title: Stephen M. Ross

text: In 2004, Ross made the single largest contribution (at the time) to the University of Michigan by donating $100 million to the school. The university renamed its business school, Ross School of Business in his honor. On September 12, 2013, it was announced Ross had committed an additional $200 million gift to the university, to be distributed equally among the Ross School of Business and the university's athletic department. It replaced Charlie Munger's 2013 contribution of $115 million as the largest single gift in the university's history. On September 20, 2017, Ross donated an additional $50 million to the University of Michigan, the majority of which would support career development programs for students, innovative action-based learning experiences, and resources for attracting and developing junior faculty.


title: Stephen M. Ross

text: Ross was on the executive committee of NYC2012, New York's initiative to bring the summer Olympic Games to New York City in 2012, which failed when London won. Ross is chairman of Equinox Holdings, and chairperson emeritus of the Real Estate Board of New York (REBNY), the city's leading real estate trade association. As a member of the board of trustees of the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, Ross was involved in the planning of a major renovation of the Frank Lloyd Wright iconic building and other new museums. He is a trustee of New York Presbyterian Hospital, the Urban Land Institute, the NY Chapter of Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation International, the Levin Institute and is a director of the Jackie Robinson Foundation and the World Resources Institute.


title: Stephen M. Ross

text: Ross serves on the Board for the Cornell Tech Campus, a $2B redevelopment of Roosevelt Island including the Joan & Irwin Jacobs Technion-Cornell Institute, a partnership between Cornell University and the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology that when completed will house several thousand post-graduate students, hundreds of faculty, and a high-tech business incubator.


title: Stephen M. Ross

text: Ross invested in a partnership named RERI that was donated to the University of Michigan in 2003. RERI obtained its own appraisal for the donation in the amount of $32.935 million. The university sold the Ross-donated remainder interest in December, 2005 for $1.94 million, below the $6.5 million appraised value. The IRS denied the entire $33 million tax deduction and imposed a multi-million dollar penalty in July, 2017. Ross's longtime accountant Alan Katz and business associate, Harold Levine were instrumental in the partnership. They are currently under criminal investigation for the tax plan.


title: Stephen M. Ross

text: In August 2019, it was reported that Ross would host a major fundraiser for Donald Trump's 2020 presidential campaign at his Hamptons home on August 9.


title: Stephen M. Ross

text: In response to calls for boycotts of companies owned by Ross, a spokesperson for Equinox and SoulCycle told CNN, "Neither Equinox nor SoulCycle have anything to do with the event later this week and do not support it. As is consistent with our policies, no company profits are used to fund politicians."


title: Stephen M. Ross

text: Ross is a major investor in Ladder Capital, a "shadow bank". Around the time Trump became president, Ross attempted a takeover of Ladder Bank. He was unsuccessful, but did purchase an $80 million stake. According to the former President's 2019 financial disclosure, Ladder Capital lent $275 million to Donald Trump in mortgages and between $110 million and $150 million is still owed, of which $50 million is from the 2012 mortgage on Trump Tower.


title: Stephen M. Ross

text: In 2021, his super PAC, Common Sense NYC spent $550,000 to oppose eight progressive Democrats in New York City's 2021 City Council election. They succeeded in helping defeat six of the eight Democrats.


title: Stephen M. Ross

text: Ross has received numerous honors for his business, civic, and philanthropic activities. He was named the third Most Powerful Person in New York Real Estate by the "New York Observer", Multi-Family Property Executive of the Year by "Commercial Property News", and Housing Person of the Year by the National Housing Conference.


title: Stephen M. Ross

text: Ross has two children from his first marriage. In April 2021, it was made public that he was divorcing his second wife, Kara (née Gaffney) Ross, after 18 years of marriage. He has two stepchildren with Gaffney. Ross resides in Southampton, New York.


title: Stephen M. Ross

text: Besides his home in the Deutsche Bank Center in Manhattan, Ross also owns an 11,000 square foot oceanfront mansion in Palm Beach named "The Reef".


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: John Hamilton Davidson (born December 13, 1941) is an American actor, singer, and game-show host known for hosting "That's Incredible!," "Time Machine," and "Hollywood Squares" in the 1980s, and a revival of "The $100,000 Pyramid" in 1991.


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: Davidson was born to two Baptist ministers in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania , lived in West Bridgewater, Massachusetts and graduated from White Plains High School (in White Plains, New York), before entering Denison University. He thought about following in his parents' footsteps, but ultimately decided that he would rather sing about love than preach it.


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: Davidson worked in television programs including sitcoms, game shows, variety shows, and talk shows. He appeared in the "Hallmark Hall of Fame" presentation of "The Fantastiks" in 1964 (with Ricardo Montalban and Susan Watson). In the summer of 1966, he was the host to two prime-time variety hours titled "The Kraft Summer Music Hall" and "The John Davidson Show" (which included George Carlin and Richard Pryor).


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: As the 1980s began, he became well known for hosting, alongside Fran Tarkenton and Cathy Lee Crosby, "That's Incredible!" (1980–84), a human-interest/stunt-themed series whose creation, by Alan Landsburg, followed in the tradition of the 1950s television show "You Asked for It."


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: Davidson made his film debut in "The Happiest Millionaire," released in 1967, alongside Lesley Ann Warren and Fred MacMurray. That same year, he appeared as a guest singer on "The Carol Burnett Show" (Season One, Episode 13). The next year saw Warren and Davidson co-star again in "The One and Only, Genuine, Original Family Band." In 1969, Davidson was the mystery guest on "What's My Line?" with host Wally Bruner. Davidson's career was managed by Alan Bernard, former manager of Andy Williams and one of the B's from BNB, the largest personal management firm in the 1970s.


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: During an appearance on the game show "Scrabble" in 1987, he told the national television audience that he appeared as an underwear model in the 1959 Sears catalog; he would have been 17 at the time. He made his Broadway debut in the 1964 production of "Foxy," which starred Bert Lahr. He also appeared in "State Fair" in 1996.


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: He was a member of the regular repertory company on the short-lived CBS variety show "The Entertainers" (1964–65). He made more than a hundred appearances on the original "Hollywood Squares" during its 1966–81 run. He was a regular player on many anthology and variety series of the 1970s–80s, including "The Ed Sullivan Show," "The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour," "Love American Style" (S2E09 "Love and the Young Executive" 1970 Nov 20), "The Love Boat," "Fantasy Island," and "."


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: Davidson made numerous appearances on the original "Hollywood Squares," from the game show's 1966 premiere to its 1981 cancellation, and he was there known for his long-winded bluffs. None of the comparatively minor celebrities who were guests of producers Merrill Heatter and Robert "Bob" Quigley were more convincing at getting contestants to believe his (often ridiculous) answers to questions the program's "Square-Master", or host, entertainer Peter Marshall, posed. Most times, Marshall could barely conceal a grin as Davidson started in on some far-fetched but plausible explanations for his answers, often prefaced with something to the effect of: "I just read about it in the New England Journal of Medicine, it was a fascinating study, and it said that..." Davidson sold these preposterous stories with such sincerity that contestants were often duped more than once in the same show.


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: In 1973 and 1974, he starred alongside Sally Field on the situation comedy "The Girl with Something Extra." (The "something extra" Field's character had was Telepathy.) In 1974 he guest-starred on the television series "The Streets of San Francisco," in the episode "Mask of Death," portraying a cross-dressing lounge singer who murders his/her fans. In the episode, Davidson sings in drag while impersonating such notables as Carol Channing, singing "Diamonds are a Girl's Best Friend." Also in 1974, the singer posed near-nude (with a strategically placed towel) for the magazine "Cosmopolitan."


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: In 1977, Davidson was present at the Beverly Hills Supper Club fire in Southgate, Kentucky. He was expected to appear onstage as the headline act the evening the fire broke out, killing 165. Davidson helped others escape before fleeing through a back door. Davidson's music director, Douglas Herro, was among the victims. Davidson was not injured and later participated in a charity concert to raise funds for the families of fire victims.


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: In the late 1970s, the actor became one of four regular guest hosts (along with Joey Bishop, McLean Stevenson, and Joan Rivers) on "The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson," and hosted the show 87 times. In the early 1980s he hosted his own talk show, produced by Westinghouse Broadcasting/Group W, after it canceled "The Mike Douglas Show." Davidson's show aired daily in syndication from 1980 to 1982. In 1985, he hosted the NBC daytime game show "Time Machine."


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: Davidson worked with real estate promoter Dave Del Dotto’s paid programs during the late 1980s and early 1990s, which were notable for taking place in outdoor, scenic settings (such as Hawaii), and for having the actor as host. These "infomercials", as they have come to be called, often appeared on late night television and were a staple for years on many cable channels till the FCC filed a complaint against Del Dotto in 1995, alleging that in his paid programs, Del Dotto had "made false and unsubstantiated representations."


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: Davidson hosted a revival of "Hollywood Squares," whose announcer, Shadoe Stevens, in time also became a regular "square," which ran from 1986 to 1989. In addition, he hosted a 170-episode revival of "The $100,000 Pyramid" in 1991. Davidson also appeared as a featured guest on The Carpenters' television specials "Space Encounters" (1977) and "Music! Music! Music!" (1980). Following his three-year run on


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: "Hollywood Squares", he was one of six people who auditioned to host the CBS daytime version of "Wheel of Fortune"; however, Bob Goen was hired instead.


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: In the 1960s, Davidson was a successful recording artist. He recorded 12 albums in the '60s and '70s. From 1966 to 1971, he recorded for Columbia Records, where he enjoyed his greatest success. Five of his albums reached the Billboard 200 album charts, with 1966's "The Time of My Life!" peaking at No. 19. His albums usually consisted of covers of recent hit singles along with some new material.


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: As a singles artist, he placed seven records on the Adult Contemporary chart. "Everytime I Sing a Love Song", released in 1976, peaked at No. 7, his most successful single.


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: Davidson acted in many movies including "The Happiest Millionaire" (1967), "The One and Only, Genuine, Original Family Band" (1968), "Coffee, Tea, or Me" (1973), "The Concorde ... Airport '79" (1979), "Dallas Cowboy Cheerleaders II," (1980) and "Edward Scissorhands" (1990).


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: Davidson has appeared in productions of "A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum," "Kismet," "State Fair," "Man of La Mancha," "Chicago," and "The Will Rogers Follies," at the Surflight Theatre in Long Beach Island, New Jersey. He has also performed the autobiographical play "Father/Son and Holy Ghost," about his relationship with his father, who was a minister.


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: In July 1991 Davidson appeared in summer stock with Sacramento Music Circus of Sacramento, California, in "The Music Man" alongside Susan Watson, Richard Paul, Carol Swarbrick, and the Delta Music Society Quartet of Sacramento.


