title: Lethal Weapon 2

text: Following the success of the first film, Warner Bros. and producers decided to make the sequel. Producer Joel Silver asked writer of the first film Shane Black to write the script for the sequel in the spring of 1987 and Black agreed. Although he was struggling with personal issues, Black still managed to write the first draft along with his friend, novelist Warren Murphy, co-creator of Remo Williams (the lead character of "The Destroyer" novels). Their original title for the script was "Play Dirty". Although many people thought that their script was brilliant, it was rejected by Silver, studio and director Richard Donner for being too dark and bloody, and because in the ending of the script Riggs dies, while they wanted to keep him alive in case of further sequels. They also wanted the second film to focus more on comedy, while Black's draft focused more on courage and heroics, like Riggs willing to die to protect Murtaugh and his family, due to his love for them.


title: Lethal Weapon 2

text: When his script was rejected, Black felt that he had failed the producers. He initially offered to give his payment back, but his agent talked him out of it. Black also refused to re-write the script and quit from the project after working for six months on it. Black later said how the problem with the second film was that they did too much comedy, and how he dislikes the third and fourth films because of the way Riggs' character was changed.


title: Lethal Weapon 2

text: The final version of the script written by Jeffrey Boam that was used for filming was completely different from Black's draft, other than the scene where the stilt house is destroyed. The character of Leo Getz was originally a minor character in Black's draft with only one scene and few lines of dialogue. Some of the other differences include more graphic violence throughout the script, which included the South Africans being even more vicious than in the final film; at one point Shapiro, the female police officer working with Riggs and Murtaugh, is tortured to death by them. There was also a scene where Riggs gets tortured by them in a similar way to how he was in first film, but a lot worse. There was also an action scene in the script where a plane full of cocaine gets destroyed and cocaine falls over Los Angeles "like snow". In Black's script the final battle took place on hills covered with a big brush fire, and after destruction of the stilt house Riggs chases the main villain Benedict (Pieter Vorstedt in the film), a much different and more dangerous character in original script and Riggs' "arch-nemesis and worst nightmare" according to Black, into the heart of the fire, after which Riggs gets stabbed and dies slowly from his wounds. The last scene in the script was Murtaugh watching the video tape that Riggs made before the final battle since he knew that he was going to die, and on which he says goodbye to Murtaugh. Black's reason for killing Riggs in his draft of the script, as he said in an interview, was that in first film Riggs was a "suicidal mess" who did not care about living or dying but his friendship with Murtaugh and his family was what helped him, and him sacrificing himself to save them would be the last thing he would have to do to be fully at peace. Black also said how the death scene he wrote for Riggs was "beautiful" and would make the audience cry. Black later labeled his rejected "Play Dirty" script "the best thing I ever wrote" and said he learned to trust his instincts after this experience. Black's script was never released and despite attempts by fans to find a copy of it, it remains unreleased.


title: Lethal Weapon 2

text: Director Richard Donner said in the film's Blu-ray commentary that the film was shot in such a way that it could be edited with two different endings, one in which Riggs dies and one in which he lives. Audiences in test screenings responded well to Riggs' survival, and this was kept, though the last shot in the film with the camera moving away from Murtaugh holding Riggs was shot for the ending in which he dies.


title: Lethal Weapon 2

text: When the original Shane Black screenplay was changed, he left the series. The rewrites that resulted in the final film are by Jeffrey Boam (screenwriter for "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade" and "The Lost Boys"). Boam also did some uncredited re-writing of the script for the first film when Donner thought that some parts of it were too dark and violent. Boam initially wrote two different drafts for his re-write of " Lethal Weapon 2"; one which was hard-boiled action script and one which had more comedy. He was told to mix the two drafts together and make a new one that was going to be used for filming. However, not only did Boam end up having to re-write the script many times even before filming started, but he also had to keep re-writing it during production since Donner would always want to improvise something new in a scene or demanded changes to be made on the script in the middle of filming. Boam also wrote the script for "Lethal Weapon 3" and he once again had to re-write his script many times before and during filming of that sequel for same reasons. He also wrote an unused draft for the fourth film around January 1995 which had Riggs and Murtaugh fighting against a neo-Nazi survivalist militia group that was committing a terrorist attack in L.A.


title: Lethal Weapon 2

text: Screenwriter Robert Mark Kamen said in October 2012 interview for craveonline that during the time when he was working as screenwriter for Warner Bros. and would often do lot of uncredited work on their films, he also worked on "Lethal Weapon 2" and "3". He said how amongst large chunks of the stuff he added in "Lethal Weapon 2" script during re-writes were all the parts with South African villains. Although he was uncredited for his work on this film, he did get a credit for his work on "Lethal Weapon 3" because he did a lot more work on that sequel.


title: Lethal Weapon 2

text: Originally, the character of Rika was intended to survive, with the last scene in the film being Riggs and Rika eating Thanksgiving dinner with the Murtaughs, but the director decided to kill the character to increase Riggs' motivation to destroy the South African drug smugglers. The film was the debut of Leo Getz (Joe Pesci), a crooked but whistle-blowing CPA who is placed in protective custody by Riggs and Murtaugh, and makes the detectives' more difficult due to his neurotic behavior. The Getz character remained a regular throughout the remainder of the film series.


title: Lethal Weapon 2

text: The scene where Riggs is on the road outside Arjen's stilt house and grabs onto the front of the truck (the same scene with the surfboard killing a driver) was filmed on March 21, 1989. The opening chase sequence was filmed on November 28, 1988. The scenes where Riggs and Rika are ambushed by helicopters at night on the beach were filmed at Marineland of the Pacific in Rancho Palos Verdes, California, on "Cobble Beach". Other portions of the film were shot in Palm Springs, California.


title: Lethal Weapon 2

text: The "Star Wars" series and "Ghostbusters" notwithstanding (which were released some years before), the film was among the first of the summer blockbusters to feature the 'title only' style of opening that would become an established feature of 'event' films from that point on.


title: Lethal Weapon 2

text: The soundtrack was released on Warner Bros. Records and was written and performed by Michael Kamen, Eric Clapton, and David Sanborn.


title: Lethal Weapon 2

text: The soundtrack also includes "I'm Not Scared" performed by Eighth Wonder, which features co-star Patsy Kensit on vocals, and The Skyliners performed "Since I Don't Have You", "This I Swear", "Lonely Way", "How Much", and "Believe Me"; however, none of these are included on the soundtrack album.


title: Lethal Weapon 2

text: In 2013 La-La Land Records issued the complete score (plus the original soundtrack album) as Discs 3 and 4 of its "Lethal Weapon Soundtrack Collection" eight-disc set.


title: Lethal Weapon 2

text: "Lethal Weapon 2" was the third most successful film of 1989 in North America (after "Batman" and "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade"), earning nearly $150 million in the US and $80.6 million overseas.


title: Lethal Weapon 2

text: "Lethal Weapon 2" holds an 82% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 45 reviews and has an average rating of 7.00/10. The consensus reads: ""Lethal Weapon 2" may sport a thin plot typical of action fare, but its combination of humor and adrenaline, along with the chemistry between its leads, make this a playful, entertaining sequel." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 70 out of 100, based on 21 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a rare average grade of "A+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Lethal Weapon 2

text: "The New York Times" stated, "Though it includes a smashed car full of Krugerrands, a hillside house blown off its stilts and a bomb set under a toilet, the point of "Lethal Weapon 2" is that Mel Gibson and Danny Glover get to race around in all that chaos, acting crazy. Before it skids out of control in the final sequence, the film is so careful to preserve its successful comic-action formula that it follows the most basic law of sequels. If you liked "Lethal Weapon", you'll like "Lethal Weapon 2"; it's almost as simple as that." "Los Angeles Times" reviewer Michael Wilmington stated that "though it's nice to have a big-audience action movie attacking apartheid and the slaughter of sea mammals, instead of acting as an enlistment poster for the Army Air Corps, local vigilante groups or the reopening of the Vietnam War, the sentiments don't really transcend the car crashes."


title: Lethal Weapon 2

text: "Lethal Weapon 2" has been released on VHS and DVD numerous times, along with a singular Blu-ray Disc release. The first DVD was released in 1997 and featured the film's theatrical version. The Director's Cut was released in 2000. Since then, numerous sets have been released that contain all four films in the series (featuring the same DVDs). The theatrical version was also released on Blu-ray in 2006.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: A major figure in the development of American soul music, Pickett recorded over 50 songs which made the US R&B charts, many of which crossed over to the "Billboard" Hot 100. Among his best-known hits are "In the Midnight Hour" (which he co-wrote), "Land of 1,000 Dances", "634-5789 (Soulsville, U.S.A.)", "Mustang Sally", "Funky Broadway", "Engine No. 9", and "Don't Knock My Love".


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Pickett was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1991, in recognition of his impact on songwriting and recording.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Pickett was born March 18, 1941 in Prattville, Alabama, and sang in Baptist church choirs. He was the fourth of 11 children and called his mother "the baddest woman in my book," telling historian Gerri Hirshey: "I get scared of her now. She used to hit me with anything, skillets, stove wood ... [one time I ran away and] cried for a week. Stayed in the woods, me and my little dog." Pickett eventually left to live with his father in Detroit in 1955.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Pickett's forceful, passionate style of singing was developed in the church and on the streets of Detroit, under the influence of recording stars such as Little Richard, whom he referred to as "the architect of rock and roll."


title: Wilson Pickett

text: In 1955, Pickett joined the Violinaires, a gospel group. The Violinaires played with another gospel group on concert tour in America. After singing for four years in the popular gospel-harmony group, Pickett, lured by the success of gospel singers who had moved to the lucrative secular music market, joined the Falcons in 1959.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: By 1959, Pickett recorded the song "Let Me Be Your Boy" with the Primettes as background singers. The song is the B-side of his 1963 single "My Heart Belongs to You".


title: Wilson Pickett

text: The Falcons were an early vocal group bringing gospel into a popular context, thus paving the way for soul music. The group featured notable members who became major solo artists; when Pickett joined the group, Eddie Floyd and Sir Mack Rice were members. Pickett's biggest success with the Falcons was "I Found a Love", co-written by Pickett and featuring his lead vocals. While only a minor hit for the Falcons, it paved the way for Pickett to embark on a solo career. Pickett later had a solo hit with a re-recorded two-part version of the song, included on his 1967 album "The Sound of Wilson Pickett".


