title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: The Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) is a signaling protocol used for initiating, maintaining, and terminating communication sessions that include voice, video and messaging applications. SIP is used in Internet telephony, in private IP telephone systems, as well as mobile phone calling over LTE (VoLTE).


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: The protocol defines the specific format of messages exchanged and the sequence of communications for cooperation of the participants. SIP is a text-based protocol, incorporating many elements of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). A call established with SIP may consist of multiple media streams, but no separate streams are required for applications, such as text messaging, that exchange data as payload in the SIP message.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: SIP works in conjunction with several other protocols that specify and carry the session media. Most commonly, media type and parameter negotiation and media setup are performed with the Session Description Protocol (SDP), which is carried as payload in SIP messages. SIP is designed to be independent of the underlying transport layer protocol and can be used with the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), and the Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP). For secure transmissions of SIP messages over insecure network links, the protocol may be encrypted with Transport Layer Security (TLS). For the transmission of media streams (voice, video) the SDP payload carried in SIP messages typically employs the Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) or the Secure Real-time Transport Protocol (SRTP).


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: SIP was originally designed by Mark Handley, Henning Schulzrinne, Eve Schooler and Jonathan Rosenberg in 1996 to facilitate establishing multicast multimedia sessions on the Mbone. The protocol was standardized as in 1999. In November 2000, SIP was accepted as a 3GPP signaling protocol and permanent element of the IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) architecture for IP-based streaming multimedia services in cellular networks. In June 2002 the specification was revised in and various extensions and clarifications have been published since.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: SIP was designed to provide a signaling and call setup protocol for IP-based communications supporting the call processing functions and features present in the public switched telephone network (PSTN) with a vision of supporting new multimedia applications. It has been extended for video conferencing, streaming media distribution, instant messaging, presence information, file transfer, Internet fax and online games.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: SIP is distinguished by its proponents for having roots in the Internet community rather than in the telecommunications industry. SIP has been standardized primarily by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), while other protocols, such as H.323, have traditionally been associated with the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: SIP is only involved in the signaling operations of a media communication session and is primarily used to set up and terminate voice or video calls. SIP can be used to establish two-party (unicast) or multiparty (multicast) sessions. It also allows modification of existing calls. The modification can involve changing addresses or ports, inviting more participants, and adding or deleting media streams. SIP has also found applications in messaging applications, such as instant messaging, and event subscription and notification.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: SIP works in conjunction with several other protocols that specify the media format and coding and that carry the media once the call is set up. For call setup, the body of a SIP message contains a Session Description Protocol (SDP) data unit, which specifies the media format, codec and media communication protocol. Voice and video media streams are typically carried between the terminals using the Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) or Secure Real-time Transport Protocol (SRTP).


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: Every resource of a SIP network, such as user agents, call routers, and voicemail boxes, are identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI). The syntax of the URI follows the general standard syntax also used in Web services and e-mail. The URI scheme used for SIP is "sip" and a typical SIP URI has the form "<nowiki>sip:username@domainname</nowiki>" or "<nowiki>sip:username@hostport</nowiki>", where "domainname" requires DNS SRV records to locate the servers for SIP domain while "hostport" can be an IP address or a fully qualified domain name of the host and port. If secure transmission is required, the scheme "sips" is used.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: SIP employs design elements similar to the HTTP request and response transaction model. Each transaction consists of a client request that invokes a particular method or function on the server and at least one response. SIP reuses most of the header fields, encoding rules and status codes of HTTP, providing a readable text-based format.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: SIP can be carried by several transport layer protocols including Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), and Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP). SIP clients typically use TCP or UDP on port numbers 5060 or 5061 for SIP traffic to servers and other endpoints. Port 5060 is commonly used for non-encrypted signaling traffic whereas port 5061 is typically used for traffic encrypted with Transport Layer Security (TLS).


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: SIP-based telephony networks often implement call processing features of Signaling System 7 (SS7), for which special SIP protocol extensions exist, although the two protocols themselves are very different. SS7 is a centralized protocol, characterized by a complex central network architecture and dumb endpoints (traditional telephone handsets). SIP is a client-server protocol of equipotent peers. SIP features are implemented in the communicating endpoints, while the traditional SS7 architecture is in use only between switching centers.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: The network elements that use the Session Initiation Protocol for communication are called "SIP user agents". Each "user agent" (UA) performs the function of a "user agent client" (UAC) when it is requesting a service function, and that of a "user agent server" (UAS) when responding to a request. Thus, any two SIP endpoints may in principle operate without any intervening SIP infrastructure. However, for network operational reasons, for provisioning public services to users, and for directory services, SIP defines several specific types of network server elements. Each of these service elements also communicates within the client-server model implemented in user agent clients and servers.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: A user agent is a logical network endpoint that sends or receives SIP messages and manages SIP sessions. User agents have client and server components. The user agent client (UAC) sends SIP requests. The user agent server (UAS) receives requests and returns a SIP response. Unlike other network protocols that fix the roles of client and server, e.g., in HTTP, in which a web browser only acts as a client, and never as a server, SIP requires both peers to implement both roles. The roles of UAC and UAS only last for the duration of a SIP transaction.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: A SIP phone is an IP phone that implements client and server functions of a SIP user agent and provides the traditional call functions of a telephone, such as dial, answer, reject, call hold, and call transfer. SIP phones may be implemented as a hardware device or as a softphone. As vendors increasingly implement SIP as a standard telephony platform, the distinction between hardware-based and software-based SIP phones is blurred and SIP elements are implemented in the basic firmware functions of many IP-capable communications devices such as smartphones.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: In SIP, as in HTTP, the user agent may identify itself using a message header field ("User-Agent"), containing a text description of the software, hardware, or the product name. The user agent field is sent in request messages, which means that the receiving SIP server can evaluate this information to perform device-specific configuration or feature activation. Operators of SIP network elements sometimes store this information in customer account portals, where it can be useful in diagnosing SIP compatibility problems or in the display of service status.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: A proxy server is a network server with UAC and UAS components that functions as an intermediary entity for the purpose of performing requests on behalf of other network elements. A proxy server primarily plays the role of call routing; it sends SIP requests to another entity closer to the destination. Proxies are also useful for enforcing policy, such as for determining whether a user is allowed to make a call. A proxy interprets, and, if necessary, rewrites specific parts of a request message before forwarding it.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: SIP proxy servers that route messages to more than one destination are called forking proxies. The forking of a SIP request establishes multiple dialogs from the single request. Thus, a call may be answered from one of multiple SIP endpoints. For identification of multiple dialogs, each dialog has an identifier with contributions from both endpoints.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: A redirect server is a user agent server that generates 3xx (redirection) responses to requests it receives, directing the client to contact an alternate set of URIs. A redirect server allows proxy servers to direct SIP session invitations to external domains.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: A registrar is a SIP endpoint that provides a location service. It accepts REGISTER requests, recording the address and other parameters from the user agent. For subsequent requests, it provides an essential means to locate possible communication peers on the network. The location service links one or more IP addresses to the SIP URI of the registering agent. Multiple user agents may register for the same URI, with the result that all registered user agents receive the calls to the URI.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: SIP registrars are logical elements and are often co-located with SIP proxies. To improve network scalability, location services may instead be located with a redirect server.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: Session border controllers (SBCs) serve as middleboxes between user agents and SIP servers for various types of functions, including network topology hiding and assistance in NAT traversal. SBCs are an independently engineered solution and are not mentioned in the SIP RFC.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: Gateways can be used to interconnect a SIP network to other networks, such as the PSTN, which use different protocols or technologies.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: SIP is a text-based protocol with syntax similar to that of HTTP. There are two different types of SIP messages: requests and responses. The first line of a request has a "method", defining the nature of the request, and a Request-URI, indicating where the request should be sent. The first line of a response has a "response code".


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: Requests initiate a functionality of the protocol. They are sent by a user agent client to the server and are answered with one or more SIP responses, which return a result code of the transaction, and generally indicate the success, failure, or other state of the transaction.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: Responses are sent by the user agent server indicating the result of a received request. Several classes of responses are recognized, determined by the numerical range of result codes:


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: SIP defines a transaction mechanism to control the exchanges between participants and deliver messages reliably. A transaction is a state of a session, which is controlled by various timers. Client transactions send requests and server transactions respond to those requests with one or more responses. The responses may include provisional responses with a response code in the form "1xx", and one or multiple final responses (2xx – 6xx).


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: Transactions are further categorized as either type "invite" or type "non-invite". Invite transactions differ in that they can establish a long-running conversation, referred to as a "dialog" in SIP, and so include an acknowledgment (ACK) of any non-failing final response, e.g., "200 OK".


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: The Session Initiation Protocol for Instant Messaging and Presence Leveraging Extensions (SIMPLE) is the SIP-based suite of standards for instant messaging and presence information. Message Session Relay Protocol (MSRP) allows instant message sessions and file transfer.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: The SIP developer community meets regularly at conferences organized by SIP Forum to test interoperability of SIP implementations. The TTCN-3 test specification language, developed by a task force at ETSI (STF 196), is used for specifying conformance tests for SIP implementations.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: When developing SIP software or deploying a new SIP infrastructure, it is important to test the capability of servers and IP networks to handle certain call load: number of concurrent calls and number of calls per second. SIP performance tester software is used to simulate SIP and RTP traffic to see if the server and IP network are stable under the call load. The software measures performance indicators like answer delay, answer/seizure ratio, RTP jitter and packet loss, round-trip delay time.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: "SIP connection" is a marketing term for voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) services offered by many Internet telephony service providers (ITSPs). The service provides routing of telephone calls from a client's private branch exchange (PBX) telephone system to the PSTN. Such services may simplify corporate information system infrastructure by sharing Internet access for voice and data, and removing the cost for Basic Rate Interface (BRI) or Primary Rate Interface (PRI) telephone circuits.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: SIP trunking is a similar marketing term preferred for when the service is used to simplify a telecom infrastructure by sharing the carrier access circuit for voice, data, and Internet traffic while removing the need for PRI circuits.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: SIP-enabled video surveillance cameras can initiate calls to alert the operator of events, such as the motion of objects in a protected area.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: SIP is used in audio over IP for broadcasting applications where it provides an interoperable means for audio interfaces from different manufacturers to make connections with one another.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Advanced Networking Technologies Division provides a public-domain Java implementation that serves as a reference implementation for the standard. The implementation can work in proxy server or user agent scenarios and has been used in numerous commercial and research projects. It supports in full and a number of extension RFCs including (event notification) and (reliable provisional responses).


