title: Euphorbia

text: Euphorbia all share the feature of having a poisonous, latex-like sap and unique floral structures. When viewed as a whole, the head of flowers looks like a single flower (a pseudanthium). It has a unique kind of pseudanthium, called a cyathium, where each flower in the head is reduced to its barest essential part needed for sexual reproduction. The individual flowers are either male or female, with the male flowers reduced to only the stamen, and the females to the pistil. These flowers have no sepals, petals, or other parts that are typical of flowers in other kinds of plants. Structures supporting the flower head and other structures underneath have evolved to attract pollinators with nectar, and with shapes and colors that function in a way petals and other flower parts do in other flowers. It is the only genus of plants that has all three kinds of photosynthesis, CAM, C3 and C4.


title: Euphorbia

text: The common name "spurge" derives from the Middle English/Old French "espurge" ("to purge"), due to the use of the plant's sap as a purgative. The botanical name "Euphorbia" derives from Euphorbos, the Greek physician of King Juba II of Numidia and Mauretania (52–50 BC – 23 AD), who married the daughter of Anthony and Cleopatra. Juba was a prolific writer on various subjects, including natural history. Euphorbos wrote that one of the cactus-like euphorbias (now called "Euphorbia obtusifolia" ssp. "regis-jubae") was used as a powerful laxative. In 12 BC, Juba named this plant after his physician Euphorbos, as Augustus Caesar had dedicated a statue to the brother of Euphorbos, Antonius Musa, who was the personal physician of Augustus. In 1753, botanist and taxonomist Carl Linnaeus assigned the name "Euphorbia" to the entire genus in the physician's honor.


title: Euphorbia

text: The plants are annual, biennial or perennial herbs, woody shrubs, or trees with a caustic, poisonous milky latex. The roots are fine or thick and fleshy or tuberous. Many species are more or less succulent, thorny, or unarmed. The main stem and mostly also the side arms of the succulent species are thick and fleshy, tall. The deciduous leaves may be opposite, alternate, or in whorls. In succulent species, the leaves are mostly small and short-lived. The stipules are mostly small, partly transformed into spines or glands, or missing.


title: Euphorbia

text: In "Euphorbia", flowers occur in a head, called the cyathium (plural cyathia). Each male or female flower in the cyathium head has only its essential sexual part, in males the stamen, and in females the pistil. The flowers do not have sepals, petals, or nectar to attract pollinators, although other nonflower parts of the plant have an appearance and nectar glands with similar roles. Euphorbias are the only plants known to have this kind of flower head.


title: Euphorbia

text: Nectar glands and nectar that attract pollinators are held in the involucre, a cup-like part below and supporting the cyathium head. The "involucre" in the genus "Euphorbia" is not to be confused with the "involucre" in family Asteraceae members, which is a collection of bracts called phyllaries, which surround and encase the unopened flower head, then support the receptacle under it after the flower head opens.


title: Euphorbia

text: The involucre is above and supported by bract-like modified leaf structures (usually in pairs) called cyathophylls', or cyathial leaves. The cyathophyll often has a superficial appearance of being petals of a flower.


title: Euphorbia

text: "Euphorbia" flowers are tiny, and the variation attracting different pollinators, with different forms and colors occurs, in the cyathium, involucre, cyathophyll, or additional parts such as glands that attached to these.


title: Euphorbia

text: The collection of many flowers may be shaped and arranged to appear collectively as a single individual flower, sometimes called a pseudanthium in the Asteraceae, and also in "Euphorbia".


title: Euphorbia

text: The majority of species are monoecious (bearing male and female flowers on the same plant), although some are dioecious with male and female flowers occurring on different plants. It is not unusual for the central cyathia of a cyme to be purely male, and for lateral cyathia to carry both sexes. Sometimes, young plants or those growing under unfavorable conditions are male only, and only produce female flowers in the cyathia with maturity or as growing conditions improve.


title: Euphorbia

text: The female flowers reduced to a single pistil usually split into three parts, often with two stigmas at each tip. Male flowers often have anthers in twos. Nectar glands usually occur in fives, may be as few as one, and may be fused into a "U" shape. The cyathophylls often occur in twos, are leaf-like, and may be showy and brightly coloured and attractive to pollinators, or be reduced to barely visible tiny scales.


title: Euphorbia

text: The fruits are three- or rarely two-compartment capsules, sometimes fleshy, but almost always ripening to a woody container that then splits open, sometimes explosively. The seeds are four-angled, oval, or spherical, and some species have a caruncle.


title: Euphorbia

text: In the genus "Euphorbia", succulence in the species has often evolved divergently and to differing degrees. Sometimes, it is difficult to decide, and is a question of interpretation, whether or not a species is really succulent or "only" xerophytic. In some cases, especially with geophytes, plants closely related to the succulents are normal herbs. About 850 species are succulent in the strictest sense. If one includes slightly succulent and xerophytic species, this figure rises to about 1000, representing about 45% of all "Euphorbia" species.


title: Euphorbia

text: The milky sap of spurges (called "latex") evolved as a deterrent to herbivores. It is white, and transparent when dry, except in "E. abdelkuri", where it is yellow. The pressurized sap seeps from the slightest wound and congeals after a few minutes in air. The skin-irritating and caustic effects are largely caused by varying amounts of diterpenes. Triterpenes such as betulin and corresponding esters are other major components of the latex. In contact with mucous membranes (eyes, nose, mouth), the latex can produce extremely painful inflammation. The sap has also been known to cause mild to extreme Keratouveitis, which affects vision. Therefore, spurges should be handled with caution and kept away from children and pets. Wearing eye protection while working in close contact with "Euphorbia" is advised. Latex on skin should be washed off immediately and thoroughly. Congealed latex is insoluble in water, but can be removed with an emulsifier such as milk or soap. A physician should be consulted if inflammation occurs, as severe eye damage including permanent blindness may result from exposure to the sap.


title: Euphorbia

text: The poisonous qualities were well known: in the Ethiopian "Kebra Nagast", the serpent king Arwe is killed with juice from the "Euphorbia".


title: Euphorbia

text: Several spurges are grown as garden plants, among them poinsettia ("E. pulcherrima") and the succulent "E. trigona". "E. pekinensis" () is used in traditional Chinese medicine, where it is regarded as one of the 50 fundamental herbs. Several "Euphorbia" species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), like the spurge hawkmoths ("Hyles euphorbiae" and "Hyles tithymali"), as well as the giant leopard moth.


title: Euphorbia

text: Ingenol mebutate, a drug used to treat actinic keratosis, is a diterpenoid found in "Euphorbia peplus".


title: Euphorbia

text: Among laypeople, "Euphorbia" species are among the plant taxa most commonly confused with cacti, especially the stem succulents. Euphorbias secrete a sticky, milky-white fluid with latex, but cacti do not. Individual flowers of euphorbias are usually tiny and nondescript (although structures around the individual flowers may not be), without petals and sepals, unlike cacti, which often have fantastically showy flowers. Euphorbias from desert habitats with growth forms similar to cacti have thorns, which are different from the spines of cacti.


title: Euphorbia

text: The present taxon ""Euphorbia"" corresponds to its own former subtribe, the Euphorbiinae. It has over 2000 species. Morphological description using the presence of a cyathium (see section above) is consistent with nuclear and chloroplast DNA sequence data in testing of about 10% of its members. This testing supports inclusion of formerly other genera as being best placed in this single genus, including "Chamaesyce, Monadenium, Pedilanthus", and poinsettia ("E. pulcherrima").


title: Euphorbia

text: Genetic tests have shown that similar flower head structures or forms within the genus, might not mean close ancestry within the genus. The genetic data show that within the genus, convergent evolution of inflorescence structures may be from ancestral subunits that are not related. So using morphology within the genus becomes problematic for further subgeneric grouping. As stated on the Euphorbia Planetary Biodiversity Inventory project webpage:


title: Euphorbia

text: According to a 2002 publication on studies of DNA sequence data, most of the smaller "satellite genera" around the huge genus "Euphorbia" nest deep within the latter. Consequently, these taxa, namely the never generally accepted genus "Chamaesyce", as well as the smaller genera "Cubanthus", "Elaeophorbia", "Endadenium", "Monadenium", "Synadenium",


title: Euphorbia

text: and "Pedilanthus" were transferred to "Euphorbia". The entire subtribe Euphorbiinae now consists solely of the genus "Euphorbia".


title: Euphorbia

text: "Euphorbia" has been extensively hybridised for garden use, with many cultivars available commercially. Moreover, some hybrid plants have been found growing in the wild, for instance "E." × "martini" Rouy, a cross of "E. amygdaloides" × "E. characias" subsp. "characias", found in southern France.