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Soon after recording "I Found a Love", Pickett cut his first solo recordings, including "I'm Gonna Cry", in collaboration with Don Covay. Pickett also recorded a demo for a song he co-wrote, "If You Need Me", a slow-burning soul ballad featuring a spoken sermon. Pickett sent the demo to Jerry Wexler, a producer at Atlantic Records. Wexler gave it to the label's recording artist Solomon Burke, Atlantic's biggest star at the time. Burke admired Pickett's performance of the song, but his own recording of "If You Need Me" became one of his biggest hits (No. 2 R&B, No. 37 pop) and is considered a soul standard. Pickett was crushed when he discovered that Atlantic had given away his song. When Pickett—with a demo tape under his arm—returned to Wexler's studio, Wexler asked whether he was angry about this loss. He denied it, saying "It's over". Pickett's version was released on Double L Records as his debut solo single and was a moderate hit, peaking at No. 30 R&B and No. 64 pop.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Pickett's first significant success as a solo artist came with "It's Too Late", an original composition (not to be confused with the Chuck Willis standard of the same name). Entering the charts on July 27, 1963, it peaked at No. 7 on the R&B chart (No. 49 pop); the same title was used for Pickett's debut album, released in the same year. Compiling several of Pickett's single releases for Double L, "It's Too Late" showcased a raw soulful sound that foreshadowed the singer's performances throughout the coming decade. The single's success persuaded Wexler and Atlantic to buy Pickett's recording contract from Double L in 1964.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Pickett's Atlantic career began with the self-produced single, "I'm Gonna Cry". Looking to boost Pickett's chart chances, Atlantic paired him with record producer Bert Berns and established songwriters Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil. With this team, along with arranger, conductor Teacho Wiltshire Pickett recorded "Come Home Baby," a duet with singer Tami Lynn, but this single failed to chart.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Pickett's breakthrough came at Stax Records' studio in Memphis, Tennessee, where he recorded his third Atlantic single, "In the Midnight Hour" (1965). This song was Pickett's first big hit, peaking at No. 1 R&B, No. 21 pop (US), and No. 12 (UK). It sold more than one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc. It garnered Pickett his first Grammy nomination for Best Rhythm & Blues Recording at the 8th Annual Grammy Awards.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: The genesis of "In the Midnight Hour" was a recording session on May 12, 1965, at which Wexler worked out a powerful rhythm track with studio musicians Steve Cropper and Al Jackson of the Stax Records house band, including bassist Donald "Duck" Dunn. (Stax keyboard player Booker T. Jones, who usually played with Dunn, Cropper and Jackson as Booker T. & the M.G.'s, did not play on the studio sessions with Pickett.) Wexler said to Cropper and Jackson, "Why don't you pick up on this thing here?" He performed a dance step. Cropper explained in an interview that Wexler told them that "this was the way the kids were dancing; they were putting the accent on two. Basically, we'd been one-beat-accenters with an afterbeat; it was like 'boom dah,' but here was a thing that went 'um-chaw,' just the reverse as far as the accent goes."


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Pickett recorded three sessions at Stax in May and October 1965. He was joined by keyboardist Isaac Hayes for the October sessions. In addition to "In the Midnight Hour," Pickett's 1965 recordings included the singles "Don't Fight It," (No. 4 R&B, No. 53 pop) "634-5789 (Soulsville, U.S.A.)"(No. 1 R&B, No. 13 pop) and "Ninety-Nine and a Half (Won't Do)" (No. 13 R&B, No. 53 pop). All but "634-5789" were original compositions which Pickett co-wrote with Eddie Floyd or Steve Cropper or both; "634-5789" was credited to Cropper and Floyd alone.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: For his next sessions, Pickett did not return to Stax, as the label's owner, Jim Stewart, had decided in December 1965 to ban outside productions. Wexler took Pickett to Fame Studios, a studio also with a close association with Atlantic Records, located in a converted tobacco warehouse in nearby Muscle Shoals, Alabama. Pickett recorded some of his biggest hits there, including the highest-charting version of "Land of 1,000 Dances", which was his third R&B No. 1 and his biggest pop hit, peaking at No. 6. It was a million-selling disc.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Other big hits from this era in Pickett's career included his remakes of Mack Rice's "Mustang Sally" (No. 6 R&B, No. 23 pop), and Dyke & the Blazers' "Funky Broadway", (R&B No. 1, No. 8 pop). Both tracks were million sellers. The band heard on most of Pickett's Fame recordings included keyboardist Spooner Oldham, guitarist Jimmy Johnson, drummer Roger Hawkins, and bassist Tommy Cogbill.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Near the end of 1967, Pickett began recording at American Studios in Memphis with producers Tom Dowd and Tommy Cogbill, and began recording songs by Bobby Womack. The songs "I'm in Love," "Jealous Love," "I've Come a Long Way," "I'm a Midnight Mover," (co-written by Pickett and Womack), and "I Found a True Love" were Womack-penned hits for Pickett in 1967 and 1968. Pickett recorded works by other songwriters in this period; Rodger Collins' "She's Lookin' Good" and a new arrangement of the traditional blues standard "Stagger Lee" were Top 40 hits Pickett recorded at American. Womack was the guitarist on all recordings.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Pickett returned to Fame Studios in late 1968 and early 1969, where he worked with a band that featured guitarist Duane Allman, Hawkins, and bassist Jerry Jemmott. A No. 16 pop hit remake of The Beatles' "Hey Jude" came out of the Fame sessions, as well as the minor hits "Mini-Skirt Minnie" and "Hey Joe" (a remake of the Jimi Hendrix hit).


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Late 1969 found Pickett at Criteria Studios in Miami. Hit remakes of the Supremes' "You Keep Me Hangin' On" (No. 16 R&B, No. 92 pop) and The Archies' "Sugar, Sugar" (No. 4 R&B, No. 25 pop), and the Pickett original "She Said Yes" (No. 20 R&B, No. 68 pop) came from these sessions.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Pickett then teamed up with established Philadelphia-based hitmakers Gamble and Huff for the 1970 album "Wilson Pickett in Philadelphia", which featured his next two hit singles, "Engine No. 9" and "Don't Let the Green Grass Fool You", the latter selling one million copies.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Following these two hits, Pickett returned to Muscle Shoals and the band featuring David Hood, Hawkins and Tippy Armstrong. This lineup recorded Pickett's fifth and last R&B No. 1 hit, "Don't Knock My Love, Pt. 1". It was another Pickett recording that rang up sales in excess of a million copies. Two further hits followed in 1971: "Call My Name, I'll Be There" (No. 10 R&B, No. 52 pop) and "Fire and Water" (No. 2 R&B, No. 24 pop), a cover of a song by the rock group Free.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: In March 1971, Pickett headlined the "Soul To Soul" concert in Accra to commemorate Ghana's 14th Independence Day. He is featured on the soundtrack album, "Soul To Soul", which peaked at No. 10 on the "Billboard" Soul LPs chart.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Pickett recorded several tracks in 1972 for a planned new album on Atlantic, but after the single "Funk Factory" reached No. 11 R&B and No. 58 pop in June 1972, he left Atlantic for RCA Records. His final Atlantic single, a recording of Randy Newman's "Mama Told Me Not to Come," was culled from Pickett's 1971 album "Don't Knock My Love". However, six years later, the Big Tree division of Atlantic released his album, Funky Situation, in 1978.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: In 2010, Rhino Handmade released a comprehensive compilation of these years titled "Funky Midnight Mover – The Studio Recordings (1962–1978)". The compilation included all recordings originally issued during Pickett's Atlantic years along with previously unreleased recordings. This collection was sold online only by Rhino.com.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Pickett continued to record with success on the R&B charts for RCA in 1973 and 1974, scoring four top 30 R&B hits with "Mr. Magic Man", "Take a Closer Look at the Woman You're With", "International Playboy" (a re-recording of a song he had previously recorded for Atlantic on "Wilson Pickett in Philadelphia"), and "Soft Soul Boogie Woogie". However, he was failing to cross over to the pop charts with regularity, as none of these songs reached higher than No. 90 on the Hot 100. In 1975, with Pickett's once-prominent chart career on the wane, RCA dropped Pickett from the label. After being dropped, he formed the short-lived Wicked label, where he released one LP, "Chocolate Mountain". In 1978, he made a disco album with Big Tree Records titled "Funky Situation", which is a coincidence as, at that point, Big Tree was distributed by his former label, Atlantic. The following year, he released an album on EMI titled "I Want You".


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Pickett was a popular composer, writing songs that were recorded by many artists, including Van Halen, the Rolling Stones, Aerosmith, the Grateful Dead, Booker T. & the MGs, Genesis, Creedence Clearwater Revival, Hootie & the Blowfish, Echo & the Bunnymen, Roxy Music, Bruce Springsteen, Los Lobos, the Jam and Ani DiFranco, among others.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Pickett continued to record sporadically with several labels over the following decades (including Motown), occasionally making the lower to mid-range of the R&B charts, but he had no pop hit after 1974. His career was hindered by his addictions. His alcoholism was exacerbated by heavy cocaine use, and he became increasingly violent towards his family and bandmates.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Throughout the 1980s and '90s, despite his personal troubles, Pickett was repeatedly honored for his contributions to music. During this period, he was invited to perform at Atlantic Records' 40th Anniversary concert in 1988, and his music was prominently featured in the 1991 film "The Commitments", with Pickett as an off-screen character.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: In the late 1990s, Pickett returned to the studio and received a Grammy Award nomination for the 1999 album "It's Harder Now". The comeback resulted in his being honored as Soul/Blues Male Artist of the Year by the Blues Foundation in Memphis. "It's Harder Now" was voted 'Comeback Blues Album of the Year' and 'Soul/Blues Album of the Year.'