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: In late 2011 Davidson was listed as a guest star with The Fabulous Palm Springs Follies at the Plaza Theatre in Palm Springs, California.


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: In June 2012 Davidson took on the role of Henry in the off-Broadway revival of "The Fantasticks". In April 2013 he took on the role of the Wizard in the first North American tour of "Wicked". In 2016, Davidson played Norman Thayer in "On Golden Pond" at Judson Theatre Company. In June 2017, he took on the role of Charles Frohman/Captain James Hook in the North American tour of "Finding Neverland".


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: Davidson's first marriage was to Jackie Miller. He has two children (John Davidson, Jr., who often appeared with his father on later versions of "Hollywood Squares," and Jennifer (Davidson) Kane. Since 1983 Davidson has been married to former backup singer Rhonda Rivera, and they have a daughter Ashleigh Davidson. They live primarily in Tamworth, New Hampshire.


title: John Davidson (entertainer)

text: The son of two Baptist ministers, Davidson now identifies as an atheist, declaring himself "openly secular" in a video for the Openly Secular Coalition begun by the Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science, the Secular Coalition for America, and other humanist groups.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: BMW S1000RR is a race oriented sport bike initially made by BMW Motorrad to compete in the 2009 Superbike World Championship, that is now in commercial production. It was introduced in Munich in April 2008, and is powered by a four-cylinder engine redlined at 14,200 rpm.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: BMW made 1,000 S1000RRs in 2009 to satisfy World Superbike homologation requirements, but expanded production for commercial sale of the bike in 2010. It has a standard anti-lock braking system, with an optional electronic traction control. As of 2016, it has a wet weight of , and produces at 13,500 rpm. With to the rear wheel, it was the most powerful motorcycle in the class on the dyno.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: The S1000RR was released in 2009 and was considered the best-equipped sport bike in the "1000 cc" category, and with a bore and stroke of , it also had the biggest bore in its class. The bike came factory fitted with ABS and dynamic traction control, a first for road-going superbike at the time. On top of this, it came standard with three riding modes (Wet, Sport and Race) with an additional riding mode (Slick) available only after connecting a dongle, that you received with the bike, to a special jack under the seat. It was also the first production motorcycle to offer an optional quick shifter. This is a clutchless shifter that allowed you to upshift with no clutch actuation even at full throttle. After the initial delivery of motorcycles the factory started shipping them with a software governor that limited RPM to 9000 for a short break in period that was later removed by the dealers. The 2011 bike remained unchanged, keeping the same livery options, engine, chassis and suspension.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: In 2012, the bike received slightly more significant changes. It was given a new face of the tachometer as well as new throttle maps for each of the four riding modes, to combat throttle response issues that customers were facing with the bike. To further aid this issue, BMW updated the throttle tube to be lighter and have a shorter pull. The intake and exhaust systems also received updates, the ram air intake was made to be 20% larger, as well as moving the catalytic converters to the muffler from the headers. This allowed for the oil sump heat shield to be removed, saving a small amount of weight. The optional DTC (Dynamic Traction Control) was also updated, smoothing the butterfly valve action when a wheelie was detected, providing a less violent intervention to the bikes front wheel lifting off the ground. The chassis was also updated, with the front suspension being lifted by and the rear being dropped by . The wheelbase was also reduced by nearly through a tooth addition in the rear sprocket (45). The angle of the steering head was also revised and the offset of the fork was reduced by . The triple clamp on top of the fork was also updated to a forged aluminium component. Lastly, the spring rates and valving in the suspension were overhauled, including special check valves to allow for completely independent compression and rebound adjustment, coupled with a 10-way adjustable steering damper. The 2012 visual updates included new heel plates, a slimmer-looking tail section and reshaped side panels with plastic winglets said to improve aerodynamics at speed. Smaller visual updates included grilles on the side of the tank plastics and a new "RR" logo.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: In 2013 the bike did not receive updates to the same extent as the 2012 bike. However, BMW introduced the HP4 variant, a more track-oriented version of the standard S1000RR. The 2013 HP4 saw the ride-by-wire system again taken to a level unseen outside of the WSBK and MotoGP. The HP4 was fitted with a Dynamic Dampening Control (DDC) system that updates and makes changes to the suspension every 11 milliseconds, responding to various sensors as well as throttle input and is adjustable on the fly, a first on any production motorcycle. The bike was given an electronic controlled interference pipe and acoustic valves, allowing air to flow into the exhaust and burn unused fuel as well as upgraded Brembo Monobloc brake calipers. The riding modes of the HP4 differ from the standard bike, in that it allows for all to be accessed in four modes. The HP4 also introduced combined braking, meaning that in all modes except slick, the back brake is applied automatically when the rider applies the front brake. It was offered in multiple race kit packages, ranging from the stock claimed of the S1000RR all the way up to a claimed . The 2013 HP4 was also equipped with more electronic features, launch control and pit-mode, all accessible from the controls on the handlebars. The bike was also given its own colorway and an HP4-specific tachometer face. Also available at extra cost was a competition and premium package which included HP carbon engine belly pan, side spoilers and trim, HP folding clutch and brake levers, HP adjustable rider footrests, standard forged wheels finished in Racing Blue Metallic, a decal kit, (optional) heated grips, a pillion rider kit and an anti-theft alarm.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: The 2014 S1000RR saw some more minor updates and the first race-ABS as standard. The handlebars were also slightly modified, as well as some very minor changes to the fairings. The HP4 variant was sold for the second year with no major changes; available at extra cost was a premium package which included HP carbon engine spoiler and trim, HP folding clutch and brake levers, HP adjustable rider footrests, standard forged wheels finished in Racing Blue Metallic, a decal kit, heated grips, a pillion rider kit and an anti-theft alarm.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: In 2015, the S1000RR saw major updates and changes. Notably, the bike now weighed less and gained to a claimed output of . This was achieved through reshaping the ports, a new cam profile, lighter valves and shorter velocity stacks drawing from a larger airbox. An all-new exhaust has also been implemented, drawing from the previous years HP4, adding a controlled interference pipe and acoustic valves. More options made available in the 2015 variant were included in the "Dynamic Package" which included BMW's Quickshift Assist Pro, allowing for clutchless up and downshifts. BMW also introduced a "Race Package" which gave the user DDC from the HP4, a "Pro" riding mode as well as launch control, a customizable pit limiter and cruise control. To the electronics, BMW again added smoother front wheel lift intervention and a new "User" mode, where the rider is able to customize some defined parameters, allowing for a fully personalized riding experience. More learnings from the HP4 include combined braking (automatically activating the rear brake when the front brake is applied), on-the-fly ABS and DTC control and lean angle sensors that provide a readout on the dash. The 2015 bikes lighter chassis consists of four individual aluminium cast pieces welded together with the engine tilted forward at a 32 degree angle and integrated as a load-bearing element. The fork overlap of the immersion tubes was reduced to and the steering head angle increased 0.5 degrees to 66.5 without any change in the yoke offset. The swingarm pivot point was lowered by and the wheelbase lengthened by . The new chassis geometry provides increased rider feedback from the front end the rear wheel. The visual updates to the S1000RR were also vast, with the asymmetric headlights being swapped (high beam left, low beam right), a softer nose and all new colorways. The muffler was changed to a larger can, while the fairings became more aerodynamically advanced adding vents and slips to allow for better stability at high speed.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: In 2017, a non-street legal, track-only variant, the HP4 Race was added, made in a limited production run of 750 units.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: The S1000RR received a full model change for 2019 at the November 2018 EICMA, Milan, Italy. The four-cylinder engine is entirely new, which is claimed to produce at 13,500 rpm (up from the previous iteration) and of torque at 11,000 rpm. This new engine employs BMW "ShiftCam" technology on the intake side, which varies intake valve timing and lift. The system has sliding concentric outer shafts, with two different cam profiles on them, on a splined inner shaft with the drive on one end. An ECU-controlled motor switches between low- and high-speed cams at 9,000 rpm in under 10 milliseconds, which produce soft, low-lift, short-duration cams for low-down and midrange torque, then a more aggressive profile cams for peak power production. The outer shafts are moved by a movable pin engaging in a cammed slot on the shaft, which slides the outer camshaft section left and right as needed. BMW claims the addition of this system gives the S1000RR a more linear torque curve than its predecessor.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: Aside from power increase, the S1000RR's engine gains a weight loss of nearly and a more compact external design. This was achieved through the use of specialized parts, like hollow-bored titanium intake valves and new DLC rocker arms that are said to be 25% lighter. The camshafts are now directly powered by the crankshaft, thus eliminating the need for the previous idler gear. The water and oil pumps are combined into one component for a compact design. The exhaust system is also lighter on the 2019 model, which contributes to a total loss in comparison to its predecessor. This brings the overall curb weight of .


title: BMW S1000RR

text: To harness the power output, BMW gave the S1000RR a package of electronics suite of rider aids, including ABS Pro (cornering ABS), Dynamic Traction Control (DTC), Dynamic Traction Control Wheelie Function, Shift Assistant Pro (which allows for clutchless up and downshifts), Hill Start Control (HSC), Launch Control and Pit Lane Limiter. There are four preset riding modes: "Rain", "Road", "Dynamic" and "Race", as well as three "Pro" modes, which can be custom tuned and come with a three-stage engine-braking adjustment.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: The chassis has been revamped for the 2019 S1000RR, which is focusing on weight reduction while improving handling. The aluminium perimeter frame drops of weight, now using the engine as more of a load-bearing unit and reducing width by . With a focus on improving agility, BMW steepened the steering head angle to 66.9 degrees and reduced trail to . The wheelbase has been increased by . The front suspension is a inverted telescopic fork, which is decreased in size from , that is claimed to optimize flex and midcorner feel. BMW Dynamic Damping Control (DDC) semi-active suspension is still available on the S1000RR as an option, which has been enhanced with updated damping settings. The fuel tank and seat design are now slimmer. The front fairing is narrower and more aerodynamic than its predecessor, also housing twin symmetrical LED headlights, with the intake directly centered at the front for optimum airflow. The instrumentation now uses a 6.5-inch TFT display, which has four preset settings.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: The M package, the first of any BMW motorcycle, is available, which includes motorsport paint finish, M carbon fiber wheels, an M lightweight battery, M Chassis Kit with rear ride height adjustment and swingarm pivot, the M Sport seat and a "Pro" riding mode. The package reduces the weight further to .