title: Euphorbia

text: The genus "Euphorbia" is one of the largest and most complex genera of flowering plants, and several botanists have made unsuccessful attempts to subdivide the genus into numerous smaller genera. According to the recent phylogenetic studies, "Euphorbia" can be divided into four subgenera, each containing several sections and groups. Of these, subgenus "Esula" is the most basal. The subgenera "Chamaesyce" and "Euphorbia" are probably sister taxa, but very closely related to subgenus "Rhizanthium". Extensive xeromorph adaptations in all probability evolved several times; it is not known if the common ancestor of the cactus-like "Rhizanthium" and "Euphorbia" lineages had been xeromorphic—in which case a more normal morphology would have re-evolved namely in "Chamaesyce"—or whether extensive xeromorphism is entirely polyphyletic even to the level of the subgenera.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: Walkers is a British snack food manufacturer mainly operating in the UK and Ireland. The company is best known for manufacturing potato crisps and other (non-potato-based) snack foods. In 2013, it held 56% of the British crisp market.<ref name="bbc.co.uk/food"></ref> Walkers was founded in 1948 in Leicester, England, by Henry Walker. In 1989, Walkers was acquired by Lay's owner, Frito-Lay, a division of PepsiCo.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: The Walkers factory in Leicester produces over 11 million bags of crisps per day, using about 800 tons of potatoes. According to the BBC television programme "Inside the Factory", production of a bag of crisps takes approximately 35 minutes from the moment the raw potatoes are delivered to the factory, to the point at which finished product leaves the dispatch bay for delivery to customers. The company produces a variety of flavours for its crisps. The three main varieties are: Cheese and Onion (introduced in 1954), Salt and Vinegar (introduced in 1967) and Ready Salted. Other varieties include: Worcester Sauce, Roast Chicken, Prawn Cocktail, Smoky Bacon, Tomato Ketchup, and Pickled Onion.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: The Leicester-born former England international footballer Gary Lineker has been the face of the brand since 1995, featuring in most of its popular commercials and successful advertising campaigns. For the 2011 Comic Relief, four celebrities each represented four new flavours. The Walkers brand (under PepsiCo) sponsors the UEFA Champions League and the Super Cup for the UK and Irish markets. In 2019, Walkers reunited with the Spice Girls, with the 1990s girl band featuring in a campaign.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: Since 2008, Walkers has run its "Do Us a Flavour" campaign, challenging the British public to think up unique flavours for its crisps. Six flavours were chosen from among the entries and released as special editions. Consumers could vote on their favourite, and the winner would become a permanent flavour. In 2018, Walkers launched six new flavours to celebrate the brand's seventieth birthday, with each flavour representing a different decade.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: In the 1880s, Walker moved from Mansfield to Leicester to take over an established butcher's shop in the high street. Meat rationing in the UK after World War II saw the factory output drop dramatically, and so in 1948 the company starting looking at alternative products. Potato crisps were becoming increasingly popular with the public; this led managing director R.E. Gerrard to shift the company focus and begin hand-slicing and frying potatoes.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: Prior to the 1950s crisps were sold without flavour; Smith's of London sold plain potato crisps which came with a small blue sachet of salt that could be sprinkled over them. The first crisps manufactured by Walkers in 1948 were sprinkled with salt and sold for threepence a bag. After Archer Martin and Richard Synge (while working in Leeds) received a Nobel Prize for the invention of partition chromatography in 1952, food scientists began to develop flavours via a gas chromatograph, a device that allowed scientists to understand chemical compounds behind complex flavours such as cheese. In 1954, the first flavoured crisps were invented by Joe “Spud” Murphy (owner of the Irish company Tayto) who developed a technique to add cheese and onion seasoning during production. Later that year, Walkers introduced Cheese and Onion (inspired by the Ploughman's lunch), and Salt and Vinegar was launched in 1967 (inspired by the nation's love of fish and chips). Prawn Cocktail flavour was introduced in the 1970s (inspired by the 1970s popular starter of prawn cocktail) and Roast Chicken (inspired by the nation's roast dinner). In 1989, the company was acquired by PepsiCo, which placed operations under its Frito-Lay unit.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: The Walkers logo, featuring a red ribbon around a yellow sun, is noticeably similar to Lay's. It derives from the Walkers logo used in 1990. The company is still a significant presence in Leicester. Gary Lineker, the Leicester-born former footballer, is now the face of the company. In 2000, Lineker's Walkers commercials were ranked ninth in Channel 4’s UK wide poll of "The 100 Greatest TV Ads". The official website states that an estimated "11 million people will eat a Walkers product every day". The company employs over 4,000 people in 15 locations around the UK.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: In June 1999, PepsiCo transferred ownership of its Walkers brands out of Britain and into a Swiss subsidiary, Frito-Lay Trading GmbH. Subsequently, according to "The Guardian", the "UK tax authorities managed to claw back less than a third of what they might" have received had an unchanged structure continued producing the same sort of level of UK profits and tax as Walkers Snack Foods had in 1998. In September 2001, Walkers ran a "Moneybags" promotion where £20, £10 and £5 notes were placed in special winning bags. This was very popular. However, two workers at a crisp factory were sacked after stealing cash prizes from bags on the production line.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: In February 2006, Walkers changed its brand label and typeset. It also announced it would reduce the saturated fat in its crisps by 70%. It started frying its crisps in "SunSeed" oil, as claiming the oil is higher in monounsaturated fat content than the standard sunflower oil which it had used previously, establishing its own sunflower farms in Ukraine and Spain to be able to produce sufficient quantities of the oil. Walkers updated its packaging style in June 2007, moving to a brand identity reminiscent of the logo used from 1998 to 2006.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: Many of Walkers brands were formerly branded under the Smiths Crisps name. This comes from the time when Walkers, Smiths and Tudor Crisps were the three main brands of Nabisco's UK snack division, with Tudor being marketed mainly in the north of England and Smiths in the south. After the takeover by PepsiCo, the Tudor name was dropped, and the Smiths brand has become secondary to Walkers. The only products retaining the Smiths brand are Salt & Vinegar and Ready Salted Chipsticks, Frazzles and the "Savoury Selection", which includes Bacon Flavour Fries, Scampi Flavour Fries and Cheese Flavoured Moments. To promote the freshness of its products, Walkers began to package them in foil bags from 1993, then from 1996, began filling them with nitrogen instead of air.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: In 1997, Walkers became the brand name of Quavers and Monster Munch snacks. In January 1999, Walkers launched Max, a brand with a range of crisps and then a new-look Quavers in March 1999. In April 2000, another of the Max flavours called Red Hot Max was launched and then Naked Max in June 2000. In February 2000, a new-look Cheetos was relaunched, serving as the only cheesy snack in the UK. In July 2000, Quavers were relaunched and then a picture of the multipack. In March 2001, Walkers bought Squares, a range of snacks from Smiths. in. November 2001, more Max flavours were introduced. They included chargrilled steak and chip shop curry.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: In May 2002, Walkers launched Sensations. Sensations flavours include Thai Sweet Chilli, Roast Chicken & Thyme, Balsamic Vinegar & Caramelised Onion. Walkers introduced the streaky bacon Quavers flavour to salt & vinegar and prawn cocktail in August 2002.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: In January 2003, Smiths brands Salt 'n' Shake, Scampi Fries and Bacon Fries were relaunched under the Walkers identity. In January 2003 Walkers bought Wotsits from Golden Wonder, which replaced Cheetos during December 2002. In April 2004, Walkers launched a Flamin' Hot version of Wotsits, which replaced BBQ beef, and then Wotsits Twisted, a range of cheese puffs in July 2004. In September 2007, Walkers launched Sunbites, a healthier range of lower/better fat crisps made using whole grains.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: In July 2008, Walkers launched its "Do Us a Flavour" campaign, challenging the public to think up unique flavours for its crisps. In January 2009 six flavours were chosen from among the entries and released as special editions, available until May 2009. During this period, consumers could vote on their favourite, and the winner would become a permanent flavour. The winner was Builder's Breakfast by Emma Rushin from Belper in Derbyshire. This flavour was discontinued a year later, in May 2010, in order for Walkers to focus on the upcoming 'Flavour Cup'.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: In summer 2009, Walkers launched its premium "Red Sky" brand of "all natural" potato crisps and snacks. It was stated that Red Sky products were made from 100% natural ingredients, and that the makers "work in partnership with Cool Earth", a charity that protects endangered rainforest; Walkers made charitable donations proportionate to the number of purchases of Red Sky snacks. Walkers discontinued the range in 2014 following poor sales.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: In April 2010, the company launched a promotional campaign entitled the "Walkers Flavour Cup" in order to locate the world's most loved and favourite flavour. In the end, it was decided that the flavour with the most fans at the end of the tournament/competition would be declared the winner and ultimate champion of all flavours. Walkers encouraged people to engage in social media activity, and upload photos and videos to its website proving people's Superfan status of Walkers Crisps. The best fan from each of the 15 flavours won £10,000. In the end, English roast beef & Yorkshire pudding won the Flavour Cup.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: For the 2011 Comic Relief, four celebrities (Jimmy Carr, Stephen Fry, Al Murray and Frank Skinner) each represented four new flavours. In early 2013, Walkers revised its packaging, with a new design and typeface. Slogans such as 'Distinctively Salt & Vinegar' and 'Classically Ready Salted' were added to the front of packs. The previous packaging design had only existed for 12 months. Along with this packaging design, there came news that the company would begin using real meat products in its Smoky Bacon and Roast Chicken flavoured crisps. This prompted opposition from vegetarians, vegans, Muslims and Jews, who were now unable to eat these flavours.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: In 2014, Lineker launched a new "Do Us a Flavour" Walkers competition which encouraged people to submit new flavours of crisps, with the best six being sold later in the year before a public vote to decide the winner. The winner would win £1m. The public had to pick one of Walkers' ingredients as a base – Somerset Cheddar, Devonshire chicken, Norfolk pork, Dorset sour cream, Vale of Evesham tomatoes and Aberdeen Angus beef – then choose their own unique flavour.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: In 2015, Walkers launched the "Bring me Back" campaign, reintroducing Barbecue, Cheese and Chive, Beef and Onion, Lamb and Mint and Toasted Cheese flavours for a limited time. People voted on the Walkers website or used hashtags to see which flavour would be reintroduced permanently (Beef and Onion was chosen). The Marmite flavour was also brought back permanently to coincide with the promotion.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: On 10 April 2016, Walkers launched the Spell and Go promotion, again fronted by Gary Lineker. This competition caused some controversy as customers complained that it was impossible to win. The fairness of the competition was discussed on "You and Yours", the consumer show on BBC Radio 4. Over 100 entrants complained to the Advertising Standards Authority, who after completing an investigation, decided that elements were misleading, and the competition was banned.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: As of 2018, Walkers came under pressure from campaigners to change its packaging due to its contribution to litter and plastic pollution. As part of the protest a marine biology student wore a crisp packet dress to her graduation. She claimed the dress was inspired by litter she had seen on a beach. In September 2018, the Royal Mail appealed to customers to stop posting empty crisp packets to Walkers, which campaigners had asked people to do and "flood Walkers social media with pictures of us popping them in the post". Royal Mail was obliged by law to deliver the bags to Walkers' freepost address, but without envelopes they could not go through machines and had to be sorted by hand, causing delays.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: Walkers' most common flavours of regular crisp are Ready Salted (sold in a red packet), Salt & Vinegar (green), Cheese & Onion (blue), Smoky Bacon (maroon) and Prawn Cocktail (pink). Other flavours are sold in other coloured packets, such as Beef & Onion (brown), Marmite (black), and Worcester sauce (purple). The unusual colours for Walkers packaging with Salt & Vinegar (in green, with other brands in blue), and Cheese & Onion (in blue, with other brands in green) has been debated in the UK, with some believing Walkers switched the colours; however, Walkers have stated that they have always had that colour scheme. Actress Thandiwe Newton joked, ’Salt ‘n Vinegar is BLUE, and Cheese and Onion is GREEN. Ok? Enough with this foolishness.’