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Pickett appeared in the 1998 film "Blues Brothers 2000", in which he performed "634-5789" with Eddie Floyd and Jonny Lang. He was previously mentioned in the 1980 film "Blues Brothers", which features several members of Pickett's backing band, as well as a performance of "Everybody Needs Somebody to Love."


title: Wilson Pickett

text: He co-starred in the 2002 documentary "Only the Strong Survive," directed by D. A. Pennebaker, a selection of both the 2002 Cannes and Sundance Film Festivals. In 2003, Pickett was a judge for the second annual Independent Music Awards to support independent artists' careers.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Pickett spent the twilight of his career playing dozens of concert dates every year until 2004, when he began suffering from health problems. While in the hospital, he returned to his spiritual roots and told his sister that he wanted to record a gospel album, but he never recovered.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: On September 10, 2014, TVOne's Unsung program aired a documentary that focused on Pickett's life and career.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: In 1991, Pickett was arrested for yelling threats while drunkenly driving his car over the front lawn of Donald Aronson, the mayor of Englewood, New Jersey. He faced charges of drunk driving, refusing to take a breath test, and resisting arrest. Pickett agreed to perform a benefit concert in exchange for having the disorderly conduct and property damage charges dropped. He performed for his community service obligation.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: In 1992, Pickett struck an 86-year-old pedestrian Pepe Ruiz with his car in Englewood. Police allegedly found six empty miniature vodka bottles and six empty beer cans in his car. Ruiz, who had helped organize the New York animation union, died later that year. Pickett pleaded guilty to drunk driving charges. He agreed to rehab and received a reduced sentence of one year in jail and five years probation. A week after this incident, a judge ordered Pickett to move out of his home after his live-in girlfriend charged him with threatening to have her killed and throwing a vodka bottle at her.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: In 1996, Pickett was arrested for assaulting his girlfriend Elizabeth Trapp while under the influence of cocaine; she refused to press charges. Pickett was charged with cocaine possession.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Pickett died on January 19, 2006, two months short of his 65th birthday. He had been suffering from health problems for the last year of his life and had spent considerable time in the hospital. He died at a hospital in Reston, Virginia after suffering a heart attack. At the time of his death, Pickett was living in Ashburn, Virginia. He was laid to rest in a mausoleum at Evergreen Cemetery in Louisville, Kentucky. Pickett spent many years in Louisville. Pastor Steve Owens of Decatur, Georgia, presided over his funeral, and Little Richard, a long-time friend of Pickett's, delivered the eulogy.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Pickett was remembered on March 20, 2006, at New York's B.B. King Blues Club with performances by the Commitments, Ben E. King, his long-term backing band the Midnight Movers, soul singer Bruce "Big Daddy" Wayne, and Southside Johnny in front of an audience that included members of his family, including two brothers.


title: Wilson Pickett

text: Wilson was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1991. In 1993, he was honored with a Pioneer Award by the Rhythm and Blues Foundation. In 2005, Wilson Pickett was voted into the Michigan Rock and Roll Legends Hall of Fame. In 2015 Wilson Pickett was inducted into the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame.


title: Manumission

text: Manumission, or enfranchisement, is the act of freeing enslaved people by their enslavers. Different approaches to manumission were developed, each specific to the time and place of a particular society. Historian Verene Shepherd states that the most widely used term is gratuitous manumission, "the conferment of freedom on the enslaved by enslavers before the end of the slave system".


title: Manumission

text: The motivations for manumission were complex and varied. Firstly, it may present itself as a sentimental and benevolent gesture. One typical scenario was the freeing in the master's will of a devoted servant after long years of service. A trusted bailiff might be manumitted as a gesture of gratitude. For those working as agricultural laborers or in workshops, there was little likelihood of being so noticed. In general, it was more common for older slaves to be given freedom.


title: Manumission

text: Legislation under the early Roman Empire put limits on the number of slaves that could be freed in wills ("lex Fufia Caninia", 2 BCE), which suggests that it had been widely used.


title: Manumission

text: Freeing slaves could serve the pragmatic interests of the owner. The prospect of manumission worked as an incentive for slaves to be industrious and compliant. Roman slaves were paid a wage ("peculium"), which they could save up to buy themselves freedom. Manumission contracts found, in some abundance at Delphi (Greece), specify in detail the prerequisites for liberation.


title: Manumission

text: Manumission was not always charitable or altruistic. In one of the stories in the "Arabian Nights", in the Richard Francis Burton translation, a slave owner threatens to free his slave for lying to him. The slave says, "thou shall not manumit me, for I have no handicraft whereby to gain my living". Burton notes: "Here the slave refuses to be set free and starve. For a master to do so without ample reason is held disgraceful".


title: Manumission

text: "A History of Ancient Greece" explains that in the context of Ancient Greece, affranchisement came in many forms. A master choosing to free his slave would most likely do so only "at his death, specifying his desire in his will". In rare cases, slaves who were able to earn enough money in their labour were able to buy their own freedom and were known as "choris oikointes". Two 4th-century bankers, Pasion and Phormio, had been slaves before they bought their freedom. A slave could also be sold fictitiously to a sanctuary from where a god could enfranchise him. In very rare circumstances, the city could affranchise a slave. A notable example is that Athens liberated everyone who was present at the Battle of Arginusae (406 BCE).


title: Manumission

text: Even once a slave was freed, he was not generally permitted to become a citizen, but would become a metic. The master then became a prostatès. The former slave could be bound to some continuing duty to the master and was commonly required to live near the former master ("paramone"). Breaches of these conditions could lead to beatings, prosecution at law and re-enslavement. Sometimes, extra payments were specified by which a freed slave could liberate himself from such residual duties. However, ex-slaves were able to own property outright, and their children were free of all constraint.


title: Manumission

text: Under Roman law, a slave had no personhood and was protected under law mainly as his or her master's property. In Ancient Rome, a slave who had been manumitted was a "libertus" (feminine "liberta") and a citizen. Manumissions were taxed.


title: Manumission

text: The soft felt "pileus" hat was a symbol of the freed slave and manumission; slaves were not allowed to wear them:


title: Manumission

text: The cap was an attribute carried by Libertas, the Roman goddess of freedom, who was also recognized by the rod ("vindicta" or "festuca"), used ceremonially in the act of "manumissio vindicta", Latin for "freedom by the rod" (emphasis added):


title: Manumission

text: A freed slave customarily took the former owner's family name, which was the "nomen" (see Roman naming conventions) of the master's "gens". The former owner became the patron ("patronus") and the freed slave became a client ("cliens") and retained certain obligations to the former master, who owed certain obligations in return. A freed slave could also acquire multiple patrons.


title: Manumission

text: A freed slave became a citizen. Not all citizens, however, held the same freedoms and privileges. In particular contrast, women could become citizens, but female Roman citizenship did not allow anywhere near the same protections, independence, or rights as men, either in the public or private spheres. In reflection of unwritten, yet strictly enforced contemporary social codes, women were also legally prevented from participating in public and civic society. For example: through the illegality of women voting or holding public office.


title: Manumission

text: The freed slaves' rights were limited or defined by particular statutes. A freed male slave could become a civil servant but not hold higher magistracies (see, for instance, "apparitor" and "scriba"), serve as priests of the emperor or hold any of the other highly respected public positions.


title: Manumission

text: If they were sharp at business, however, there were no social limits to the wealth that freedmen could amass. Their children held full legal rights, but Roman society was stratified. Famous Romans who were the sons of freedmen include the Augustan poet Horace and the 2nd century emperor, Pertinax.


title: Manumission

text: A notable freedman in Latin literature is Trimalchio, the ostentatiously "nouveau riche" character in the "Satyricon", by Petronius.


title: Manumission

text: In colonial Peru, the laws around manumission were influenced by the "Siete Partidas", a Castilian law code. According to the "Siete Partidas", masters who manumitted their slaves should be honored and obeyed by their former slaves for giving such a generous gift. As in other parts of Latin America under the system of "coartación", slaves could purchase their freedom by negotiating with their master for a purchase price and this was the most common way for slaves to be freed. Manumission also occurred during baptism, or as part of an owner's last will and testament.


title: Manumission

text: In baptismal manumission, enslaved children were freed at baptism. Many of these freedoms came with stipulations which could include servitude often until the end of an owner's life. Children freed at baptism were also frequently the children of still-enslaved parents. A child who was freed at baptism but continued to live with enslaved family was far more likely to be re-enslaved. Baptismal manumission could be used as evidence of a person's freed status in a legal case but they did not always have enough information to serve as a "carta de libertad".


title: Manumission

text: Female slave owners were more likely than males to manumit their slaves at baptism. The language used by women slave owners who freed their slaves also differed substantially from that of men, with many women using the phrasing “for the love I have for her” as well as other expressions of intimacy as part of the reasoning for freeing their slaves as written on the baptismal record or "carta de libertad". Male slave owners were far less likely to speak in intimate terms about their reasoning for freeing their slaves.


title: Manumission

text: Many children manumitted at baptism were likely the illegitimate children of their male owners, though this can be difficult to determine from the baptismal record and must be assessed through other evidence. Although slave owners often characterized these baptismal manumissions as a result of their generous beneficence, there are records of payments by parents or godparents to ensure the child's freedom. Mothers were almost never manumitted alongside their children, even when the mothers gave birth to their master's own children. Manumitting a slave's children at baptism could be one way for owners to ensure the loyalty of the children's still-enslaved parents.


title: Manumission

text: Enslaved people could also be freed as part of a slave owner's last will and testament. Testamentary manumission frequently involved expressions of affection on the part of the slave owner to the enslaved person as part of the rationale behind manumission. Slave owners also frequently cited a desire to die with a clear conscience as part of their reasoning for freeing their slaves. Testamentary manumission could often be disputed by heirs claiming fraud, or that an enslaved person had preyed upon a relative's weak mental or physical condition. Legally testamentary manumissions were usually respected by the courts, who understood enslaved people as part of their owner's property to distribute as they wished. Relatives who claimed fraud had to provide evidence of their claims or they would be dismissed. As in baptismal manumission, conditions of ongoing servitude were sometimes placed upon the enslaved person, by obligating them to care for another relative.