title: BMW S1000RR

text: The higher-spec variant of the S1000RR, called M1000RR, was unveiled in September 2020 intended as a basis for racing but still road legal. The first BMW motorcycle to carry the 'M' prefix normally associated with cars, the machine has extensive modifications in powerplant, chassis, exhaust and braking. The fairing has aerodynamic winglets that provide downforce.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: Three variants of the S1000 RR announced on 30 September 2022 are the M package, Style Passion and Black Storm Metallic. BMW India launched the S1000 RR in the country on 10 December 2022, with deliveries scheduled to begin in February 2023.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: The factory race bike used in the Superbike World Championship differs in a number of ways from the production bike.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: Its engine has a higher compression ratio of 14.0:1 compared with 13.0:1, and it delivers over at 14,000 rpm, compared with at 13,000 rpm. The race bike has a Öhlins forks, compared with a ZF Sachs forks. Until 2012, it had a 16.5-inch front wheel and a 16-inch rear wheel instead of a 17-inch (for 2013 World Superbike season, 17-inch rims became mandatory) and an MRA racing 'double-bubble' windshield. Most significantly, it has a wet weight of compared with for the production model.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: On 26 June 2008, Spanish rider Rubén Xaus signed to ride the bike for the factory BMW Motorrad team. On 25 September 2008, Australian former double Superbike World Champion Troy Corser signed to complete the team's two-rider lineup for 2009. In the 2009 Superbike World Championship season, the highest race result achieved by Corser was fifth place in the Czech Republic, and Xaus achieved seventh place in Italy.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: During the 2010 FIM Superstock 1000 Championship season, Ayrton Badovini dominated by winning every single race but one on the S1000RR. This result was significant because the Superstock class of WSBK is where the machines most closely resemble the stock offerings at the showroom.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: On 13 May 2012, Italian rider Marco Melandri riding for the factory BMW Motorrad team was the first to secure a win for the S1000RR in World Superbike competition at the British round in Donington Park. His teammate Leon Haslam came in second giving BMW a "One Two" finish.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: On 2012 Qatar Grand Prix, US rider Colin Edwards rode a S1000RR engined motorcycle for the Forward Racing team. This history making inaugural CRT Class debut, where 1,000 cc tuned factory production motorcycle engines competed for the first time alongside the current MotoGP machines. The S1000RR engined Suter machine placed first in its class and finished 12th overall.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: The S1000RR has been used by various riders at the Isle of Man TT since 2010. On 31 May 2014, Michael Dunlop won the superbike class race on his factory-prepared bike entered by Hawk Racing, a UK-based BSB team operating as "Buildbase BMW Motorrad", breaking a 75-year gap between wins for BMW. Three days later, Dunlop repeated his victory in the "Superstock" class, running under his own "MD Racing BMW" banner. He stated "...this is a great result for BMW. It’s great for a manufacturer when a road bike wins a TT”. Dunlop completed a hat-trick of BMW victories with a Senior TT win on Friday, 6 June.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: Dunlop won the Superbike and Senior races at the 2016 TT festival on essentially the same machine, again provided by Hawk Racing, setting a new absolute solo-machine course record, averaging , set during one-lap of the six-lap event held on the 37-mile road course.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: In March 2010, BMW released a video on YouTube titled "The oldest trick in the world", which highlighted the S1000RR's acceleration by pulling a tablecloth off a long 20-seat dining table without disturbing the place settings and table decorations.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: Its popularity turned the ad viral, with 1.4 million views in the first ten days, and more than 3.7 million views .


title: BMW S1000RR

text: The October 27, 2010 "MythBusters" episode "Tablecloth Chaos" tested whether the trick could be reproduced. The stunt was replicated in detail, with the exception that a different and less powerful motorcycle was used—a Buell 1125R, owned and ridden by the show's co-presenter Jamie Hyneman. The opinion of the television program was that the video was fake as the only way it could be reproduced was by placing a plastic sheet on top of the tablecloth—thus eliminating any contact between the tablecloth and the table settings.


title: BMW S1000RR

text: BMW issued a recall for bikes built between Sept. 1, 2011, through April 10, 2012 to address an issue with bolts that secure the connecting rods to the crankshaft that could loosen when the bike is ridden at high speed.


title: 2024 United States elections

text: The 2024 United States elections are scheduled to be held, in large part, on Tuesday, November 5, 2024. During this presidential election year, the President of the United States and Vice President will be elected. In addition, all 435 seats in the United States House of Representatives and 34 of the 100 seats in the United States Senate will be contested to determine the membership of the 119th United States Congress. Thirteen state and territorial governorships and numerous other state and local elections will also be contested.


title: 2024 United States elections

text: The 2024 United States presidential election will be the 60th quadrennial U.S. presidential election. This will be the first presidential election under the electoral vote distribution determined by the 2020 census. Presidential electors who will elect the President and Vice President of the United States will be chosen; a simple majority (270) of the 538 electoral votes are required to win the election. President Joe Biden will be eligible to run for a second term, and has indicated that he plans to do so, with Vice President Kamala Harris once again serving as his running mate. Other candidates could potentially challenge Biden in the 2024 Democratic Party presidential primaries, though the last time a sitting president eligible for re-election did not win re-nomination from their respective party was in the 1968 presidential election.


title: 2024 United States elections

text: In November 2022, former President Donald Trump announced his candidacy for president. Numerous other individuals have been the subject of media speculation as potential entrants into the 2024 Republican Party presidential primaries.


title: 2024 United States elections

text: All 33 seats in Senate Class 1 and one seat in Senate Class 2 will be up for election; additional special elections may also take place to fill vacancies that arise during the 118th Congress. Democrats control the majority in the closely-divided Senate following the 2022 U.S. Senate elections, but will have to defend 23 seats in 2024. Three Democratic-held seats up for election are in the heavily Republican-leaning states of Montana, Ohio, and West Virginia, all of which were won comfortably by Trump in both 2016 and 2020. Other potential Republican targets include seats in Arizona, Michigan, Nevada, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin, while Democrats may target Republican-held seats in Florida and Texas.


title: 2024 United States elections

text: All 435 voting seats in the United States House of Representatives will be up for election. Additionally, elections will be held to select the delegate for the District of Columbia as well as the delegates from all five U.S. territories, including the Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico. Republicans hold a narrow majority in the House of Representatives following the 2022 U.S. House elections.


title: 2024 United States elections

text: Elections will be held for the governorships of eleven of the fifty U.S. states and two U.S. territories. Special elections may be held for vacancies in the other states and territories, if required by respective state/territorial constitutions.


title: 2024 United States elections

text: Most legislative chambers will hold regularly-scheduled elections in 2024. The exceptions are the Michigan Senate and both legislative chambers in the states of Alabama, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, New Jersey, and Virginia. In chambers that use staggered terms, only a portion of the seats in the chamber will be up for election.


title: 2024 United States elections

text: In addition to gubernatorial elections, various other executive and judicial positions will hold elections at the state level in 2024.


title: 2024 United States elections

text: This table shows the partisan results of president, congressional, gubernatorial, and state legislative races held in each state and territory in 2024. Note that not all states and territories hold gubernatorial, state legislative, and Senate elections in 2024. The five territories and Washington, D.C., do not elect members of the Senate, and the territories do not take part in presidential elections; instead, they each elect one non-voting member of the House. Nebraska's unicameral legislature and the governorship and legislature of American Samoa are elected on a non-partisan basis, and political party affiliation is not listed.


title: Midway International Airport

text: Chicago Midway International Airport , typically referred to as Midway Airport, Chicago Midway, or simply Midway, is a major commercial airport on the Southwest side of Chicago, Illinois, located approximately 12 miles (19 km) from the Loop business district. Established in 1927, Midway served as Chicago's primary airport until the opening of O'Hare International Airport in 1955. Today, Midway is one of the busiest airports in the nation and the second-busiest airport both in the Chicago metropolitan area and the state of Illinois, serving 20,844,860 passengers in 2019.


title: Midway International Airport

text: Midway is a base for Southwest Airlines, which carries over 95% of the passengers at the airport. The airport's current name is in honor of the Battle of Midway. The now-defunct Midway Airlines that once serviced the airport took its name from the airport. The airfield is located in a square mile bounded by 55th and 63rd Streets, and Central and Cicero Avenues. The current terminal complex was completed in 2001. The terminal bridges Cicero Avenue and contains 43 gates with facilities for international passengers. The CTA rapid transit Orange Line provides transit to Downtown Chicago, where it connects with other subway/elevated rapid transit lines.


title: Midway International Airport

text: Originally named Chicago Air Park, Midway Airport was built on a plot in 1923 with one cinder runway mainly for airmail flights. In 1926 the city leased the airport and named it Chicago Municipal Airport on December 12, 1927. By 1928, the airport had twelve hangars and four runways, lit for night operations.


title: Midway International Airport

text: A major fire early on June 25, 1930 destroyed two hangars and 27 aircraft, "12 of them tri-motor passenger planes." The loss was estimated at more than two million dollars. The hangars destroyed were belonged to the Universal Air Lines, Inc. and the Grey Goose Airlines, the latter under lease to Stout Air Lines. The fire followed an explosion of undetermined cause in the Universal hangar.


title: Midway International Airport

text: In 1931 a new passenger terminal opened at 62nd St; the following year the airport claimed to be the "World's Busiest" with over 100,846 passengers on 60,947 flights. (The July 1932 Official Aviation Guide (OAG) shows 206 scheduled airline departures a week.)


title: Midway International Airport

text: More construction was funded in part by $1 million from the Works Progress Administration; the airport expanded to fill the square mile in 1938–41 after a court ordered the Chicago and Western Indiana Railroad to reroute tracks that had crossed the square along the northern edge of the older field.


title: Midway International Airport

text: The March 1939 OAG shows 47 weekday departures: 13 on United, 13 American, 9 TWA, 4 Northwest, and two each on Eastern, Braniff, Pennsylvania Central, and C&S. New York's airport (Newark, then LaGuardia by the end of 1939) was then the busiest airline airport in the United States, but Midway passed LaGuardia in 1948 and kept the title until 1960. The record-breaking 1945 Japan–Washington flight of B-29s refueled at the airport on their way to Washington, DC.


title: Midway International Airport

text: In July 1949, the airport was renamed after the Battle of Midway. That year, Midway saw 3.2 million passengers; passengers peaked at 10 million in 1959. The diagram on the January 1951 C&GS approach chart shows four parallel pairs of runways, all 4240 ft or less except for 5730-ft runway 13R (current runway 13C) and 5230-ft runway 4R.