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: Some flavours were made available for a short time either because they tied in with special promotions, or failed to meet sales expectations. Walkers' "Great British Dinner" range included baked ham & mustard and chicken tikka. A series of "mystery flavours" were launched in 2012, and later revealed to be sour cream & spring onion, Lincolnshire sausage & brown sauce, and Birmingham chicken balti. In 2016, Walkers produced a limited edition 'Winners - Salt and Victory' crisps to commemorate its home-town football team, Leicester City, winning the Premier League for the first time. Earlier that season, Walkers had given Leicester fans in attendance at a match versus Chelsea bags of "Vardy salted" crisps, bearing the image of the Foxes' striker.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: In January 2019, Walkers unveiled new packaging for its main range, celebrating its British heritage through its design. The new packaging features the Walkers logo in the middle of each packet rather than centre-top, alongside a new series of illustrations which are laid out in the shape of a Union Jack flag, and feature icons and landmarks such as London's Big Ben and red telephone boxes, and Liverpool's Liver Building.


title: Walkers (snack foods)

text: According to the environmental charity Keep Britain Tidy, Walkers crisps packets along with Cadbury chocolate wrappers and Coca-Cola cans were the three top brands that were the most common pieces of rubbish found in UK streets in 2013. In December 2018, Walkers launched a recycling scheme for crisp packets after it was targeted by protests on the issue. Three months after its launch more than half a million empty packets were recycled. However, as UK consumers eat 6 billion packets of crisps per year, with Walkers producing 11 million packets per day, the campaign organisation 38 Degrees noted this represents only a small fraction of the number of packets made and sold annually.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: In neurology, anterograde amnesia is the inability to create new memories after the event that caused amnesia, leading to a partial or complete inability to recall the recent past, while long-term memories from before the event remain intact. This is in contrast to retrograde amnesia, where memories created prior to the event are lost while new memories can still be created. Both can occur together in the same patient. To a large degree, anterograde amnesia remains a mysterious ailment because the precise mechanism of storing memories is not yet well understood, although it is known that the regions of the brain involved are certain sites in the temporal cortex, especially in the hippocampus and nearby subcortical regions.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: People with anterograde amnesic syndromes may present with widely varying degrees of forgetfulness. Some with severe cases have a combined form of anterograde and retrograde amnesia, sometimes called global amnesia.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: In the case of drug-induced amnesia, it may be short-lived and patients can recover from it. In the other case, which has been studied extensively since the early 1970s, patients often have permanent damage, although some recovery is possible, depending on the nature of the pathophysiology. Usually, some capacity for learning remains, although it may be very elementary. In cases of pure anterograde amnesia, patients have recollections of events prior to the injury, but cannot recall day-to-day information or new facts presented to them after the injury occurred.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: In most cases of anterograde amnesia, patients lose declarative memory, or the recollection of facts, but they retain nondeclarative memory, often called procedural memory. For instance, they are able to remember and in some cases learn how to do things such as talking on the phone or riding a bicycle, but they may not remember what they had eaten earlier that day for lunch. One extensively studied anterograde amnesiac patient, codenamed H.M., demonstrated that despite his amnesia preventing him from learning new declarative information, procedural memory consolidation was still possible, albeit severely reduced in power. He, along with other patients with anterograde amnesia, were given the same maze to complete day after day. Despite having no memory of having completed the maze the day before, unconscious practice of completing the same maze over and over reduced the amount of time needed to complete it in subsequent trials. From these results, Corkin et al. concluded despite having no declarative memory (i.e. no conscious memory of completing the maze exists), the patients still had a working procedural memory (learning done unconsciously through practice). This supports the notion that declarative and procedural memory are consolidated in different areas of the brain. In addition, patients have a diminished ability to remember the temporal context in which objects were presented. Certain authors claim the deficit in temporal context memory is more significant than the deficit in semantic learning ability (described below).


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: This disorder is usually acquired in one of four ways: One cause is benzodiazepine drugs such as midazolam, flunitrazepam, lorazepam, temazepam, nitrazepam, triazolam, clonazepam, alprazolam, diazepam, and nimetazepam; all of these are known to have powerful amnesic effects. This has also been recorded in non-benzodiazepine sedatives or "z-drugs" which act on the same set of receptors; such as zolpidem (also known as Ambien), eszopiclone (also known as Lunesta), and zopiclone (also known by brand names Imovane and Zimovane). A second cause is a traumatic brain injury in which damage is usually done to the hippocampus or surrounding cortices. It may also be caused by a PTSD, a shocking event, or an emotional disorder.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: Illness, though much rarer, can also cause anterograde amnesia if it causes encephalitis, which is the inflammation of brain tissue. There are several types of encephalitis: one such is herpes simplex encephalitis (HSV), which, if left untreated, can lead to neurological deterioration. How HSV gains access to the brain is unknown; the virus shows a distinct predilection for certain parts of the brain. Initially, it is present in the limbic cortices; it may then spread to the adjacent frontal and temporal lobes. Damage to specific areas can result in reduced or eliminated ability to encode new explicit memories, giving rise to anterograde amnesia. Patients with anterograde amnesia may have episodic, semantic, or both types of explicit memory impaired for events after the trauma that caused the amnesia. This suggests that memory consolidation for different types of memory takes place in different regions of the brain. Despite this, current knowledge on human memory is still insufficient to "map out" the wiring of a human brain to discover which parts of which lobe are responsible for the various episodic and semantic knowledge within a person's memory.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: Amnesia is seen in patients who, for the reason of preventing another more serious disorder, have parts of their brains known to be involved in memory circuits removed, the most notable of which is known as the medial temporal lobe (MTL) memory system, described below. Patients with seizures originating in the MTL may have either side or both structures removed (there is one structure per hemisphere). In addition, patients with tumors who undergo surgery will often sustain damage to these structures, as is described in a case below. Damage to any part of this system, including the hippocampus and surrounding cortices, results in amnesic syndromes. This is why after a stroke people have a chance of developing cognitive deficits that result in anterograde amnesia, since strokes can involve the temporal lobe in the temporal cortex, and the temporal cortex houses the hippocampus.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: Finally, anterograde amnesia can be the first clinical sign that Alzheimer's disease develops in within the brain. Although later the complications can be much more widespread and strongly impair cognitive processes, at the initial stage of Alzheimer's the changes observed can be restricted to anterograde amnesia and a mild deficit in retaining newly learnt sequences. This is explained by the fact that the disease is initiated within the medial temporal lobe and first affacts the entorhinal cortex that directly sends and receives information from the hippocampal formation.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: Anterograde amnesia can also be caused by alcohol intoxication, a phenomenon commonly known as a blackout. Studies show rapid rises in blood alcohol concentration over a short period of time severely impair or in some cases completely block the brain's ability to transfer short-term memories created during the period of intoxication to long-term memory for storage and later retrieval. Such rapid rises are caused by drinking large amounts of alcohol in short periods of time, especially on an empty stomach, as the dilution of alcohol by food slows the absorption of alcohol. Alcohol-related anterograde amnesia is directly related to the rate of consumption of alcohol (and is often associated with binge drinking), and not just the total amount of alcohol consumed in a drinking episode. Test subjects have been found not to experience amnesia when drinking slowly, despite being heavily intoxicated by the end of the experiment. When alcohol is consumed at a rapid rate, the point at which most healthy people's long-term memory creation starts to fail usually occurs at approximately 0.20% BAC, but can be reached as low as 0.14% BAC for infrequent drinkers. The exact duration of these blackout periods is hard to determine, because most people fall asleep before they end. Upon reaching sobriety, usually after waking, long-term memory creation is completely restored.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: Chronic alcoholism often leads to a thiamine (vitamin B) deficiency in the brain, causing Korsakoff's syndrome, a neurological disorder which is generally preceded by an acute neurological condition known as Wernicke's encephalopathy (WE).


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: The memory impairment that is pathognomonic to Korsakoff's syndrome predominantly affects the declarative memory, leaving non-declarative memory that is often procedural in nature relatively intact. The disproportionate severity in anterograde episodic memory processes in contrast to other cognitive processes is what differentiates Korsakoff syndrome from other conditions such as alcohol-related dementia. Evidence for the preservation of certain memory processes in the presence of severe anterograde episodic memory serve as experimental paradigm to investigate the components of human memory.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: The pathophysiology of anterograde amnesic syndromes varies with the extent of damage and the regions of the brain that were damaged. The most well-described regions indicated in this disorder are the medial temporal lobe (MTL), basal forebrain, and fornix. Beyond the details described below, the precise process of how we remember – on a micro scale – remains a mystery. Neuropsychologists and scientists are still not in total agreement over whether forgetting is due to faulty encoding, accelerated forgetting, or faulty retrieval, although a great deal of data seem to point to the encoding hypothesis. In addition, neuroscientists are also in disagreement about the length of time involved in memory consolidation. Though most researchers, including Hasselmo et al., have found the consolidation process is spread out over several hours before transitioning from a fragile to a more permanent state, others, including Brown et al., posit that memory consolidation can take months or even years in a drawn-out process of consolidation and reinforcement. Further research into the length of time of memory consolidation will shed more light on why anterograde amnesia sometimes affects some memories gained after the event(s) that caused the amnesia, but does not affect other such memories.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: The MTL memory system includes the hippocampal formation (CA fields, dentate gyrus, subicular complex), perirhinal, entorhinal, and parahippocampal cortices. It is known to be important for the storage and processing of declarative memory, which allows for factual recall. It is also known to communicate with the neocortex in the establishment and maintenance of long-term memories, although its known functions are independent of long-term memory. Nondeclarative memory, on the other hand, which allows for the performance of different skills and habits, is not part of the MTL memory system. Most data point to a "division of labor" among the parts of this system, although this is still being debated and is described in detail below.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: In animal models, researchers have shown monkeys with damage to both the hippocampus and its adjacent cortical regions were more severely impaired in terms of anterograde amnesia than monkeys with damage localized to hippocampal structures. However, conflicting data in another primate study point to the observation that the amount of tissue damaged does not necessarily correlate with the severity of the memory loss. Furthermore, the data do not explain the dichotomy that exists in the MTL memory system between episodic memory and semantic memory (described below).