title: Manumission

text: In Iberoamerican law, a person had discretion over one-fifth of their estate with the rest going to children, spouses, and other relatives. An enslaved person could be sold in order to cover debts of the estate, but not if they had already paid part of their purchase price towards manumission as this was considered a legally binding agreement. As long as a person had not disinherited his children or spouse, a slave owner could manumit their slaves as they wished.


title: Manumission

text: Manumission laws varied between the various colonies in the Caribbean. For instance, the island of Barbados had some of the strictest laws, requiring owners to pay £200 for male slaves and £300 for female slaves, and show cause to the authorities. In some other colonies, no fees applied. It was not uncommon for ex-slaves to purchase family members or friends in order to free them. For example, ex-slave Susannah Ostrehan became a successful businesswoman in Barbados and purchased many of her acquaintances.


title: Manumission

text: For Jamaica, manumission went largely unregulated until the 1770s, when manumitters had to post a bond in order to ensure those that they freed did not become wards of the parish. One quantitative analysis of the Jamaica manumission deeds shows that manumission was comparatively rare on the island around 1770, with only an estimated 165 slaves winning their freedom through this fashion. While manumission had little demographic impact on the size of the enslaved population, it was important to the growth and development of the free population of color, in Jamaica, during the second half of the eighteenth century.


title: Manumission

text: African slaves were freed in the North American colonies as early as the 17th century. Some, such as Anthony Johnson, went on to become landowners and slaveholders themselves in the colonies. Slaves could sometimes arrange manumission by agreeing to "purchase themselves" by paying the master an agreed amount. Some masters demanded market rates; others set a lower amount in consideration of service.


title: Manumission

text: Regulation of manumission began in 1692, when Virginia established that to manumit a slave, a person must pay the cost for them to be transported out of the colony. A 1723 law stated that slaves may not "be set free upon any pretence whatsoever, except for some meritorious services to be adjudged and allowed by the governor and council". In some cases, a master who was drafted into the army would send a slave instead, with a promise of freedom if he survived the war. The new government of Virginia repealed the laws in 1782 and declared freedom for slaves who had fought for the colonies during the American Revolutionary War of 1775-1783. The 1782 laws also permitted masters to free their slaves of their own accord; previously, a manumission had required obtaining consent from the state legislature, which was arduous and rarely granted.


title: Manumission

text: However, as the population of free Negroes increased, the state passed laws forbidding them from moving into the state (1778) and requiring newly-freed slaves to leave within one year unless they had special permission (1806).


title: Manumission

text: In the Upper South in the late 18th century, planters had less need for slaves, as they switched from labor-intensive tobacco cultivation to mixed-crop farming. Slave states such as Virginia made it easier for slaveholders to free their slaves. In the two decades after the American Revolutionary War, so many slaveholders accomplished manumissions by deed or in wills that the proportion of free black people to the total number of black people rose from less than 1% to 10% in the Upper South. In Virginia, the proportion of free black people increased from 1% in 1782 to 7% in 1800. Together with several Northern states abolishing slavery during that period, the proportion of free black people nationally increased to ~14% of the total black population. New York and New Jersey adopted gradual abolition laws that kept the free children of slaves as indentured servants into their twenties.


title: Manumission

text: After the 1793 invention of the cotton gin, which enabled the development of extensive new areas for cotton cultivation, the number of manumissions decreased because of increased demand for slave labor. In the 19th century, slave revolts such as the Haitian Revolution of 1791-1804, and especially, the 1831 rebellion, led by Nat Turner, increased slaveholders' fears, and most Southern states passed laws making manumission nearly impossible until the passage of the 1865 Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which abolished slavery "except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted," after the American Civil War. In South Carolina, to free a slave required permission of the state legislature; Florida law prohibited manumission altogether.


title: Manumission

text: Of the Founding Fathers of the United States, as defined by the historian Richard B. Morris, the Southerners were the major slaveholders, but Northerners also held slaves, generally in smaller numbers, as domestic servants. John Adams owned none. George Washington freed his own slaves in his will (his wife independently held numerous dower slaves). Thomas Jefferson freed five slaves in his will, and the remaining 130 were sold to settle his estate debts. James Madison did not free his slaves, and some were sold to pay off estate debts, but his widow and her son retained most to work Montpelier plantation. Alexander Hamilton's slave ownership is unclear, but it is most likely that he was of the abolitionist ideal, as he served as an officer of the New York Manumission Society. John Jay founded the society and freed his domestic slaves in 1798; the same year, as Governor of New York, he signed the "Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery". John Dickinson freed his slaves between 1776 and 1786, the only Founding Father to do so during that time.


title: Manumission

text: Slavery in the Ottoman Empire gradually became less central to the functions of Ottoman society throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Responding to the influence and pressure of European countries in the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire began taking steps to curtail the slave trade, which had been legally valid under Ottoman law since the beginning of the empire.


title: Manumission

text: Ottoman Empire policy encouraged manumission of male slaves, but not female slaves. The most telling evidence for this is found in the gender ratio; among slaves traded in Islamic empire across the centuries, there were roughly two females to every male.


title: Manumission

text: Sexual slavery was a central part of the Ottoman slave system throughout the history of the institution, and the most resistance to change.


title: Manumission

text: Outside of explicit sexual slavery, most female slaves had domestic occupations, and often, this also included sexual relations with their masters. This was a lawful motive for their purchase, and the most common one. It was similarly a common motivation for their retention.


title: Manumission

text: The Ottoman Empire and 16 other countries signed the 1890 Brussels Conference Act for the suppression of the slave trade. However, clandestine slavery persisted well into the 20th century. Gangs were also organized to facilitate the illegal importation of slaves. Slave raids and the taking of women and children as "spoils of war" lessened but did not stop entirely, despite the public denial of their existence, such as the enslavement of girls during the Armenian Genocide. Armenian girls were sold as slaves during the Armenian genocide of 1915. Turkey waited until 1933 to ratify the 1926 League of Nations convention on the suppression of slavery. However, illegal sales of girls were reported in the 1930s. Legislation explicitly prohibiting slavery was adopted in 1964.


title: Fortnight

text: A fortnight is a unit of time equal to 14 days (two weeks). The word derives from the Old English term , meaning "" (or "fourteen days," since the Anglo-Saxons counted by nights).


title: Fortnight

text: In astronomy, a "lunar fortnight" is half a lunar synodic month, which is equivalent to the mean period between a full moon and a new moon (and vice versa). This is equal to 14.77 days.


title: Fortnight

text: In many languages, there is no single word for a two-week period, and the equivalent terms "two weeks", "14 days", or "15 days" (counting inclusively) have to be used.


title: Lux Pascal

text: Lux Balmaceda Pascal (born 4 June 1992) is an American-born Chilean actress and transgender activist.


title: Lux Pascal

text: Born in California as Lucas Balmaceda, she is the child of José Balmaceda and Verónica Pascal, both Chileans exiled after the 1973 coup, because her mother was the cousin of Andrés Pascal Allende, leader of the Chilean Revolutionary Left Movement. She was the last of four siblings, among whom is the actor Pedro Pascal. At the age of three she returned to Chile with her parents and brother Nicolás.


title: Lux Pascal

text: In Chile she studied at Saint George's College, and in 2010 she entered to study theater at the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile.


title: Lux Pascal

text: She revealed she is a transgender woman in February 2021, changing her name to Lux Pascal, taking her maternal surname.


title: Lux Pascal

text: In 2014, while she was in her fourth year of theater, she starred in the play "La noche obstinada", by Argentine choreographer Pablo Rotemberg. That same year she made her television debut, joining the cast of the series "Los 80", broadcast by Canal 13, where she played "Axel Miller". In 2015 she was co-star of the TVN soap opera "Juana Brava", and the following year she acted in the soap opera "Veinteañero a los 40" on Canal 13. At the end of 2016 she had her film debut in "Prueba de actitud", by Fabrizio Copano and Augusto Matte.


title: Lux Pascal

text: In 2017, she had her first appearance in an international series, when she played Elijah in the third season of the Netflix series "Narcos", where she starred with her brother Pedro.


title: Lux Pascal

text: In 2019, she participated in three Chilean film productions: "No quiero ser tu hermano", by Sebastián Badilla, "Ella es Cristina", by Gonzalo Maza, and "El principe" by Sebastián Muñoz.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: Warhammer (formerly Warhammer Fantasy Battle or just Warhammer Fantasy) is a tabletop miniature wargame with a medieval fantasy theme. The game was created by Bryan Ansell, Richard Halliwell, and Rick Priestley; it was published by the Games Workshop company.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: As in other miniature wargames, players use miniature models ("minis") to represent warriors. The playing field is a model battlefield comprising models of buildings, trees, hills, and other terrain features. Players take turns moving their model warriors across the playing field and simulate a battle. The outcomes of fights between the models are determined by a combination of dice rolls and simple arithmetic. Though the gameplay is mostly based on medieval warfare, it incorporates fantasy elements such as wizards, dragons, and magical spells.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: "Warhammer" was the first commercial miniature wargame designed to use proprietary models. Prior to this, miniature wargames rulesets were designed to use generic models that could be bought from any manufacturer.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: The first edition rulebook for "Warhammer" was released in 1983, and the line was supported for thirty years by model releases, supplementary rulebooks, and new editions of the core rules. The eighth and final edition of the core rules was released on 10 July 2010. The game is no longer supported by Games Workshop, and the last supplementary rulebook was released in 2015. It was replaced later that year by "Warhammer Age of Sigmar", which uses the models created for the "Warhammer" line in a new setting and game system.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: The "Warhammer" setting is inspired by the fiction of J. R. R. Tolkien, Poul Anderson and Michael Moorcock. The fictional background for the game was developed in rulebooks, "White Dwarf" magazine, "Inferno!" magazine, and more than 150 novels set in the "Warhammer" universe. Many of these novels are still in print under the "Warhammer Chronicles" imprint.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: "Warhammer" is a tabletop wargame where two or more players compete against each other with "armies" of 25 mm – 250 mm tall heroic miniatures. The rules of the game have been published in a series of books which describe how to move miniatures around the game surface and simulate combat in a "balanced and fair" manner. Games may be played on any appropriate surface, although the standard is a tabletop decorated with model scenery in scale with the miniatures. Any individual miniature or group of similar miniatures in the game is called a "unit".