title: Midway International Airport

text: The April 1957 OAG shows 414 weekday fixed-wing departures from Midway: 83 American, 83 United, 56 TWA, 40 Capital, 35 North Central, 28 Delta, 27 Eastern, 22 Northwest, 19 Ozark, 11 Braniff, 5 Trans-Canada, and 5 Lake Central. Air France, Lufthansa, and REAL (of Brazil) had a few flights per week. Midway was running out of room and in any case could not handle the 707 and DC-8 jets that appeared in 1959; every Chicago jet flight had to use O'Hare, which had opened to the airlines in 1955. Electras and Viscounts could have continued to fly out of Midway, but O'Hare's new terminal opened in 1962, allowing airlines to consolidate their flights. From July 1962 until United returned in July 1964, Midway's only scheduled airline was Chicago Helicopter. In August 1966, a total of four fixed-wing arrivals were scheduled, all United 727s (United was alone at Midway until early 1968).


title: Midway International Airport

text: By 1967 reconstruction began at the airport, adding three new concourses with 28 gates and three ticket counters, and in 1968 the city invested $10 million in renovation funds. (For a few months during the 1967 renovation Midway had no scheduled airline flights.) The funds partly supported construction of the Stevenson Expressway, and Midway saw the return of major airlines that year, with 1,663,074 passengers on smaller-capacity, shorter range twin-jet and trijet airliners such as the McDonnell Douglas DC-9, BAC One-Eleven, Boeing 727, and Boeing 737 that could use Midway's runways, which the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8 could not. In May 1968 there were 22 scheduled departures: six United 727s to MSP, DCA and LGA, 12 Northwest 727s to MSP and CLE, one Delta DC-9 to STL and three Ozark FH227s.


title: Midway International Airport

text: The December 1970 OAG shows 86 weekday arrivals (77 jet) on 13 fixed-wing airlines from 31 airports, but the August 1974 shows 14 arrivals (all jet) on four airlines, and in 1976–79 Midway had only the two or three Delta DC-9s from St Louis. Midway Airlines arrived on October 31, 1979, with DC-9 nonstops to Kansas City, Detroit and Cleveland Lakefront; they expanded greatly in the 1980s. Their September 1989 timetable shows 117 weekday departures to 29 cities, plus 108 departures on their commuter affiliates to 22 more cities. Midway ceased flying in 1991 due to financial challenges.


title: Midway International Airport

text: In 1982, the city of Chicago purchased Midway Airport from the Chicago Board of Education for $16 million. Three years later, Southwest Airlines began operations at Midway. Midway was a focus city for Vanguard Airlines from 1997 to 2000.


title: Midway International Airport

text: The Chicago Transit Authority displaced the Carlton Midway Inn to open a new CTA terminal at the airport on October 31, 1993, for the new Chicago 'L' Orange Line that connected Midway to the Loop. Midway Airport is the end of the line, which crosses the southwest part of the city before circling around the Loop. Unlike the CTA Blue Line, which runs 24 hours a day, every day, the Orange Line runs from about 4:00 am to 1:00 am, just shy of 24 hours, at an average of 8-minute intervals. During overnight periods, the N62 Archer bus is available as an alternative. Once the train departs, the trip from Midway to the Loop takes about 25 minutes.


title: Midway International Airport

text: In 1996, after failing to get his Lake Calumet Airport and having received harsh criticism for the idea of turning the airport into an industrial park, Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley announced the Midway Airport Terminal Development Program, which was launched the following year. At the time, it was the largest public works project in the state. The Midway Airport parking garage opened in 1999, bringing covered parking to the airport for the first time. The garage is connected to the Midway terminal building for convenient access to ticket counters and baggage claim areas.


title: Midway International Airport

text: Continuing with the expansion project, a pedestrian bridge over Cicero Avenue was built in 2000, connecting the new terminal to the new concourses. In 2001 the new Midway Airport terminal building opened, with larger ticket counters, spacious baggage claim areas, traveler information, and a short walking distance to gates. A food court opened with Chicago-style food and retail options.


title: Midway International Airport

text: The expansion project culminated with a short lived period of great airline diversity at Midway as Vanguard Airlines, National Airlines and AirTran Airways all expanded their services to the airport.


title: Midway International Airport

text: ATA Airlines (ATA) took over Chicago Express Airlines, also known as ATA Connection, whose primary hub was at Midway.


title: Midway International Airport

text: Following the September 11 attacks, which resulted in a drop in passenger service, along with other problems for the airline industry, both Vanguard and National ceased operations at Midway and became defunct in 2002, with MetroJet being dissolved and refolded into US Airways' main line in late 2001.


title: Midway International Airport

text: In 2002 Midway welcomed the return of international service after a 40-year absence with the opening of the new Federal Inspection Service facility in Concourse A.


title: Midway International Airport

text: In June 2004, Mayor Daley and airline officials celebrated the completion of the Terminal Development Program. The project, designed by HNTB resulted in the addition of 14 gates (from 29 to 43). A new 6,300-space economy parking garage, including a new bridge and roadway for buses shuttling passengers to and from the terminal, opened in December 2005.


title: Midway International Airport

text: Simultaneous to Midway's expansion, ATA Airlines began rapid expansion at Midway in the early 2000s (decade), and was the airport's dominant carrier prior to 2004, using 14 of the 17 gates in Concourse A. However, after the airline declared bankruptcy in October 2004, scheduled service from Midway significantly decreased.


title: Midway International Airport

text: For over 16 years, Midway had been the main hub for Indianapolis-based ATA, but the airline shut down on June 7, 2008. Earlier, the airline filed for bankruptcy in April 2008; on April 3, 2008, ATA Airlines discontinued all operations.


title: Midway International Airport

text: In November 2008, Porter Airlines, which flies between Midway and Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport, was the only international route served from Chicago–Midway after ATA Airlines, which had flights to Mexico, ceased operations in April that year. On December 13, 2010, a second carrier, Volaris, began flights between Guadalajara and Midway.


title: Midway International Airport

text: Starting in early 2009, a construction project added a new walkway and food court to Concourse A. The project also connected gates A4A and A4B to the main A concourse. Expansions were completed in the spring of 2010.


title: Midway International Airport

text: On April 20, 2009, a $2.5 billion deal to privatize the airport via a 99-year lease fell through when the consortium could not put together financing. The city would have kept $125 million in the down payment. The consortium operating under the name of Midway Investment and Development Company LLC consisted of Vancouver Airport Services, Citi Infrastructure Investors, and Boston's John Hancock Life Insurance. It was awarded the contract in October 2008 by the City Council, which voted 49–0 to approve it. The consortium would have operated the airport and collected airport parking, concession, and passenger facility charges. However, Chicago would have continued to provide fire and police services. In 2010 a new slogan emerged, calling the airport "The busiest square mile in the world".


title: Midway International Airport

text: In September 2013, Mayor Rahm Emanuel terminated new negotiations to privatize the airport, noting that the process was no longer competitive after one of the two finalists had backed out. The one remaining was Great Lakes Airport Alliance – a partnership of Macquarie Infrastructure and Real Assets and Ferrovial. Macquarie was one of the investors in the Chicago Skyway. The group that had backed out was a group that included the Australia-based Industry Funds Management and Manchester Airports Group. The Great Lakes proposal had been valued at $2 billion and would have involved a 40-year lease.


title: Midway International Airport

text: Construction began in 2018 on expansions of the security checkpoint and main parking garage. The bridge spanning Cicero Ave is being widened from 50 feet to over 400 feet, allowing up to 17 security lanes and a streamlined queue. As the current terminal opened just a few months prior to the September 11th attacks, the security area was quickly rendered too small for the new screening measures and subsequently was forced to expand inward, taking away from space in the concourses. Space that is reclaimed by moving security outward into the bridge will be redeveloped with an expansion of the central food court. The main parking garage is being extended eastward over the CTA L tracks to add 1,500 spaces and streamline the entrance way. In addition to the redeveloped central food court, new concession options will open in phases including a food court in Concourse A utilizing previously unused space built during the 2010 rebuild of the Gate A4A/B connecting walkway. The program is the largest capital improvements project at the airport since the 2001 terminal redevelopment, and is scheduled to be completed in the winter of 2019–2020.


title: Midway International Airport

text: All terminals and hangars were on the square periphery. By the late 1970s, the shorter north–south and east–west runway pairs had been closed, though some were converted to taxiways. The other four runways remain in use, all strengthened and enhanced, but about the same lengths as always. A short runway (13R/31L) for light aircraft was added in 1989.


title: Midway International Airport

text: Midway is surrounded by buildings and other development, so the landing thresholds of the runways are displaced to provide obstacle clearance. The FAA and the airlines ensure safety by adhering to calculated load limits and various weather minimums. Because of the displaced landing thresholds, the runways have shorter distances available for landings than for takeoffs. 13C/31C, the longest runway, only has an available landing distance of in the southeast direction, and to the northwest. The largest aircraft normally seen at Midway is the Boeing 757. Normally, commercial planes only take off from and land on runways 4R/22L and 13C/31C. The other runways are used by smaller aircraft and, per the US FAA Chart Supplement are restricted from use by large commercial aircraft except in emergency.


title: Midway International Airport

text: On December 8, 1972, United Airlines Flight 553, a Boeing 737-200, crashed into a residential area outside Midway during landing. The crash of the 737-200 killed 43 of the 61 on board, and two on the ground. One of the victims on the plane was Dorothy Hunt, the wife of Watergate conspirator E. Howard Hunt. She was carrying $10,000 in cash. James McCord alleged that she supplied the Watergate defendants with money for legal expenses.


