated in order to proceed. Bonus levels can be unlocked by collecting Red Rings hidden in most stages and players may occasionally receive SOS Missions, tasking them with replaying levels with a specific objective.


title: Sonic Forces

text: Doctor Eggman attacks a city and Sonic sets out to stop him. Upon arriving, he is attacked by Infinite, a mercenary transformed by the power of the Phantom Ruby from "Sonic Mania". Infinite defeats Sonic and he is taken prisoner aboard the Death Egg. Without Sonic, the world is left without a defender, and Eggman, with the help of his robots, Infinite, Shadow the Hedgehog, Chaos, Zavok, and Metal Sonic, manages to conquer it within six months. Knuckles the Echidna forms a resistance movement with Tails, the Chaotix, Amy Rose, Silver the Hedgehog, Rouge the Bat and a survivor of Eggman's attack whom they nickname the Rookie. Knuckles discovers Sonic's whereabouts and the Rookie steals a space shuttle, breaks into the Death Egg, and rescues Sonic. Back in the city, Tails is attacked by Chaos, but is saved by Classic Sonic (who was sent through a wormhole following the events of "Sonic Mania"). The two set out to spy on Eggman, learning of the Phantom Ruby and that Eggman has a plan to dispose of the resistance which will take effect in three days.


title: Sonic Forces

text: Meanwhile, Sonic encounters Shadow, who reveals that the Shadow following Eggman is an illusionary clone created by Infinite, as are the other villains serving him and that limitless numbers of them can be made. Tails infiltrates Eggman's computer network and finds the Phantom Ruby's weakness: the gemstone is directly powered by the Death Egg and will be rendered useless without it. While the Rookie stages a diversion, the Death Egg is destroyed by Classic Sonic. Believing they have the upper hand, the resistance attacks the Eggman Empire's capital, Metropolis. However, Eggman has a backup power source hidden in his empire's fortress, and as the resistance make their final charge toward it, he has Infinite enact his plan; creating an asteroid-like second sun over the planet that will eliminate the resistance with its impact. Thinking fast, the Rookie uses a prototype Phantom Ruby they had recovered to dispel the sun, saving everybody. Sonic and the Rookie then battle Infinite and defeat him. Eggman unveils yet another backup plan, moving the Phantom Ruby into a battle mech and fighting the resistance directly. Working together, the Sonics and the Rookie defeat Eggman, leaving the doctor’s whereabouts unknown. With the Phantom Ruby neutralized, all the clones serving Eggman's army vanish, Classic Sonic returns home, the Resistance disbands, and Modern Sonic and his friends set out to restore the world to its former glory while the Rookie leaves to find their own way.


title: Sonic Forces

text: The DLC pack Episode Shadow serves as a prequel to the story, one month before the main plot begins. Shadow heads into the city towards enemy territory on Rouge's command, but E-123 Omega ends up causing chaos despite the fact that the mission is meant to be recon. As Shadow goes on, Omega starts getting confused, with his sensors becoming disabled, and his mind being corrupted before going silent. It is later revealed that Omega was badly damaged by Infinite, who Shadow does not recognize. To help him remember, Infinite sends Shadow through a flashback of Shadow invading Dr. Eggman's base.


title: Sonic Forces

text: The leader of the Jackal Squad mercenaries, the rest of which were taken out by Shadow beforehand, is commanded by Eggman to eliminate Shadow. However, his efforts are futile against Shadow, who easily thrashes him to the side, insults his weakness and leaves. Unable to handle the pain of being called "weak", he dons a mask, covering up his past, and gains the power he uses now from the Phantom Ruby, calling himself Infinite from then on. After Infinite snaps Shadow out of the flashback, Shadow is transported to Green Hill Zone, where Infinite demonstrates his ability to manipulate people's minds by making Shadow think Rouge is talking nonsense to him and Omega is still alive and active, making him realize Infinite's capabilities.


title: Sonic Forces

text: Development of "Sonic Forces" began shortly after "Sonic Lost World" was completed in 2013 under the codename "Project Sonic 2017", and was developed alongside "Sonic Mania". It was developed by Sonic Team; the majority of the staff had previously developed "Sonic Colors" and "Sonic Generations" (which followed a similar premise). The game was directed by Morio Kishimoto, who previously directed the Wii version of "Sonic Colors" and the Wii U version of "Sonic Lost World". The game was produced in commemoration of the series' twenty-fifth anniversary, and the title was chosen to signify its themes of power, teamwork, and armies.


title: Sonic Forces

text: The game was intended to give a darker perspective to the world of "Sonic", in contrast to the fantasy-based themes of previous entries, and expand upon the modern-style gameplay from "Unleashed" and "Colors". To create this, the developers designed levels to seem desolate and more realistic. In programming the game, the development team used the Hedgehog Engine 2, an updated version of the game engine used in "Sonic Unleashed" and "Sonic Generations". The gameplay was mostly modeled off "Unleashed"s, with elements from "Colors" and "Generations". With the updated software, the first locations designed were the urban levels, which served as a reference for other stages. Sonic Team sought to make the levels unique and contrasting, and various level ideas were suggested during development; one example was a prison in Green Hill. At one point in development, the series' traditional ring-based health system was abandoned to balance the game's difficulty, and for designing the Classic levels, the team looked to "Generations" and "Mania" as a reference.