title: Warhammer (game)

text: The core game rules are supplied in a single book, with supplemental "Warhammer Armies" texts giving guidelines and background for army-specific rules. Movement of units about the playing surface is generally measured in inches, and units' combat performance is dictated randomly by either the roll of a 6-sided die (a 'D6') or a 6-sided 'scatter' die. The latter is often used to generate direction, commonly alongside an 'artillery' die, for cannons, stone-throwers, and other artillery. Each unit and option within the game is assigned a point value for balancing purposes. A game will commonly have armies of 750 to 3,000 points, although smaller and larger values are possible.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: "Warhammer" is set in a fictional universe notable for its "dark and gritty" background world, which features influences from Michael Moorcock's Elric stories, and also many historical influences.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: The geography of the "Warhammer" world closely resembles that of Earth because of manipulation by an ancient spacefaring race known as the Old Ones. This mysterious and powerful race visited the Warhammer World in the distant past. Establishing an outpost, they set about manipulating the geography and biosphere of the planet. With the assistance of their Slann servants, they moved the planet's orbit closer to its sun, and arranged the continents to their liking.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: To travel between worlds, the Old Ones used portals to another dimension ("warp gates"), which they built at the north and south poles of the Warhammer World. Eventually, however, these gates collapsed, allowing raw magical energy and the daemonic forces of Chaos to pour forth into the Warhammer world. At this point, the Old Ones disappeared. Before leaving however, they had established the Lizard men (ruled over by the Slann) as their servants. In addition they had created the races of Elves, Dwarfs, Humans, Halflings and presumably the Ogres (who are assumed to be an unfinished attempt by the old ones to create the ultimate race). Orcs and Goblins were not created by the Old Ones, or part of their plan, and their origin is not made clear in the setting. Beastmen and Skaven were the result of mutation from raw magical energy at this time. Eventually the Chaos Daemons were driven back by Lizardmen and Elves, with the Elves performing a great ritual to drain out the raw magic that was flowing into the world and sustaining the Daemons. Some creatures, such as Dragons and Dragon-Ogres, are stated to have existed prior to the arrival of the Old Ones.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: After this, Elves and Dwarfs flourished and created mighty empires, but eventually they were set into a slow decline. A series of civil wars amongst the Elves split them into two groups – the malicious Dark Elves and righteous High Elves. A petty war between the High Elves and Dwarfs served only to diminish both races and caused the High Elves to abandon their colonies. Some of the colonists refused to leave their homes in a magical sapient forest and over time developed into the enigmatic and isolationist Wood Elves. A period of seismic activity caused by the Slann decimated the underground holds of the Dwarfs while attacks by Skaven and Goblins, who breached the Dwarf strongholds from below, only made things more desperate.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: The humans were the slowest to develop, but ultimately formed several strong nations able to defend themselves from aggressors. The Nehekharan Empire (based on Ancient Egypt) was the first great human empire, but due to a curse by Nagash (the first necromancer) they became an undead faction known as the "Tomb Kings" who now dwell in The Land of the Dead (former Nehekhara). Nagash, in his efforts to find eternal life, also created the first Vampires, an entirely separate undead faction.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: At the time of the setting's destruction (according to the setting's fictional timeline) there were two prominent human nations: The Empire which is based on a combination of aspects of the Holy Roman Empire and Renaissance Germany, and Bretonnia, which is based on Arthurian legends and medieval France. Sigmar, founder of The Empire, wielded a mighty Dwarf-made Warhammer from which the name of the "Warhammer Fantasy" setting is derived. There are also numerous other nations which are fleshed out in the background information but are not represented by playable factions in the tabletop game, some of which are loosely based on real-world nations from various historical periods. These include the southern realms of Estalia and Tilea, representing medieval Spain and Renaissance Italy respectively, as well as the far eastern Empire of Grand Cathay, analogous to a fantastic version of Imperial China.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: The forces of disorder are often depicted as not a localised threat, but a general menace consisting of disparate factions, many of which are typically also at odds with each other. The Skaven exist in an "Under Empire" (an extensive network of tunnels beneath the planet's surface), while the war-loving Orcs and Goblins are nomadic (although they are most common in the Badlands, Southlands, and Dark Lands) and regularly amass large numbers and stage raids without warning. Similarly, Ogres are most common in the Ogre Kingdoms and in the eastern Mountains of Mourn, but are depicted as unscrupulous wandering warriors who are always hungry, who sometimes hire themselves out as mercenaries to both the forces of order and disorder.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: In addition to the chaos-worshiping Warriors of Chaos who live in strange Chaos Wastes north of the other faction's lands, chaos cults often arise within human and elven nations. Beastmen are depicted as mutants dwelling deep in forests and impossible to fully eradicate. Vampires and necromancers raising armies of undead are also depicted often as an internal threat. Chaos Daemons are restricted to manifesting themselves where magical energy is strongest, but this could be almost anywhere.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: The 8th Edition Empire Army Book describes the Warhammer World to currently be in the year 2522 (Empire calendar), whilst the current Lizardmen Army Book puts the collapse of the warpgates at −5700 on the same calendar, thus the fictional history spans at least 8200 years.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: There are a number of playable armies for "Warhammer", which are representative of one or other of the factions or races that are present in the "Warhammer" world setting. For the first few editions of the game armies were presented in collective books like "Warhammer Armies". Starting in the 4th edition individual books were released for each army.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: During the 6th edition, the following armies had official rules available from the Games Workshop website, and were usable throughout the 6th and 7th editions. These rules have since been taken down, and they were unplayable in the 8th edition.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: Whilst armies would have a typical aesthetic some players would use a method of customisation called kitbashing. Kitbashing is taking parts of other model kits and using it to make aesthetic/cosmetic changes to another model, it would have no effect on rules or gameplay.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: The eight main Lores of the Warhammer world are used by multiple armies and races, and are the only Lores available to Empire and Bretonnian armies. Dwarves do not use magic at all.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: While at least some of the eight main lores can be used by many armies of the Warhammer world many races have their own unique magical Lores.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: Throughout the eight editions of the game, the core movement, combat and shooting systems remained generally unchanged, with only minor revisions between editions. The most significant changes which ensure incompatibility between editions have been made to the magic, army composition systems, and specialist troop types.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: The starter armies in the box sets have grown more detailed with each succeeding generation, and the 7th edition (2006) was the first to be titled as a scenario ("The Battle for Skull Pass") instead of just Warhammer Fantasy Battle. For example, the High Elves have appeared in the 4th edition (1992) and the 8th edition (2010); while the 4th edition only contained Spearmen and Bowmen figures (essentially, just two types of figurines) plus cardboard cutouts for the general and a warmachine, the 8th edition contained a more widely varied army (including cavalry, Sword Masters, mage, and a general mounted on a griffon).


title: Warhammer (game)

text: Published in November 1981 for its second edition (1978 for the very first one), and written by Richard Halliwell and Rick Priestley, "Reaper" is considered the ancestor of "Warhammer Fantasy Battle". "Reaper" is more a skirmish game for up to 30 miniatures rather than a large-scale wargame.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: The first edition, written by Bryan Ansell, Richard Halliwell and Rick Priestley was published in 1983 as Warhammer The Mass Combat Fantasy Role-Playing Game and consists of a boxed set of 3 black and white books illustrated by Tony Ackland: "Vol 1: Tabletop Battles", which contains the core rules, turn sequence, creature lists, potion recipes and features an introductory battle 'The Ziggurat of Doom'. "Vol 2: Magic" which explains rules for wizards of 4 different levels and the higher order arch magi. Higher level wizards have access to more powerful spells. In this system, a wizard picks his spells at the start of the game, must have the correct equipment (usually Amulets), and as he casts each one it depletes a store of 'constitution' points, until at zero points he could cast no more. "Vol 3: Characters" introduces 'personal characteristics' statistics, rules for roleplaying (including character advancement through experience points and statistic gains, random encounters, equipment costs, and alignment) and has a sample campaign "The Redwake River Valley".


title: Warhammer (game)

text: Very little world background is given at all and the race descriptions are kept to a minimum, and most of the background given is in describing the origins of magic items. Some notable differences to later editions are the inclusion of Night Elves (later Dark Elves), the appearance of Red Goblins – and that Citadel Miniatures order codes are given.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: In the July 1983 edition of White Dwarf, (Issue 43), Joe Dever gave the system a positive review, saying, "If you regularly wargame with miniatures, or have been wondering what additional fun you could have from your rapidly growing collection of fantasy figures, then I recommend you check out "Warhammer" and let battle commence!"


title: Warhammer (game)

text: Chris Hunter reviewed "Warhammer" for "Imagine" magazine, and stated that "if you are looking for a mass fantasy combat system, I would recommend "Warhammer"; but if all you want is a fantasy role-playing game, it would perhaps be better to look elsewhere".


title: Warhammer (game)

text: In the May 1984 edition of "Dragon" (Issue 85), Katherine Kerr was not impressed, and called it "one of the most irritating new games I’ve ever read." She found the manuscript full of typographical errors, and "On top of it all, the authors have a miserable command of the English language. Their prose is even more awkward than the usual low level of gaming writing and is studded with grammatical errors." She found the game system divided between a good combat system and a poor roleplaying system, and called the effort "two separate games with a weak attempt to link them together. The first, a set of rules for tabletop battles with miniature figures, is very good; the second, pieces of a fantasy role-playing game, is embarrassingly bad." In the same issue, Ken Rolston also reviewed "Warhammer", and although he agreed that the rules were "hardly a model of English usage or proofreading," they were well-organised and readable. Rolston agreed with Kerr that the miniatures rules were the strong suit of the system, but he also admired the psychology rules that determined how classic fantasy racial types behave towards each other. However, he found the role-playing system to be "primitive".


title: Warhammer (game)

text: In the January–February 1985 edition of "Space Gamer" (Issue No. 72), Edwin J. Rotondaro also thought the system was divided between good miniatures rules and bad roleplaying rules. "Overall, I have to say that "Warhammer" is a good miniatures game, but a terrible roleplaying game. The system is flexible enough to be used as a mass combat module in most RPGs, but you have to decide whether it's worth [the price] for a set of fantasy miniatures rules."