title: Midway International Airport

text: Exactly 33 years later, on December 8, 2005, Southwest Airlines Flight 1248, a Boeing 737-700 inbound from Baltimore–Washington International Airport in Baltimore, Maryland, slid off the runway while attempting to land at the airport in a heavy snow storm. The airplane broke through the barrier fence of the airport, and came to rest at the intersection of 55th Street and Central Avenue bordering the airport at its northwest corner. A 6-year-old boy was killed as a passenger in a vehicle that was struck by the plane after it skidded into the street.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: The Nguyễn dynasty (chữ Nôm: 茹阮, ; chữ Hán: 阮朝, ) was the last Vietnamese dynasty, which ruled the unified Vietnamese state largely independently from 1802 to 1883. During its existence, the empire expanded into modern-day southern Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos through a continuation of the centuries-long Nam tiến and Siamese–Vietnamese wars. After 1883, the Nguyễn emperors ruled nominally as heads of state of the French protectorates of Annam and Tonkin until the final months of WWII; they later nominally ruled over the Empire of Vietnam until the August Revolution.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: The Nguyễn Phúc family established feudal rule over large amounts of territory as the Nguyễn Lords by the 16th century before defeating the Tây Sơn dynasty and establishing their own imperial rule in the 19th century. The dynastic rule began with Gia Long ascending the throne in 1802, after ending the previous Tây Sơn dynasty. The Nguyễn dynasty was gradually absorbed by France over the course of several decades in the latter half of the 19th century, beginning with the Cochinchina Campaign in 1858 which led to the occupation of the southern area of Vietnam. A series of unequal treaties followed; the occupied territory became the French colony of Cochinchina in the 1862 Treaty of Saigon, and the 1863 Treaty of Huế gave France access to Vietnamese ports and increased control of its foreign affairs. Finally, the 1883 and 1884 Treaties of Huế divided the remaining Vietnamese territory into the protectorates of Annam and Tonkin under nominal Nguyễn Phúc rule. In 1887, Cochinchina, Annam, Tonkin, and the French Protectorate of Cambodia were grouped together to form French Indochina.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: The Nguyễn dynasty remained the formal emperors of Annam and Tonkin within Indochina until World War II. Japan had occupied Indochina with French collaboration in 1940, but as the war seemed increasingly lost, overthrew the French administration in March 1945 and proclaimed independence for its constituent countries. The Empire of Vietnam under Emperor Bảo Đại was a nominally independent Japanese puppet state during the last months of the war. It ended with Bảo Đại's abdication following the surrender of Japan and August Revolution by the anti-colonial Việt Minh in the August 1945. This ended the 143-year rule of the Nguyễn dynasty.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: The name (, chữ Hán: ) is a variation of (; literally "Southern "Việt""), a name that can be traced back to the Triệu dynasty of the second century BC. The term "" (Yue) () in Early Middle Chinese was first written using the logograph "戉" for an axe (a homophone), in oracle bone and bronze inscriptions of the late Shang dynasty ( BC), and later as "越". At that time it referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang. In the early eighth century BC, a tribe on the middle Yangtze were called the Yangyue, a term later used for peoples further south. Between the seventh and fourth centuries BC Yue/Việt referred to the State of Yue in the lower Yangtze basin and its people. From the third century BC the term was used for the non-Chinese populations of south and southwest China and northern Vietnam, with particular ethnic groups called Minyue, Ouyue, Luoyue (Vietnamese: Lạc Việt), etc., collectively called the Baiyue (Bách Việt, ; ). The term Baiyue/Bách Việt first appeared in the book "Lüshi Chunqiu" compiled around 239 BC. By the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, educated Vietnamese called themselves and their people as "người Việt" and "người Nam", which combined to become "người Việt Nam" (Vietnamese people). However, this designation was for the Vietnamese themselves and not for the whole country.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: The form () is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem "Sấm Trạng Trình". The name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Hải Phòng that dates to 1558. In 1802, Nguyễn Phúc Ánh (who later became Emperor Gia Long) established the Nguyễn dynasty. In the second year of his rule, he asked the Jiaqing Emperor of the Qing dynasty to confer on him the title 'King of Nam Việt / Nanyue' ( in Chinese character) after seizing power in Annam. The Emperor refused because the name was related to Zhao Tuo's Nanyue, which included the regions of Guangxi and Guangdong in southern China. The Qing Emperor, therefore, decided to call the area "Việt Nam" instead. Between 1804 and 1813, the name Vietnam was used officially by Emperor Gia Long.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: In 1839, under the rule of Emperor Minh Mạng's, official name of the empire was Đại Việt Nam (大越南, which means "Great Vietnam"), and it was shortened to "Đại Nam" (大南, which means "Great South").


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: During the 1930s its government used the name "Nam Triều" (南朝, Southern dynasty) on its official documents.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Westerners in the past often called the kingdom as "Annam" or the "Annamite Empire." However, in Vietnamese historiography, modern historians often refer to this period in Vietnamese history as Nguyễn Vietnam, alternatively spelled as Nguyễn Vietnam, or simply Vietnam to distinguish with the pre-19th century Đại Việt kingdom.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: The Nguyễn family clan, originated in the Thanh Hóa Province, exerted substantial political influence and military power, in particular throughout early modern Vietnamese history. Affiliations with the ruling elite date back to the tenth century when Nguyễn Bặc was appointed the first Grand Chancellor of the short-lived Đinh dynasty under Đinh Bộ Lĩnh in 965. Nguyễn Thị Anh, a queen consort of emperor Lê Thái Tông served as official regent of Đại Việt for her son emperor Lê Nhân Tông between 1442 and 1453.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: In 1527 Mạc Đăng Dung, after defeating and executing the Lê dynasty's vassal (Nguyễn Hoằng Dụ) in a rebellion and emerged as the intermediate victor and established the Mạc dynasty by deposing Emperor Lê Cung Hoàng of the once prosperous but rapidly declining later Lê dynasty. Nguyễn Hoằng Dụ's son Nguyễn Kim and his Trịnh clan allies remained loyal to the Lê dynasty and attempted to restore the Lê dynasty to power, thereby reigniting the rebellion. After that, both the Trịnh and Nguyễn clan again took up arms in Thanh Hóa province and revolted against the Mạc. However the rebellion was failed and they fled to kingdom of Lan Xang where the king Photisarath allows them to establish the exiled government in Xam Neua. The Lê royalists under Lê Ninh, a descendant of the Royal family, escaped to Muang Phuan (today Laos). During exile, Marquis of An Thanh, Nguyễn Kim summoned the people who were still loyal to the Lê emperor and formed a new army to begin a revolt against Mạc Đăng Dung. In 1540, they return to Đại Việt and begin their first military campaign against Mạc dynasty in Thanh Hóa province and capture the province in 1543.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Lê dynasty was restored in 1539 after the alliance recaptured Thanh Hoa Province and reinstall the Lê emperor Lê Trang Tông in throne. Nguyễn Kim, who had served as leader of the alliance during the 12 year of Lê–Mạc War (from 1533 to 1545) in the period of Northern and Southern dynasties, was assassinated in 1545 by a captured Mạc general (Dương Chấp Nhất). After that, Kim's son-in-law, Trịnh Kiểm who had killed the eldest son of Kim (Nguyễn Uông), then seize control of the alliance. The sixth son of Kim, Nguyễn Hoàng fears that his fate will be like his brother; therefore, he tried to run away from the capital to avoid the next assassination. Later, he asks his sister Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Bảo (wife of Trịnh Kiểm) to ask Kiểm to appoint him to be the governor of far-south frontier of Đại Việt, Thuận Hóa (modern Quảng Bình to Quảng Nam provinces). Trịnh Kiểm thought this was the opportunity to remove the power and influence of Nguyễn Hoàng in the capital city so he agreed with the proposal. In 1558, Lê Anh Tông, emperor of the re-established Lê dynasty appointed Nguyễn Hoàng with the lordship of the Thuận Hóa, which had been conquered during the 15th century from the Champa kingdom. This event marked the beginning of division of two powerful families in 1558, Trịnh clan rules as dictatorship in the government of Lê dynasty in the north Đại Việt (Đàng Ngoài) and Nguyễn clan rules the South Đại Việt (Đàng Trong).