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: SIP-I, Session Initiation Protocol with encapsulated ISUP, is a protocol used to create, modify, and terminate communication sessions based on ISUP using SIP and IP networks. Services using SIP-I include voice, video telephony, fax and data. SIP-I and SIP-T are two protocols with similar features, notably to allow ISUP messages to be transported over SIP networks. This preserves all of the detail available in the ISUP header. SIP-I was defined by the ITU-T, whereas SIP-T was defined by the IETF.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: Concerns about the security of calls via the public Internet have been addressed by encryption of the SIP protocol for secure transmission. The URI scheme SIPS is used to mandate that SIP communication be secured with Transport Layer Security (TLS). SIPS URIs take the form sips:user@example.com.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: End-to-end encryption of SIP is only possible if there is a direct connection between communication endpoints. While a direct connection can be made via Peer-to-peer SIP or via a VPN between the endpoints, most SIP communication involves multiple hops, with the first hop being from a user agent to the user agent's ITSP. For the multiple-hop case, SIPS will only secure the first hop; the remaining hops will normally not be secured with TLS and the SIP communication will be insecure. In contrast, the HTTPS protocol provides end-to-end security as it is done with a direct connection and does not involve the notion of hops.


title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: The media streams (audio and video), which are separate connections from the SIPS signaling stream, may be encrypted using SRTP. The key exchange for SRTP is performed with SDES (), or with ZRTP (). When SDES is used, the keys will be transmitted via insecure SIP unless SIPS is used. One may also add a MIKEY () exchange to SIP to determine session keys for use with SRTP.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: Tyne and Wear () is a metropolitan county in North East England, situated around the mouths of the rivers Tyne and Wear. It was created in 1974, by the Local Government Act 1972, along with five metropolitan boroughs of Gateshead, Newcastle upon Tyne, Sunderland, North Tyneside and South Tyneside. It is bordered by Northumberland to the north and Durham to the south; the county boundary was formerly split between these counties with the border as the River Tyne.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: The former county council was based at Sandyford House. There is no longer county level local governance following the county council disbanding in 1986, by the Local Government Act 1985, with the metropolitan boroughs functioning separately. The county still exists as a metropolitan county and ceremonial purposes, as a geographic frame of reference. There are two combined authorities covering parts of the county area, North of Tyne and North East.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: In the late 600s and into the 700s Saint Bede lived as a monk at the monastery of St. Peter and of St. Paul writing histories of the Early Middle Ages including the Ecclesiastical History of the English People.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: Roughly 150 years ago, in the village of Marsden in South Shields, Souter Lighthouse was built, the first electric structure of this type.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: The Local Government Act 1888 constituted Newcastle upon Tyne, Gateshead and Sunderland as county boroughs (Newcastle had "county corporate" status as the "County and Town of Newcastle upon Tyne" since 1400). Tynemouth joined them in 1904. Between the county boroughs, various other settlements also formed part of the administrative counties of Durham and of Northumberland.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: The need to reform local government on Tyneside was recognised by the government as early as 1935, when a "Royal Commission to Investigate the Conditions of Local Government on Tyneside" was appointed. The three commissioners were to


title: Tyne and Wear

text: examine the system of local government in the areas of local government north and south of the river Tyne from the sea to the boundary of the Rural District of Castle Ward and Hexham in the County of Northumberland and to the Western boundary of the County of Durham, to consider what changes, if any, should be made in the existing arrangements with a view to securing greater economy and efficiency, and to make recommendations.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: The report of the Royal Commission, published in 1937, recommended the establishment of a Regional Council for Northumberland and Tyneside (to be called the "Northumberland Regional Council") to administer services that needed to be exercised over a wide area, with a second tier of smaller units for other local-government purposes. The second-tier units would form by amalgamating the various existing boroughs and districts. The county boroughs in the area would lose their status. Within this area, a single municipality would be formed covering the four county boroughs of Newcastle, Gateshead, Tynemouth, South Shields and other urban districts and boroughs.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: A minority report proposed amalgamation of Newcastle, Gateshead, Wallsend, Jarrow, Felling, Gosforth, Hebburn and Newburn into a single "county borough of Newcastle-on-Tyneside". The 1937 proposals never came into operation: local authorities could not agree on a scheme and the legislation of the time did not allow central government to compel one.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: Tyneside (excluding Sunderland) was a Special Review Area under the Local Government Act 1958. The Local Government Commission for England came back with a recommendation to create a new county of Tyneside based on the review area, divided into four separate boroughs. This was not implemented. The Redcliffe-Maud Report proposed a Tyneside unitary authority, again excluding Sunderland, which would have set up a separate East Durham unitary authority.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: The White Paper that led to the Local Government Act 1972 proposed as "area 2" a metropolitan county including Newcastle and Sunderland, extending as far south down the coast as Seaham and Easington, and bordering "area 4" (which would become Tees Valley). The Bill as presented in November 1971 pruned back the southern edge of the area, and gave it the name "Tyneside". The name "Tyneside" proved controversial on Wearside, and a government amendment changed the name to "Tyne and Wear" at the request of Sunderland County Borough Council.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: Tyne and Wear either has or closely borders two official Met Office stations, neither located in one of the major urban centres. The locations for those are in marine Tynemouth where Tyne meets the North Sea east of Newcastle and inland Durham in County Durham around south-west of Sunderland. There are some clear differences between the stations temperature and precipitation patterns even though both have a cool-summer and mild-winter oceanic climate.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: Tyne and Wear contains green belt interspersed throughout the county, mainly on the fringes of the Tyneside/Wearside conurbation. There is also an inter-urban line of belt helping to keep the districts of South Tyneside, Gateshead, and Sunderland separated. It was first drawn up from the 1950s. All the county's districts contain some portion of belt.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: Although Tyne and Wear County Council was abolished in 1986, several "joint bodies" exist to run certain services on a county-wide basis. Most notable is the Tyne and Wear Passenger Transport Authority, which co-ordinates transport policy. Through its passenger transport executive, known as Nexus, it owns and operates the Tyne and Wear Metro light rail system, and the Shields ferry service and the Tyne Tunnel, linking communities on either side of the River Tyne. Also through Nexus, the authority subsidises socially necessary transport services (including taxis) and operates a concessionary fares scheme for the elderly and disabled. Nexus has been an executive body of the North East Joint Transport Committee since November 2018.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: Other joint bodies include the Tyne and Wear Fire and Rescue Service and Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums, which was created from the merger of the Tyne and Wear Archives Service and Tyne and Wear Museums. These joint bodies are administered by representatives of all five of the constituent councils. In addition the Northumbria Police force covers Northumberland and Tyne and Wear.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: There have been occasional calls for Tyne and Wear to be abolished and the traditional border between Northumberland and County Durham to be restored.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: Tyne and Wear is divided into 12 Parliamentary constituencies. Historically, the area has been a Labour stronghold; South Shields is the only Parliamentary constituency that has never returned a Conservative Member of Parliament (MP) to the House of Commons since the Reform Act of 1832.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: At the level of local government, all of the region's five unitary authorities were controlled by Labour in 2019.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: Newcastle and Sunderland are known for declaring their election results early on election night. Therefore, they frequently give the first indication of nationwide trends. An example of this was at the 2016 European Union referendum. Newcastle was the first large city to declare, and 50.6% of voters voted to Remain; this proportion was far lower than predicted by experts. Sunderland declared soon after and gave a 62% vote to Leave, much higher than expected. These two results were seen as an early sign that the United Kingdom had voted to Leave.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: Offshore Group Newcastle make oil platforms. Sage Group, who produce accounting software, are based at Hazlerigg at the northern end of the Newcastle bypass. Northern Rock, which became a bank in 1997 and was taken over by Virgin Money in November 2011, and the Newcastle Building Society are based in Gosforth. The Gosforth-based bakery Greggs now has over 1,500 shops. The Balliol Business Park in Longbenton contains Procter & Gamble research and global business centres and a tax credits call centre for HMRC, and is the former home of Findus UK. The Government National Insurance Contributions Office in Longbenton, demolished and replaced in 2000, had a long corridor.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: Be-Ro and the Go-Ahead Group bus company are in central Newcastle. Nestlé use the former Rowntrees chocolate factory on the east of the A1. BAE Systems Land & Armaments in Scotswood, formerly Vickers-Armstrongs, is the main producer of British Army tanks such as the Challenger 2. A Rolls Royce apprentice training site is next door. Siemens Energy Service Fossil make steam turbines at the CA Parsons Works in South Heaton. Sir Charles Parsons invented the steam turbine in 1884, and developed an important local company. Domestos, a product whose main ingredient is sodium hypochlorite, was originated in Newcastle in 1929 by William Handley, and was distributed from the area for many years.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: Clarke Chapman is next to the A167 in Gateshead. The MetroCentre, the largest shopping centre in Europe, is in Dunston. Scottish & Newcastle was the largest UK-owned brewery until it was bought by Heineken and Carlsberg in April 2008, and produced Newcastle Brown Ale at the Newcastle Federation Brewery in Dunston until production moved to Tadcaster in September 2010. At Team Valley are De La Rue, with their largest banknote printing facility, and Myson Radiators, the second largest in the UK market. Petards make surveillance equipment including ANPR cameras, and its Joyce-Loebl division makes electronic warfare systems and countermeasure dispensing systems such as the AN/ALE-47. Sevcon, an international company formed from a part of Smith Electric, is a world leader in electric vehicle controls. AEI Cables and Komatsu UK construction equipment at Birtley.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: J. Barbour & Sons make outdoor clothing in Simonside, Jarrow. SAFT Batteries make primary lithium batteries on the Tyne in South Shields. Bellway plc houses is in Seaton Burn in North Tyneside. Cobalt Business Park, the largest office park in the UK, is at Wallsend, on the former site of Atmel, and is the home of North Tyneside Council. Swan Hunter until 2006 made ships in Wallsend, and still designs ships. Soil Machine Dynamics in Wallsend on the Tyne makes Remotely operated underwater vehicles, and its Ultra Trencher 1 is the world's largest submersible robot.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: The car dealership Evans Halshaw is in Sunderland. The car factory owned by Nissan Motor Manufacturing UK between North Hylton and Washington is the largest in the UK. Grundfos, the world's leading pump manufacturer, builds pumps in Sunderland. Calsonic Kansei UK, formerly Magna, make automotive instrument panels and car trim at the Pennywell Industrial Estate. Gestamp UK make automotive components. Smith Electric Vehicles originated in Washington. The LG Electronics microwave oven factory opened in 1989, closed in May 2004, and later became the site of the Tanfield Group. Goodyear Dunlop had their only UK car tyre factory next to the Tanfield site until its 2006 closure. BAE Systems Global Combat Systems moved to a new £75 million factory at the former Goodyear site in 2011, where they make large calibre ammunition for tanks and artillery.