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: An important finding in amnesic patients with MTL damage is the impairment of memory in all sensory modalities – sound, touch, smell, taste, and sight. This reflects the fact that the MTL is a processor for all of the sensory modalities, and helps store these kind of thoughts into memory. In addition, subjects can often remember how to perform relatively simple tasks immediately (on the order of 10 seconds), but when the task becomes more difficult, even on the same time scale, subjects tend to forget. This demonstrates the difficulty of separating procedural memory tasks from declarative memory; some elements of declarative memory may be used in learning procedural tasks.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: MTL amnesic patients with localized damage to the hippocampus retain other perceptual abilities, such as the ability to intelligently function in society, to make conversation, to make one's bed, etc. Additionally, anterograde amnesics without combined retrograde disorders (localized damage to the MTL system) have memories prior to the traumatic event. For this reason, the MTL is not the storage place of all memories; other regions in the brain also store memories. The key is the MTL is responsible for the learning of new materials.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: A limited number of cases have been described in which patients with damage to other parts of the brain acquired anterograde amnesia. Easton and Parker observed damage to either the hippocampus or the surrounding cortices does not seem to result in severe amnesia in primate models. They suggested damage to the hippocampus and surrounding structures alone does not explain the amnesia they saw in patients, or increasing damage does not correlate with the degree of impairment. Furthermore, the data do not explain the dichotomy that exists in the MTL memory system between episodic and semantic memory. To demonstrate their hypothesis, they used a primate model with damage to the basal forebrain. They proposed that the disruption of neurons that project from the basal forebrain to the MTL are responsible for some of the impairment in anterograde amnesia. Easton and Parker also reported MRI scans of patients with severe anterograde amnesia showed damage beyond to cortical areas around the hippocampus and amygdala (a region of brain involved in emotions) and to surrounding white matter (white matter in the brain consists of axons, long projections of neuronal cell bodies).


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: Another case described the onset of anterograde amnesia as a result of cell death in the fornix, another structure that carries information from the hippocampus to the structures of the limbic system and the diencephalon. The patient in this case did not show any disconnection syndrome, which is unexpected since the structures involved divide the brain hemispheres (both sides of her brain were able to communicate). Instead, she showed signs of amnesia. The final diagnosis was made by MRI. This particular amnesic syndrome is difficult to diagnose and often is misdiagnosed by physicians as an acute psychiatric disorder.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: When there is damage to just one side of the MTL, there is opportunity for normal functioning or near-normal function for memories. Neuroplasticity describes the ability of the cortex to remap when necessary. Remapping can occur in cases like the one above and with time the patient can recover and become more skilled at memory retention. A case report describing a patient who had two lobectomies – in the first, doctors removed part of her right MTL first because of seizures originating from the region, and later her left because she developed a tumor – demonstrates this. This case is unique because it is the only one in which both sides of the MTL were removed at different times. The authors observed that the patient was able to recover some ability to learn when she had only one MTL, but observed the deterioration of function when both sides of the MTL were affected. The reorganization of brain function for epileptic patients has had limited investigation, but imaging results show that it may occur.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: Approaches used to treat those with anterograde amnesia often use interventions which focus on compensatory techniques, such as beepers, written notes, diaries or through intensive training programs involving the active participation of the individual concerned, along with their supporting network of family and friends.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: In this perspective, environmental adaptation techniques are used, such as the compensatory technique education to training (exercise), organizational strategies, visual imagery and verbal labeling. In addition, other techniques are also used in rehabilitation, such as implicit tasks, speech and mnemotechnic methods.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: So far, it has been proven that education techniques of compensatory strategies for memory disorders are effective in individuals with minor traumatic brain injuries. In moderately or severely injured individuals, effective interventions are those appealing to external aids, such as reminders in order to facilitate particular knowledge or skill acquisition. Reality orientation techniques are also considered; their purpose is to enhance orientation using stimulation and repetition of the basic orientation information. These techniques are regularly applied in populations of patients primarily presenting with dementia and head injuries.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: As described above, patients with anterograde amnesia have a wide range of forgetfulness. Declarative memory can be further subdivided into episodic and semantic memory. Episodic memory is the recollection of autobiographical information with a temporal and/or spatial context, whereas semantic memory involves recall of factual information with no such association (language, history, geography, etc.). In a case study of a girl who developed anterograde amnesia during childhood, it was determined that the patient ("C.L.") retained semantic memory while having an extreme impairment of episodic memory.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: One patient, known by the codename "Gene", was involved in a motorcycle accident that damaged significant portions of his frontal and temporal lobes, including his left hippocampus. As a result, he cannot remember any specific episode in his life, such as a train derailment near his house. However, his semantic memory is intact; he remembers that he owns a car and two motorcycles, and he can even remember the names of his classmates in a school photograph.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: In stark contrast, a woman whose temporal lobes were damaged in the front due to encephalitis lost her semantic memory; she lost her memory of many simple words, historical events, and other trivial information categorized under semantic memory. However, her episodic memory was left intact; she can recall episodes such as her wedding and her father's death with great detail.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: Vicari et al. describe that it remains unclear whether neural circuits involved in semantic and episodic memory overlap partially or completely, and this case seems to suggest that the two systems are independent. Both of the patient's hippocampal and diencephalic structures on the right and left sides were disconnected. When C.L. came to Vicari et al.'s office, her chief complaint was forgetfulness involving both semantic and episodic memory. After administering a battery of neuropsychological tests, Vicari determined that C.L. performed well in tests of visual naming and sentence comprehension, visual-spatial ability, and "general semantic knowledge about the world". They also noted an improved vocabulary and general knowledge base after 18 months. C.L.'s episodic memory, on the other hand, was far below expectations: She could not retain daily events, where she had gone on vacation, the names of places she had been, and other such information. However, this study and others like it are susceptible to subjectivity, since it is not always possible to clearly distinguish between episodic and semantic memory. For this reason, the topic remains controversial and debated.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: The right hippocampus is clearly necessary for familiarity in spatial tasks, whereas the left hippocampus is necessary for familiarity-based recollection in verbal tasks. Some researchers claim the hippocampus is important for the retrieval of memories, whereas adjacent cortical regions can support familiarity-based memories. These memory decisions are made based on matching already-existing memories (before the onset of pathology) to the current situation. According to Gilboa et al., patients with localized hippocampal damage can score well on a test if it is based on familiarity.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: Poreh et al. describe a case study of patient A.D., whose damage to the fornix rendered the hippocampus useless, but spared adjacent cortical areas – a fairly rare injury. When the patient was given a test with something with which he had some familiarity, the patient was able to score well. In general, however, A.D. had severely impaired episodic memory, but had some ability to learn semantic knowledge. Other studies show animals with similar injuries can recognize objects with which they are familiar, but, when the objects are presented in an unexpected context, they do not score well on recognition tests.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: Patients with anterograde amnesia have trouble recalling new information and new autobiographical events, but the data are less consistent in regard to the latter. Medveds and Hirst recorded the presence of islands of memory – detailed accounts – that were described by such patients. The island memories were a combination of semantic and episodic memories. The researchers recorded patients giving long narratives with a fair amount of detail that resembled memories that the patients had prior to the trauma. The appearance of islands of memory could have something to do with the functioning of adjacent cortical areas and the neocortex. In addition, the researchers suspect that the amygdala played a role in the narratives.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: The most famous case reported is that of patient Henry Molaison, known as H.M., in March 1953. Molaison's chief complaint was the persistence of severe seizures and therefore had a bilateral lobectomy (both of his medial temporal lobes were removed). As a result, Molaison had bilateral damage to both the hippocampal formation and the perirhinal cortex. Molaison had average intelligence and perceptual ability and a decent vocabulary. However, he could not learn new words or remember things that had happened more than a few minutes earlier. He could remember anything from his childhood. If the memory was created from before his lobectomy, he still had the ability to retrieve it and remember. However, he was able to learn some new skills. He was the first well-documented case of severe anterograde amnesia, and was studied until his death in 2008.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: A similar case involved Clive Wearing, an accomplished musicologist who contracted a cold sore virus that attacked his brain, causing herpes simplex encephalitis. As a result, Wearing developed both anterograde and retrograde amnesia, so he has little memory of what happened before the virus struck him in 1985, and cannot learn new declarative knowledge after the virus struck him either. As a result of anterograde amnesia, Wearing repeatedly "wakes up" every day usually in 30-second intervals. He has a history of repeatedly recording these moments of waking up in his journal (e.g., On Sept 2, 2013, I woke up, etc. etc.) and crossing out prior entries, as if the other moments of waking up were not real. His episodic memory is nonfunctional (so he does not consciously recall having woken up 30 seconds prior). Clive is often elated to see his wife, as if he has not seen her for a while. Despite this, however, Wearing maintained his ability to play the piano and conduct choirs. This case is significant because it demonstrates declarative and procedural memory are separate. Therefore, despite anterograde amnesia preventing Wearing from learning new bits of information that can be explained in words (declarative memory), and also preventing him from storing new memories of events or episodes (also part of declarative memory), he has little trouble in retaining his musical abilities (procedural memory), though he has no conscious memory of having learned music.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: Another case in the literature is Eugene Pauly, known as E.P., a severely amnesic patient (owing to viral encephalitis) who was able to learn three-word sentences. He performed better on consecutive tests over a 12-week period (24 study sessions). However, when asked how confident he was about the answers, his confidence did not appear to increase. Bayley and Squire proposed his learning was similar to the process required by procedural memory tasks; E.P. could not get the answers right when one word in the three-word sentence was changed or the order of words was changed, and his ability to answer correctly, thus, became more of a "habit". Bayley and Squire claim the learning may have happened in the neocortex, and it happened without the conscious knowledge of E.P. They hypothesized the information may be acquired directly by the neocortex (to which the hippocampus projects) when there is repetition. This case illustrates the difficulty in separating procedural from declarative tasks; this adds another dimension to the complexity of anterograde amnesia.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: Notable examples include Lucy Whitmore in "50 First Dates", Jonathan Archer in the "" episode "", Joseph Gordon-Levitt in "The Lookout", Kaori Fujimiya in "One Week Friends", Chihiro Shindou in "", Christine Lucas in "Before I Go to Sleep", Gus in "Remember Sunday".


