title: Adam Weishaupt

text: After Pope Clement XIV's suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1773, Weishaupt became a professor of canon law, a position that was held exclusively by the Jesuits until that time. In 1775 Weishaupt was introduced to the empirical philosophy of Johann Georg Heinrich Feder of the University of Göttingen. Both Feder and Weishaupt would later become opponents of Kantian idealism.


title: Adam Weishaupt

text: On 1 May 1776 Johann Adam Weishaupt founded the "Illuminati" in the Electorate of Bavaria. Initially Illumination was designated for a group of outstanding and enlightened individuals in the society. Indeed, the word was adapted from a Latin root, "Iluminatus," which directly translates to "enlightened." He also adopted the name of "Brother Spartacus" within the order. Even encyclopedia references vary on the goal of the order, such as "Catholic Encyclopedia" (1910) saying the Order was not egalitarian or democratic internally, but sought to promote the doctrines of equality and freedom throughout society; while others such as "Collier's" have said the aim was to combat religion and foster rationalism in its place. The Illuminati was formed with the vision of liberating humans from religious bondage and undermining corrupted governments.


title: Adam Weishaupt

text: The actual character of the society was an elaborate network of spies and counter-spies. Each isolated cell of initiates reported to a superior, whom they did not know: a party structure that was effectively adopted by some later groups.


title: Adam Weishaupt

text: Weishaupt was initiated into the Masonic lodge "Theodor zum guten Rath", at Munich in 1777. His project of "illumination, enlightening the understanding by the sun of reason, which will dispel the clouds of superstition and of prejudice" was an unwelcome reform. He used Freemasonry to recruit for his own quasi-masonic society, with the goal of "perfecting human nature" through re-education to achieve a communal state with nature, freed of government and organized religion. Presenting their own system as pure masonry, Weishaupt and Adolph Freiherr Knigge, who organised his ritual structure, greatly expanded the secret organisation.


title: Adam Weishaupt

text: Contrary to Immanuel Kant's that Enlightenment (and Weishaupt's Order was in some respects an expression of the Enlightenment Movement) was the passage by man out of his 'self-imposed immaturity' through daring to 'make use of his own reason, without the guidance of another,' Weishaupt's Order of Illuminati prescribed in great detail everything which the members had obediently to read and think, so that Dr. Wolfgang Riedel has commented that this approach to illumination or enlightenment constituted a degradation and twisting of the Kantian principle of Enlightenment. Riedel writes:


title: Adam Weishaupt

text: Weishaupt's radical rationalism and vocabulary were not likely to succeed. Writings that were intercepted in 1784 were interpreted as seditious, and the Society was banned by the government of Karl Theodor, Elector of Bavaria, in 1784. Weishaupt lost his position at the University of Ingolstadt and fled Bavaria.


title: Adam Weishaupt

text: He received the assistance of Duke Ernest II of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (1745–1804), and lived in Gotha writing a series of works on illuminism, including "A Complete History of the Persecutions of the Illuminati in Bavaria" (1785), "A Picture of Illuminism" (1786), "An Apology for the Illuminati" (1786), and "An Improved System of Illuminism" (1787). Adam Weishaupt died in Gotha on 18 November 1830. He was survived by his second wife, Anna Maria (née Sausenhofer), and his children Nanette, Charlotte, Ernst, Karl, Eduard, and Alfred. His body was buried next to that of his son Wilhelm, who preceded him in death (in 1802), at Friedhof II der Sophiengemeinde Berlin, a Protestant cemetery.


title: Adam Weishaupt

text: After Weishaupt's Order of Illuminati was banned and its members dispersed, it left behind no enduring traces of influence, not even on its own erstwhile members, who went on to develop in quite different directions.


title: Adam Weishaupt

text: Weishaupt's character and intentions have been variously assessed. Some took a negative view, such as Augustin Barruel, who despite writing that Weishaupt's goals were that "Equality and Liberty, together with the most absolute independence, are to be the substitutes for all rights and all property" saw this as more dangerous than beneficial, and John Robison, who regarded Weishaupt as a 'human devil' and saw his mission as one of malevolent destructiveness. Others took a more positive view, including Thomas Jefferson, who wrote in a letter to James Madison that "Barruel’s own parts of the book are perfectly the ravings of a Bedlamite" and considered Weishaupt to be an "enthusiastic Philanthropist" who believed in the indefinite perfectibility of man, and believed that the intention of Jesus Christ was simply to "reinstate natural religion, and by diffusing the light of his morality, to teach us to govern ourselves".


title: Adam Weishaupt

text: In his defence, Weishaupt wrote a "Kurze Rechtfertigung meiner Absichten" (A Brief Justification of my Intentions) in 1787. Dr. Tony Page comments:


title: The Whole Nine Yards (film)

text: The Whole Nine Yards is a 2000 American crime comedy film directed by Jonathan Lynn and distributed by Warner Bros. It was written by Mitchell Kapner and stars Bruce Willis, Matthew Perry, Amanda Peet, Michael Clarke Duncan, and Natasha Henstridge. Its story follows a mild-mannered dentist as he travels to Chicago to inform a mob boss about the whereabouts of his new neighbor, a former hitman with a price on his head.


title: The Whole Nine Yards (film)

text: The film was produced by Morgan Creek Productions, Franchise Pictures, Rational Packaging, and Lansdown Films and was released on February 18, 2000. The film received mixed reviews from critics and grossed $106 million. A sequel, "The Whole Ten Yards", was released in 2004.