title: Tyne and Wear

text: The government's child benefit office is in Washington. Liebherr build cranes next to the Wear at Deptford. The outdoor clothing company Berghaus is in Castletown. Vaux Breweries, who owned Swallow Hotels, closed in 1999. ScS Sofas are on Borough Road. There are many call centres in Sunderland, notably EDF Energy at the Doxford International Business Park, which is also the home of the headquarters of the large international transport company Arriva and Nike UK. Rolls Royce planned to move their production of fan and turbine discs to BAE Systems' new site in 2016.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: The iPhone 3GS (originally styled iPhone 3G S) is a smartphone that was designed and marketed by Apple Inc. It is the third generation iPhone and the successor to the iPhone 3G. It was unveiled on June 8, 2009 at the WWDC 2009 which took place at the Moscone Center in San Francisco.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: This iPhone is named "3GS" where "S" stood for Speed (Phil Schiller had mentioned it in the launch keynote). Improvements include performance, a 3-megapixel camera with higher resolution and video ability, voice control, and support for 7.2 Mbit/s HSDPA downloading (but remains limited to uploading as Apple had not implemented the HSUPA protocol). It was released in the United States, Canada, and six European countries on June 19, 2009, in Australia and Japan on June 26, and internationally in July and August 2009.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: The iPhone 3GS runs Apple's iOS operating system. It was succeeded as Apple's flagship smartphone in 2010 by the iPhone 4. On June 24, 2010 an 8 GB model was released, discontinuing the 16 and 32 GB models, the 8 GB 3GS continued in production until September 2012 when the iPhone 5 was announced.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: The iPhone 3GS was released on June 19, 2009 in the United States, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Within the first weekend of its release, over 1 million iPhone 3GS units were sold. It reached its first million units sold as quickly as its predecessor, the iPhone 3G. After the release of the iPhone 4S, the 3GS was still offered for free on a contract until November 2011, when AT&T raised the price to 59 cents with no explanation. The 99¢ price was only available with a two-year contract on AT&T in the United States and a three-year contract on Telus, Rogers, Bell and Fido Solutions in Canada. This was a departure from Apple's previous trends, in which only two phones were sold.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: The new features of the iPhone 3GS are mainly internal changes regarding speed. The iPhone 3GS was reportedly twice as fast as its predecessor. Though in addition to the upgrades mainly regarding performance, various software features were also introduced exclusively to the iPhone 3GS such as video recording, voice control, and digital compass.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: The features iOS, Apple's mobile operating system. The user interface of iOS is based on the concept of direct manipulation, using multi-touch gestures. Interface control elements consist of sliders, switches, and buttons. Interaction with the OS includes gestures such as "swipe", "tap", "pinch", and "reverse pinch", all of which have specific definitions within the context of the iOS operating system and its multi-touch interface. Internal accelerometers are used by some applications to respond to shaking the device (one common result is the undo command) or rotating it vertically (one common result is switching from portrait to landscape mode).


title: IPhone 3GS

text: The LCD display on the device was designed by Apple and made by LG. It features a capacitive touchscreen with a pixel density of 163 pixels per inch (ppi) on a 480-by-320 display. Improvements over its predecessor's screen include 24-bit color emulation (18-bit color display plus dithering) for a more color rich display and oleophobic coating to help reduce fingerprints on the display. The capacitive touchscreen is designed for a bare finger, or multiple fingers for multi-touch sensing.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: The iPhone 3GS features an improved 3-megapixel camera manufactured by OmniVision. In addition to the higher pixel count, it also features auto-focus, auto white balance and auto macro and is capable of capturing VGA video.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: The iPhone 3GS's camera app features a slider which allows users to switch between capturing photos and recording videos, a tap-to-focus feature which allows users to tap on an area of the camera image to auto-focus on, 5x digital zoom (iOS 4 or later), autofocus and auto exposure lock when holding an area down (iOS 5 or later), and gridlines for composition (iOS 5 or later).


title: IPhone 3GS

text: The iPhone 3GS is powered by the Samsung APL0298C05 chip, which was designed and manufactured by Samsung. This is the first iPhone with a system-on-a-chip. This system-on-a-chip is composed of an ARM Cortex-A8 CPU core underclocked to 600 MHz (from 833 MHz), integrated with a PowerVR SGX 535 GPU.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: It has 256 MB of package on package (PoP) DRAM, twice the amount of the 3G, allowing for increased performance and multi-tasking.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: Apple claims the iPhone 3GS is 2x faster than its predecessor, showing demonstrations of various apps loading in half the time its predecessor does.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: As on previous models, all data is stored in flash memory and not in the SIM and it does not offer any options to expand storage. Initially, it was only available in 16 and 32 GB though an 8 GB model was later released, with Apple discontinuing the 16 and 32 GB models, forcing those needing more storage to select an iPhone 4, or buy an older model 3GS.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: The iPhone 3GS is powered by an internal 3.7 V 1220 mAh rechargeable lithium-ion polymer battery and is designed to retain up to 80% of its original capacity after 400 full charge and discharge cycles. A battery life indicator in percentage was also exclusive to the iPhone 3GS.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: Apple claims that the 3GS can last for up to ten hours of video, nine hours of web browsing on Wi-Fi, twelve hours of 2G talk time, or five on 3G, 30 hours of music, or 300 hours of standby.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: A magnetometer is also built-in the iPhone 3GS, which is used to measure the strength and/or direction of the magnetic field in the vicinity of the device. Sometimes certain devices or radio signals can interfere with the magnetometer requiring users to either move away from the interference or re-calibrate by moving the device in a figure 8 motion. The iPhone 3GS also features a Compass app that was unique at the time of release, showing a compass that points in the direction of the magnetic field.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: In addition to the iPhone 3G's Tri-band UMTS/HSDPA radio and quad-band GSM/GPRS/EDGE radio, the 3GS also adds support for 7.2 Mbit/s HSDPA allowing faster downlink speeds though upload speeds remain the same as Apple had not implemented the HSUPA protocol. Other updates include the addition of a built-in Nike+iPod sensor which eliminates the need for an external sensor and allows native Nike+iPod support. The Bluetooth server on the iPhone 3GS has also been slightly improved adding support for Bluetooth 2.1 specifications.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: Voice Control was introduced as an exclusive feature of the iPhone 3GS and allows for the controlling of the phone and music features of the phone by voice. There are two ways to activate Voice Control: hold the Home button while in the home screen for a few seconds; or, change the effect of what double-clicking the home button does so it will activate Voice Control (only on iOS 3.x; on iOS 4 or later, double-clicking the Home button opens the multitasking bar).


title: IPhone 3GS

text: VoiceOver, Color Inversion, and Text Zoom were introduced as exclusive features to the iPhone 3GS. VoiceOver is a feature that dictates music details, system menus, text, and other things that were first introduced on the third generation iPod shuffle. Color inversion reverses the color scheme from black on white to white on black, while Text Zoom allows users to zoom into a text on the screen.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: The iPhone 3GS retains the design of the 3G, with a glossy plastic back with tapered edges and metal buttons. The 3GS has reflective silver text on the reverse side which matches the silver Apple logo, replacing the 3G's grey text. The iPhone 3GS was available in white and black for 16 GB and 32 GB, although the 8 GB model was only available in black.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: Reviews of the iPhone 3GS have been mixed. Walt Mossberg of "The Wall Street Journal" described the device packed with "new features that makes a great product even better, but for many users, the software may be enough of a boost to keep them from buying the new model." Engadget also said that "the additions of video recording, a compass, and a speed bump just don't seem that compelling to us."


title: IPhone 3GS

text: The device managed to receive numerous favorable reviews. CNET gave the iPhone 3GS 4 out of 5 stars, citing battery life improvements and speed bump. Engadget praised the performance improvements.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: The 8 GB version received more favorable reviews mainly because it comes pre-installed with iOS 4. Jason Snell of Macworld praised the iPhone 3GS, saying that "the device's internal changes shines in the iOS 4 update, making the iPhone 3GS a worthwhile upgrade compared to its predecessor although a little too late compared to the iPhone 4." TIPB stated that "aside from hardware-specific features like FaceTime, Retina Display, and gyroscope support, the bottom line is iPhone 3GS users are getting the same software that makes the iPhone 4 great."