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: Christopher Nolan's psychological crime film "Memento" (2000) contains a distinguished depiction of anterograde amnesia, in that the memory-impaired protagonist Leonard Shelby is trying to identify and kill the man who raped and murdered his wife, and does so through a system of writing crucial details related to the search on his body and on the blank spaces of Polaroid photographs. Mental health experts have described "Memento" as one of the most accurate depictions of amnesia in film history, an accuracy that was enhanced by the film's fragmented, non-linear structure that mimics the protagonist's memory problems.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: Dory, the happy-go-lucky Regal Blue Tang from "Finding Nemo" (2003) and "Finding Dory" (2016), suffers from anterograde amnesia. While Dory forgets conversations within minutes of having them, she never quite forgets who she is, or the fact that she has short-term memory loss, and can therefore explain her bizarre behavior to those around her.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: "Ghajini" (2008), a Hindi language film of India based on "Memento", in which the main protagonist Sanjay Singhania played by Amir Khan has short-term memory loss, this variant of amnesia. In the film he is behind Ghajini, the killer of his fiancée Kalpana.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: In the TV series "Perception", an episode revolved around a crime victim with this condition. The main character Latro in Gene Wolfe's novels "Soldier of the Mist", and the anime characters Vash the Stampede from Trigun and Index and Tōma from "A Certain Magical Index" had both retrograde and anterograde amnesia. The disorder has also been portrayed in music by English the Caretaker in "Theoretically Pure Anterograde Amnesia" (2005).


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: In the 1965 film "36 Hours", Rod Taylor plays Nazi Major Walter Gerber, a psychiatrist who has developed an effective method for treating German soldiers with what is now known as PTSDand for painlessly extracting information from Allied prisoners. The technique involves convincing patients that years have passed, the war is over, and that they have anterograde amnesia, which supposedly can be cured with talk therapy. A few days before D-Day, U.S. Army Major Jeff Pike (James Garner) is drugged, kidnapped and taken to what appears to be a hospital run by American Occupation Forces, where his appearance is altered overnight. Pike knows that the invasion is aimed at Normandy, not Pas de Calais, as the Nazi high command expects. He buys Gerber's explanation of anterograde amnesiausing the double doors of a wardrobe as illustrationand speaks casually of Normandy. Salt in a papercut alerts him to the horrible truth, and the drama proceeds from there.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: In the 2011 light novel "Danganronpa Zero", the protagonist and "Ultimate Analyst" Ryoko Otonashi has anterograde amnesia as a result of "The Tragedy", keeping note of her memories by writing into a journal at all times and using her speedreading to keep herself up to date. Seen to be her boyfriend and "Ultimate Neurologist" Yasuke Matsuda, Ryoko witnesses a murder committed by Junko Enoshima, before being mistaken for wanted murderer and Tragedy perpetrator Izuru Kamukura by the "Ultimate Bodyguard" Madarai octuplets. After teaming up with perverted "Ultimate Secret Agent" Yuto Kamishiro in an attempt to discover the perpetrator behind the Tragedy, Ryoko learns that she herself was personally involved in the event as the true Junko, the Junko she met having been her non-identical twin sister Mukuro Ikusaba (with whom she shared Matsuda as a boyfriend) attempting to trigger her memories, which Matsuda had been suppressing on Junko's own request both to clear her of suspicion in the events off the Tragedy, attempt to cure her depression, and test wiping the memories of others. Attempting to subdue Ryoko, Matsuda accidentally restores her memories of being Junko and his fatally stabbed, before wishing Junko success in her planned actions with Izuru and Mukuro: collapsing world society and launching a "killing game".


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: In the 2016 video game , the character Sorin Sprocket is eventually revealed to have anterograde amnesia, which he developed after unintentionally causing a car accident which killed his sister. This causes his memories to completely reset every time he wakes up from sleeping, to the day after this accident. This depiction is notable for demonstrating the relationship issues that arise between Sorin and his fiancée, Ellen Wyatt, as a result of this disorder, most noticeably with how Sorin's feelings towards her to coming across as distant and cold. As the storyline continues, however, the player comes to uncover that Sorin in fact deeply loves his fiancée, and is able to maintain this love despite his disorder, but in fact feels a sense of guilt over the fact that he has to constantly remind himself of the fact that this love exists inside of him every day, due to his disorder. It is also noticeable in that it depicts how Sorin deals with his disorder, by keeping a journal where he writes down every detail of every day after his sister's death. He carries this journal around everywhere he goes as a substitution to his memories, and uses what is written in the notebook to become aware each time he wakes up of the fact that he has his condition, what the current date apparently is, and everything important that have apparently occurred on every day since he first developed the condition. The episode also deals with legal issues concerning the disorder, when it is debated during Ellen Wyatt's trial as to whether Sorin's journal can be considered a proper substitution to his memories for the sake of viable witness testimony. Dangers imposed by this also come into play when it is revealed that a page in Sorin's journal had been altered by someone, which causes him to go into mental collapse that any of his other memories and thoughts could also have arisen from someone else's manipulation.


title: Anterograde amnesia

text: In the episode "Pimemento" of "Brooklyn Nine-Nine", Adrian Pimento develops an artificial form of anterograde amnesia after being drugged by his therapist, which is a main plot point of the episode.


title: Jim Crow (character)

text: The Jim Crow persona is a theater character — developed and popularized by Thomas D. Rice (1808–1860) — and a racist depiction of African-Americans and of their culture. Rice based the character on a folk trickster named Jim Crow that had long been popular among black slaves. Rice also adapted and popularized a traditional slave song called "Jump Jim Crow" (1828).


title: Jim Crow (character)

text: The character conventionally dresses in rags and wears a battered hat and torn shoes. Rice applied blackface makeup made of burnt cork to his face and hands and impersonated a very nimble and irreverently witty African-American field-hand who sang, "Come listen all you galls and boys, I'm going to sing a little song, my name is Jim Crow, weel about and turn about and do jis so, eb'ry time I weel about I jump Jim Crow."


title: Jim Crow (character)

text: The actual origin of the Jim Crow character has been lost to legend. One story claims it is Rice's emulation of a black slave that he had seen on his travels throughout the Southern United States, whose owner was one Mr. Crow. Several sources describe Rice encountering an elderly black stableman working in one of the river towns where Rice was performing. According to some accounts, the man had a crooked leg and a deformed shoulder. He was singing about Jim Crow and punctuating each stanza with a little jump. According to Edmon S. Conner, an actor who worked with Rice early in his career, the alleged encounter happened in Louisville, Kentucky. Conner and Rice were both engaged for a summer season at the city theater, which at the back overlooked a livery stable. An elderly and deformed slave working in the stable yard often performed a song and dance he had improvised for his own amusement. The actors saw him, and Rice "watched him closely, and saw that there was a character unknown to the stage. He wrote several verses, changed the air somewhat, quickened it a good deal, made up exactly like Daddy, and sang it to a Louisville audience. They were wild with delight..." According to Conner, the livery stable was owned by a white man named Crow, whose name the elderly slave adopted.


title: Jim Crow (character)

text: A more likely explanation behind the origin of the character is that Rice had observed and absorbed African American traditional song and dance over many years. He grew up in a racially integrated Manhattan neighborhood, and later Rice toured the Southern slave states. According to the reminiscences of Isaac Odell, a former minstrel who described the development of the genre in an interview given in 1907, Rice appeared on stage at Louisville, Kentucky, in the 1830s and learned there to mimic local black speech: "Coming to New York he opened up at the old Park Theatre, where he introduced his Jim Crow act, impersonating a black slave. He sang a song, 'I Turn About and Wheel About', and each night composed new verses for it, catching on with the public and making a great name for himself."


title: Jim Crow (character)

text: Rice's famous stage persona eventually lent its name to a generalized negative and stereotypical view of black people. The shows peaked in the 1850s, and after Rice's death in 1860 interest in them faded. There was still some memory of them in the 1870s however, just as the "Jim Crow" segregation laws were surfacing in the United States. The Jim Crow period was later revived by President Woodrow Wilson: after he saw a showing of the motion picture "The Birth of a Nation", which glorified the Ku Klux Klan and portrayed black people as rapists and animals, in the first-ever movie viewing in the White House, he signed segregation laws that first targeted black people in government. Ida B. Wells, a well known black Republican journalist and a co-founder of the NAACP, bitterly fought against this policy. In the 1960s, when the struggle for civil rights in the United States gained national attention, President Lyndon Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act.


title: Jim Crow (character)

text: The poem "The Jackdaw of Rheims" by Richard Barham, published in 1837 (and in "The Ingoldsby Legends" of 1840), concludes "It's the custom, at Rome, new names to bestow, So they canonized him by the name of Jim Crow!".


title: Jim Crow (character)

text: By 1838, and through to the end of the 19th century, the term "Jim Crow" was used as an offensive term towards black people, well before it became associated with Jim Crow laws.


title: Jim Crow (character)

text: The "Jim Crow" character as portrayed by Rice popularized the perception of African-Americans as lazy, untrustworthy, dumb, and unworthy of integration. Rice's performances helped to popularize American minstrelsy, in which many performers imitated Rice's use of blackface and stereotypical depiction, touring around the United States. Those performers continued to spread the racist overtones and ideas manifested by the character to populations across the United States, contributing to white Americans developing a negative view of African-Americans in both their character and their work ethic.


title: Jim Crow (character)

text: In Nathaniel Hawthorne's "The House of the Seven Gables" (1851), a young schoolboy buys two gingerbread "Jim Crow" cookies for a penny apiece.