title: The Whole Nine Yards (film)

text: Nicholas "Oz" Oseransky is a likable Quebec dentist from Chicago, but is hated by his wife Sophie and mother-in-law. Oz's assistant Jill jokingly asks him to name a price to have Sophie disappear. Oz meets a new neighbor, and realizes he is Jimmy "the Tulip" Tudeski, an infamous Chicago contract killer with a bounty on his head.


title: The Whole Nine Yards (film)

text: Oz reveals Jimmy's identity to Sophie, who is intrigued. Oz befriends Jimmy, and shares his unhappiness: his business partner, Sophie's father, was involved with an underage boy and embezzled from the practice to pay off the boy's family before committing suicide, leaving Oz deeply in debt. Oz returns home, where Sophie has arranged for him to fly to Chicago and share Jimmy's whereabouts with mob boss Janni Gogolak for a reward. Oz is reluctant but complies.


title: The Whole Nine Yards (film)

text: Arriving in Chicago, Oz has no intention of giving Jimmy up. At his hotel, he meets Franklin "Frankie Figs" Figueroa, Janni's enforcer, and denies any knowledge of Jimmy, but is brought to Janni's estate. He meets Cynthia, Jimmy's estranged wife. Janni instructs Frankie to accompany Oz home and keep an eye on Jimmy until Janni and his men can take him out. At the hotel, Oz calls Jimmy to warn him, but is told Jimmy knows what Oz has done. Cynthia arrives and tells Oz that Janni and Jimmy both want each other and Cynthia dead to collect a $10 million trust – "the whole nine yards." Oz and Cynthia drunkenly sleep together, and he vows to protect her.


title: The Whole Nine Yards (film)

text: In Canada, Frankie and Oz meet Jimmy, who reveals he and Frankie are planning to kill Janni and Cynthia. Jimmy explains Sophie tried to hire him to kill Oz, and he plans to lure Janni to Montreal. Jimmy offers to kill Sophie, which Oz declines. At work, Oz tells Jill everything. She reveals that she too is a contract killer, hired by Sophie to kill Oz, Jill liked him too much, however, and cancelled the hit. She demands to meet her hero, Jimmy, who enlists her help. Oz tries to call Cynthia, who is en route with Janni. When Janni's gang arrives at Oz's house, Cynthia warns Oz that Janni will kill him after killing Jimmy. The two watch as the gang walks into the ambush.


title: The Whole Nine Yards (film)

text: Down the street, Sophie meets with another hitman, but when he recognizes Janni and Sophie explains the situation, he heads for the house with a gun, taking the car keys with him. Inside, Janni is distracted by a naked Jill; she, Jimmy and Frankie kill Janni and his men. Oz and Cynthia drive away as Jimmy also shoots Sophie’s hitman, much to Sophie's horror, and discovers he is an undercover Sûreté du Québec detective. As they dispose of the bodies, Oz calls and suggests a deal to benefit everyone. At his office, he alters the dead detective's teeth to match Jimmy's dental records, then sets his and Janni’s bodies on fire in Oz's car. Investigators find the remains and believe Janni and Jimmy are dead, and, while heading to Jimmy’s house with the intent to arrest him, discover a recorder in the detective’s car; Sophie’s conversation about killing Oz sends her and her mother to prison, despite Sophie's claim that Jill is the real killer. Oz is cleared of suspicion, and Cynthia collects the $10 million, transferring it to Jimmy in exchange for her and Oz's lives.


title: The Whole Nine Yards (film)

text: While Cynthia and Jill, who have just met face-to-face, are at the bank, Jimmy and Frankie take Oz onto a yacht. Jill urges Cynthia to split the money with her and run, leaving Oz to be killed by Jimmy, but Cynthia realizes she loves Oz and refuses to betray him, and Jill assures her it was a test; Jimmy wants to give Cynthia and Oz $1 million as a wedding gift.


title: The Whole Nine Yards (film)

text: On the boat, Jimmy confirms that the money has been transferred. He points a gun at Oz, but shoots Frankie instead, explaining that Frankie, believing Jimmy had gone soft, would have killed them both. Oz attributes the softness to Jimmy falling in love. Jill arrives and jumps into Jimmy's arms and, before he and Jill leave, Jimmy tells Oz to say hello to his widow for him. Oz, ignorant of the $1 million, asks Cynthia to marry him and she accepts. Later, the happy couple dances above Niagara Falls.


title: The Whole Nine Yards (film)

text: In April 1999, it was announced Matthew Perry would star alongside Bruce Willis in the Franchise Pictures-produced film. Matthew Perry filmed the movie during the sixth season hiatus of "Friends".


title: The Whole Nine Yards (film)

text: "The Whole Nine Yards" grossed $57.3 million in the United States and Canada, and $49.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $106.4 million.


title: The Whole Nine Yards (film)

text: The film grossed $13.4 million in its opening weekend, finishing second at the box office. It then made $9.6 million in its sophomore weekend and $7.2 million in its third.


title: The Whole Nine Yards (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 43% based on 104 reviews, with an average rating of 5.2/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "Despite a charming cast, "The Whole Nine Yards" can't tickle funny bones consistently enough to distract from its sitcom-like story." Metacritic gives the film a weighted average score of 47 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.


title: The Whole Nine Yards (film)

text: Roger Ebert gave the film one of the more positive reviews, noting in particular that the highlight was Amanda Peet's performance as Jill, which Ebert called "perfect".