title: Sonic Forces

text: Sonic Team head Takashi Iizuka explained that for years, he had seen many fan-made characters and wanted to give players the opportunity to play as their own. The team was given freedom to create the animal and customization mechanics. According to producer Shun Nakamura, the system was intended to modify existing characters rather than use the complex mechanics of series such as "Fallout", so the characters would still feel like a part of the "Sonic" universe. Though "Sonic Mania" entered development years later than "Forces", it affected the development; the games have connected plots, and "Mania" was envisioned to excite fans for "Forces".


title: Sonic Forces

text: Recurring series writers Ken Pontac and Warren Graff contributed to the English script. The soundtrack was primarily composed by series sound director Tomoya Ohtani and performed by the London Symphony Orchestra, with additional music from Naofumi Hataya, Kenichi Tokoi, and Takahito Eguchi. The theme song, "Fist Bump", was written by Ohtani and features lyrics written and performed by Doug Robb of the American rock band Hoobastank. Ohtani wrote Infinite's theme, which was performed by Tyler Smyth and Andy Bane of the band DangerKids. Arrangements of tracks from "Sonic CD" (1993), "Sonic Adventure 2" (2001), and "Shadow the Hedgehog" (2005) were used. A three-disc official soundtrack, "Sonic Forces Original Soundtrack - A Hero Will Rise", was released in Japan by Sega's music label Wave Master on December 13, 2017.


title: Sonic Forces

text: "Sonic Forces" was announced alongside "Sonic Mania" under its codename during a twenty-fifth series anniversary event held by Sega at the San Diego Comic-Con on July 22, 2016. The presence of both Classic and Modern Sonic in the initial teaser trailer led some journalists to believe it was a sequel to "Sonic Generations", but Iizuka clarified that it was a separate game. The game was released worldwide on Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One in November 2017. Prior to the game's launch, Sega released a four-part prequel comic written and drawn by Ian Flynn and Adam Bryce Thomas, who previously worked on Archie Comics' "Sonic the Hedgehog" series. A bonus edition was released containing controller skins and downloadable clothing items for the Avatar based on other Sega games, such as "Jet Set Radio", "Puyo Puyo", and "Persona 5".


title: Sonic Forces

text: A tie-in racing game for iOS and Android devices, "", was released in select regions in September 2017. After the game's release, several updates featuring new content were released, such as an in-game shirt for the Avatar featuring "Sanic", an internet meme of a poorly drawn Sonic, and the ability to transform into Super Sonic. The Super Sonic DLC was released for free, but was initially planned as paid DLC. In March 2020, "Sonic Forces" (along with "Shadow of the Colossus") became available as a free PS4 game for PlayStation Plus subscribers.


title: Sonic Forces

text: "Episode Shadow" is free downloadable content (DLC) for "Sonic Forces" that launched alongside the game. The story acts as a prequel, focuses on Shadow the Hedgehog and his friends Rouge the Bat and E-123 Omega, and explores the origins of Infinite. Players control Shadow, who handles similarly to Modern Sonic but has unique abilities such as the ability to perform a chain of homing attacks in rapid succession. The pack adds three original levels to the game, and the ability to play as Shadow in most of Modern Sonic's stages. According to Nakamura, Sonic Team created "Episode Shadow" to appeal to fans of older games in the series, such as "Sonic Adventure" (1998). It was the first time that Shadow was a playable character in a mainline "Sonic" game for several years, with some critics writing that it was much more difficult than the main game.


title: Sonic Forces

text: In the United Kingdom, the game debuted at fifth place on the all-formats chart. In Japan, the PS4 version debuted at 10th place with 5,938 physical sales and the Switch version debuted at 14th place with 4,686 physical sales, adding up to 10,624 physical copies sold in its first week. Sega stated in a February 2018 financial report that the game "performed strongly". , "Sonic Forces" (including a free PlayStation Plus version) has reached an estimated 6.8million players on PlayStation Network.


title: Sonic Forces

text: "Sonic Forces" received "mixed or average" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. The visuals, gameplay and character creation system were complimented. Writing for "Polygon", Jeremy Parish praised the game's visuals and character customization, but criticized its repetitive boss fights and argued the game did not advance the series' design. Parish disliked the ranking system, which rewards players for completing stages quickly rather than exploring them for collectibles, and dismissed the tag team sections as "under-developed" because players would prefer to use Modern Sonic whenever the Avatar was not required. The four reviewers of "Famitsu" were more positive, praising the character creation system, story, and soundtrack. Heidi Kemps, reviewing "Forces" for "IGN", faulted elements of the game's level design, indicating that "unfair-feeling traps" recurred intermittently and that the levels were relatively short and underdeveloped. In contrast to Parish, Kemps enjoyed the "quite strong" bosses, particularly one fought "among the winding coils of a giant snake," although she wished they were more plentiful. Kemps cited the game's "goofy charm" as preventing her from being "too disappointed" by it.