title: Warhammer (game)

text: The second edition split the rules into three rulebooks — "Combat", "Battle Magic" and "Battle Bestiary", with full-colour artwork by John Blanche. There were few substantive changes in rules, but major clarifications of the original rules were included. New rules included uses and effects of standards and musicians, flying, fortifications, fire, artillery, chariots, reserve units, specialist spellcasters, and poisons.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: This edition also further developed "The Known World", which was geographically and socially based upon Earth.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: Paul Mason reviewed "Warhammer II" for "Imagine" magazine, and stated that "All in all, Warhammer is a much improved package, which covers the field of Fantasy Figures Wargaming with simple rules, and yet more comprehensively than virtually any other product."


title: Warhammer (game)

text: In the June 1985 edition of "White Dwarf" (Issue #66), Robert Alcock called the second edition "a predictable expansion of the original", although he noted that this edition had "not ironed out all the problems." Alcock especially disliked the mechanic of "throwing a bucket full of dice to cause casualties and then find that your opponent gets most of them back with a saving throw." However, despite these issues, Alcock concluded that ""Warhammer" does remain the only viable set of fantasy mass battle rules", and gave the second edition an overall rating of 8 out of 10.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: The Third Edition of the game was published as a single hardback book in 1987. It had the most in-depth and complex movement and manoeuvre system of any edition. Other changes included a variety of new specialist troop types, rules for war machines and a more finely tuned system of representing heroes and wizards. It kept the same magic system and open-ended army design system as the first two editions. However, by this stage the use of army lists was very much encouraged. Army lists for this edition were published in a separate book called "Warhammer Armies" in 1988; until then, use of the 2nd Edition's "" list was encouraged. This is partly because it was the last edition published before Games Workshop took a different commercial approach, leading to competition from former GW employees in the briefly published competing "Fantasy Warlord".


title: Warhammer (game)

text: The third edition was expanded with the "Realm of Chaos": tome one, "", followed by tome two, "The Lost and the Damned"; and "Warhammer Siege" books.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: In Issue 37 of "Challenge", Timothy B. Brown commented, "I admire miniatures use in role-playing games, and I feel "Warhammer Fantasy Battle", though not futuristic, is a terrific set of rules." Overall, Brown though this game "accomplishes handily what it sets out to do. [...] All the elements are there — monsters, magic, heroic characters — the works. I've never seen as complete a rules set as this one." He concluded, "Can I recommend buying it? Well, yes I can, since I have an interest in all types of gaming. If you’re a science-fiction gamer and that's it, "Warhammer Fantasy Battle" probably isn't for you. However, if you get the chance to look through it, you might change your mind."


title: Warhammer (game)

text: In the February 1989 edition of "Dragon" (Issue 142), Ken Rolston gave the third edition high praise, saying, "If you’re serious about fantasy tabletop gaming, "Warhammer Fantasy Battle (WFB)" is probably your only choice. Rolston liked the "fast-paced" rules system and developed fantasy background, and his only reservations were about presentation: "The text is dense and wordy. The wealth of diagrams is good, but their captions aren’t always clear. The abundance of photos, illustrations, and paintings is often visually stimulating, but many of these graphics are of marginal or negligible relevance to the accompanying text. The black-and-white photographic reproduction is surprisingly poor." He concluded with a strong recommendation: "The fantasy campaign setting is simply super. The series of revised editions, supplements, and magazine support articles indicates that Games Workshop is interested in and capable of catering to the gamer’s appetite for new features, refined editions, and elaborated fantasy campaign materials."


title: Warhammer (game)

text: The fourth and fifth editions of the game, released in October 1992 and October 1996, respectively, were similar to each other but quite different from the third. The fifth edition in particular became known pejoratively as "Herohammer" because of the imbalance between the very powerful heroes, monsters and wizards in the game and blocks of troops which existed effectively as cannon fodder. Both editions of the game were sold as box sets containing not only the rulebooks and a variety of other play aids but also sufficient plastic miniatures to be able to play the game "out of the box". The rules underwent a re-write compared to the 3rd Edition. A completely re-worked magic system was produced which was available as a boxed expansion set. Rather than selecting spells they were drawn at random and the magic phase was based on the play of these cards, making magic a bit like a game within a game. The magic system was further expanded by the "Arcane Magic" box set and the magic element of the "Chaos" box set.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: The fourth edition was also the first edition to enforce the use of army lists in the form of separate "Warhammer Army" books for the separate racial groupings. These books prescribed for each army a limited number of unit choices; specifying limits on the number of points that could be spent on "characters", troops and monsters and so on. The books also included background on the particular army, illustrations and photographs showing models and have remained with the game though updated with the rules.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: The magic system was reworked and re-released in December 1996 as a single box covering the magic for all the armies. The magic was "toned down" (WD204) with spell casting limited to the players' own turn. The multiple card packs of the "Colours of Magic" system was replaced by 20 "Battle Magic" spell cards but the Colour Magic spells were in the rule book for players to use if they wanted.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: Several boxed campaign packs were produced, "Tears of Isha" for example, gave a campaign for High Elves and included a card "building" to assemble. Likewise, the Orc and Goblin themed campaign "Idol of Gork" included card idols of the Orc deities Gork and Mork. The others were "Circle of Blood" (Vampire Counts vs Bretonnians), "Grudge of Drong" (Dwarves vs High Elves) and "Perilous Quest" (Bretonnians vs Wood Elves).


title: Warhammer (game)

text: The fourth edition featured High Elves versus Goblins. The fifth edition, released in 1996, re-introduced the Bretonnian forces, which had been left out of the 4th edition, and re-worked the Slann heavily to create the Lizardmen armies.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: In 1997, the fifth edition of "Warhammer Fantasy Battles" won the Origins Award for "Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Miniatures Rules of 1996".


title: Warhammer (game)

text: The sixth edition, released in 2000, was also published as a box with soft-cover rulebook and miniatures (Orcs and Empire). The Rulebook was also available for separate sale, hard-cover in the first printing and soft-cover after that. After the fifth edition, this edition put the emphasis back on troop movement and combat: heroes and wizards were still important but became incapable of winning games in their own right. There was also an all-new magic system based on dice rolling.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: The seventh edition rules were released on 9 September 2006. It was available in two forms: as a single hardback rulebook for established gamers and as a complete boxed set game complete with plastic miniatures (Dwarfs and Goblins), "The Battle for Skull Pass" supplement book and a soft-cover rulebook that has less artwork and background material than the hardback version. The smaller rulebook from the boxed set was approximately half the size of the large book both in size of the cover and page count. The "Basic Rules" and "Advanced Rules" sections of both books were identical in text, layout, illustrations, credits, page numbering and ISBN. The two books had different front pieces and the larger rulebook has two extensive addition sections "The Warhammer World" (68 pages) and "The Warhammer Hobby" (56 pages) plus slightly expanded appendices.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: According to the official Games Workshop webpage, the 8th edition of Warhammer was made available for pre-order on 14 June 2010 and was released 10 July 2010.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: The new starter set named "Island of Blood" contains facing armies of High Elves and Skaven. A condensed mini-rulebook, as well as 10 standard dice, one scatter and one artillery die, two 18 inch rulers, and three blast templates are included in the box. (The High Elf and Skaven miniatures from "Island of Blood" were reused for the Age of Sigmar set "Spire of Dawn").


title: Warhammer (game)

text: On Friday 23 July 2010, Games Workshop began posting an "unboxed" series detailing the contents of the new game box called "A Blog of Two Gamers"


title: Warhammer (game)

text: The first army to be introduced to the 8th edition was Orcs and Goblins. They are one of the most popular Warhammer Fantasy armies, but their release in the 8th edition was not totally expected, as at the time there were four (Dwarfs, Wood Elves, Tomb Kings and Bretonnia) Warhammer army books which had not been updated since the 6th edition. The Dwarf, Wood Elf and Tomb Kings army books have since been replaced with newer versions. The Bretonnian armybook has not been updated since the 6th edition and the Skaven and Beastmen armybooks since the 7th edition.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: The 8th edition was extended with "Storm of Magic" 'supplement' in 2011 (an expansion that features rules for using more destructive magic and monsters). Another one was released, called "Blood in the Badlands" shortly afterwards (it included some special scenarios and introduced rules for siege warfare). In 2013 "Triumph and Treachery" (an expansion that allows multi-player games of between 3 and 5 players) and "Sigmar's Blood" (a 5 scenario short campaign between Empire and Vampire Counts following the crusade led by Volkmar to destroy Mannfred von Carstein) were released. Another series of five books in 2014–15, entitled "The End Times", saw the appearance of every major character of the setting. The last book "Archaon" described the end of the Warhammer world at the hand of the book's namesake.


title: Warhammer (game)

text: In 2019 it was announced that Games Workshop is working on "Warhammer: The Old World", a new wargaming line using the "Warhammer" setting. The released map suggest that it takes place in the past of the setting. Concept art featuring units for Kislev has been released. Development is expected to take three or more years, so it is not expected to be released before 2022.


title: Bianca Comparato

text: Bianca de Souza Mendes Comparato (born 19 November 1985) is a Brazilian actress and film director. She has starred in "Como Esquecer" in 2010, as well as "A Menina sem Qualidades" and "Somos tão Jovens", both in 2013, the latter for which she won the Grande Prêmio do Cinema Brasileiro as Best Supporting Actress for her role of Carmem Teresa. In 2016, she starred in the Netflix series "3%", gaining international attention and acclaim for her portrayal of the series' character, Michele.


title: Bianca Comparato

text: Comparato was born in Rio de Janeiro, the daughter of the writer Doc Comparato and older sister of actress and presenter Lorena Comparato. She is of Portuguese and Italian descent. At age 16, Comparato attended a three-month course at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Arts in London, as a prize given by the British School of Rio de Janeiro, for standing out in the theatre course. She returned to Brazil determined to quit school to devote herself to her artistic career, but was dissuaded by her parents. Along with the regular school, Comparato attended courses on body language and drama. In 2010 she graduated from the film school at the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro.