title: The Whole Nine Yards (film)

text: A critically panned sequel with most of the original cast titled "The Whole Ten Yards" was released on April 9, 2004. Unlike the original film, the sequel was rated PG-13 instead of R.


title: Alan Wilder

text: Alan Charles Wilder (born 1 June 1959) is an English musician, composer, arranger, record producer and former member of the electronic band Depeche Mode from 1982 to 1995. Since his departure from the band, the musical project called Recoil became his primary musical enterprise, which initially started as a side project to Depeche Mode in 1986. Wilder has also provided production and remixing services to the bands Nitzer Ebb and Curve. Alan Wilder was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2020 as a member of Depeche Mode.


title: Alan Wilder

text: Alan Charles Wilder was born the youngest boy born into a middle class family of 3 boys and was raised in Acton, West London. He began piano at the age of eight, through the encouragement of his parents. Later on, he learned the flute at St Clement Danes grammar school and became a leading musician in his school bands. After school, Alan worked as a studio assistant at DJM Studios. This led to him ending up working for bands such as The Dragons and Dafne & the Tenderspots (as Alan Normal). Others include Real to Real (featuring Adrian Chilvers on bass, Pete Fresh on guitar, Wolfgang Marlander on drums and Paul St. James on vocals), the Hitmen, and the Korgis, appearing on the UK No. 13 single "If I Had You" (1979).


title: Alan Wilder

text: Following the departure of Vince Clarke, Depeche Mode placed an advertisement in the music magazine "Melody Maker": "Keyboard player needed for established band – no timewasters." Even though the ad was looking for someone under 21 (Wilder was 22) he lied about his age to get the job, and got away with it. He joined Depeche Mode in January 1982, initially as a tour keyboardist, and soon thereafter as a full member of the recording band. His first studio contribution was on the single "Get the Balance Right!" in December 1982, released the following month.


title: Alan Wilder

text: Wilder wrote a handful of songs for Depeche Mode, including "Two Minute Warning" and "The Landscape Is Changing" (and a B-side, "Fools") from the album "Construction Time Again", and "If You Want" (and a B-side, "In Your Memory") from the album "Some Great Reward" and finally co-wrote "Black Day" (and a B-side, "Christmas Island") from the album "Black Celebration".


title: Alan Wilder

text: However, Wilder's more notable contributions to Depeche Mode were as a musician, arranger, and producer.


title: Alan Wilder

text: In addition to playing synthesizer throughout his time with Depeche Mode, Wilder also played piano on the band's signature ballad "Somebody". In the documentary film "101", Wilder demonstrates how different synthesizer parts of a song are split and arranged across a sampling keyboard for playing them live during the concert, just one small example of Wilder's ongoing contributions to Depeche Mode during his time as a member of the group. For the recording of the album "Songs of Faith and Devotion" and its corresponding Devotional Tour, Wilder also played live drums.


title: Alan Wilder

text: For "Enjoy the Silence" from the album "Violator", Wilder took Martin Gore's melancholy ballad-esque demo and re-envisioned the song as a percolating, melodic dance track. The resulting single went on to become one of the most commercially successful songs in Depeche Mode's history.


title: Alan Wilder

text: After his split from Depeche Mode, Wilder was approached by Robert Smith with an offer to join the Cure. Wilder respectfully declined.


title: Alan Wilder

text: According to Wilder himself, the possibility was offered on behalf of the Cure by Daryl Bamonte (tour manager for both Depeche Mode and the Cure, and brother of the Cure member Perry Bamonte), and he declined as joining another band was the last thing on his mind.


title: Alan Wilder

text: He briefly reunited with Depeche Mode during the Teenage Cancer Trust concert at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 17 February 2010. During the encore, Wilder accompanied Martin Gore on piano for "Somebody". Gore returned the favour and played a DJ set on one of Recoil's Selected Events.


title: Alan Wilder

text: Recoil began in 1986 as a two-track experimental EP. Simply entitled "1 + 2", this collection of primitive demos caught the attention of Mute Records label boss Daniel Miller and was inconspicuously released as a mini-album on 12" vinyl. An album, "Hydrology", soon followed in 1988 and both were eventually re-issued by Mute on CD as "Hydrology plus 1 + 2". Wilder described the project at the time as "an antidote to Depeche Mode; a way to alleviate the frustrations of always working within a pop format".


title: Alan Wilder

text: Almost immediately, Wilder found himself back in the studio to record what would become the most successful Depeche Mode album to date, "Violator". It wasn't until the band finally allowed themselves an extended break after the World Violation Tour that Alan could return to Recoil—not, however, before agreeing to produce "Ebbhead", another album for label-mates Nitzer Ebb.


title: Alan Wilder

text: It was during this time that he cemented a working relationship with lead singer Douglas McCarthy (Nitzer Ebb/ Fixmer McCarthy) who would return the favour by singing on Recoil's next album, "Bloodline". For the "Bloodline" LP, released in 1991, Wilder recruited guest vocalists for the first time, with further contributions from Toni Halliday and Moby. 'Bloodline' also marked the first Recoil single, a cover of Alex Harvey's song 'Faith Healer' as well as 'Electro Blues For Bukka White', featuring the sampled voice of bluesman White set into a post-modern context.


title: Alan Wilder

text: Between 1992 and 1993 Wilder resumed his Depeche Mode duties as the band recorded the album "Songs of Faith and Devotion", leaving the band in June 1995.