title: IPhone 3GS

text: Shortly after the release of the iPhone 3GS, some users reported overheating of the device while in heavy use, and others reported discoloration of the device due to heat (particularly on the white models). The discoloration issues were largely discounted as being as a result of iPhone covers rubbing against the back of the iPhone.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: Apple responded to the heat issue reports by warning users against leaving their iPhones in a car on a hot day, leaving it in direct sunlight for extended periods of time, and refraining from heavy usage while in a hot/sunny environment. It is also worth pointing out the temperature specifications in which the iPhone should be operated, which follows safety standards in the countries the 3GS was released.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: After the release of the iPhone 4, the iPhone 3GS received an update for iOS 4. Unlike the iPhone 3G, it received support for features like home screen wallpapers, multitasking, and Game Center.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: The iPhone 3GS received the iOS 5 update, adding support for on-device setup and over-the-air updates, among other features, but it is incompatible with Siri.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: On September 9, 2009, Apple launched an updated model of the iPhone 3GS that patched a segment overflow in the SecureROM of the Device that had allowed loading an unsigned LLB.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: After the release of the iPhone 4S, Apple updated baseband hardware from an Infineon Baseband chip to a Toshiba Baseband chip in week 2 production in 2011 which removed the end-user's ability to change basebands. Although the new chip uses the same modem firmware as the Infineon chip, it cannot be updated to iPad baseband 06.15.00 that is still vulnerable to the AT+XAPP exploit.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: The 3GS received iOS 6, making it the first iOS device to receive updates for four major iOS releases. Although the 3GS was still supported, some major features of iOS 6 were not supported.


title: IPhone 3GS

text: The 3GS had generally positive reviews of smooth performance on iOS 5 (some even claim better performance), making it still a good candidate for iOS 6. On September 12, 2012, Apple announced that they would no longer be selling and supporting the iPhone 3GS and the device did not receive iOS 7, due to hardware limitations. On February 21, 2014, Apple issued iOS 6.1.6 to fix the "goto fail;" SSL security bug.


title: Cultivar

text: A cultivar is a type of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and when propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue culture, or carefully controlled seed production. Most cultivars arise from purposeful human manipulation, but some originate from wild plants that have distinctive characteristics. Cultivar names are chosen according to rules of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP), and not all cultivated plants qualify as cultivars. Horticulturists generally believe the word "cultivar" was coined as a term meaning "cultivated variety".


title: Cultivar

text: Popular ornamental plants like roses, camellias, daffodils, rhododendrons, and azaleas are commonly cultivars produced by breeding and selection or as sports, for floral colour or size, plant form, or other desirable characteristics. Similarly, the world's agricultural food crops are almost exclusively cultivars that have been selected for characters such as improved yield, flavour, and resistance to disease, and very few wild plants are now used as food sources. Trees used in forestry are also special selections grown for their enhanced quality and yield of timber.


title: Cultivar

text: Cultivars form a major part of Liberty Hyde Bailey's broader group, the cultigen, which is defined as a plant whose origin or selection is primarily due to intentional human activity. A cultivar is not the same as a botanical variety, which is a taxonomic rank below subspecies, and there are differences in the rules for creating and using the names of botanical varieties and cultivars. In recent times, the naming of cultivars has been complicated by the use of statutory patents for plants and recognition of plant breeders' rights.


title: Cultivar

text: The International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV – ) offers legal protection of plant cultivars to persons or organisations that introduce new cultivars to commerce. UPOV requires that a cultivar be "distinct, uniform", and "stable". To be "distinct", it must have characters that easily distinguish it from any other known cultivar. To be "uniform" and "stable", the cultivar must retain these characters in repeated propagation.


title: Cultivar

text: The naming of cultivars is an important aspect of cultivated plant taxonomy, and the correct naming of a cultivar is prescribed by the Rules and Recommendations of the "International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants" (ICNCP, commonly denominated the "Cultivated Plant Code"). A cultivar is given a cultivar name, which consists of the scientific Latin botanical name followed by a cultivar epithet. The cultivar epithet is usually in a vernacular language.


title: Cultivar

text: The word "cultivar" originated from the need to distinguish between wild plants and those with characteristics that arose in cultivation, presently denominated "cultigens". This distinction dates to the Greek philosopher Theophrastus (370–285 BC), the "Father of Botany", who was keenly aware of this difference. Botanical historian Alan Morton noted that Theophrastus in his "Historia Plantarum" ("Enquiry into Plants") "had an inkling of the limits of culturally induced (phenotypic) changes and of the importance of genetic constitution" ("Historia Plantarum", Book 3, 2, 2 and "Causa Plantarum", Book 1, 9, 3).


title: Cultivar

text: The International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants uses as its starting point for modern botanical nomenclature the Latin names in Linnaeus' (1707–1778) "Species Plantarum" (tenth edition) and "Genera Plantarum" (fifth edition). In "Species Plantarum", Linnaeus enumerated all plants known to him, either directly or from his extensive reading. He recognised the rank of varietas (botanical "variety", a rank below that of species and subspecies) and he indicated these varieties with letters of the Greek alphabet, such as α, β, and λ, before the varietal name, rather than using the abbreviation "var." as is the present convention. Most of the varieties that Linnaeus enumerated were of "garden" origin rather than being wild plants.


title: Cultivar

text: In time the need to distinguish between wild plants and those with variations that had been cultivated increased. In the nineteenth century many "garden-derived" plants were given horticultural names, sometimes in Latin and sometimes in a vernacular language. From "circa" the 1900s, cultivated plants in Europe were recognised in the Scandinavian, Germanic, and Slavic literature as "stamm" or "sorte", but these words could not be used internationally because, by international agreement, any new denominations had to be in Latin. In the twentieth century an improved international nomenclature was proposed for cultivated plants.


title: Cultivar

text: Liberty Hyde Bailey of Cornell University in New York, United States created the word "cultivar" in 1923 when he wrote that:


title: Cultivar

text: In that essay, Bailey used only the rank of species for the cultigen, but it was obvious to him that many domesticated plants were more like botanical varieties than species, and that realization appears to have motivated the suggestion of the new category of "cultivar".


title: Cultivar

text: Bailey created the word "cultivar". It is generally assumed to be a blend of cultivated" and variety" but Bailey never explicitly stated the etymology and it has been suggested that the word is actually a blend of cultigen" and variety". The neologism "cultivar" was promoted as "euphonious" and "free from ambiguity". The first "Cultivated Plant Code" of 1953 subsequently commended its use, and by 1960 it had achieved common international acceptance.


title: Cultivar

text: The words "cultigen" and "cultivar" may be confused with each other. A "cultigen" is any plant that is deliberately selected for or altered in cultivation, as opposed to an "indigen"; the "Cultivated Plant Code" states that cultigens are "maintained as recognisable entities solely by continued propagation". Cultigens can have names at any of many taxonomic ranks, including those of grex, species, cultivar group, variety, form, and cultivar; and they may be plants that have been altered in cultivation, including by genetic modification, but have not been formally denominated. A cultigen or a component of a cultigen can be accepted as a cultivar if it is recognisable and has stable characters. Therefore, all cultivars are cultigens, because they are cultivated, but not all cultigens are cultivars, because some cultigens have not been formally distinguished and named as cultivars.


title: Cultivar

text: The "Cultivated Plant Code" notes that the word cultivar is used in two different senses: first, as a "classification category" the cultivar is defined in Article 2 of the "International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants" (2009, 8th edition) as follows: "The basic category of cultivated plants whose nomenclature is governed by this Code is the cultivar." There are two other classification categories for cultigens, the grex and the group. The "Code" then defines a "cultivar" as a "taxonomic unit within the classification category of cultivar". This is the sense of "cultivar" that is most generally understood and which is used as a general definition.


title: Cultivar

text: Which plants are chosen to be named as cultivars is simply a matter of convenience as the category was created to serve the practical needs of horticulture, agriculture, and forestry.


title: Cultivar

text: Members of a particular cultivar are not necessarily genetically identical. The "Cultivated Plant Code" emphasizes that different cultivated plants may be accepted as different cultivars, even if they have the same genome, while cultivated plants with different genomes may be regarded as the same cultivar. The production of cultivars generally entails considerable human involvement although in a few cases it may be as little as simply selecting variation from plants growing in the wild (whether by collecting growing tissue to propagate from or by gathering seed).


title: Cultivar

text: Cultivars generally occur as ornamentals and food crops: "Malus" 'Granny Smith' and "Malus" 'Red Delicious' are cultivars of apples propagated by cuttings or grafting, "Lactuca" 'Red Sails' and "Lactuca" 'Great Lakes' are lettuce cultivars propagated by seeds. Named cultivars of "Hosta" and "Hemerocallis" plants are cultivars produced by micropropagation or division.


title: Cultivar

text: Cultivars that are produced asexually are genetically identical and known as clones; this includes plants propagated by division, layering, cuttings, grafts, and budding. The propagating material may be taken from a particular part of the plant, such as a lateral branch, or from a particular phase of the life cycle, such as a juvenile leaf, or from aberrant growth as occurs with witch's broom. Plants whose distinctive characters are derived from the presence of an intracellular organism may also form a cultivar provided the characters are reproduced reliably from generation to generation. Plants of the same chimera (which have mutant tissues close to normal tissue) or graft-chimeras (which have vegetative tissue from different kinds of plants and which originate by grafting) may also constitute a cultivar.