title: Jim Crow (character)

text: Another character with the name Jim Crow was featured in the 1941 Walt Disney's animated feature film "Dumbo" portrayed as a literal crow, although his name is never mentioned in the film. The character, originally named "Jim Crow" on the original model sheets, was renamed in the 1950s "Dandy Crow" in attempt to avoid controversy. Floyd Norman, the first African-American animator hired at Walt Disney Productions during the 1950s, explained that the reason for the name 'Jim Crow' was "taking a cartoony jab at the oppressive Jim Crow laws in the South" in an article entitled "Black Crows and Other PC Nonsense".


title: Jim Crow (character)

text: In the music video for Childish Gambino's "This Is America", Gambino shoots a man in the back of the head while posing like a Jim Crow caricature.


title: Caesar (title)

text: Caesar ( English  Caesars; Latin  "Caesares"; in Greek: "Kaîsar") is a title of imperial character. It derives from the "cognomen" of Julius Caesar, a Roman dictator. The change from being a familial name to a title adopted by the Roman emperors can be traced to AD 68, following the fall of the Julio–Claudian dynasty.


title: Caesar (title)

text: The first known individual to bear the "cognomen" of "Caesar" was Sextus Julius Caesar, who is likewise believed to be the common ancestor of all subsequent Julii Caesares. Sextus' great-grandson was the dictator Gaius Julius Caesar. After he seized control of the Roman Republic following his war against the Senate, he adopted the title of "dictator perpetuo" ("dictator in perpetuity"), a title he only held for about a month before he was assassinated in 44 BC. Julius Caesar's death did not lead to the restoration of the Republic, and instead led to the rise of the Second Triumvirate, composed by three dictators including Julius' adopted son Gaius Octavius.


title: Caesar (title)

text: Following Roman naming conventions, Octavius adopted the name of his adoptive father, thus also becoming "Gaius Julius Caesar", though he was often called "Octavianus" to avoid confusion. He usually styled himself simply as "Gaius Caesar" to emphasize his relationship with Julius Caesar. Eventually, distrust and jealousy between the three dictators led to a lengthy civil war which ultimately ended with Octavius gaining control of the entire Roman world in 30 BC. In 27 BC, Octavius was given the honorific "Augustus" by the Senate, adopting the name of "Imperator Caesar Augustus". He had previously dropped all his names except for "Caesar", which he treated as a "nomen" (surname), and had adopted the title "imperator" ("commander") as a new "praenomen" (forename).


title: Caesar (title)

text: As a matter of course, Augustus' own adopted son and successor, Tiberius, followed his (step)father's example and bore the name "Caesar" following his adoption on 26 June 4 AD, restyling himself as "Tiberius Julius Caesar". Upon his own ascension to the throne, he styled himself as "Tiberius Caesar Augustus". The precedent was thus then set: the Emperor, styled as "Augustus", designated his successor by adopting him and giving him the name "Caesar".


title: Caesar (title)

text: The fourth Emperor, Claudius (in full "Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus"), was the first to assume the name "Caesar" without having been adopted by the previous emperor; however, he was at least a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, being the maternal great-nephew of Augustus on his mother's side, the nephew of Tiberius, and the uncle of Caligula (also called "Gaius Julius Caesar"). Claudius, in turn, adopted his stepson and grand-nephew Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, giving him the name "Caesar" in addition to his own "nomen", "Claudius", His stepson thus became "Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus".


title: Caesar (title)

text: The first emperor to assume the position and name simultaneously without any real claim was Servius Sulpicius Galba, who took the imperial throne under the name "Servius Galba Caesar Augustus" following the death of Nero in AD 68. Galba helped solidify "Caesar" as the title of the designated heir by giving it to his own adopted heir, Lucius Licinianus. His reign did not last long, however, and he was soon deposed by Marcus Salvius Otho, who became "Imperator Marcus Otho Caesar Augustus". Otho was then defeated by Aulus Vitellius, who became "Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Imperator Augustus", adopting the victory title "Germanicus" instead of "Caesar". Nevertheless, "Caesar" had become such an integral part of the imperial dignity that its place was immediately restored by Vespasian (Titus Flavius Vespasianus), who ended the civil war and established the Flavian dynasty in AD 69, ruling under the name "Imperator Caesar Vespasianus Augustus".


title: Caesar (title)

text: The placement of the name "Caesar" varied among the early emperors. It usually came right before the "cognomen" (Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, Trajan, Hadrian); a few placed it right after it (Galba, Otho, Nerva). The imperial formula was finally standardised during the reign of Antoninus Pius. Antoninus, born "Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Antoninus", became "Titus Aelius Caesar Antoninus" after his adoption but ruled as "Imperator Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus (Pius)". The imperial formula thus became ""Imperator Caesar" [name] "Augustus"" for emperors. Heir-apparents added "Caesar" to their names, placing it right after their "cognomen". They occasionally were given the honorific "Princeps iuventutis" ("First among the Youth") and were also addressed as "Nobilissimus Caesar" ("Most Noble Caesar").


title: Caesar (title)

text: The popularity of using the title "caesar" to designate heirs-apparent increased throughout the third century. Many of the soldier-emperors during the Crisis of the Third Century attempted to strengthen their legitimacy by naming heirs, including Maximinus Thrax, Philip the Arab, Decius, Trebonianus Gallus and Gallienus. Some of these were promoted to the rank of "augustus" within their father's lifetime, for example Philip II. The same title would also be used in the Gallic Empire, which operated autonomously from the rest of the Roman Empire from 260 to 274, with the final Gallic emperor Tetricus I appointing his heir Tetricus II as "caesar" and his consular colleague.


title: Caesar (title)

text: Despite the best efforts of these emperors, however, the granting of this title does not seem to have made succession in this chaotic period any more stable. Almost all "caesares" would be killed before, or alongside, their fathers, or, at best, outlive them for a matter of months, as in the case of Hostilian. The sole "caesar" to successfully obtain the rank of "augustus" and rule for some time in his own right was Gordian III, and even he was heavily controlled by his court.


title: Caesar (title)

text: On 1 March 293, Diocletian established the Tetrarchy, a system of rule by two senior emperors and two junior colleagues. The two coequal senior emperors were styled identically to previous Emperors, as "Imperator Caesar NN. Pius Felix Invictus Augustus" (Elagabalus had introduced the use of "Pius Felix", "Pious and Blessed", while Maximinus Thrax introduced "Invictus", "Unconquered") and were called the "augusti". The two junior colleagues were styled identically to previous Emperors-designate, as "nobilissimus caesar". Likewise, the junior colleagues retained the title "caesar" upon becoming full emperors.


title: Caesar (title)

text: The Tetrarchy collapsed as soon as Diocletian stepped down in 305, as emperors Constantine I and Maxentius fought to establish their own imperial dynasty. This system was abandoned (though the four quarters of the empire survived as praetorian prefectures) in favour of two equal, territorial emperors, one in the Latin-speaking West and other in the Greek-speaking East.


title: Caesar (title)

text: The title remained in use throughout the Constantinian period, with both Constantine I and his co-emperor and rival Licinius utilising it to mark their heirs. Constantine had four "caesares" at the time of his death: his sons Constantius II, Constantine II, Constans and his nephew Dalmatius, with his eldest son Crispus having been executed in mysterious circumstances earlier in his reign. He would be succeeded only by his three sons, with Dalmatius dying in the summer of 337 in similarly murky circumstances.


title: Caesar (title)

text: Constantius II himself would nominate as "caesares" his cousins Constantius Gallus and Julian in succession in the 350s, although he first executed Gallus and then found himself at war with Julian before his own death. After Julian's revolt of 361, the title fell out of imperial fashion for some time, with emperors preferring simply to elevate their sons directly to "augustus", as with Gratian. It would be revived nearly three-quarters of a century later when Theodosius II gave it to his nephew Valentinian III before successfully installing him upon the western throne. Thereafter it would receive limited use in the Eastern Empire, for example, it was used in the designation of the future Leo II in the final months of his grandfather's life.


title: Caesar (title)

text: "Caesar" or "Kaisar" () remained a senior court title in the Eastern or Byzantine Empire. Originally, as in the classical Roman Empire, it was used for the heir apparent, and was first among the "awarded" dignities. From the reign of Theodosius I, however, most emperors chose to solidify the succession of their intended heirs by raising them to co-emperors. Hence the title was more frequently awarded to second- and third-born sons, or to close and influential relatives of the Emperor: for example, Alexios Mosele who was the son-in-law of Theophilos (ruled 829–842), Bardas who was the uncle and chief minister of Michael III (r. 842–867), and Nikephoros II (r. 963–969) who awarded the title to his father, Bardas Phokas. An exceptional case was the conferment of the dignity and its insignia to the Bulgarian khan Tervel by Justinian II (r. 685–695, 705–711) who had helped him regain his throne in 705. The title was awarded to the brother of Empress Maria of Alania, George II of Georgia in 1081.


title: Caesar (title)

text: The office enjoyed extensive privileges, great prestige and power. When Alexios I Komnenos created the title of "sebastokrator", "kaisar" became third in importance, and fourth after Manuel I Komnenos created the title of "despot", which it remained until the end of the Empire. The feminine form was "kaisarissa". It remained an office of great importance, usually awarded to imperial relations, as well as a few high-ranking and distinguished officials, and only rarely awarded to foreigners.


title: Caesar (title)

text: According to the "Klētorologion" of 899, the Byzantine "caesar"s insignia were a crown without a cross, and the ceremony of a "caesar"s creation (in this case dating to Constantine V), is included in "De Ceremoniis" I.43. The title remained the highest in the imperial hierarchy until the introduction of the "sebastokratōr" (a composite derived from "sebastos" and "autokrator", the Greek equivalents of "augustus" and "imperator") by Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118) and later of "despotēs" by Manuel I Komnenos (r. 1143–1180). The title remained in existence through the last centuries of the Empire. In the Palaiologan period, it was held by prominent nobles such as Alexios Strategopoulos, but from the 14th century, it was mostly awarded to rulers of the Balkans such as the princes of Vlachia, Serbia and Thessaly.