title: Alan Wilder

text: Free from his group commitments, Wilder could now focus solely on Recoil. In September 1996, he began work in his own studio, The Thin Line, gradually piecing together what would become Recoil's next album "Unsound Methods". Guest vocalists this time played a more up-front role than ever and featured Maggie Estep, Siobhan Lynch, the reappearance of Douglas McCarthy, and Hildia Campbell.


title: Alan Wilder

text: In the spring of 2000, Recoil released "Liquid" which this time featured fellow Mute artist Diamanda Galás, 1940s gospel crooners the Golden Gate Jubilee Quartet, along with New York spoken-word performers Nicole Blackman and Samantha Coerbell.


title: Alan Wilder

text: Following a five-year break from recording, Alan Wilder returned in 2007 with Recoil's fifth studio album, entitled "SubHuman".


title: Alan Wilder

text: 2010 saw the release of 'Selected', a selection of Recoil tracks chosen by Wilder, who said: "The collection is made up of my personal favourites, remastered and edited together into what I consider a cohesive and total listening experience."


title: Alan Wilder

text: A tour entitled 'A Strange Hour' was presented during 2010 and 2011 in 52 cities across the world, as part of the 'Selected Events', which celebrated 25 years of the Recoil project. It signified the first time Recoil had ever taken to the road. The events were not so much 'live' band but more art or video installation. Wilder gathered together filmmakers from as far as Russia, via the Czech Republic and Hungary, all the way to Argentina for this purpose, creating a central server where everybody could upload their work for others to see, react to and feedback on.


title: Alan Wilder

text: Recoil returned in 2012 to release the concert film 'A Strange Hour In Budapest' on Blu-ray, with 5.1 surround sound, directed by Attila Herkó.


title: Alan Wilder

text: Also in 2012, Alan Wilder was the Executive Producer and contributor for a new tribute album to Mark Hollis & Talk Talk. Recoil offered two cover versions for the album featuring the vocals of Linton Kwesi Johnson, Shara Worden and Paul Marshall. Wilder also mixed a track for Richard Reed Parry from Arcade Fire. 'Spirit of Talk Talk' was released in September 2012 on Fierce Panda Records.


title: Alan Wilder

text: Wilder appeared on all of Depeche Mode's releases from "Get the Balance Right" (31 January 1983) up to "In Your Room" (10 January 1994), later taking part in reissues and compilations containing material from his time in the band.


title: Alan Wilder

text: Wilder organized with Omega an auction selling a lot of DM collectable items on 3 September 2011 in Manchester. A DVD called "Collected +" was released as promotion for these events.


title: William O'Neal (informant)

text: William O'Neal (April 9, 1949 – January 15, 1990) was an American FBI informant in Chicago, Illinois, where he infiltrated the local Black Panther Party (BPP). He is known for being the catalyst of the 1969 police/FBI assassination of Fred Hampton, head of the Illinois BPP.


title: William O'Neal (informant)

text: After his role was revealed in 1973, O'Neal was relocated to California under the Federal Witness Protection Program and given a new identity. In 1984, he secretly returned to Chicago. He was interviewed in 1989 about his informancy, for the second part of the documentary series "Eyes on the Prize". The night the first episode aired, January 15, 1990, O'Neal committed suicide. His own episode was broadcast on February 19, 1990.


title: William O'Neal (informant)

text: William O'Neal was born and grew up in Chicago, and had gotten into trouble with the law as a teenager. In 1967, when he was about 18 years old, he was caught by FBI agent Roy Martin Mitchell, who had tracked O'Neal down for stealing a car and driving it across state lines to Michigan.


title: William O'Neal (informant)

text: In 1968 the FBI offered him a deal: in exchange for having his felony charges dropped and receiving a monthly stipend, O'Neal agreed to infiltrate the Panthers as a counterintelligence operative, or informant. The FBI had been conducting their illegal COINTELPRO operation since the mid-1950s, expanding their efforts against communists to include black civil rights activists. By 1966 they were attempting to infiltrate and undermine black nationalist movements such the Black Panthers and discredit black civil rights leaders. The targeting of the Black Panther Party was heightened due to its adherence to Marxism-Leninism.


title: William O'Neal (informant)

text: O'Neal soon established himself with Fred Hampton, who was 20 years old at the time. O'Neal was assigned as one of the heads for the Black Panther leader's security, and had keys to several Panther headquarters and safe houses.


title: William O'Neal (informant)

text: In 1969 Hampton was working on the Rainbow Coalition, an alliance among gangs and minority groups in Chicago, and the FBI and police became increasingly concerned about his activities and growing political power. That summer, the police raided Panther offices, arrested several members, and burned the building down. The FBI required O'Neal to give them a drawing to show the layout of Hampton's apartment on Monroe Street in the West Side, where the Panthers often gathered, so they could prepare a raid.


title: William O'Neal (informant)

text: On the evening of December 3, 1969, Hampton taught a political education class at a local church, attended by most Panther members. Afterward, he and several Panthers went to his apartment, and around midnight they ate a dinner prepared by O'Neal. O'Neal slipped secobarbitol into Hampton's drink so he would not wake up during the police raid. O'Neal left, and at about 1:30 a.m. Hampton fell asleep while talking to his mother on the telephone.


title: William O'Neal (informant)

text: At 4:00 a.m., a 14-man armed Chicago police team arrived at the apartment, and at 4:45 a.m. stormed inside. They first shot and killed Mark Clark, sitting in the front room of the apartment with a shotgun in his lap on security duty. The police cleared out the people from the rest of the apartment, wounding several others, and went to Hampton's bedroom. Witnesses said that they heard two bangs, presumably the close-range shots to the back of Hampton's head that killed him. In January 1970, a coroner's jury held an inquest. They ruled that the deaths of Hampton and Clark were justifiable homicide by the police. The ballistics investigation of the raid found that the Chicago police fired as many as 99 shots, but only one shot was fired by the Panthers, and it hit the ceiling.