title: Cultivar

text: Some cultivars "come true from seed", retaining their distinguishing characteristics when grown from seed. Such plants are termed a "variety", "selection" or "strain" but these are ambiguous and confusing words that are best avoided. In general, asexually propagated cultivars grown from seeds produce highly variable seedling plants, and should not be labelled with, or sold under, the parent cultivar's name.


title: Cultivar

text: Seed-raised cultivars may be produced by uncontrolled pollination when characteristics that are distinct, uniform and stable are passed from parents to progeny. Some are produced as "lines" that are produced by repeated self-fertilization or inbreeding or "multilines" that are made up of several closely related lines. Sometimes they are F1 hybrids which are the result of a deliberate repeatable single cross between two pure lines. A few F2 hybrid seed cultivars also exist, such as "Achillea" 'Summer Berries'.


title: Cultivar

text: Some cultivars are agamospermous plants, which retain their genetic composition and characteristics under reproduction. Occasionally cultivars are raised from seed of a specially selected provenance – for example the seed may be taken from plants that are resistant to a particular disease.


title: Cultivar

text: Genetically modified plants with characteristics resulting from the deliberate implantation of genetic material from a different germplasm may form a cultivar. However, the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants notes, "In practice such an assemblage is often marketed from one or more lines or multilines that have been genetically modified. These lines or multilines often remain in a constant state of development which makes the naming of such an assemblage as a cultivar a futile exercise." However, retired transgenic varieties such as the fish tomato, which are no longer being developed, do not run into this obstacle and can be given a cultivar name.


title: Cultivar

text: Cultivars may be selected because of a change in the ploidy level of a plant which may produce more desirable characteristics.


title: Cultivar

text: Every unique cultivar has a unique name within its denomination class (which is almost always the genus). Names of cultivars are regulated by the "International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants", and may be registered with an International Cultivar Registration Authority (ICRA). There are sometimes separate registration authorities for different plant types such as roses and camellias. In addition, cultivars may be associated with commercial marketing names referred to in the "Cultivated Plant Code" as "trade designations" (see below).


title: Cultivar

text: A "cultivar name" consists of a botanical name (of a genus, species, infraspecific taxon, interspecific hybrid or intergeneric hybrid) followed by a cultivar epithet. The cultivar epithet is enclosed by single quotes; it should not be italicized if the botanical name is italicized; and each of the words within the epithet is capitalized (with some permitted exceptions such as conjunctions). It is permissible to place a cultivar epithet after a common name provided the common name is botanically unambiguous. Cultivar epithets published before 1 January 1959 were often given a Latin form and can be readily confused with the specific epithets in botanical names; after that date, newly coined cultivar epithets must be in a modern vernacular language to distinguish them from botanical epithets.


title: Cultivar

text: For example, the full cultivar name of the King Edward potato is "Solanum tuberosum" 'King Edward'. 'King Edward' is the cultivar epithet, which, according to the Rules of the "Cultivated Plant Code", is bounded by single quotation marks. For patented or trademarked plant product lines developed from a given cultivar, the commercial product name is typically indicated by the symbols "TM" or "®", or is presented in capital letters with no quotation marks, following the cultivar name, as in the following example, where "Bloomerang" is the commercial name and 'Penda' is the cultivar epithet: "Syringa" 'Penda' BLOOMERANG.


title: Cultivar

text: Although "cv." has not been permitted by the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants since the 1995 edition it is still widely used and recommended by other authorities.


title: Cultivar

text: Where several very similar cultivars exist they can be associated into a "Group" (formerly "Cultivar-group"). As Group names are used with cultivar names it is necessary to understand their way of presentation. Group names are presented in normal type and the first letter of each word capitalised as for cultivars, but they are not placed in single quotes. When used in a name, the first letter of the word "Group" is itself capitalized.


title: Cultivar

text: Since the 1990s there has been an increasing use of legal protection for newly produced cultivars. Plant breeders expect legal protection for the cultivars they produce. According to proponents of such protections, if other growers can immediately propagate and sell these cultivars as soon as they come on the market, the breeder's benefit is largely lost.


title: Cultivar

text: Legal protection for cultivars is obtained through the use of Plant breeders' rights and plant Patents but the specific legislation and procedures needed to take advantage of this protection vary from country to country.


title: Cultivar

text: The use of legal protection for cultivars can be controversial, particularly for food crops that are staples in developing countries, or for plants selected from the wild and propagated for sale without any additional breeding work; some people consider this practice unethical.


title: Cultivar

text: The formal scientific name of a cultivar, like "Solanum tuberosum" 'King Edward', is a way of uniquely designating a particular kind of plant. This scientific name is in the public domain and cannot be legally protected. Plant retailers wish to maximize their share of the market and one way of doing this is to replace the cumbersome Latin scientific names on plant labels in retail outlets with appealing marketing names that are easy to use, pronounce, and remember. Marketing names lie outside the scope of the "Cultivated Plant Code" which refers to them as "trade designations". If a retailer or wholesaler has the sole legal rights to a marketing name then that may offer a sales advantage. Plants protected by plant breeders' rights (PBR) may have a "true" cultivar name – the recognized scientific name in the public domain – and a "commercial synonym" – an additional marketing name that is legally protected. An example would be "Rosa" = 'Poulmax', in which "Rosa" is the genus, is the trade designation, and 'Poulmax' is scientific cultivar name.


title: Cultivar

text: Because a name that is attractive in one language may have less appeal in another country, a plant may be given different selling names from country to country. Quoting the original cultivar name allows the correct identification of cultivars around the world.


title: Cultivar

text: The main body coordinating plant breeders' rights is the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (, UPOV) and this organization maintains a database of new cultivars protected by PBR in all countries.


title: Cultivar

text: An "International Cultivar Registration Authority" (ICRA) is a voluntary, non-statutory organization appointed by the "Commission for Nomenclature and Cultivar Registration" of the International Society of Horticultural Science. ICRAs are generally formed by societies and institutions specializing in particular plant genera such as "Dahlia" or "Rhododendron" and are currently located in Europe, North America, China, India, Singapore, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Puerto Rico.


title: Cultivar

text: Each ICRA produces an annual report and its reappointment is considered every four years. The main task is to maintain a register of the names within the group of interest and where possible this is published and placed in the public domain. One major aim is to prevent the duplication of cultivar and Group epithets within a genus, as well as ensuring that names are in accord with the latest edition of the "Cultivated Plant Code". In this way, over the last 50 years or so, ICRAs have contributed to the stability of cultivated plant nomenclature. In recent times many ICRAs have also recorded trade designations and trademarks used in labelling plant material, to avoid confusion with established names.


title: Cultivar

text: New names and other relevant data are collected by and submitted to the ICRA and in most cases there is no cost. The ICRA then checks each new epithet to ensure that it has not been used before and that it conforms with the "Cultivated Plant Code". Each ICRA also ensures that new names are formally established (i.e. published in hard copy, with a description in a dated publication). They record details about the plant, such as parentage, the names of those concerned with its development and introduction, and a basic description highlighting its distinctive characters. ICRAs are not responsible for assessing the distinctiveness of the plant in question. Most ICRAs can be contacted electronically and many maintain web sites for an up-to-date listing.


title: Hava Nagila

text: Hava Nagila (, "Hāvā Nāgīlā", "Let us rejoice") is a Jewish folk song. It is traditionally sung at celebrations, such as weddings. Written in 1918, it quickly spread through the Jewish diaspora.


title: Hava Nagila

text: Hava Nagila is one of the first modern Jewish folk songs in the Hebrew language. It went on to become a staple of band performers at Jewish weddings and "bar/bat(b'nei) mitzvah" celebrations.


title: Hava Nagila

text: The melody is based on a Hassidic Nigun. It was composed in 1918, to celebrate the Balfour Declaration and the British victory over the Ottomans in 1917. It was first performed in a mixed choir concert in Jerusalem.


title: Hava Nagila

text: Abraham Zevi Idelsohn (1882–1938), a professor at Hebrew University, began cataloging all known Jewish music and teaching classes in musical composition; one of his students was a promising cantorial student, Moshe Nathanson, who with the rest of his class was presented by the professor with a 19th-century, slow, melodious, chant ("niggun" or "nigun") and assigned to add rhythm and words to fashion a modern Hebrew song. There are competing claims regarding Hava Nagila's composer, with both Idelsohn and Nathanson being suggested.


title: Hava Nagila

text: The "niggun" has been attributed to the Sadigurer Chasidim, who lived in what is now Ukraine. This version has been recreated by Daniel Gil. The text was probably refined by Idelsohn. Members of the community began to immigrate to Jerusalem in 1915, and Idelsohn wrote in 1932 that he had been inspired by that melody.


title: Hava Nagila

text: After every home Maccabi Tel Aviv win, the fan group The Gate, which is the biggest Maccabi fan group, start chanting Hava Nagila.


title: Hava Nagila

text: Supporters of the Dutch association football club AFC Ajax, although not an official Jewish club, commonly use Jewish imagery. A central part of Ajax fans' culture, the song Hava Nagila can often be heard sung in the Stadium by the team's supporters, and at one point ringtones of "Hava Nagila" could even be downloaded from the club's official website.


title: Hava Nagila

text: Supporters of the English football club Tottenham Hotspur commonly refer to themselves as "Yids" and say they are strongly associated with Jewish symbolism and culture. "Hava Nagila" has been adopted as an anthem of sorts by the club, and was one of the most frequently sung songs at the team's former stadium at White Hart Lane.


title: Hava Nagila

text: "Hava Nagila" was covered in a Cantonese version as "狂歡" ("Carnival"). It was recorded for the album "《活色生香》" by George Lam in 1981.