title: Caesar (title)

text: In the late Byzantine hierarchy, as recorded in the mid-14th century "Book of Offices" of pseudo-Kodinos, the rank continued to come after the "sebastokratōr". Pseudo-Kodinos further records that the "caesar" was equal in precedence to the "panhypersebastos", another creation of Alexios I, but that Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos (r. 1259–1282) had raised his nephew Michael Tarchaneiotes to the rank of "protovestiarios" and decreed that to come after the "caesar"; while under Andronikos II Palaiologos (r. 1282–1328) the "megas domestikos" was raised to the same eminence, when it was awarded to the future emperor John VI Kantakouzenos (r. 1347–1354). According to pseudo-Kodinos, the "caesar"s insignia under the Palaiologoi were a "skiadion" hat in red and gold, decorated with gold-wire embroideries, with a veil bearing the wearer's name and pendants identical to those of the "despotēs" and the "sebastokratōr". He wore a red tunic ("rouchon") similar to the emperor's (without certain decorations), and his shoes and stockings were blue, as were the accouterments of his horse; these were all identical to those of the "sebastokratōr", but without the embroidered eagles of the latter. Pseudo-Kodinos writes that the particular forms of another form of hat, the domed "skaranikon", and of the mantle, the "tamparion", for the "caesar" were not known.


title: Caesar (title)

text: "Caesar" is the title officially used by the Sasanid Persians to refer to the Roman and Byzantine emperors. In the Middle East, the Persians and the Arabs continued to refer to the Roman and Byzantine emperors as "Caesar" (in "Qaysar-i Rum", "Caesar of the Romans", from Middle Persian "kēsar"). Thus, following the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the victorious Ottoman sultan Mehmed II became the first of the rulers of the Ottoman Empire to assume the title (in "Kayser-i Rûm").


title: Caesar (title)

text: After the Fall of Constantinople, having conquered the Byzantine Empire, Mehmed took the title "Kayser-i Rûm", claiming succession to the Roman imperium. His claim was that, by possession of the city, he was emperor, a new dynast by conquest, as had been done previously by the likes of Heraclius and Leo III. Contemporary scholar George of Trebizond wrote "the seat of the Roman Empire is Constantinople ... and he who is and remains Emperor of the Romans is also the Emperor of the whole world".


title: Caesar (title)

text: Gennadius II, a staunch antagonist of the West because of the Sack of Constantinople committed by the Western Catholics and theological controversies between the two Churches, had been enthroned the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople-New Rome with all the ceremonial elements and ethnarch (or "milletbashi") status by the Sultan himself in 1454. In turn, Gennadius II formally recognized Mehmed as successor to the throne. Mehmed also had a blood lineage to the Byzantine Imperial family; his predecessor, Sultan Orhan I had married a Byzantine princess, and Mehmed may have claimed descent from John Tzelepes Komnenos. Ottoman sultans were not the only rulers to claim such a title, as there was the Holy Roman Empire in Western Europe, whose emperor, Frederick III, traced his titular lineage from Charlemagne who obtained the title of Roman Emperor when he was crowned by Pope Leo III in 800, although he was never recognized as such by the Byzantine Empire.


title: Caesar (title)

text: In diplomatic writings between the Ottomans and Austrians, the Ottoman bureaucracy was angered by their use of the Caesar title when the Ottomans saw themself as the true successors of Rome. When war broke out and peace negotiations were done, the Austrians (Holy Roman Empire) agreed to give up the use of the Caesar title according to Treaty of Constantinople (1533) (though they would continue to use it and the Roman imperial title until the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806). The Russians, who defined Moscow as the Third Rome, were similarly sanctioned by the Ottomans, who ordered the Crimean Khanate to raid Russia on numerous occasions. The Ottomans would lose their political superiority over the Holy Roman Empire with the Treaty of Zsitvatorok in 1606, and over the Russian Empire with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca in 1774, by diplomatically recognising the monarchs of these two countries as equals to the Ottoman Sultan for the first time.


title: Caesar (title)

text: The history of "Caesar" as an imperial title is reflected by the following monarchic titles, usually reserved for "emperor" and "empress" in many languages (note that the name Caesar, pronounced in English, was pronounced in Classical Latin):


title: Caesar (title)

text: In various Romance and other languages, the imperial title was based on the Latin Imperator (a military mandate or a victory title), but Caesar or a derivation is still used for both the name and the minor ranks (still perceived as Latin).


title: Caesar (title)

text: There have been other cases of a noun proper being turned into a title, such as Charlemagne's Latin name, including the epithet, "Carolus (magnus)", becoming Slavonic titles rendered as King: Kralj (Serbo-Croatian), Král (Czech) and Król (Polish), etc.


title: Caesar (title)

text: However certain languages, especially Romance languages, also commonly use a "modernized" word (e.g., "César" in French) for the name, both referring to the Roman cognomen and modern use as a first name, and even to render the title Caesar, sometimes again extended to the derived imperial titles above.


title: Caesar (title)

text: Tr anslation of the name Caesar was first recorded in the first book translated to Yoruba, the Bible. The Caesar in the Bible refers to Emperor Augustus, who was referred to as Caesar. It was not used as a title for kings as it did not reach the language till the late 19th century and was not widely known till the 20th century. The main title for king was "Kábíyèsi", meaning one who cannot be questioned (Ká-bí-yò-èsi).


title: My Life as a Teenage Robot

text: My Life as a Teenage Robot is an American animated superhero comedy television series created by Rob Renzetti for Nickelodeon. It was produced by Frederator Studios and Nickelodeon Animation Studio. Set in the fictional town of Tremorton, the series follows the adventures of a robot girl named XJ-9, or Jenny, as she prefers to be called, who attempts to juggle her duties of protecting Earth while trying to live a normal human life as a teenager.


title: My Life as a Teenage Robot

text: Renzetti pitched the series to Frederator Studios' animated shorts showcase "Oh Yeah! Cartoons" and a pilot titled "My Neighbor is a Teenage Robot", which aired on January 5, 1999. Viewer approval ratings led to the commissioning of a half-hour series, which premiered on August 1, 2003; after airing its first two seasons, the series was cancelled on October 17, 2005. The completed third season eventually aired on Nickelodeon's spinoff network Nicktoons from October 4, 2008, until ending its run on May 2, 2009. The series totaled three seasons, each consisting of 13 episodes.


title: My Life as a Teenage Robot

text: "My Life as a Teenage Robot" is set in the fictional town of Tremorton and its themes focus on making lighthearted fun of typical teenage issues and other conventions and drama of the teenage and superhero lives mixed up with a combination of action, adventure, sci-fi fantasy and comedy sequences. The series follows XJ-9 ("Jenny Wakeman", as she prefers to be called; voiced by Janice Kawaye), who is a highly sophisticated state-of-the-art sentient gynoid automaton robot girl created by her mother Dr. Nora Wakeman (Candi Milo), an elderly robotics scientist, five years before the series. Jenny is Earth's protector, armed to the teeth with a wide range of weapons and devices, but all she really wants is to live the life of a normal teenager. She was preceded in development by eight other models; in season 1, the episode "Sibling Tsunami" introduced XJs 1–8.


title: My Life as a Teenage Robot

text: Jenny's friends are her next-door neighbors Brad (Chad Doreck) and Tuck Carbuckle (Audrey Wasilewski). Brad is outgoing and adventurous, and is the first human friend Jenny makes, while Tuck is Brad's rambunctious younger brother who usually tags along on adventures. Another one of her friends is Sheldon Lee (Quinton Flynn), a somewhat stereotypical nerd who is obsessed with her. Jenny often rejects his romantic advances, but still cares for him as a friend.


title: My Life as a Teenage Robot

text: At high school, Jenny has an ongoing rivalry with the Crust cousins, Brit (Moira Quirk) and Tiff (Cree Summer), the popular girls in school. Dr. Wakeman often tries in vain to control her creation and keep her daughter focused on protecting the planet Earth. Adding to her trouble is that she is constantly being dogged by the all-robotic Cluster Empire, whose queen, Vexus (Eartha Kitt), wants her to join their world of robots (by force if necessary). Despite it all, Jenny struggles to maintain some semblance of a mostly-human life.


title: My Life as a Teenage Robot

text: The special of the series, "Escape from Cluster Prime", shows that the alien planet is actually a peaceful paradise for every kind of robot. It's also revealed that Vexus has made Jenny out to be a villain because of her constant refusals to join, branding her responsible for destroying the missing components that allow robots to transform, while they are truly hidden by Vexus, to control the population.


title: My Life as a Teenage Robot

text: Rob Renzetti moved from Cartoon Network to Nickelodeon to develop his own ideas as part of Fred Seibert's and Frederator Studios' "Oh Yeah! Cartoons". At Nickelodeon, he developed a pilot called "My Neighbor was a Teenage Robot", which was the basis for the series. After brief stints working on "Family Guy", "The Powerpuff Girls", "Time Squad", "Whatever Happened to... Robot Jones?", and "Samurai Jack", Renzetti returned to Nickelodeon to start the "Teenage Robot" series.


title: My Life as a Teenage Robot

text: Renzetti made 11 shorts during two seasons as a director on "Oh Yeah! Cartoons". Five of these starred two characters called Mina and the Count and followed the adventures of a rambunctious little girl and her vampire best friend. He hoped that these characters might get their own series, but Nickelodeon rejected the idea. Faced with an empty slot where the sixth Mina short was slated to go, Fred Seibert tasked Renzetti to come up with three new ideas. One of these was about a teenage girl whose boyfriend was a robot. After further thought, Renzetti merged the two characters to create Jenny, a robot with the personality of a teenage girl.


title: My Life as a Teenage Robot

text: In March 2002, Nickelodeon ordered 13 episodes of the series. The series was initially called "My Neighbor was a Teenage Robot" before settling on its final title.


title: My Life as a Teenage Robot

text: The show's crew revealed on their blog on October 17, 2005, that the show had been cancelled, and that the third season would be the last: "The executives love the show but the ratings aren't good enough for them to give us more episodes." Following the series' cancellation, Renzetti left for Cartoon Network Studios, working on "Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends" and "The Cartoonstitute", before moving on to the Disney Channel to become supervising producer for "Gravity Falls". The third season aired on Nicktoons from October 2008 to May 2009, officially concluding the broadcast of the series in the United States.