title: William O'Neal (informant)

text: O'Neal's involvement in the raid was revealed in 1973, and he was relocated to California under the alias of William Hart via the Federal Witness Protection Program. He secretly returned to Chicago in 1984.


title: William O'Neal (informant)

text: On April 13, 1989, O'Neal was interviewed for the PBS documentary "Eyes on the Prize II", about the civil rights movement in the 1960s. In the extensive interview, he described being recruited by the FBI to become an informant and provide information about Fred Hampton, chairman of the Chicago Black Panther Party. He gave details about his impressions and experiences working in the Black Panther Party, his relationship with FBI agent Roy Mitchell, and his feelings about his activities and his role. He denied having drugged Hampton the night before he was assassinated. O'Neal said, "I had no allegiance to the Panthers."


title: William O'Neal (informant)

text: In the early hours of January 15, 1990, after visiting with his uncle Ben Heard, O'Neal ran out of the apartment and into traffic on Interstate 290, where he was hit by a car, and killed; he was 40 years old. His death was ruled a suicide, though his wife said that it was accidental. Earlier in the evening, O'Neal had been drinking and attempted to jump out a second-story window, but Heard pulled him back inside. Heard said afterward that O'Neal had "cooperated with the FBI to reduce his own potential jail time, then got in way over his head and was forever tortured by the guilt", and that "he never thought it would come to all this." He said O'Neal had previously run out onto Interstate 290 in September 1989 and that he was hit by a vehicle and hospitalized.


title: William O'Neal (informant)

text: The episode featuring O'Neal's interview, "A Nation of Law? (1968–71)", was broadcast on February 19, 1990.


title: William O'Neal (informant)

text: O'Neal and his betrayal of Hampton is explored in the film "Judas and the Black Messiah" (2021), where he is portrayed by LaKeith Stanfield. For their performances, both Stanfield and Daniel Kaluuya (who played Hampton) were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, which Kaluuya won.


title: Jōmon period

text: The is the time in Japanese history, traditionally dated between  14,000–300 BCE, during which Japan was inhabited by a diverse hunter-gatherer and early agriculturalist population united through a common Jōmon culture, which reached a considerable degree of sedentism and cultural complexity. The name "cord-marked" was first applied by the American zoologist and orientalist Edward S. Morse, who discovered sherds of pottery in 1877 and subsequently translated it into Japanese as "Jōmon". The pottery style characteristic of the first phases of Jōmon culture was decorated by impressing cords into the surface of wet clay and is generally accepted to be among the oldest in the world.


title: Jōmon period

text: The Jōmon period was rich in tools and jewelry made from bone, stone, shell and antler; pottery figurines and vessels; and lacquerware. It is often compared to pre-Columbian cultures of the North American Pacific Northwest and especially to the Valdivia culture in Ecuador because in these settings cultural complexity developed within a primarily hunting-gathering context with limited use of horticulture.


title: Jōmon period

text: The approximately 14,000 year Jōmon period is conventionally divided into several phases: Incipient (13,750-8,500 BCE), "Initial" (8,500–5,000), "Early" (5,000–3,520), "Middle" (3,520–2,470), "Late" (2,470–1,250), and "Final" (1,250–500), with each phase progressively shorter than the prior phase. The fact that this entire period is given the same name by archaeologists should not be taken to mean that there was not considerable regional and temporal diversity; the time between the earliest Jōmon pottery and that of the more well-known Middle Jōmon period is about twice as long as the span separating the building of the Great Pyramid of Giza from the 21st century.


title: Jōmon period

text: Dating of the Jōmon sub-phases is based primarily upon ceramic typology, and to a lesser extent radiocarbon dating.


title: Jōmon period

text: Recent findings have refined the final phase of the Jōmon period to 300 BCE. The Yayoi period started between 500 and 300 BCE according to radio-carbon evidence, while Yayoi styled pottery was found in a Jōmon site of northern Kyushu already in 800 BCE.


title: Jōmon period

text: The earliest pottery in Japan was made at or before the start of the Incipient Jōmon period. Small fragments, dated to were found at the Odai Yamamoto I site in 1998. Pottery of roughly the same age was subsequently found at other sites such as in Kamikuroiwa and the Fukui Cave.


title: Jōmon period

text: Archaeologist Junko Habu claims "[t]he majority of Japanese scholars believed, and still believe, that pottery production was first invented in mainland Asia and subsequently introduced into the Japanese archipelago." This seems to be confirmed by recent archaeology. As of now, the earliest pottery vessels in the world date back to and were discovered in Xianren Cave in Jiangxi, China. The pottery may have been used as cookware. Other early pottery vessels include those excavated from the Yuchanyan Cave in southern China, dated from , and at present it appears that pottery emerged at roughly the same time in Japan, and in the Amur River basin of the Russian Far East.


title: Jōmon period

text: The first Jōmon pottery is characterized by the cord-marking that gives the period its name and has now been found in large numbers of sites. The pottery of the period has been classified by archaeologists into some 70 styles, with many more local varieties of the styles. The antiquity of Jōmon pottery was first identified after World War II, through radiocarbon dating methods. The earliest vessels were mostly smallish round-bottomed bowls 10–50 cm high that are assumed to have been used for boiling food and, perhaps, storing it beforehand. They belonged to hunter-gatherers and the size of the vessels may have been limited by a need for portability. As later bowls increase in size, this is taken to be a sign of an increasingly settled pattern of living. These types continued to develop, with increasingly elaborate patterns of decoration, undulating rims, and flat bottoms so that they could stand on a surface.