title: Bianca Comparato

text: Comparato's first theatrical performance was in "O Ateneu", directed by Leonardo Bricio. She debuted on television in 2004, participating in the series "Carga Pesada". Later that year, she made a cameo appearance in "Senhora do Destino".


title: Bianca Comparato

text: In 2005, she played Maria João in "Belíssima", a girl who lived through war with her sister Giovanna, played by Paolla Oliveira. She then made an appearance in "Cobras & Lagartos" in 2006. The same year she starred in the short film "Pedro, Ana e a Verdade", appeared in the film "Anjos do Sol" and posed for the "Women We Love" feature in Playboy Brazil.


title: Bianca Comparato

text: In 2007, Comparato appeared in the series "Toma Lá, Dá Cá" and "Antônia", based on the film of the same name, the miniseries "Amazônia, de Galvez a Chico Mendes", and the play "Últimos Remorsos Antes do Esquecimento". In 2008, she joined the "Beleza Pura" cast of TV Globo and also premiered the play "A Fruta e a Casca", inspired by the story of Dom Casmurro.


title: Bianca Comparato

text: The following year in 2009, she performed the play "Rock'n'Roll" and the cast of the television series "Aline" from the first season onwards, in which she, as Kelly, lived with her modern best friend Aline.


title: Bianca Comparato

text: In 2010, Comparato was in the feature film starring "Como Esquecer" How Ana Paula Arósio. In the same year, she acted in the play "Mordendo os Lábios", written and directed by Hamilton Vaz Pereira. In 2011, she participated in two episodes of "Tapas & Beijos", enacts the stage show "A Escola do Escândalo" and also made a cameo on the soap opera "A Vida da Gente".


title: Bianca Comparato

text: In 2012 she participated in the episode "A Culpada de BH" in the series "As Brasileiras", will be on the soap opera "Avenida Brasil" of João Emanuel Carneiro, in the novel she interprets the attendant Betânia.


title: Bianca Comparato

text: In 2013, Comparato appeared in "Somos tão Jovens", a biographical work on the singer Renato Russo. She won the Grande Prêmio do Cinema Brasileiro Best Supporting Actress award for her performancee. In the same year she returned to television with the series "A Menina Sem Qualidades", MTV Brasil's first foray in the field of television drama. She was also in Season 2 of the series "Sessão de Terapia".


title: Sex doll

text: A sex doll (also love doll, fuck doll or blowup doll) is a type of anthropomorphic sex toy in the size and shape of a sexual partner. The sex doll may consist of an entire body, or just a head, pelvis, or other body part (vagina, anus, mouth, penis, breasts) intended for sexual stimulation. The parts sometimes vibrate and may be moveable and interchangeable. Sex dolls exist in many forms, but are usually distinguished from sex robots, which are anthropomorphic creations designed to be able to engage in more complex interactions.


title: Sex doll

text: Some of the first sex dolls were created by French ("dame de voyage") and Spanish ("dama de viaje") sailors in the sixteenth century who would be isolated during long voyages. These masturbatory dolls were often made of sewn cloth or old clothes and were a direct predecessor to today's sex dolls. Later, the Dutch sold some of these dolls to Japanese people during the Rangaku period, and the term "Dutch wives" is still sometimes used in Japan to refer to sex dolls.


title: Sex doll

text: One of the earliest recorded appearances of "manufactured" sex dolls dates to 1908, in Iwan Bloch's "The Sexual Life of Our Time". Bloch wrote:


title: Sex doll

text: In 1918, Austrian artist Oskar Kokoschka commissioned a life-sized doll of Alma Mahler (whom Kokoschka was in love with) to German puppet maker Hermine Moos, while he was in Dresden. Although intended to simulate Alma and receive his affection, the "Alma doll" did not satisfy Kokoschka and he destroyed it during a party.


title: Sex doll

text: German surrealist artist Hans Bellmer has been described as “the father figure of the modern sex doll” for his sex puppets in the 1930s whose more realistic models moved sex dolls further into the future. Bellmer made three dolls, increasingly sophisticated in design, which also made waves in the international art community.


title: Sex doll

text: A report that, as part of the Borghild Project, Nazi Germany made sex dolls for soldiers during World War II has not been verified by reliable sources and is now considered to be a hoax. It is however said that the commercial sex doll has its origins in Germany, especially since the creation of the Bild Lilli doll in the 1950s, which was in turn the inspiration for creating the famous Barbie doll.


title: Sex doll

text: The production of human simulacra to substitute for human sexual partners took several technological leaps forward in the late twentieth century. By the 1970s, vinyl, latex and silicone had become the materials most frequently used in the manufacture of sex dolls; silicone, in particular, allowed a greater degree of realism.


title: Sex doll

text: A 1982 attempt to import a consignment of sex dolls into Britain had the unintended consequence of ending the law against importing "obscene or indecent" items that were not illegal to sell within the UK. Having had the dolls seized by Her Majesty's Customs and Excise officers, David Sullivan's Conegate Ltd. took the case all the way to the European Court of Justice, and won in 1987. Britain was forced to lift its stringent import prohibitions dating from 1876 because for imports from within the European Community they constituted a barrier to free trade under the terms of the Treaty of Rome.


title: Sex doll

text: Shin Takagi, founder of the company Trottla, manufactures lifelike child sex dolls in the belief that doing so provides a safe and legal outlet for men expressing pedophilic desires. This has been disputed by paraphilia researcher Dr. Peter J. Fagan, who argues that contact with the products would likely have a reinforcing effect, increasing the risk of pedophilic action being taken. Since 2013, Australian officials have confiscated imported shipments of juvenile sex dolls legally classified as child exploitation material. However, machine ethicists Michael Anderson and Susan Leigh Anderson point out that sales of sex dolls are not and have never been a commercially significant industry, and can never become anything like as corrupting a source of money as psychiatric medication have since deinstitutionalization made psychiatric medication sales profitable by doing away with the cost of keeping the patients in mental hospitals, as selling dolls that are kept by the patients for a long time can never reach the sale volumes of medicines that the patients take on a daily basis. Corruption by psychiatric medication sale money is argued by Michael Anderson and Susan Leigh Anderson to be a cause of psychiatry alleging reinforcement, as studies of pedophilia show no correlation between the age of the pedophiles and their degree of fixation onto children or preferred age of children (unlike drug addicts for whom higher doses and lower effects of the same doses correlate with higher ages of the narcomanes) and penile plethysmograph studies on community samples of men with guaranteed anonymity show that the prevalence of sexual attraction to prepubescent children is much lower in the population than sexual attraction to adolescents which does not support the theory of reinforcement towards lower ages.


title: Sex doll

text: Cheaper sex dolls are inflatable, using air. These dolls, representing the lowest price range (less than US$75), are usually made of welded vinyl and bear only a passing resemblance to actual people. They have an artificial and typically crudely designed vagina or penis, but due to their affordability, many users are willing to overlook their shortcomings. They often burst at the seams after a few uses, although they are commonly given as gag gifts and therefore many may not be used at all. In Russia, for some years the Bubble Baba Challenge humorously featured participants river rafting on blowup dolls as a matter of entertainment but in 2013 the race was canceled on "health and safety" grounds.


title: Sex doll

text: At the middle market price range ($100 to approximately $1,000), dolls are made of thicker vinyl or heavy latex without welded seams or a polyurethane and silicone mixture, typically surrounding a foam core. Most have plastic mannequin-style heads and styled wigs, plastic or glass eyes, and occasionally properly molded hands and feet. Some vinyl dolls can contain water-filled body areas such as the breasts or buttocks. Latex dolls were made in Hungary, China and France but only the French manufacturer Domax now remains in production.


title: Sex doll

text: The manufacturing process causes most latex dolls to be delivered with a fine coating of zinc oxide covering the skin, which is usually removed by the consumer by placing the doll under the shower. Otherwise, latex is an inert and non-toxic natural material; although a small percentage of users may discover a latex allergy.


title: Sex doll

text: The most expensive sex dolls (approximately $1,200 and up) are usually made from silicone (usually above $3,000 at 2016 prices) or thermoplastic elastomer known as TPE (below $3,000). Dolls made of either material can be very lifelike, with faces and bodies modeled on real people in some instances, with realistic skin material (similar to that used for movie special effects), and with realistic (or even real) hair. These dolls usually have an articulated PVC or metal skeleton with flexible joints that allow them to be positioned in a variety of positions for display and for sexual acts. Silicone or TPE dolls are much heavier than vinyl or latex inflatable ones (which consist mostly of air), but are roughly half the weight of a real human being of comparable size.


title: Sex doll

text: Because of their ability to be posed in different positions silicone dolls are popular with artists and photographers as models.


title: Sex doll

text: In Japan, sex dolls are known as , which now refers to relatively inexpensive dolls. Their name originates from the term, possibly English, for the thick rattan or bamboo bolster, used to aid sleep in humid countries by keeping one's limbs lifted above sweaty sheets.


title: Sex doll

text: Orient Industry is considered to be the leading manufacturer of high-end silicone dolls in Japan, which started using another term around 1998 to distinguish their dolls from the image of inflatable dolls associated with the term "Dutch wife". The term has stuck and is now used generally to refer to any high-end product.


title: Sex doll

text: There is a business, Doru no Mori (Doll Forest) in Tokyo, that rents love dolls and rooms to male customers. In March 2007 the Japanese daily "Mainichi Shimbun" newspaper reported that there are also rental businesses that bring the dolls to the customer's home, and that the specialist love-doll magazine "i-doloid" has a print-run of 10,000 copies per issue.


title: Sex doll

text: The middle market and high-end market emerged in the USA around 1992. The market has grown for two main reasons. Firstly, the last twenty years have seen huge improvements over earlier types of sex dolls, and customers come to realize this through using the web. Secondly, the method of retail purchase has also improved, now showing customers what the actual doll, seams, hair, and even orifices look like.


title: Sex doll

text: In China the market has mushroomed on account of the demographic effects of the one-child policy and accordingly numerous new Chinese manufacturers have appeared in recent years.