title: City Hunter

text: "City Hunter" spawned a media franchise consisting of numerous adaptations and spin-offs from several countries. The franchise includes four anime television series, three anime television specials, two original video animations, several animated feature films (including a film released in February 2019 and upcoming one in 2022), several live-action films (including a Hong Kong film starring Jackie Chan and a French film), video games, and a live-action Korean TV drama. It also had a spin-off manga, "Angel Heart", which in turn spawned its own anime television series and a live-action Japanese TV drama.


title: City Hunter

text: The series follows the exploits of Ryo Saeba, a "sweeper" who is always found chasing beautiful girls and a private detective who works to rid Tokyo of crime, along with his associate or partner, Hideyuki Makimura. Their "City Hunter" business is an underground jack-of-all-trades operation, contacted by writing the letters "XYZ" on a blackboard at Shinjuku Station.


title: City Hunter

text: One day, Hideyuki is murdered, and Ryo must take care of Hideyuki's sister, Kaori, a tomboy who becomes his new partner in the process. However, Kaori is very susceptible and jealous, often hitting Ryo with a giant hammer when he does something perverted. The story also follows the behind-the-scenes romance between Ryo and Kaori and the way they cooperate throughout each mission.


title: City Hunter

text: The series ran in the "shōnen" manga anthology "Weekly Shōnen Jump" from 1985's 13th issue until 1990. The series was printed in 35 collected volumes by Shueisha under the "Jump Comics" range between January 15, 1986, and April 15, 1992. In these volumes the series is grouped into 55 different stories or "episodes" instead of as their original individual chapters. Each story is centred on a different female character or "heroine". The series was an 18 volume edition by Shueisha from June 18, 1996, to October 17, 1997. A third edition of 32 volumes was published by Tokuma Shoten from December 16, 2003, to April 15, 2005. To celebrate the 30th anniversary of the series, a fourth edition "City Hunter XYZ edition" is being published by Tokuma Shoten across twelve volumes. The first volume was published on July 18, 2015. The eighth volume was published on October 20, 2015.


title: City Hunter

text: Attempts were made to license the series for the American comic market during the 1980s; however, Hojo insisted the manga should be released in the right-to-left format. In 2002 Coamix created an American subsidiary, Gutsoon! Entertainment. "City Hunter" was a flagship title in their "Raijin Comics" anthology. "Raijin" switched from a weekly format to a monthly format before being cancelled after 46 issues.


title: City Hunter

text: In 2012, the series was available to read in Japanese as an iPhone application by Rainbow Apps. However, by October 31, 2016, the service was officially terminated.


title: City Hunter

text: In 2001, Hojo started a spin-off series titled "Angel Heart". The series takes place in a universe parallel to "City Hunter", where the character of Kaori Makimura is killed and her heart transplanted into Xiang-Ying, "Angel Heart"'s protagonist.


title: City Hunter

text: A spin-off manga titled "Kyō Kara City Hunter" was launched July 25, 2017, in Tokuma Shoten's "Monthly Comic Zenon" magazine. It is centered around a 40-year-old unmarried woman who is a fan of Ryō Saeba and the City Hunter manga, and suddenly dies in a train accident and is reincarnated into the world of City Hunter.


title: City Hunter

text: In 2022, Coamix's Mangahot service publishes "City Hunter" manga in English. The series are now finally available in English on Mangahot's website.


title: City Hunter

text: The series was adapted into an anime series produced by Sunrise, directed by Kanetsugu Kodama and broadcast by Yomiuri Television. "City Hunter" was broadcast for 51 episodes between April 6, 1987, and March 28, 1988, and released on 10 VHS cassettes between December 1987 and July 1988. "City Hunter 2" was broadcast for 63 episodes between April 8 and July 14 and released on 10 VHS cassettes between August 1988 and March 1990. "City Hunter 3" was broadcast for 13 episodes from October 15, 1989, to January 21, 1990, and released on 6 VHS cassettes between November 1990 and April 1991. "City Hunter '91" was broadcast between April 28 and October 10, 1991, and released on 6 VHS cassettes between February and July 1992. The series was later reissued as 20 video compilations.


title: City Hunter

text: A 32-disc DVD boxset, "City Hunter Complete", was published by Aniplex and released in Japan on August 31, 2005. The set contained all four series, the TV specials and animated movies as well as an art book and figures of Ryo and Kaori. 26 of the discs comprising the four series were then released individually between December 19, 2007, and August 27, 2008. 30,000 box sets were sold, grossing (), in Japan.


title: City Hunter

text: The series was licensed by ADV Films for release in North America; they announced their acquisition in May 1998 at Project A-Kon 9. The first City Hunter series was released on the "ADV Fansubs" label in March 2000. The aim of this label was to provide cheaper subtitled-only VHS releases at a faster pace than usual. The series was scheduled for 13 tapes, consisting of four episodes each. The tapes could be ordered individually or as a subscription service.


title: City Hunter

text: ADV later released the series on DVD. The first series was released as two boxsets of 5 discs on July 29, 2003. City Hunter 2 was released as another two boxsets of five discs on October 28, and November 18, 2003. City Hunter 3 was released as a single boxset on December 2, 2003, and City Hunter '91 was released on December 16, 2003.


title: City Hunter

text: For the 30th anniversary of the original manga, buyers of all 12 volumes of "City Hunter XYZ edition" were entitled receive a "motion graphic anime" DVD. The DVDe adapted a special "Angel Heart" chapter entitled "Ryo's proposal" and was voiced by the original City Hunter cast. On April 20, 2019, Discotek Media announced that they had licensed the entire "City Hunter" animated franchise, including the 2019 movie, "Shinjuku Private Eyes". The first 26 episodes were released February 25, 2020.


title: City Hunter

text: Three theatrical movies were released in 1989 and 1990: ".357 Magnum" was released on June 17, 1989, "Bay City Wars" was released on August 25, 1990, and "Million Dollar Conspiracy" was released on August 25, 1990.


title: City Hunter

text: ADV Films released a DVD containing "Bay City Wars" and "Million Dollar Conspiracy" as well as a bonus television episode on June 3, 2003.


title: City Hunter

text: A new theatrical movie produced by Aniplex that is set in present-day Shinjuku titled "City Hunter the Movie: Shinjuku Private Eyes" premiered in Japan on February 8, 2019, after Sunrise and Kenji Kodama returned to animate and direct the film, respectively. The Kisugi sisters of "Cat's Eye" appeared in the film as a crossover. Teruo Satoh and Takahiko Kyōgoku served as episode directors, while Kumiko Takahashi designed the characters and Taku Iwasaki composed the music. The film debuted No. 4 at the Japanese box office, where it has grossed () as of March 17, 2019. The film earned () by April 15, 2019, in two months since its release, becoming the third top-grossing Japanese anime film of 2019 up until then, and it had grossed () in Japan by the end of 2019. "Shinjuku Private Eyes" was released in France on June 13, 2019. Philippe Lacheau, the director and star of the French live-action film adaptation "Nicky Larson et le Parfum de Cupidon", was involved with the French distribution of "Shinjuku Private Eyes". Discotek Media premiered the English dub of the movie at Otakon 2019.


title: City Hunter

text: During their panel at Otakon 2022, Discotek Media announced that they licensed all the previously licensed ADV Films film releases and "City Hunter: Death of the Vicious Ryo Saeba".


title: City Hunter

text: Three television movies were produced: "The Secret Service" was broadcast on January 5, 1996, which was followed by "Goodbye My Sweetheart" on April 25, 1997, and "Death of Vicious Criminal Ryo Saeba" on April 23, 1999.


title: City Hunter

text: ADV Films released "Goodbye, My Sweetheart" as "City Hunter: The Motion Picture" in North America as their first release from the franchise.


title: City Hunter

text: In 1993, a live-action Hong Kong theatrical adaptation of the series was released. The film was directed by Wong Jing and starred Jackie Chan as Ryo Saeba, Wang Zuxian as Kaori, and Japanese idol Kumiko Goto. During filming of the movie, Chan dislocated his shoulder. The movie has been criticised by Chan. Fortune Star and 20th Century Fox later released it on R1 DVD along with other budget classic HK films.


title: City Hunter

text: "Saviour of the Soul" (九一神鵰俠侶 "Gauyat sandiu haplui") is a live-action Hong Kong film from 1991 that uses the characters from "City Hunter" but changes the plot. In 1996, "Mr. Mumble" kept the concept of "City Hunter" but changed the characters' names.


title: City Hunter

text: A new Chinese film based on "City Hunter" is also in development. It was announced in 2016 that it would be directed by Hong Kong filmmaker Stanley Tong and is set to star Chinese actor Huang Xiaoming as Ryo Saeba.


title: City Hunter

text: A separate French action comedy film "Nicky Larson et le Parfum de Cupidon" (lit. "Nicky Larson and Cupid's Perfume") was released in France on February 6, 2019. The French adaptation has Philippe Lacheau as director as well as the star, playing the title character Nicky Larson (as Ryo Saeba is known in the French dubs of the anime series). Elodie Fontan appears beside Lacheau as Laura Marconi (Kaori Makimura), while Tarek Boudali, , and Didier Bourdon also appear in the film as per its initial promotional material. Pamela Anderson also appears in the film.


title: City Hunter

text: In December 2022, Netflix announced a live-action film adaptation in the works with lead actor Ryohei Suzuki as Ryo Saeba. Directed by Yūichi Satō, the film is scheduled for a 2024 release on the streaming service.


title: City Hunter

text: A planned live-action television series of City Hunter was announced in 2008, to be produced and distributed by Fox Television Studios and South Korean media company SSD.


title: City Hunter

text: Jung Woo-sung, was scheduled to play Ryo alongside Hollywood-based stars, with location filming in Seoul and Tokyo. In 2011, the series was adapted into a Korean television series of the same name by SBS, starring Lee Min-ho and Park Min-young. The series is available to watch with English subtitles on the streaming service Hulu.