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Nguyễn Phúc Lan chose the city of Phú Xuân in 1636 as his residence and established the dominion of the Nguyễn lord in the southern part of the country. Although the Nguyễn and Trịnh lords ruled as de facto rulers in their respective lands, they paid official tribute to the Lê emperors in a ceremonial gesture, and recognize Lê dynasty as the legitimacy of Đại Việt.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Nguyễn Hoàng and his successors started to engage in rivalry with the Trịnh lords, after refusing to pay tax and tribute to the central government in Hanoi as Nguyễn lords tried to create the autonomous regime. They expanded their territory by making parts of Cambodia as protectorate, invaded Laos, captured the last vestiges of Champa in 1693 and ruled in an unbroken line until 1776.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: The 17th-century war between the Trịnh and the Nguyễn ended in an uneasy peace, with the two sides creating de facto separate states although both professed loyalty to the same Lê dynasty. After 100 years of domestic peace, the Nguyễn lords were confronted with the Tây Sơn rebellion in 1774. Its military had had considerable losses in manpower after a series of campaigns in Cambodia and proved unable to contain the revolt. By the end of the year, the Trịnh lords had formed an alliance with the Tây Sơn rebels and captured Huế in 1775.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Nguyễn lord, Nguyễn Phúc Thuần fled south to the Quảng Nam province, where he left a garrison under co-ruler Nguyễn Phúc Dương. He fled further south to the Gia Định Province (around modern-day Ho Chi Minh City) by sea before the arrival of Tây Sơn leader Nguyễn Nhạc, whose forces defeated the Nguyễn garrison and seized Quảng Nam.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: In early 1777 a large Tây Sơn force under Nguyễn Huệ and Nguyễn Lữ attacked and captured Gia Định from the sea and defeated the Nguyễn Lord forces. The Tây Sơn received widespread popular support as they presented themselves as champions of the Vietnamese people, who rejected any foreign influence and fought for the full reinstitution of the Lê dynasty. Hence, the elimination of the Nguyễn and Trinh lordships was considered a priority and all but one member of the Nguyễn family captured at Saigon were executed.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: In 1775, the 13-year-old Nguyễn Ánh escaped and with the help of the Vietnamese Catholic priest Paul Hồ Văn Nghị soon arrived at the Paris Foreign Missions Society in Hà Tiên. With Tây Son search parties closing in, he kept on moving and eventually met the French missionary Pigneau de Behaine. By retreating to the Thổ Chu Islands in the Gulf of Thailand, both escaped Tây Sơn capture.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Pigneau de Behaine decided to support Ánh, who had declared himself heir to the Nguyễn lordship. A month later the Tây Sơn army under Nguyễn Huệ had returned to Quy Nhơn. Ánh seized the opportunity and quickly raised an army at his new base in Long Xuyên, marched to Gia Định and occupied the city in December 1777. The Tây Sơn returned to Gia Định in February 1778 and recaptured the province. When Ánh approached with his army, the Tây Sơn retreated.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: By the summer of 1781, Ánh's forces had grown to 30,000 soldiers, 80 battleships, three large ships and two Portuguese ships procured with the help of de Behaine. Ánh organized an unsuccessful ambush of the Tây Sơn base camps in the Phú Yên province. In March 1782 the Tây Sơn emperor Thái Đức and his brother Nguyễn Huệ sent a naval force to attack Ánh. Ánh's army was defeated and he fled via Ba Giồng to Svay Rieng in Cambodia.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Ánh met with the Cambodian King Ang Eng, who granted him exile and offered support in his struggle with the Tây Sơn. In April 1782 a Tây Sơn army invaded Cambodia, detained and forced Ang Eng to pay tribute, and demanded, that all Vietnamese nationals living in Cambodia were to return to Vietnam.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Support by the Chinese Vietnamese began when the Qing dynasty overthrew the Ming dynasty. The Han Chinese refused to live under the Manchu Qing and fled to Southeast Asia (including Vietnam). Most were welcomed by the Nguyễn lords to resettle in southern Vietnam and set up business and trade.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: In 1782, Nguyễn Ánh escaped to Cambodia and the Tây Sơn seized southern Vietnam (now Cochinchina). They had discriminated against the ethnic Chinese, displeasing the Chinese-Vietnamese. That April, Nguyễn loyalists Tôn Thất Dụ, Trần Xuân Trạch, Trần Văn Tự and Trần Công Chương sent military support to Ánh. The Nguyễn army killed grand admiral Phạm Ngạn, who had a close relationship with the Emperor Thái Đức, at Tham Lương bridge. Thái Đức, angry, thought that the ethnic Chinese had collaborated in the killing. He sacked the town of Cù lao (present-day Biên Hòa), which had a large Chinese population, and ordered the oppression of the Chinese community to avenge their assistance to Ánh. Ethnic cleansing had previously occurred in Hoi An, leading to support by wealthy Chinese for Ánh. He returned to Giồng Lữ, defeated Admiral Nguyễn Học of the Tây Sơn and captured eighty battleships. Ánh then began a campaign to reclaim southern Vietnam, but Nguyễn Huệ deployed a naval force to the river and destroyed his navy. Ánh again escaped with his followers to Hậu Giang. Cambodia later cooperated with the Tây Sơn to destroy Ánh's force and made him retreat to Rạch Giá, then to Hà Tiên and Phú Quốc.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Following consecutive losses to the Tây Sơn, Ánh sent his general Châu Văn Tiếp to Siam to request military assistance. Siam, under Chakri rule, wanted to conquer Cambodia and southern Vietnam. King Rama I agreed to ally with the Nguyễn lord and intervene militarily in Vietnam. Châu Văn Tiếp sent a secret letter to Ánh about the alliance. After meeting with Siamese generals at Cà Mau, Ánh, thirty officials and some troops visited Bangkok to meet Rama I in May 1784. The governor of Gia Định Province, Nguyễn Văn Thành, advised Ánh against foreign assistance.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Rama I, fearing the growing influence of the Tây Sơn dynasty in Cambodia and Laos, decided to dispatch his army against it. In Bangkok, Ánh began to recruit Vietnamese refugees in Siam to join his army (which totaled over 9,000). He returned to Vietnam and prepared his forces for the Tây Sơn campaign in June 1784, after which he captured Gia Định. Rama I nominated his nephew, Chiêu Tăng, as admiral the following month. The admiral led Siamese forces including 20,000 marine troops and 300 warships from the Gulf of Siam to Kiên Giang Province. In addition, more than 30,000 Siamese infantry troops crossed the Cambodian border to An Giang Province. On 25 November 1784, Admiral Châu Văn Tiếp died in battle against the Tây Sơn in Mang Thít District, Vĩnh Long Province. The alliance was largely victorious from July through November, and the Tây Sơn army retreated north. However, Emperor Nguyễn Huệ halted the retreat and counter-attacked the Siamese forces in December. In the decisive battle of Rạch Gầm–Xoài Mút, more than 20,000 Siamese soldiers died and the remainder retreated to Siam.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Ánh, disillusioned with Siam, escaped to Thổ Chu Island in April 1785 and then to Ko Kut Island in Thailand. The Siamese army escorted him back to Bangkok, and he was briefly exiled in Thailand.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: The war between the Nguyễn lord and the Tây Sơn dynasty forced Ánh to find more allies. His relationship with de Behaine improved, and support for an alliance with France increased. Before the request for Siamese military assistance, de Behaine was in Chanthaburi and Ánh asked him to come to Phú Quốc Island. Ánh asked him to contact King Louis XVI of France for assistance; de Behaine agreed to coordinate an alliance between France and Vietnam, and Ánh gave him a letter to present at the French court. Ánh's oldest son, Nguyễn Phúc Cảnh, was chosen to accompany de Behaine. Due to inclement weather, the voyage was postponed until December 1784. The group departed from Phú Quốc Island for Malacca and thence to Pondicherry, and Ánh moved his family to Bangkok. The group arrived in Lorient in February 1787, and Louis XVI agreed to meet them in May.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: On 28 November 1787, de Behaine signed the Treaty of Versailles with French Minister of Foreign Affairs Armand Marc at the Palace of Versailles on behalf of Nguyễn Ánh. The treaty stipulated that France provide four frigates, 1,200 infantry troops, 200 artillery, 250 cafres (African soldiers), and other equipment. Nguyễn Ánh ceded the Đà Nẵng estuary and Côn Sơn Island to France. The French were allowed to trade freely and control foreign trade in Vietnam. Vietnam had to build one ship per year which was similar to the French ship which brought aid and give it to France. Vietnam was obligated to supply food and other aid to France when the French were at war with other East Asian nations.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: On 27 December 1787, Pigneau de Behaine and Nguyễn Phúc Cảnh left France for Pondicherry to wait for the military support promised by the treaty. However, due to the French Revolution and the abolition of the French monarchy, the treaty was never executed. Thomas Conway, who was responsible for French assistance, refused to provide it. Although the treaty was not implemented, de Behaine recruited French businessman who intended to trade in Vietnam and raised funds to assist Nguyễn Ánh. He spent fifteen thousand francs of his own money to purchase guns and warships. Cảnh and de Behaine returned to Gia Định in 1788 (after Nguyễn Ánh had recaptured it), followed by a ship with the war materiel. Frenchmen who were recruited included Jean-Baptiste Chaigneau, Philippe Vannier, Olivier de Puymanel, and Jean-Marie Dayot. A total of twenty people joined Ánh's army. The French purchased and supplied equipment and weaponry, reinforcing the defense of Gia Định, Vĩnh Long, Châu Đốc, Hà Tiên, Biên Hòa, Bà Rịa and training Ánh's artillery and infantry according to the European model.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: In 1786, Nguyễn Huệ led the army against the Trịnh lords; Trịnh Khải escaped to the north but got captured by the local people. He then committed suicide. After the Tây Sơn army returned to Quy Nhơn, subjects of the Trịnh lord restored Trịnh Bồng (son of Trịnh Giang) as the next lord. Lê Chiêu Thống, emperor of the Lê dynasty, wanted to regain power from the Trịnh. He summoned Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh, governor of Nghệ An, to attack the Trịnh lord at the Imperial Citadel of Thăng Long. Trịnh Bồng surrendered to the Lê and became a monk. Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh wanted to unify the country under Lê rule, and began to prepare the army to march south and attack the Tây Sơn. Huệ led the army, killed Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh, and captured the later Lê capital. The Lê royal family were exiled to China, and the later Lê dynasty collapsed.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: At that time, Nguyễn Huệ's influence became stronger in northern Vietnam; this made Emperor Nguyễn Nhạc of the Tây Sơn dynasty suspect Huệ's loyalty. The relationship between the brothers became tense, eventually leading to battle. Huệ had his army surround Nhạc's capital, at Quy Nhơn citadel, in 1787. Nhạc begged Huệ not to kill him, and they reconciled. In 1788, Lê emperor Lê Chiêu Thống fled to China and asked for military assistance. Qing emperor Qianlong ordered Sun Shiyi to lead the military campaign into Vietnam. The campaign failed, diplomatic relations with Vietnam were normalized, and the Tây Sơn dynasty began to weaken.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Ánh began to reorganize a strong armed force in Siam. He left Siam (after thanking King Rama I), and returned to Vietnam. During the 1787 war between Nguyễn Huệ and Nguyễn Nhạc in northern Vietnam, Ánh recaptured the southern Vietnamese capital of Gia Định. Southern Vietnam had been ruled by the Nguyễns and they remained popular, especially with the ethnic Chinese. Nguyễn Lữ, the youngest brother of Tây Sơn (who ruled southern Vietnam), could not defend the citadel and retreated to Quy Nhơn. The citadel of Gia Định was seized by the Nguyễn lords.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: In 1788 de Behaine and Ánh's son, Prince Cảnh, arrived in Gia Định with modern war equipment and more than twenty Frenchmen who wanted to join the army. The force was trained and strengthened with French assistance.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: After the fall of the citadel at Gia Định, Nguyễn Huệ prepared an expedition to reclaim it before his death on 16 September 1792. His young son, Nguyễn Quang Toản, succeeded him as emperor of the Tây Sơn and was a poor leader. In 1793, Nguyễn Ánh began a campaign against Quang Toản. Due to conflict between officials of the Tây Sơn court, Quang Toản lost battle after battle. In 1797, Ánh and Nguyễn Phúc Cảnh attacked Qui Nhơn (then in Phú Yên Province) in the Battle of Thị Nại. They were victorious, capturing a large amount of Tây Sơn equipment. Quang Toản became unpopular due to his murders of generals and officials, leading to a decline in the army. In 1799, Ánh captured the citadel of Quy Nhơn. He seized the capital (Phú Xuân) on 3 May 1801, and Quang Toản retreated north. On 20 July 1802, Ánh captured Hanoi and end the Tây Sơn dynasty, all of the members of the Tây Sơn was captured Ánh then executed all the members of the Tây Sơn dynasty that year.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: In Vietnamese historiography, the independent period is referred to as the Nhà Nguyễn thời độc lập period. During this period the Nguyễn dynasty's territories comprised the present-day territories of Vietnam and parts of modern Cambodia and Laos, bordering Siam to the west and Manchu Qing dynasty to the north. The ruling Nguyễn emperors established and ran the first well-defined imperial administrative and bureaucratic system of Vietnam and annexed Cambodia and Champa into its territories in the 1830s. Together with Chakri Siam and Konbaung Burma, it was one among three major Southeast Asian powers at the time. The emperor Gia Long was relatively friendly toward Western powers and Christianity. After his reign that of Minh Mạng brought a new approach, he ruled for 21 years from 1820 to 1841, as a conservative and Confucian ruler; introducing a police of isolationism which kept the country from the rest of the world for nearly 40 years until the French invasion in 1858. Minh Mạng tightened control over Catholicism, Muslim, and ethnic minorities, resulting in more than two hundred rebellions across the country during his twenty-one-year reign. He also further expanded Vietnamese imperialism in modern-day Laos and Cambodia.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Minh Mạng's successors, Thiệu Trị (r. 1841–1847) and Tự Đức (r. 1847–1883) would be assailed by serious problems that ultimately decimated the Vietnamese state. In the late 1840s, Vietnam was struck by the global cholera pandemic that killed roughly 8% of the country's population, while the countries isolationist policies damaged the economy. France and Spain declared war on Vietnam in September 1858. Faced with these industrialised powers, the hermit Nguyễn dynasty and its military crumbled, the alliance capturing Saigon in early 1859. A series of unequal treaties followed with first the 1862 Treaty of Saigon, and then the 1863 Treaty of Huế which gave France access to Vietnamese ports and increased control of its foreign affairs. The Treaty of Saigon (1874) concluded the French annexation of Cochinchina that had begun in 1862.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: The last independent Nguyễn emperor of note was Tự Đức. Upon his death a succession crisis followed, as the regent Tôn Thất Thuyết orchestrated the murders of three emperors in a year. This presented an opportunity to the French. The Huế court was forced to sign the Harmand Convention in September 1883, which formalised the handover of Tonkin to the French administration. After the Treaty of Patenôtre was signed in 1884, France finished its annexation and partitioning of Vietnam into three constituent protectorates of French Indochina, and turned the Nguyễn into a vassal monarchy. Finally, the Treaty of Tientsin (1885) between the Chinese Empire and the French Republic was signed on 9 June 1885 recognising French dominion over Vietnam. All emperors after Đồng Khánh were chosen by the French, and only ruled symbolically.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Nguyễn Phúc Ánh united Vietnam after a three-hundred-year division of the country. He celebrated his coronation at Huế on 1 June 1802 and proclaimed himself emperor (), with the era name Gia Long (嘉隆). This title emphasized his rule from "Gia" Định region (modern-day Saigon) in the far south to Thăng "Long" (modern-day Hanoi) in the north. Gia Long prioritized the nation's defense and worked to avoid another civil war. He replaced the feudal system with a reformist "Doctrine of the Mean", based on Confucianism. The Nguyen dynasty was founded as a tributary state of the Qing Empire, with Gia Long receiving an imperial pardon and recognition as the ruler of Vietnam from the Jiaqing Emperor for recognizing Chinese suzerainty. The envoys sent to China to acquire this recognition cited the ancient kingdom of Nanyue (Vietnamese: "Nam Việt") to Emperor Jiaqing as the countries name, this displeased the emperor who was disconcerted by such pretentions, and Nguyễn Phúc Ánh had to officially rename his kingdom as "Vietnam" the next year to satisfy the emperor. The country was officially known as 'The (Great) Vietnamese state' (Vietnamese: Đại Việt Nam quốc),