title: Jōmon period

text: The manufacture of pottery typically implies some form of sedentary life because pottery is heavy, bulky, and fragile and thus generally unusable for hunter-gatherers. However, this does not seem to have been the case with the first Jōmon people, who perhaps numbered over the whole archipelago. It seems that food sources were so abundant in the natural environment of the Japanese islands that they could support fairly large, semi-sedentary populations. The Jōmon people used chipped stone tools, ground stone tools, traps, and bows, and were evidently skillful coastal and deep-water fishers.


title: Jōmon period

text: Traces of Paleolithic culture, mainly stone tools, occur in Japan from around onwards. The earliest "Incipient Jōmon" phase began while Japan was still linked to continental Asia as a narrow peninsula. As the glaciers melted following the end of the last glacial period (approximately ), sea levels rose, separating the Japanese archipelago from the Asian mainland; the closest point (in Kyushu) about from the Korean Peninsula is near enough to be intermittently influenced by continental developments, but far enough removed for the peoples of the Japanese islands to develop independently. The main connection between the Japanese archipelago and Mainland Asia was through the Korean Peninsula to Kyushu and Honshu. In addition, Luzon, Taiwan, Ryukyu, and Kyushu constitute a continuous chain of islands, connecting the Jōmon with Southeast Asia, while Honshu, Hokkaido and Sakhalin connected the Jōmon with Siberia.


title: Jōmon period

text: Within the archipelago, the vegetation was transformed by the end of the Ice Age. In southwestern Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, broadleaf evergreen trees dominated the forests, whereas broadleaf deciduous trees and conifers were common in northeastern Honshu and southern Hokkaido. Many native tree species, such as beeches, buckeyes, chestnuts, and oaks produced edible nuts and acorns. These provided substantial sources of food for both humans and animals.


title: Jōmon period

text: In the northeast, the plentiful marine life carried south by the Oyashio Current, especially salmon, was another major food source. Settlements along both the Sea of Japan and the Pacific Ocean subsisted on immense amounts of shellfish, leaving distinctive middens (mounds of discarded shells and other refuse) that are now prized sources of information for archaeologists. Other food sources meriting special mention include Sika deer, wild boar (with possible wild-pig management), wild plants such as yam-like tubers, and freshwater fish. Supported by the highly productive deciduous forests and an abundance of seafood, the population was concentrated in Honshu and Kyushu, but Jōmon sites range from Hokkaido to the Ryukyu Islands. Tigers once existed in the Japanese archipelago, but they became extinct in prehistoric times.


title: Jōmon period

text: The Early Jōmon period saw an explosion in population, as indicated by the number of larger aggregated villages from this period. This period occurred during the Holocene climatic optimum, when the local climate became warmer and more humid.


title: Jōmon period

text: The degree to which horticulture or small-scale agriculture was practiced by Jōmon people is debated. Currently, there is no scientific consensus to support a conceptualization of Jōmon period culture as only hunter-gatherer. There is evidence to suggest that arboriculture was practiced in the form of tending groves of lacquer ("Toxicodendron verniciflua") and nut ("Castanea crenata" and "Aesculus turbinata") producing trees, as well as soybean, bottle gourd, hemp, Perilla, adzuki, among others. These characteristics place them somewhere in between hunting-gathering and agriculture.


title: Jōmon period

text: An apparently domesticated variety of peach appeared very early at Jōmon sites in 6700–6400 BP (4700–4400 BCE). This was already similar to modern cultivated forms. This domesticated type of peach was apparently brought into Japan from China. Nevertheless, in China, itself, this variety is currently attested only at a later date of 5300–4300 BP.


title: Jōmon period

text: Highly ornate pottery dogū figurines and vessels, such as the so-called "flame style" vessels, and lacquered wood objects remain from that time. Although the ornamentation of pottery increased over time, the ceramic fabric always remained quite coarse. During this time Magatama stone beads make a transition from being a common jewelry item found in homes into serving as a grave good. This is a period where there are large burial mounds and monuments.


title: Jōmon period

text: This period saw a rise in complexity in the design of pit-houses, the most commonly used method of housing at the time, with some even having paved stone floors. A study in 2015 found that this form of dwelling continued up until the Satsumon culture. Using archaeological data on pollen count, this phase is the warmest of all the phases. By the end of this phase the warm climate starts to enter a cooling trend.


title: Jōmon period

text: After 1500 BCE, the climate cooled entering a stage of neoglaciation, and populations seem to have contracted dramatically. Comparatively few archaeological sites can be found after 1500 BCE.


title: Jōmon period

text: The Japanese chestnut, "Castanea crenata", becomes essential, not only as a nut bearing tree, but also because it was extremely durable in wet conditions and became the most used timber for building houses during the Late Jōmon phase.


title: Jōmon period

text: During the Final Jōmon period, a slow shift was taking place in western Japan: steadily increasing contact with the Korean Peninsula eventually led to the establishment of Korean-type settlements in western Kyushu, beginning around 900 BCE. The settlers brought with them new technologies such as wet rice farming and bronze and iron metallurgy, as well as new pottery styles similar to those of the Mumun pottery period. The settlements of these new arrivals seem to have coexisted with those of the Jōmon and Yayoi for around a thousand years.