title: City Hunter

text: In 2014, there was a Chinese television series based on "City Hunter", with the title 城市猎人 ("Cheng Shi Lie Ren"). In 2015, the spin-off manga "Angel Heart" received its own live-action Japanese TV drama adaptation.


title: City Hunter

text: By 2016, the "City Hunter" manga series had sold over 50million tankobon volumes worldwide. In addition, the series was circulated in an estimated 900million copies of "Weekly Shōnen Jump" manga magazine between 1985 and 1991, with those "Jump" issues generating an estimated . The series was voted the 19th "Most Powerful" series to have featured in "Shonen Jump".


title: City Hunter

text: In "", Jason Thompson described the manga stories as "well told and entertaining". Writing for Mania.com, Eduardo M. Chavez describes the series as "funny, sexy, action packed and at times just plain whacked" and praises the mix of action and comedy. Patrick King of Animefringe described the series as "not the most intellectually stimulating piece of fiction I've experienced lately" but called it "a blast to read".


title: City Hunter

text: In a 2005 poll held by TV Asahi, "City Hunter" was voted No. 66 out of the 100 most popular animated TV series, as voted by TV viewers. A TV Asahi web-poll put "City Hunter" at No. 65.


title: City Hunter

text: The characters Ryo and Kaori proved popular with fans. In the reader voted "Animage" "Anime Grand Prix" Saeba Ryo was voted second in the "Best Male Character" section in 1988. In 1989, 1990 and 1991 he was first place. In 1992 he was voted sixth place. Kaori Makamura was voted fifteenth in the "best Female Character" category in 1988 before climbing to eighth in 1989. Kaori then placed fifth in 1990 before falling to sixth and eleventh in 1991 and 1992 respectively.


title: City Hunter

text: "The Motion Picture" has been praised for the quality of its English dub but criticised for changing the characters names.


title: City Hunter

text: The first anime ending theme, "Get Wild" by TM Network, and a later 1989 remix, sold a combined 515,010 singles in Japan. The anime series was also popular in France, where it was dubbed as "Nicky Larson" and 140 episodes aired in the early 1990s.


title: City Hunter

text: A replica of Kaori's "100-ton hammer" raised ($17,150) on Yahoo Auctions in 2007. It was the biggest selling charity item of the year for the service.


title: City Hunter

text: In 2012, the characters of Ryo, Kaori and Umibozu appeared in a video for the virtual musician "Mana". Mana is a collaboration between Hojo and Tetsuya Komuro of TM Network.


title: City Hunter

text: The cover for the 2015 Chris Brown single "Zero" was allegedly copied from one of Hojo's "City Hunter" sketches.


title: Imagine Dragons discography

text: The American pop rock band Imagine Dragons has released six studio albums, four live albums, one compilation album, ten extended plays, twenty-seven singles, six promotional singles and twenty-three music videos. According to Recording Industry Association of America, they have sold 74.5 million digital singles and 12 million albums in the US. Imagine Dragons has sold 46 million albums and 55 million singles worldwide, including 74 billion global career streams, making them among the best-selling rock bands in history. "Billboard" named them as the 29th Greatest Adult Alternative artist of all time, as well as the 13th Top Artist of 2010s in the United States.


title: Imagine Dragons discography

text: Imagine Dragons released an extended play, "Speak to Me" in 2008, followed by a self-titled EP, "Hell and Silence" and "It's Time" in September 2009, June 2010, and March 2011 respectively. The band later found commercial success with the release of their fifth extended play, "Continued Silence", in February 2012. "It's Time" was released as the lead single from the EP, peaking at number fifteen on the United States "Billboard" Hot 100. It has since sold over 6 million copies in the United States. "Continued Silence" went on to peak at number 40 on the "Billboard" 200 in the United States. As of August 31, 2021, Imagine Dragons are also one of the highest certified digital singles acts in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), having been certified for 74.5 million digital singles in the country alone.


title: Imagine Dragons discography

text: "Night Visions", the band's debut studio album, was released in September 2012; it peaked at number two on the "Billboard" 200 and topped the "Billboard" Top Alternative Albums and "Billboard" Top Rock Albums charts. In addition to "It's Time", the album also contains the singles "Radioactive" and "Demons". The former single peaked at number three on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and has since sold over 8.6 million copies in the United States. It also became a top–ten hit in numerous countries, such as Australia, Germany and Sweden. "Demons" has also been certified Diamond by the RIAA and peaked at number six on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Imagine Dragons discography

text: The band's second studio album, "Smoke + Mirrors", was released in February 2015, debuting at the top of the "Billboard" 200. The album was preceded by 3 singles: "I Bet My Life", which peaked in the top 40 of the "Billboard" Hot 100 at number 28, "Gold", and "Shots". "I Bet My Life" and "Shots" both peaked within the top 10 on "Billboard"s Hot Rock and Alternative chart.


title: Imagine Dragons discography

text: The band followed this with their third studio album, "Evolve", in June 2017. The record was preceded by two singles, "Believer" and Thunder", which both went on to peak at number four on the "Billboard" Hot 100. "Believer" was later certified diamond by the RIAA. They were then followed by a third single, "Whatever It Takes", which reached number 12. All three songs have peaked at number one on the Hot Rock Songs chart. After the "Evolve" tour was completed, they released their fourth studio album "Origins" on November 9, 2018. Five singles were released from the album: "Natural", "Zero", "Machine", "Bad Liar", and "Birds" featuring Elisa.


title: Imagine Dragons discography

text: After taking a break of more than two years, the band announced their fifth studio album, "Mercury – Act 1", which was released on September 3, 2021. The album was preceded by three singles: "Follow You", "Cutthroat", and "Wrecked". "Follow You" peaked at number 7 on the Hot Rock and Alternative chart and number one on Rock and Alternative Airplay, and also received an alternate version titled "Follow You (Summer '21)".


title: Filial piety

text: In Confucianism, Chinese Buddhism, and Daoist ethics, filial piety (, "xiào") (Latin: pietas) is a virtue of respect for one's parents, elders, and ancestors. The Confucian "Classic of Filial Piety", thought to be written around the late Warring States-Qin-Han period, has historically been the authoritative source on the Confucian tenet of filial piety. The book—a purported dialogue between Confucius and his student Zengzi—is about how to set up a good society using the principle of filial piety. Filial piety is central to Confucian role ethics.


title: Filial piety

text: In more general terms, filial piety means to be good to one's parents; to take care of one's parents; to engage in good conduct, not just towards parents but also outside the home so as to bring a good name to one's parents and ancestors; to show love, respect, and support; to display courtesy; to ensure male heirs; to uphold fraternity among brothers; to wisely advise one's parents, including dissuading them from moral unrighteousness; to display sorrow for their sickness and death; and to bury them and carry out sacrifices after their death.


title: Filial piety

text: Filial piety is considered a key virtue in Chinese and other East Asian cultures, and it is the main subject of many stories. One of the most famous collections of such stories is "The Twenty-four Cases of Filial Piety" (). These stories depict how children exercised their filial piety customs in the past. While China has always had a diversity of religious beliefs, the custom of filial piety has been common to almost all of them; historian Hugh D.R. Baker calls respect for the family the one element common to almost all Chinese people.


title: Filial piety

text: The western term "filial piety" was originally derived from studies of Western societies, based on Mediterranean cultures. However, filial piety among the ancient Romans, for example, was largely different from the Chinese in its logic and enactment. Filial piety is illustrated by the Chinese character "xiao" (). The character is a combination of the character "lao" (old) above the character "zi" (son), that is, an elder being carried by a son. This indicates that the older generation should be supported by the younger generation.


title: Filial piety

text: In Korean Confucianism, the character is pronounced "hyo" (). In Vietnamese, the character is written in the Vietnamese alphabet as "hiếu". In Japanese, the term is generally rendered in spoken and written language as ("oyakōkō") adding the characters for "parent" and "conduct" to the Chinese character to make the word more specific.


title: Filial piety

text: Confucian teachings about filial piety can be found in numerous texts, including the Four Books, that is the "Great Learning" (), the "Doctrine of the Mean" (), "Analects" () and the book "Mencius", as well as the works "Classic of Filial Piety" () and the "Book of Rites" (). In the "Classic of Filial Piety", Confucius (551–479 BCE) says that "filial piety is the root of virtue and the basis of philosophy" and modern philosopher Fung Yu-lan describes filial piety as "the ideological basis for traditional [Chinese] society".


title: Filial piety

text: For Confucius, filial piety is not merely a ritual outside respect to one's parents, but an inward attitude as well. Filial piety consists of several aspects. Filial piety is an awareness of repaying the burden borne by one's parents. As such, filial piety is done to reciprocate the care one's parents have given. However, it is also practiced because of an obligation towards one's ancestors.


title: Filial piety

text: According to some modern scholars, "xiào" is the root of "rén" (; benevolence, humaneness), but other scholars state that "rén", as well as "yì" (; righteousness) and "li" (; propriety) should be interpreted as the roots of "xiào". "Rén" means favorable behavior to those whom we are close to. "Yì" refers to respect to those considered worthy of respect, such as parents and superiors. "Li" is defined as behaving according to social norms and cultural values. Moreover, it is defined in the texts as "deference", which is respectful submission, and "reverence", meaning deep respect and awe. Filial piety was taught by Confucius as part of a broad ideal of self-cultivation () toward being a perfect human being.


title: Filial piety

text: Modern philosopher Hu Shih argued that filial piety gained its central role in Confucian ideology only among later Confucianists. He proposed that Confucius originally taught the quality of "rén" in general, and did not yet emphasize "xiào" that much. Only later Confucianists such as Tseng Tzu focused on "xiào" as the single most important Confucianist quality.