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Gia Long asserted that he was reviving the bureaucratic state that was built by King Lê Thánh Tông during the fifteenth-century golden age (1470–1497), as such he adopted a Confucian-bureaucratic government model, and sought unification with northern literati. To ensure stability over the unified kingdom, he placed two of his most loyal and Confucian-educated advisors, Nguyễn Văn Thành and Lê Văn Duyệt as viceroys of Hanoi and Saigon. From 1780 to 1820, roughly 300 Frenchmen served Gia Long's court as officials. Seeing the French influence in Vietnam with alarm, the British Empire sent two envoys to Gia Long in 1803 and 1804 to convince him to abandon his friendship with the French. In 1808, a British fleet led by William O'Bryen Drury mounted an attack on the Red River Delta, but was soon driven back by the Vietnamese navy and suffered several losses. After the Napoleonic war and Gia Long's death, the British Empire renewed relation with Vietnam in 1822. During his reign, a system of road connecting Hanoi, Hue, and Saigon with postal stations and inns was established, several canals connecting the Mekong River to the Gulf of Siam were constructed and finished. In 1812, Gia Long issued the Gia Long Code, which was instituted based on the Ch'ing Code of China, replaced the previous Thánh Tông's 1480 Code. In 1811, a coup d'état broke out in the Kingdom of Cambodia, a Vietnamese tributary state, forcing the pro-Vietnamese King Ang Chan II to seek support from Vietnam. Gia Long sent 13,000 men to Cambodia, successfully restoring his vassal to his throne, and beginning a more formal occupation of the country for the next 30 years, while Siam seized northern Cambodia in 1814.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Gia Long died in 1819 and was succeeded by his fourth son, Nguyễn Phúc Đảm, who soon became known as Emperor Minh Mạng (r. 1820–1841) of Vietnam.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Minh Mạng was the younger brother of prince Nguyễn Phúc Cảnh and fourth son of Emperor Gia Long. Educated in Confucian principles from youth, Minh Mạng became the Emperor of Vietnam in 1820, during a deadly cholera outbreak that ravaged and killed 200,000 people across the country. His reign mainly focused on centralizing and stabilizing the state, by abolishing the Viceroy system and implementing a new full bureaucracy-provincial-based administration. He also halted diplomacy with Europe, and cracked down on religious minorities.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Minh Mạng shunned relations with the European powers. By 1824, after the death of Jean Marie Despiau, no Western advisors who had served Gia Long remained in Minh Mạng's court. The last French consul of Vietnam, Eugene Chaigneau, was never able to obtain audience with Minh Mạng. After he left, France ceased attempts at contact. In the next year he launched an anti-Catholicism propaganda campaign, denouncing the religion as "vicious" and full of "false teaching." In 1832 Minh Mạng turned the Cham Principality of Thuận Thành into a Vietnamese province, the final conquest in a long history of colonial conflict between Cham and Vietnam. He coercively fed lizard and pig meat to Cham Muslims and cow meat to Cham Hindus in violation of their religions to forcibly assimilate them to Vietnamese culture. The first Cham revolt for independence took place in 1833–1834 when Katip Sumat, a Cham mullah who had just returned to Vietnam from Mecca declared a holy war (jihad) against the Vietnamese emperor. The rebellion failed to gain the support of the Cham elite and was quickly suppressed by the Vietnamese military. A second revolt began the following year, led by a Muslim clergy named Ja Thak with supports from the old Cham royalty, highland people, and Vietnamese dissents. Minh Mạng mercilessly crushed the Ja Thak rebellion and executed the last Cham ruler Po Phaok The in early 1835.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: In 1833, as Minh Mạng had been trying to take firm control over the six southern provinces, a large rebellion led by Lê Văn Khôi (an adopted son of the Saigon viceroy Lê Văn Duyệt) broke out in Saigon, attempting to place Minh Mang's brother Prince Cảnh on the throne. The rebellion lasted for two years, gathering much support from Vietnamese Catholics, Khmers, Chinese merchants in Saigon, and even the Siamese ruler Rama III until it was crushed by the government forces in 1835. In January, he issued the first country-wide prohibition of Catholicism, and began persecuting Christians. 130 Christian missionaries, priests and church leaders were executed, dozens of churches were burned and destroyed.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Minh Mạng also expanded his empire westward, putting central and southern Laos under Cam Lộ Province, and collided with his father's former ally-Siam in Vientiane and Cambodia. He backed the revolt of Laotian king Anouvong of Vientiane against the Siamese, and seized Xam Neua and Savannakhet in 1827.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: In 1834, the Vietnamese Crown fully annexed Cambodia and renamed it to Tây Thành Province. Minh Mạng placed the general Trương Minh Giảng as the governor of the Cambodian province, expanding his forcible religious assimilation to the new territory. King Ang Chan II of Cambodia died in the next year and Ming Mang installed Chan's daughter Ang Mey as Commandery Princess of Cambodia. Cambodian officials were required to wear Vietnamese-style clothing, and govern in Vietnamese style. However the Vietnamese rule over Cambodia did not last long and proved draining to Vietnams economy to maintain. Minh Mạng died in 1841, whilst a Khmer uprising was in progress with Siamese support, putting an end to the Tây Thành province and Vietnamese control of Cambodia.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Over the next forty years, Vietnam was ruled by two further independent emperors Thiệu Trị (r. 1841–1847) and Tự Đức (r. 1848–1883). Thiệu Trị or Prince Miên Tông, was the eldest son of Emperor Minh Mạng. His six-year reign showed a significant decrease in Catholic persecution. With the population growing fast from 6 million in the 1820s to 10 million in 1850, the attempts at agricultural self sufficiency were proving unworkable. Between 1802 and 1862, the court had faced 405 minor and large revolts of peasants, political dissents, ethnic minorities, Lê loyalists (people that were loyal to the old Lê Duy dynasty) across the country, this made responding to the challenge of European colonisers significantly more challenging.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: In 1845, the American warship USS Constitution landed in "Đà Nẵng", taking all local officials hostage with the demands that Thiệu Trị free imprisoned French bishop Dominique Lefèbvre. In 1847, Thiệu Trị had made peace with Siam, but the imprisonment of Dominique Lefebvre offered an excuse for French and British aggression. In April the French navy attacked the Vietnamese and sank many Vietnamese ships in Đà Nẵng, demanding the release of Lefèbvre. Angered by the incident, Thiệu Trị ordered all European documents in his palace to be smashed, and all European caught on Vietnamese land were to immediate execution. In autumn, two British warships of Sir John Davis arrived in Đà Nẵng and attempted to force a commercial treaty on Vietnam, but the emperor refused. He died a few days later of apoplexy.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Tự Đức, or Prince Hồng Nhậm was Thiệu Trị's youngest son, well-educated in Confucian learning, he was crowned by minister and co-regent Trương Đăng Quế. Prince Hồng Bảo-the elder brother of Tự Đức, the primogeniture heir rebelled against Tự Đức on the day of his accession. This coup failed but he was spared execution on the intervention of Từ Dụ, with his sentence being reduced to life imprisonment. Aware of the rise of Western influences in Asia, Tự Đức confirmed his grandfathers isolationist policy towards the European powers, prohibiting embassies, forbidding trade and contact with foreigners and renewing the persecution of Catholics his grandfather had orchestrated. During Tự Đức's first twelve years, Vietnamese Catholics faced harsh persecution with 27 European missionaries, 300 Vietnamese priests and bishops, and 30,000 Vietnamese Christians executed and crucified from 1848 to 1860.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: In the late 1840s, another cholera outbreak hit Vietnam, having travelled from India. The epidemic quickly spread out of control and killed 800,000 people (8%–10% of Vietnam's 1847 population) across the Empire. Locusts plagued northern Vietnam in 1854, and a major rebellion in the following year damaged much of the Tonkin countryside. These various crises weakened the empires control over Tonkin considerably.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: In the 1850-1870s, a new class of liberal intellectuals emerged in the court as persecution relaxed, many of them Catholics who had studied abroad in Europe, most notably Nguyễn Trường Tộ, who urged the emperor to reform and transform the Empire following the Western model and open Vietnam to the west. Despite their efforts the conservative Confucian bureaucrats and Tự Đức himself had literal interest in such reforms. The economy remained largely agricultural, with 95% of the population living in rural areas, only mining offered potential to the modernists dreams of a western style state.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: In September 1858, Napoleon III orchestrated a Franco-Spanish army bombardment and invaded Đà Nẵng to protest against the executions of two Spanish Dominican missionaries. Seven months later, they sailed to the south to attack Saigon and the rich Mekong Delta. The Alliance troops held Saigon for two years, while a rebellion of Lê loyalists led by Catholic bishop Pedro Tạ Văn Phụng, who proclaimed himself to be a Lê prince, broke out in the north and escalated. Alongside the pretext of avenging the death of the missionaries the French invasion was designed to prove to Europe that France wasn't a second rate power, and 'civilise' the area. February 1861, French reinforcement and 70 warships led by General Vassoigne arrived and overwhelmed the Vietnamese strongholds. Facing the Alliance invasion and internal rebellion, Tự Đức chose to cede three Southern provinces to France in order to deal with the coinciding rebellion.