title: Jōmon period

text: Outside Hokkaido, the Final Jōmon is succeeded by a new farming culture, the Yayoi (c. 300 BCE – 300 CE), named after an archaeological site near Tokyo.


title: Jōmon period

text: Within Hokkaido, the Jōmon is succeeded by the Okhotsk culture and Zoku-Jōmon (post-Jōmon) or Epi-Jōmon culture, which later replaced or merged with the Satsumon culture around the 7th century.


title: Jōmon period

text: At the end of the Jōmon period the local population declined sharply. Scientists suggest that this was possibly caused by food shortages and other environmental problems. They concluded that not all Jōmon groups suffered under these circumstances but the overall population declined. Examining the remains of the people who lived throughout the Jōmon period, there is evidence that these deaths were not inflicted by warfare or violence on a large enough scale to cause these deaths.


title: Jōmon period

text: The origin myths of Japanese civilization extend back to periods now regarded as part of the Jōmon period, though they show little or no relation to the current archaeological understanding of Jōmon culture. February 11, 660 BC, is the traditional founding date of the Japanese nation by Emperor Jimmu. This version of Japanese history, however, comes from the country's first written records, the "Kojiki" and "Nihon Shoki", dating from the 6th to the 8th centuries, after Japan had adopted Chinese characters (Go-on/Kan-on).


title: Jōmon period

text: Some elements of modern Japanese culture may date from this period and reflect the influences of a mingled migration from the northern Asian continent and the southern Pacific areas and the local Jōmon peoples. Among these elements are the precursors to Shinto, marriage customs, architectural styles, and technological developments such as lacquerware, laminated bows called ""yumi"", and metalworking.


title: Jōmon period

text: The relationship of Jōmon people to the modern Japanese (Yamato people), Ryukyuans, and Ainu is not well clarified. Morphological studies of dental variation and genetic studies suggest that the Jōmon people were rather diverse, while other studies of autosomes and immunoglobin alleles suggest that the Jōmon people were of predominantly Northeast Asian and Siberian origin. The contemporary Japanese people descended from a mixture of the various ancient hunter-gatherer tribes of the Jōmon period and the Yayoi rice-agriculturalists, and these two major ancestral groups came to Japan over different routes at different times.


title: Jōmon period

text: The Jōmon people were not one homogenous ethnic group. According to the Jōmon people are an admixture of several Paleolithic populations. He suggests that Y-chromosome haplogroups C1a1 and D-M55 are two of the Jōmon lineages.


title: Jōmon period

text: According to study “"Jōmon culture and the peopling of the Japanese archipelago"” by Schmidt and Seguchi (2014), the prehistoric Jōmon people descended from diverse paleolithic populations with multiple migrations into Jōmon-period Japan. They concluded: ""In this respect, the biological identity of the Jomon is heterogeneous, and it may be indicative of diverse peoples who possibly belonged to a common culture, known as the Jomon"".


title: Jōmon period

text: A study by Lee and Hasegawa of the Waseda University, concluded that the Jōmon period population of Hokkaido consisted of two distinctive populations, which later merged to form the proto-Ainu in northern Hokkaido. The Ainu language can be connected to an "Okhotsk component" which spread southwards. They further concluded that the "dual structure theory" regarding the population history of Japan must be revised and that the Jōmon people had more diversity than originally suggested.


title: Jōmon period

text: A 2015 study found specific gene alleles, related to facial structure and features among some Ainu individuals, which largely descended from local Hokkaido Jōmon groups. These alleles are typically associated with Europeans but absent from other East Asians (including Japanese people), which suggests geneflow from a currently unidentified source population into the Jōmon period population of Hokkaido. Although these specific alleles can explain the unusual physical appearance of certain Ainu individuals, compared to other Northeast Asians, the exact origin of these alleles remains unknown.


title: Jōmon period

text: Recent Y chromosome haplotype testing indicates that male haplogroups D-M55 (~30%) and C1a1 (5.4%) may reflect paternal Jōmon contribution to the modern Japanese Archipelago. Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of Jōmon skeletons indicates that haplogroups N9b, D4h2, G1b and M7a may reflect maternal Jōmon contribution to the modern Japanese mtDNA pool.


title: Jōmon period

text: Full genome analyses in 2020 and 2021 revealed further information regarding the origin of the Jōmon peoples. The genetic results suggest early admixture between different groups in Japan already during the Paleolithic, followed by constant geneflow from coastal East Asian groups, resulting in a heterogeneous population which then homogenized until the arrival of the Yayoi people. Geneflow from Northeast Asia during the Jōmon period is associated with the C1a1 and C2 lineages, geneflow from the Tibetan Plateau and Southern China is associated with the D1a2a (previously D1b) and D1a1 (previously D1a) lineages. Geneflow from ancient Siberia was also detected into the northern Jōmon people of Hokkaido, with later geneflow from Hokkaido into parts of northern Honshu (Tohoku). The lineages K and F are suggested to have been presented during the early Jōmon period but got replaced by C and D. The analysis of a Jōmon sample (Ikawazu) and an ancient sample from the Tibetan Plateau (Chokhopani, Ch) found only partially shared ancestry, pointing towards a "positive genetic bottleneck" regarding the spread of haplogroup D from ancient "East Asian Highlanders" (related to modern day Tujia people, Mien people, and Tibetans, as well as Tripuri people). The genetic evidence suggests that an East Asian source population, near the Himalayan mountain range, contributed ancestry to the Jōmon period population of Japan, and less to ancient Southeast Asians. The authors concluded that this points to an inland migration through southern or central China towards Japan during the Paleolithic. Another ancestry component seem to have arrived from Siberia into Hokkaido. Archeological and biological evidence link the southern Jōmon culture of Kyushu, Shikoku and parts of Honshu to cultures of southern China and Northeast India. A common culture, known as the "broadleafed evergreen forest culture", ranged from southwestern Japan through southern China towards Northeast India and southern Tibet, and was characterized by the cultivation of Azuki beans.