title: My Life as a Teenage Robot

text: Nickelodeon premiered "My Life as a Teenage Robot" on August 1, 2003, at 8:30 PM EST. The show was a part of Nickelodeon's Saturday night programming block called SNICK in Fall 2003, and briefly was a part of the TEENick lineup in 2004 to June 2005. The first season ended on February 27, 2004, with "The Wonderful World of Wizzly / Call Hating".


title: My Life as a Teenage Robot

text: The second season (which was originally set to air on October 1, 2004) was pushed back to December 8, 2004, with the Christmas episode "A Robot for All Seasons". A new second-season episode was not aired until January 24, 2005. In the second season, a 48-minute, two-part TV movie titled "Escape from Cluster Prime" (which was nominated for an Emmy in 2006) aired. Since the series' cancellation, reruns continued to air on Nicktoons until April 14, 2013, and again from December 13, 2015, to May 15, 2016. As of 2022, the entire series is now streaming on Paramount+.


title: My Life as a Teenage Robot

text: The episodes "See No Evil", "The Great Unwashed", "Future Shock", "A Robot for All Seasons", "Hostile Makeover", and "Gridiron Glory" were released on Nick Picks DVD compilations. As of December 12, 2011, seasons 1, 2, and 3 are available on DVD exclusive to Amazon.com in region 1. The full series was released across six discs by Beyond Home Entertainment in Australia on February 5, 2012.


title: My Life as a Teenage Robot

text: Sean Aitchison from CBR wrote positively of the show stating, "Aside from the look of the show, "My Life as a Teenage Robot" had a fun premise that made for some great action comedy storytelling, and it definitely holds up [in modern day]. Though the show's depiction of teendom is somewhat outdated, the cliches actually end up working in favor of the humor. Though there's not a lot of story progression throughout the series, "My Life as a Teenage Robot" is still a whole lot of fun." Joly Herman of Common Sense Media wrote more negatively of the show, saying that, "Though it looks cool and has an upbeat energy, the show can be a bit of a drag. Some kids may enjoy it for the mindless entertainment it intends to be, but know that there are much better uses of a free half-hour."


title: My Life as a Teenage Robot

text: Jenny was featured as a playable character in the PlayStation 2/Wii and Nintendo DS versions of "" with Janice Kawaye reprising her role as the character Jenny also appears as a playable character in the mobile game "Nickelodeon Super Brawl Universe"; the fighting game "Nickelodeon All-Star Brawl" as the game's first paid DLC character; and the kart racing game "", with Kawaye reprising her role in the latter two games. Jenny also appears as a character skin for "Smite", and was available during a July 2022 event.


title: Child 44 (film)

text: Child 44 is a 2015 mystery thriller film directed by Daniel Espinosa, written by Richard Price, and based on Tom Rob Smith's 2008 novel of the same name. The film stars an ensemble cast featuring Tom Hardy, Gary Oldman, Noomi Rapace, Joel Kinnaman, Paddy Considine, Jason Clarke, and Vincent Cassel. It was released on 17 April 2015. Both the novel and the film are very loosely based on the case of Soviet serial killer Andrei Chikatilo. The film was a box office bomb, grossing just $13 million against its $50 million budget.


title: Child 44 (film)

text: During Stalin's rule of the Soviet Union in the early 1950s, Ministry of State Security (MGB) Agent and war hero Leo Demidov uncovers a strange and brutal series of child murders. MGB leadership refuses to acknowledge the deaths as murders, however, because Soviet doctrine states that only capitalism creates serial killers. The son of Leo's partner is murdered by the serial killer, and during Leo's investigation, his wife, Raisa, is accused of being disloyal to the state. Leo suspects that his amoral and ambitious enemy in the MGB, Vasili Nikitin, is behind the charges. Leo refuses to support the accusation, and he is forced to take a demeaning militia position in the town of Volsk. Raisa accompanies him and must work as a janitor.


title: Child 44 (film)

text: In Volsk Leo meets his new commander, General Nesterov. Meanwhile, Vasili calls Raisa and attempts to persuade her to leave Leo and join him in Moscow. When she refuses, Vasili orders a local MGB man to abuse her. Raisa later admits to Leo that she only agreed to marry him because she feared what would happen to her if she refused a high-ranking member of state security.


title: Child 44 (film)

text: More child murder victims are discovered in Volsk, and after Leo tells Raisa that he suspects a serial killer, she decides to help his investigation. Together they convince Nesterov and his wife, Inessa, that the deaths must be investigated as serial murder. Further investigation reveals that the killer has claimed at least 44 victims and that he is traveling the rail lines to find his targets.


title: Child 44 (film)

text: Leo and Raisa travel in secret to Moscow to interview a woman who reported seeing the killer. The interview does not bear fruit, however, and to escape possible pursuit by the MGB, they seek out Raisa's former colleague. However, during the meeting Raisa discovers that the colleague is an informer, and Leo kills him. Leo tells Raisa that she can leave him if she wishes, but she says that she wants to stay with him.


title: Child 44 (film)

text: Leo and Raisa return to Volsk, but there they discover that Vasili and his men have pursued them for killing the informer. They are arrested and interrogated, then put on a train to a work camp. During the train ride, they are attacked by killers at the order of Vasili; after killing their assailants, Leo and Raisa jump off the train. They trek to Rostov, where the highest concentration of the serial killer's victims has been found; they reason that the killer must work close to the rail yards there.


title: Child 44 (film)

text: In the Rostov tractor factory, Leo identifies the killer by cross-referencing worker travel with the location and date of the murders. Leo and Raisa corner the killer, who surrenders to them. However, the killer is suddenly shot in the head by Vassili, who has followed Leo and Raisa. Vassili tries to execute them, but after a vicious struggle, they kill Vassili. Leo cleverly tells the MGB agents who arrive that the serial killer killed Vassili and that he then shot the killer. Because the serial killer was a POW in German camps, the MGB is able to (falsely) explain away his actions as those of a Nazi agent.


title: Child 44 (film)

text: Leo is reinstated in Moscow; despite being offered a promising political position, he instead asks to create and lead a homicide division in Moscow. Leo and Raisa adopt two orphan girls.


title: Child 44 (film)

text: Principal photography began in June 2013 in the cities of Prague, Ostrava and Kladno in the Czech Republic, and continued in Romania. For the brief scene in the Moscow underground, the Prague metro was used. It was the first time in its history that it was shut to the public.


title: Child 44 (film)

text: On 15 April 2015, the Russian film distributor Central Partnership announced that the film would be withdrawn from cinemas in Russia, although some media stated that screening of the film was blocked by the Russian Ministry of Culture. The decision was made following the press screening the day before. The Ministry of Culture and the Central Partnership issued a joint press release stating that the screening of the film before the 70th anniversary of the Victory Day was unacceptable. The Ministry of Culture claimed that it received several questions on the film's contents, primarily concerning "distortion of historical facts, peculiar treatment of events before, during and after the Great Patriotic War and images and characters of Soviet people of that era". Russian minister of culture Vladimir Medinsky welcomed the decision, but stressed that it was made solely by the Central Partnership. However, in his personal statement Medinsky complained that the film depicts Russians as "physically and morally base sub-humans", and compared the depiction of Soviet Union in the film with J. R. R. Tolkien's Mordor, and wished that such films should be screened neither before the 70th anniversary of the victory in the Great Patriotic War, nor any other time. However, he also stated that the film would be available in Russia on DVD and online.


title: Child 44 (film)

text: The film was also withdrawn from cinemas in Belarus, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan, while release of the film was postponed until October in Georgia.


title: Child 44 (film)

text: Ukrainian film director and producer Alexander Rodnyansky criticised the decision not to release "Child 44" as bad for the country's film industry. "Before, films where Soviet and Russian heroes were presented not in the best way have been released in Russia, but nothing similar happened. Now everything to do with history should clearly fit into a kind of framework set by the culture ministry."


title: Child 44 (film)

text: As the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania were occupied by the Soviet Union and as members of the EU, they officially received the film release.


title: Child 44 (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, "Child 44" has an approval rating of 27%, based on 82 reviews, with an average score of 4.82/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "There's a gripping story at the heart of "Child 44" and a solid performance from Tom Hardy in the lead, but it all still adds up to a would-be thriller that lacks sufficient thrills." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 41 out of 100, based on 25 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Child 44 (film)

text: Writing in "The Guardian", Peter Bradshaw gave the film 2 stars out of 5 and reported that "Tom Rob Smith's page-turning bestseller from 2008 has been turned into a heavy, indigestible meal of a film, full of actors speaking English with very heavy Russian accents – actors from England, Sweden, Lebanon, Poland, Australia, almost anywhere but Russia". Bradshaw added: "Tom Hardy brings his robust, muscular presence to the role of Leo and he is watchable enough, but the forensic and psychological aspects are just dull; there is no fascination in the detection process. […] Everything is immersed in a cloudy brown soup". Also in "The Guardian", reviewer Phil Hoad wrote: ""Child 44" has a fascinating premise and setting [but] failed to convincingly package this as either an upscale thriller along the lines of "Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy", as implied by a powerhouse cast also featuring Gary Oldman, Noomi Rapace and Paddy Considine; or as something racier à la "The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo" or "Gone Girl" (indeed, the film itself falls awkwardly between these two stools)". Hoad added, "[a]s for the debacle over the Slavic-slathered English spoken by the entire cast, it further highlights the uncertainty about whether "Child 44" was intended for the multiplex or the arthouse. Presumably a decision made to placate the former, opting to turn the film into an Iron Curtain version of "'Allo 'Allo" damaged its integrity. Aren't we past this kind of cultural bastardisation? It is possible for foreign-language films to cross over: "The Lives of Others", which meted out its own totalitarian intrigue in German, took $66m overseas – the kind of cash "Child 44" will never see".


title: Child 44 (film)

text: In "The Observer", Jonathan Romney found, "In writer Richard Price's boil-down of the labyrinthine original, the whodunit loses all momentum" adding that "the whole thing is scuppered by having everyone speak in borscht-thick Russian accents" before concluding that, "[the film is] shot in several shades of Volga mud and drags like a Thursday afternoon in Nizhniy Novgorod".


title: Suits (season 8)

text: The eighth season of the American legal drama "Suits" was ordered on January 30, 2018, and began airing on USA Network in the United States July 18, 2018.