title: Sonic Forces

text: The level design received divisive responses while Classic Sonic's presence received a mediocre reception. "Kotaku" Heather Alexandra wrote that Modern Sonic's gameplay was "visually dynamic" and "the most fun", but heavily automated and shallow, whereas Classic Sonic delivered a solid but unremarkable platforming experience that compared unfavorably to the more inventive "Sonic Mania". Alexandra panned the Avatar stages as "disjointed and confused" due to a lack of flow and an excessive reliance on trial and error. Overall, she described "Forces" as fun despite a lack of polish and complimented its "infectious energy and excitement". "Game Informer"s Brian Shea similarly regarded the game as a "fun adventure" and considered its controls and level design to be the best of any 3D "Sonic" entry, but concluded: "3D "Sonic" games still aren't to where they should be after such a long time of iteration and experimentation". Shea called Classic Sonic the worst of the three playable characters due to poor physics that failed to emulate those of the original 2D "Sonic" games. The plot and short length were largely criticized. Ben "Yahtzee" Croshaw of "The Escapist" panned it for not exploring the potential of its ideas and lambasted the story for its attempt at a more mature tone. He later ranked it the second worst game of 2017. Several critics considered "Sonic Forces" a disappointment in the wake of the positively received "Mania".


title: Sonic Forces

text: John Linneman of "Eurogamer" found that "Forces" was well-optimized for PlayStation 4, with no noticeable improvement when played on a PlayStation 4 Pro, whereas the Xbox One version was "slightly more responsive" but marred by screen tearing and inferior resolution. He felt that playing on Xbox One X provided the best overall experience, albeit with some "unwelcome inconsistency" caused by occasional changes in resolution, framerate. The Windows version received criticism for problems related to its uneven performance and frequent crashes; Sega released a patch on launch day that fixed some of the problems.


title: Sonic Forces

text: The critical feedback that "Sonic Forces" received heavily influenced the development of the subsequent "Sonic" game "Sonic Frontiers" (2022). Kishimoto acknowledged the lackluster reception and concluded that Sonic Team's method of designing levels that originated in "Sonic Unleashed" would no longer satisfy fans. The open-world "Frontiers" was designed to be lengthy, with an emphasis on exploration, puzzles, and combat, to address the criticism that "Forces" received for its short length. The story of "Forces" influenced the plot of IDW Publishing's "Sonic the Hedgehog" comic books, with the series' narrative beginning shortly after the game's events.


title: Asian Paints

text: Asian Paints Ltd is an Indian multinational paint company, headquartered in Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. The company is engaged in the business of manufacturing, selling and distribution of paints, coatings, products related to home décor, bath fittings and providing of related services. Asian Paints is India's largest and Asia's second largest paints corporation. Asian Paints is the holding company of Berger International. The company's manufacturing operations encompass 15 countries of the world including India, with considerable presence in the Indian subcontinent and the Middle East.


title: Asian Paints

text: The company was started in a garage in Gaiwadi, Girgaon, Mumbai by four friends Champaklal Choksey, Chimanlal Choksi, Suryakant Dani and Arvind Vakil. They all belong to Jain families, and founded the company in February 1942. During World War II and the Quit India Movement of 1942, a temporary ban on paint imports left only foreign companies and Shalimar Paints in the market. Asian Paints took up the market and reported an annual turnover of 23 crore in 1952 but with only 2% PBT margin. By 1967, it became the leading paints manufacturer in the country.


title: Asian Paints

text: The four families together held the majority shares of the company. But disputes started over the global rights in 1990s when the company expanded beyond India. The disputes resulted in Choksey selling their 13.7% shares and exiting in 1997. Champaklal died in July 1997 and his son Atul took over. After failed collaboration talks with the British company Imperial Chemical Industries, Choksey's shares were mutually bought by the remaining three families and Unit Trust of India. , the Choksi, Dani and Vakil families hold a share of 47.81%.


title: Asian Paints

text: The company along with its subsidiaries have 26 manufacturing facilities across 16 countries serving customer globally in over 65 countries.


title: Asian Paints

text: The company has 12 institutional owners and shareholders that are investing through Securities Exchange Commission (SEC). Largest stakeholders include Bridge Builder International Equity Fund, and Touchstone Sands Capital Emerging Markets Growth Fund.


title: Asian Paints

text: In 1950s, the company launched a "washable distemper", which was a balance between the cheap dry distemper that peeled easily and the more expensive plastic emulsions. Promoting their brand Tractor Distemper, the company used ""Don't lose your temper, use Tractor Distemper"" in their advertisings. In 1954, "Gattu" – a mischievous boy with a paint bucket in his hand – was launched as mascot. Created by R. K. Laxman, the mascot found appeal with the middle-classes.