title: Filial piety

text: Confucian ethics does not regard filial piety as a choice, but rather as an unconditional obligation of the child. The relationship between parents and children is the most fundamental of the five cardinal relationships () described by Confucius in his role ethics, and filial piety, together with fraternal love, underlies this system. It is the fundamental principle of Confucian morality: filial piety was seen as the basis for an orderly society, together with loyalty of the ministers toward the ruler, and servitude of the wife toward the husband. In short, filial piety is central to Confucian role ethics and is the cardinal virtue that defines, limits, or even eliminates all other virtues.


title: Filial piety

text: According to the traditional texts, filial piety consists of physical care, love, service, respect, and obedience. Children should attempt not to bring disgrace upon their parents. Confucian texts such as "Book of Rites" give details on how filial piety should be practiced. Respect is envisioned by detailed manners such as the way children salute their parents, speak to them (words and tone used) or enter and leave the room in which their parents are, as well as seating arrangements and gifts. Care means making sure parents are comfortable in every single way: this involves food, accommodation, clothes, hygiene, and basically to have them "see and hear pleasurable things" (in Confucius' words) and to have them live without worry. But the most important expressions of, and exercises in, filial piety were the burial and mourning rituals to be held in honor of one's parents.


title: Filial piety

text: Filial piety means to be good to one's parents; to take care of one's parents; to engage in good conduct not just towards parents but also outside the home so as to bring a good name to one's parents and ancestors; to perform the duties of one's job well (preferably the same job as one's parents to fulfill their aspirations) as well as to carry out sacrifices to the ancestors; to not be rebellious; to be polite and well-mannered; to show love, respect, and support; to be near home to serve one's parents; to display courtesy; to ensure male heirs and uphold fraternity among brothers; to wisely advise one's parents, including dissuading them from moral unrighteousness; to display sorrow for their sickness and death; and to bury them and carry out sacrifices after their death. Furthermore, a filial child should promote the public name of its family, and it should cherish the affection of its parents.


title: Filial piety

text: Traditional texts essentially describe filial piety in terms of a sonfather relationship, but in practice, it involves all parentchild relationships, as well as relationships with stepparents, grandparents and ancestors.


title: Filial piety

text: But filial piety also involves the role of the parent to the child. The father has a duty to provide for the son, to teach him in traditions of ancestor worship, to find a spouse for him, and to leave a good heritage. A father is supposed to be "stern and dignified" to his children, whereas a mother is supposed to be "gentle and compassionate". The parents' virtues are to be practiced, regardless of the child's piety, and vice versa. Nevertheless, filial piety mostly identified the 's duty, and in this, it differed from the Roman concept of "patria potestas", which defined mostly the father's authoritative power. Whereas in Roman culture, and later in the Judeo-Christian West, people in authority legitimized their influence by referring to a higher transcending power, in Chinese culture, authority was defined by the roles of the subordinates (son, subject, wife) to their superior (father, emperor, husband) and vice versa. As roles and duties were depersonalized, supremacy became a matter of role and position, rather than person, as it was in the West.


title: Filial piety

text: Anthropologist Francis Hsu argued that a child's obedience from a Confucian perspective was regarded as unconditional, but anthropologist David K. Jordan and psychologist David Yau-fai Ho disagree. Jordan states that in classical Chinese thought, "remonstrance" was part of filial piety, meaning that a pious child needs to dissuade a parent from performing immoral actions. Ho points out in this regard that the Confucian classics do not advocate "foolish filial piety" ( ). However, Jordan does add that if the parent does not listen to the child's dissuasion, the child must still obey the parent, and Ho states that "rebellion or outright defiance" is never approved in Confucian ethics.


title: Filial piety

text: Filial piety not only extends to behavior of children toward their parents, but also involves gratitude toward the human body they received from their parents, as the body is seen as an extension of one's parents. This involves prohibitions on damaging or hurting the body, and this doctrine has affected how the Confucianists regarded the shaving of the head by Buddhist monks, but also has created a taboo on suicide, regarded as "unfilial behavior" ( ).


title: Filial piety

text: Filial piety is regarded as a principle that ordered society, without which chaos would prevail. It is described as "an inevitable fact of nature", as opposed to mere convention, and it is seen to follow naturally out of the fatherson relationship. In the Chinese tradition of patriarchy, roles are upheld to maintain the harmony of the whole. According to the Neo-Confucian philosopher Cheng Hao (10321085 CE), relationships and their corresponding roles "belong to the eternal principle of the cosmos from which there is no escape between heaven and earth".


title: Filial piety

text: The idea of filial piety became popular in China because of the many functions it had and many roles it undertook, as the traditional Confucian scholars such as Mencius (4th century BCE) regarded the family as a fundamental unit that formed the root of the nation. Though the virtue of "xiào" was about respect by children toward their parents, it was meant to regulate how the young generation behaved toward elders in the extended family and in society in general. Furthermore, devotion to one's parents was often associated with one's devotion to the state, described as the "parallel conception of society" or the "Model of Two". The "Classic of Filial Piety" states that an obedient and filial son will grow up to become a loyal official ()filial piety was therefore seen as a truth that shaped the citizens of the state, and the loyalty of the minister to his emperor was regarded as the extension of filial piety. Filial piety was regarded as being a dutiful person in general.


title: Filial piety

text: Nevertheless, the two were not equated. Mencius teaches that ministers should overthrow an immoral tyrant, should he harm the statethe loyalty to the king was considered conditional, not as unconditional as in filial piety towards one parents.


title: Filial piety

text: Confucian teachings about filial piety have left their mark on East Asian languages and culture. In Chinese, there is a saying that "among hundreds of behaviors, filial piety is the most important one" ().


title: Filial piety

text: In modern Chinese, filial piety is rendered with the words "xiào shùn" (), meaning "respect and obedience". While China has always had a diversity of religious beliefs, filial piety has been common to almost all of them; historian Hugh D.R. Baker calls respect for the family the one element common to almost all Chinese people. Historian Ch'ü T'ung-tsu stated about the codification of patriarchy in Chinese law that "[i]t was all a question of filial piety". Filial piety also forms the basis for the veneration of the aged, for which the Chinese are known. However, filial piety among the Chinese has led them to be mostly focused on taking care of close kin, and be less interested in wider issues of more distant people: nevertheless, this should not be mistaken for individualism. In Japan, however, devotion to kinship relations was and still is much more broadly construed, involving more than just kin.


title: Filial piety

text: In Korean culture, filial piety is also of crucial importance. In Taiwan, filial piety is considered one of eight important virtues, among which filial piety is considered supreme. It is "central in all thinking about human behavior". Taiwan generally has more traditional values with regard to the parentchild relationship than the People's Republic of China (PRC). This is reflected in attitudes about how desirable it is for the elderly to live independently.


title: Filial piety

text: Social scientists have done much research about filial piety and related concepts. It is a highly influential factor in studies about Asian families and intergenerational studies, as well as studies on socialization patterns. Filial piety has been defined by several scholars as the recognition by children of the aid and care their parents have given them, and the respect returned by those children. Psychologist K.S. Yang has defined it as a "specific, complex syndrome or set of cognition, affects, intentions, and behaviors concerning being good or nice to one's parents". As of 2006, psychologists measured filial piety in inconsistent ways, which has prevented much progress from being made.


title: Filial piety

text: Filial piety is defined by behaviors such as daily maintenance, respect and sickness care offered to the elderly. Although in scholarly literature five forms of reverence have been described, multi-cultural researcher Kyu-taik Sung has added eight more to that, to fully cover the traditional definitions of elder respect in Confucian texts:


title: Filial piety

text: These forms of respect are based on qualitative research. Some of these forms involve some action or work, whereas other forms are more symbolic. Female elders tend to receive more care respect, whereas male elders tend to receive more symbolic respect.


title: Filial piety

text: Apart from attempting to define filial piety, psychologists have also attempted to explain its cognitive development. Psychologist R.M. Lee distinguishes a five-fold development, which he bases on Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development. In the first stage, filial piety is comprehended as just the giving of material things, whereas in the second stage this develops into an understanding that emotional and spiritual support is more important. In the third stage, the child realizes that filial piety is crucial in establishing and keeping parentchild relationships; in the fourth stage, this is expanded to include relationships outside of one's family. In the final stage, filial piety is regarded as a means to realize one's ethical ideals.


title: Filial piety

text: Psychologists have found correlations between filial piety and lower socio-economic status, female gender, elders, minorities, and non-westernized cultures. Traditional filial piety beliefs have been connected with positive outcomes for the community and society, care for elder family members, positive family relationships and solidarity. On the other side, it has also been related to an orientation to the past, resistance to cognitive change, superstition and fatalism; dogmatism, authoritarianism, and conformism, as well as a belief in the superiority of one's culture; and lack of active, critical and creative learning attitudes. Ho connects the value of filial piety with authoritarian moralism and cognitive conservatism in Chinese patterns of socialization, basing himself on findings among subjects in Hong Kong and Taiwan. He defines "authoritarian moralism" as hierarchical authority ranking in family and institutions, as well as the pervasiveness of using moral precepts as criteria of measuring people. "Cognitive moralism" he derives from social psychologist Anthony Greenwald, and means a "disposition to preserve existing knowledge structures" and resistance to change. He concludes that filial piety appears to have a negative effect on psychological development, but at the same time, partly explains the high motivation of Chinese people to achieve academic results.


title: Filial piety

text: In family counselling research, filial piety has been seen to help establish bonding with parents. Ho argues that the value filial piety brings along an obligation to raise one's children in a moral way to prevent disgrace to the family. However, filial piety has also been found to perpetuate dysfunctional family patterns such as child abuse: there may be both positive and negative psychological effects. Francis Hsu made the argument that when taken to the level of the family at large, pro-family attitudes informed by filial piety can lead to nepotism, corruption and eventually are at tension with the good of the state as whole.