title: Sex doll

text: In Japan one can purchase inflatable or stuffed love pillows or "dakimakura" that can be fitted with a cover printed with a life-size picture of a porn star or anime character. Other less common novelty love dolls include overweight, intersex, and alien dolls, which are usable for pleasure but also tend to be given as gag gifts.


title: Sex doll

text: Some companies manufacture cloth sex dolls using the same technology that is used to create plush toys. With widespread cultural use of the internet amongst younger generations, numerous forums exist for amateurs who create their own sex dolls from fabric or other materials. There are even mailing lists for discussing techniques and experiences with "MLDs" (material love dolls) .


title: Sex doll

text: Some inflatable sex dolls are made in the form of animals, most notably sheep and cows. These dolls are more of a joke gift or party novelty and are often not suitable for sexual use.


title: Sex doll

text: Silicone dolls were at first made from tin-cure silicone but platinum technology has better longevity, less prone to tears and compression marks. For this reason, the "RealDoll" manufacturer reported switching from the tin to the platinum material in June 2009 and all other manufacturers have followed suit.


title: Sex doll

text: Since 2012 or so, a thermoplastic elastomer alternative known as TPE has come into common use particularly by Chinese manufacturers which have enabled realistic dolls to be made which are cheaper than those composed of the high quality expensive platinum cure silicone.


title: Sex doll

text: CybOrgasMatrix dolls used an elastic gel, which they claimed to be superior to silicone in elasticity, shape memory, and durability. Both this company and the company "First Androids" once offered pelvic thruster motor, audio capability, and heated orifices, though these options are no longer available. Several modern doll manufacturers now offer the last option on their silicone dolls, with the addition of an internal heating system.


title: Sex doll

text: Foam dolls have now become available from EX Doll and SeeDree dolls, in hope of making Sex Dolls a lighter weight. Cloud Climax reports that they can be as low as 9 kg, whilst being a life-sized doll and that the heads are silicone for realism.


title: Sex doll

text: In 2019, the Israeli media reported on an incident where a European sex dolls company created a sex doll that is based on the Israeli model, Yael Cohen Aris, without her permission. In 2020, the same story was further investigated and reported by "Playboy", and was mentioned in relation to Deepfake.


title: Sex doll

text: The importation of sex dolls for men has been banned in Botswana according to Section 178 of the Botswana Penal Code. The law further abolishes the right to "possess, lend, trade-in, export, import, and or exhibit obscene objects or any objects tending to corrupt morals in Botswana", which includes sex dolls.


title: Sex doll

text: As prostitution is legalized and regulated, there are no legal restrictions concerning sex dolls in Austria and numerous brothels are offering sex dolls for clients. Although sex dolls originally started appearing in Austria around 1980, they gained popularity in 2017 when a brothel started offering sex doll services to clients. This can be attributed to the fact that the dolls have become more realistic in recent years.


title: Sex doll

text: In addition to being able to have intercourse with the sex doll, some places allow clients to purchase sex dolls for themselves. One of the biggest laufhauses in Vienna offers sex in the laufhaus with dolls alongside real women.


title: Sex doll

text: According to brothel owners who offer sex dolls, the dolls are being properly cleaned after every session. Unprotected sex with sex dolls is also allowed, but it is not advised as there is no guarantee that the dolls are being cleaned after each client.


title: Sex doll

text: In 2018, the South Korean Supreme Court ruled to legalize the sale of sex dolls. The issue still remains controversial in the country.


title: Sex doll

text: In China, it is not illegal to buy and use sex dolls. In the past year, sex doll experience halls have appeared in many cities in China.


title: Sex doll

text: Sex dolls that look like children are illegal to import and carry up to 7 years in prison under several acts, one of which is an 1876 customs importation act on Obscene articles. However, the law is not directly specific on what constitutes a child doll and as such all sex dolls are technically illegal until decided otherwise by a border agent upon importation and inspection, the only guidelines known by vendors is to ensure the doll is taller than 140cms and this can be observed on UK sites since you'll not find dolls below this height, other factors affecting the outcome of a case will likely be breast size and the subjective opinion on the age of the face.


title: Sex doll

text: In Myanmar, it was highly public criticized on October 22, 2022, when people paid obeisance to China-made two silicone sex dolls as the two goddesses Thurathadi and Thiri Devi at the Shwedagon Pagoda. The dolls are owned by an alchemist named Inn Weizzamo. He bought the dolls from China for US$2,400 each, and worshiped them by dressing in royal clothes. On the same day, he was arrested for allegedly causing harm to Buddhism.


title: Sex doll

text: The sayadaw Min Thunya (Buddhist University) says that "the act of worshiping two silicone sex dolls in the form of two noble goddesses is an insult to the religion. It's really shameful."


title: Sex doll

text: In June 2006, Henrik Christensen of the European Robotics Research Network told the UK's "Sunday Times" that "people are going to be having sex with robots within five years."


title: Sex doll

text: Reacting to the ongoing development of "sex robots" or "sexbots", in September 2015, Kathleen Richardson of De Montfort University and Erik Billing of the University of Skövde created the "Campaign Against Sex Robots", calling for a ban on the creation of anthropomorphic sex robots. They argue that the introduction of such devices would be socially harmful, and demeaning to women and children. Additionally, sex robots could have a profound (negative) impact on society if they become as accepted as today's smartphones are, many authors argue.


title: Sex doll

text: Compared to pornography for which thousands, and compared to sex robots for which dozens of scientific studies are available, sex dolls, their use and effects have been relatively little researched so far. This is not surprising because sex dolls are a subtype of sex toys, and sex toys as material sexual objects are fairly under-researched in general.


title: Sex doll

text: Nevertheless, a systematic review from the year 2020 was able to identify 29 published academic studies on sex dolls. These sex doll studies deal with the following five research questions:


title: Sex doll

text: Overall, the current state of research shows that sex doll owners (so far, the majority are men) and their uses are diverse and that sex dolls can be associated with negative and positive effects. Likewise, the available empirical studies with sex doll owners indicate that they do not only regard and treat their dolls as “sex” dolls, but sometimes also as “love” dolls or social companions. A clinical case study explained how living with a doll helped a divorced man to overcome relationship trauma and get ready to approach real women again. Psychological theories that can explain the human-doll relationship are, among others, the theory of transitional objects or the theory of parasocial interactions and relationships usually applied to media personas.


title: Sex doll

text: In the BBC programme "Desert Island Discs", aired since 1942 with little interruption, guests were also permitted to bring either a book or a "luxury" in addition to musical recordings. Several chose life-size dolls: Oliver Reed, Ronnie Scott (who settled instead for a saxophone), and Duncan Carse.


title: Sex doll

text: The fictional narrator in the Italian writer Tommaso Landolfi's comic short story "Gogol's Wife" describes several visits to the subject of his biography, Nikolai Gogol. At that renowned 19th century Russian writer's residence, the future biographer finds Gogol, referred to throughout as Nikolai Vassilevitch (his personal name and patronymic), with a life-size, anatomically correct blow-up doll. In later visits, the doll is described with more and more human attributes, bringing the story ever more into the realm of fantastic fiction.


title: Transvestism

text: Transvestism is the practice of dressing in a manner traditionally associated with the opposite sex. In some cultures, transvestism is practiced for religious, traditional, or ceremonial reasons. The term is considered outdated in Western cultures, especially when used to describe a transgender or gender-fluid person.


title: Transvestism

text: Though the term was coined as late as the 1910s by Magnus Hirschfeld, the phenomenon is not new. It was referred to in the Hebrew Bible. Being part of the homosexual movement of Weimar Germany in the beginning, a first transvestite movement of its own started to form since the mid-1920s, resulting in founding first organizations and the first transvestite magazine, "Das 3. Geschlecht". The rise of Nazism stopped this movement from 1933 onwards.


title: Transvestism

text: The word has undergone several changes of meaning since it was first coined and is still used in a variety of senses. Today, the term "transvestite" is commonly considered outdated and derogatory, with the term "cross-dresser" used as a more appropriate replacement. This is because the term "transvestite" was historically used to diagnose medical disorders, including mental health disorders, and transvestism was viewed as a disorder, but the term "cross-dresser" was coined by the transgender community. In some cases, however, the term "transvestite" is seen as more appropriate for use by members of the transgender community instead of by those outside of the transgender community, and some have reclaimed the word.


title: Transvestism

text: Magnus Hirschfeld coined the word "transvestite" in 1910 (from Latin "trans-", "across, over" and "vestitus", "dressed") to refer to the sexual interest in cross-dressing. He used it to describe persons who habitually and voluntarily wore clothes of the opposite sex. Hirschfeld's group of transvestites consisted of both males and females, with heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, and asexual orientations.


title: Transvestism

text: Hirschfeld himself was not happy with the term: He believed that clothing was only an outward symbol chosen on the basis of various internal psychological situations. In fact, Hirschfeld helped people to achieve the first name changes (legal given names were required to be gender-specific in Germany) and performed the first reported sexual reassignment surgery. Hirschfeld's transvestites therefore were, in today's terms, not only transvestites, but a variety of people from the transgender spectrum.


title: Transvestism

text: Hirschfeld also noticed that sexual arousal was often associated with transvestism. In more recent terminology, this is sometimes called transvestic fetishism. Hirschfeld also clearly distinguished between transvestism as an expression of a person's "contra-sexual" (transgender) feelings and fetishistic behavior, even if the latter involved wearing clothes of the other sex.


title: Transvestism

text: One of the fiercest activists to come out of the Stonewall Riots was Sylvia Rivera, who set up Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries. In a 1971 essay, "Transvestites: Your Half Sisters and Half Brothers of the Revolution", Rivera wrote, "Transvestites are homosexual men and women who dress in clothes of the opposite sex."


title: Transvestism

text: After all the changes that took place during the 1970s, a large group was left without a word to describe themselves: heterosexual males who wear traditionally feminine clothing. This group was not particularly happy with the term "transvestism", and therefore took on the term "cross-dresser". Cross-dressers are men who wear female clothing and often both admire and imitate women, but self-identify as different from both gay men and transsexuals, and generally deny having fetishistic intentions.