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: In June 1862, the Treaty of Saigon was signed, resulting in Vietnam losing three southern provinces; Gia Định, Mỹ Tho, Biên Hòa which became the basis of French Cochinchina. In the Treaty of Huế (1863) the island of Poulo Condoræ would allow Catholicism, three ports would be open to French trade, and the sea opened to allow French expansion into Kampuchea. and war reparations were required to be sent to France. Despite the religious elements of this treaty, France would not intervene in the Christian revolt in Northern Vietnam, even with their missionaries urging them to. To the Queen dowager, Từ Dụ, the court, and the people, the 1862 treaty was a national humiliation. Tự Đức once again sent a mission to French Emperor Napoleon III, in which he called to revise the 1862 treaty. In July 1864, another draft treaty was signed. France returned the three provinces to Vietnam, but still held control over three important cities Saigon, Mỹ Tho, and Thủ Dầu Một. In 1866, France convinced Tự Đức to hand over the southern provinces of Vĩnh Long, Hà Tiên, and Châu Đốc. Phan Thanh Giản, the governor of the three provinces immediately resigned. Without resistance, in 1867, the French annexed the provinces and turned their attention to the northern provinces.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: By the late 1860s, pirates, bandits, remnants of the Taiping rebellion in China, fled to Tonkin and turned Northern Vietnam into a hotbed for their raid activities. The Vietnamese state was too weak to fight against the pirates. These Chinese rebels eventually formed their own mercenary armies as the Black Flags had done and cooperated with local Vietnamese officials to interfere with French business interests. As France was looking to acquire Yunnan and Tonkin, when in 1873, a French merchant-adventurer named Jean Dupuis was intercepted by local Hanoi authority, the French Cochinchina government responded by sending out a new attack without talking with the Hue court. A French army led by Francis Garnier arrived at Tonkin in November. Because local administrators had allied with the Black Flags and mistrusting of Hanoi governor Nguyễn Tri Phương, in late November the French and Lê loyalists opened fire at the Vietnamese citadel of Hanoi. Tự Đức immediately sent delegations to negotiate with Garnier, but Prince Hoàng Kế Viêm, governor of Sơn Tây, had enlisted the Chinese Black Flags militia of Liu Yongfu to attack the French. Garnier was killed on 21 December by the Black Flag soldiers at the . A peace negotiation between Vietnam and France was reached on 5 January 1874. France formally recognized Vietnam's full independence from China; France would pay off Vietnam's Spanish debts; French force returned Hanoi to the Vietnamese; the Vietnamese military in Hanoi had to disband and be reduced to a simple police force; total religious and trade freedom was ensured; Vietnam was compelled to recognise all six southern provinces as French territories.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Just two years after French recognisation, Tự Đức sent an embassy to Qing China in 1876 and re-provoked the tributary relationship with the Chinese (the last mission was in 1849). In 1878, Vietnam renewed relations with Thailand. In 1880, Britain, Germany, and Spain were still debating the fate of Vietnam, and the Chinese Embassy in Paris openly rejected the 1874 Franco-Vietnamese agreement. In Paris, Prime minister Jules Ferry proposed a direct military campaign against Vietnam to revise the 1874 treaty. Because Tự Đức was too preoccupied to keep the French out of his Empire without directly engaging against them, he requested assistance from the Chinese court. In 1882, 30,000 Qing troops flooded into the northern provinces and occupied cities. The Black Flags had also been returning, together, collaborating with local Vietnamese officials and harassing French businesses. In March, the French responded by sending a second expedition led by Henri Rivière to the north to deal with these various problems, but had to avoid all international attention, particularly from China. On 25 April 1882, Rivière took Hanoi without facing any resistance. Tự Đức informed the Chinese court that their tributary state was being attacked. In September 1882, 17 Chinese divisions (200,000 men) crossed the Sino-Vietnamese borders and occupied Lạng Sơn, Cao Bằng, Bac Ninh, and Thái Nguyên, under the pretext of defending against the French aggression.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Backed by the Chinese army and the prince Hoàng Kế Viêm, Liu Yongfu, and the Black Flags decided to attack Rivière. On 19 May 1883, the Black Flags ambushed and beheaded Rivière at the Second Battle of Cầu Giấy. When news of Rivière's death reached France, there was immediate outcry and demands for a response. The French Parliament quickly voted for the conquest of Vietnam. Tens of thousands of French and Chinese reinforcements poured into the Red River Delta.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Tự Đức died on 17 July. Succession trouble temporarily paralyzed the court. One of his nephews Nguyễn Phúc Ưng Ái was crowned as Emperor Dục Đức but was, however, imprisoned and executed after three days by the three powerful regents Nguyễn Văn Tường, Tôn Thất Thuyết and Tran Tien Thanh for unknown reasons. Tự Đức's brother Nguyễn Phúc Hồng Dật succeeded on 30 July as Emperor Hiệp Hòa. The senior Censorate official of the court Phan Đình Phùng denounced the three regents for their irregular handling of Tự Đức's succession. Tôn Thất Thuyết excoriated Phan Đình Phùng and sent him from the court to his home territory, where later he led a nationalist resistance movement against the French for ten years.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: To knock Vietnam out of the war, France decided to take a direct assault on the city of Huế. The French army split up itself into two parts: the smaller under General Bouët stayed in Hanoi and waited for reinforcement from France while the French fleet led by Amédée Courbet and Jules Harmand sailed to Thuận An, the sea gate of Hue on August 17. Harmand demanded the two regents Nguyễn Văn Tường and Tôn Thất Thuyết surrender Northern Vietnam, North-Central Vietnam (Thanh Hoá, Nghệ An, Hà Tĩnh) and Bình Thuận Province to French possession, and to accept a French résident in Huế who could demand royal audiences. He sent an ultimatum to the regents that "The name Vietnam will no longer exist in history" if they did not comply with this.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: On 18 August, French battleships began shelling Vietnamese positions in the Thuận An citadel. Two days later, at dawn, Courbet and the French marines landed on the shore. By the next morning, all Vietnamese defenses in Huế were overwhelmed by the French. Emperor Hiệp Hòa dispatched mandarin Nguyễn Thượng Bắc to negotiate.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: On 25 September, two court officials, Trần Đình Túc and Nguyễn Trọng Hợp signed a twenty-seven-article treaty known as Harmand Convention. The French were granted Bình Thuận; Đà Nẵng and Qui Nhơn were opened for trade; the ruling sphere of the Vietnamese monarchy was reduced to Central Vietnam while Northern Vietnam became a French Protectorate. In November, Emperor Hiệp Hòa and Trần Tiễn Thành were executed by Nguyễn Văn Tường and Tôn Thất Thuyết for their perceived pro-French sympathies. 14-year-old Nguyễn Phúc Ưng Đăng was crowned as Emperor Kiến Phúc. After achieving peace with China through the Tientsin Accord in May 1884, on 6 June the French Ambassador in China Jules Patenôtre des Noyers signed with Nguyen Van Tuong the Protectorate Treaty of Patenôtre, which confirmed French dominion over Vietnam. On 31 May 1885, France appointed the first governor of all Vietnam. On 9 June 1885, Vietnam ceased to exist after 83 years as an independent state. The leader of the pro-war faction, Tôn Thất Thuyết and his supporters revolted against the French in July 1885, but were forced to retreat to the Laotian highlands with the young emperor Hàm Nghi (Nguyễn Phúc Ưng Lịch.) Meanwhile the French installed his pro-French brother Nguyễn Phúc Ưng Kỷ as emperor Đồng Khánh. Thuyết called up the nobility, royalists and nationalists to arm for the resistance against the French occupation (Cần Vương movement). The movement lasted for 11 years (1885–1896) and Thuyết was forced to exile in China in 1888.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: The 1883 Treaty of Huế led to the rest of Vietnam becoming French protectorates, divided into the Protectorates of Annam and Tonkin. The terms were, however, considered overly harsh in French diplomatic circles and never ratified in France. The following 1884 Treaty of Huế provided a softened version of the previous treaty. The 1885 Treaty of Tientsin, which reaffirmed the 1884 Tientsin Accord and ended the Sino-French War, confirmed Vietnam's status as French protectorates and severed Vietnam's tributary relationship with the Qing dynasty by requiring that all of Vietnam's foreign affairs be conducted through France.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: After this the Nguyễn dynasty only nominally ruled the two French protectorates. Annam and Tonkin were combined with Cochinchina and the neighboring Cambodian protectorate in 1887 to form the Union of French Indochina, of which they became administrative components.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: French rule also added new ingredients to Vietnam's cultural stew: Catholicism and a Latin-based alphabet. The spelling used in the Vietnamese transliteration was Portuguese-based, because the French relied on a dictionary compiled earlier by a Portuguese cleric.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: While seeking to maximize the use of Indochina's natural resources and manpower to fight World War I, France cracked down on Vietnam's patriotic mass movements. Indochina (mainly Vietnam) had to provide France with 70,000 soldiers and 70,000 workers, who were forcibly drafted from villages to serve on the French battlefront. Vietnam also contributed 184 million piastres in loans and 336,000 tons of food.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Lacking a unified nationwide organization, the vigorous Vietnamese national movement failed to use the difficulties France had as a result of war to stage significant uprisings.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: In May 1916, sixteen-year-old emperor Duy Tân escaped from his palace to participate in an uprising of Vietnamese troops. The French were informed of the plan, and its leaders were arrested and executed. Duy Tân was deposed and exiled to the island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: Nationalist sentiment intensified in Vietnam (especially during and after the First World War), but uprisings and tentative efforts failed to obtain concessions from the French. The Russian Revolution greatly impacted 20th-century Vietnamese history.


title: Nguyễn dynasty

text: For Vietnam, the outbreak of World War II on 1 September 1939 was as decisive as the 1858 French seizure of Đà Nẵng. The Axis power of Japan invaded Vietnam on 22 September 1940, attempting to construct military bases to strike against Allied forces in Southeast Asia. This led to a period of Indochina under Japanese occupation with cooperation of the collaborationist Vichy French, who still retained administration of the colony. During this time the Viet Minh, a communist resistance movement, developed under Ho Chi Minh from 1941, with allied support. During a 1944–1945 famine in northern Vietnam, over one million people starved to death.