title: Jōmon period

text: Some linguists suggest that the Japonic languages were already present within the Japanese archipelago and coastal Korea, before the Yayoi period, and can be linked to one of the Jōmon populations of southwestern Japan, rather than the later Yayoi or Kofun period rice-agriculturalists. Japonic-speakers then expanded during the Yayoi period, assimilating the newcomers, adopting rice-agriculture, and fusing mainland Asian technologies with local traditions.


title: Jōmon period

text: Vovin (2021) presented arguments for the presence of Austronesian peoples within the Japanese archipelago during the Jōmon period, based on previous linguistic, and specific Austronesian vocabulary loaned into the core vocabulary of (Insular) Japanese. He suggests that Austronesian-speakers arrived in Japan during the Jōmon period and prior to the arrival of Yayoi period migrants, associated with the spread of Japonic languages. These Austronesian-speakers were subsequently assimilated into the Japanese ethnicity. Evidence for non-Ainuic, non-Austronesian, and non-Korean loanwords are found among Insular Japonic languages, and probably derived from unknown and extinct Jōmon languages.


title: Jōmon period

text: The modern public perception of the Jōmon has gradually changed from primitive and obsolete to captivating. The Jōmon cord markings have been revived and used on clothing, accessories and tattoos. Archaeologist Jun Takayama theorizes that the patterns on Dogū depicted tattoos. These geometric shapes and patters are used for tattoos to let people celebrate Jōmon culture or ancestry. In the 1970s a movement started to reproduce the ancient techniques of Jomon-style ceramics. Contemporary Jōmon pottery is based on Jōmon-style ceramics and earthenware that has been replicated with ancient techniques such as a bonfire. The motifs of Jōmon artifacts are used as inspiration for vessels and e.g. origami, cookies, candies, notebooks and neckties. In 2018, a Jōmon exhibition at the Tokyo National Museum had 350,000 visitors which was 3.5 times more than expected. Jomon-style pit houses have been recreated in places such as the Jomon Village Historic Garden. Magazines such as Jomonzine cover the prehistoric period.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: Robert Del Naja (; born 21 January 1965), also known as 3D, is a British artist, musician, singer and songwriter. He emerged as a graffiti artist and member of the Bristol collective the Wild Bunch, and later as a founding member and sole consistent member of the band Massive Attack, with which he is still active. In 2009, he received the British Academy's Ivor Novello Award for Outstanding Contribution to British Music.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: Del Naja started rapping with the Wild Bunch in Bristol in the mid-1980s. He is one of the founding members of Bristol trip hop collective Massive Attack, with Daddy G (Grant Marshall), Tricky (Adrian Thaws) and Andrew Vowles, as a music producer and the only vocalist to feature on all their albums and EPs. The band received critical acclaim with their first album "Blue Lines", released in 1991.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: In 1997–98, Del Naja was the band's main producer in the recording sessions that made "Mezzanine", Massive Attack's most commercially successful album, selling nearly 4 million copies, with Neil Davidge as a sound engineer.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: In addition to his work with Massive Attack, he provided vocals to "Invasion" on Unkle's album "Never, Never, Land", and "Twilight" on "War Stories".


title: Robert Del Naja

text: Del Naja has co written a number of film scores and tracks for films with Neil Davidge and with Euan Dickinson. "Herculaneum", the title track for Italian director Matteo Garrone's 2008 Palme d'Or winning film "Gomorrah", based on the book by Roberto Saviano about organised crime in Naples, received the prize for best song at the David Di Donatello Awards.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: In December 2012, Del Naja released the first single of his new project called the Battle Box, which fuses music, art and discourse across one-off live events, exhibitions and exclusive vinyl releases. He counted with the collaboration of artists such as Guy Garvey, Noel Gallagher, Jupiter Bokondji and the Higgins Waterproof Black Magic Band.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: In December 2014, Del Naja donated ten unreleased music tracks to the Game Jam site Ludum Dare, for a game event taking place in December. The songs will be used by the site developers to make soundtracks for the games. This new music material is available for free download.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: In February 2015, Del Naja and Radiohead frontman Thom Yorke released the soundtrack for the documentary "The UK Gold". The songs are available for free download.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: In 2015 he collaborated with Jean-Michel Jarre on the "" album, resulting in the track "Watching You".


title: Robert Del Naja

text: Del Naja was a graffiti artist before becoming a producer and vocalist, and was featured in the 1987 book "Spraycan Art" by Henry Chalfant and James Prigoff and in the 1988 film "Bombin"', directed by Dick Fontaine, alongside fellow artist and future drum and bass pioneer Goldie.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: Del Naja is credited as being the first graffiti artist in Bristol. He is regarded as the pioneer of the stencil graffiti movement and one of those who brought hip hop and graffiti culture from the United States to Bristol in the early 1980s. In the mid-1990s, his art inspired the future Banksy.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: Since 2003, Del Naja has co-designed all of Massive Attack's lighting shows with UVA; the shows have been overtly political, dealing with local and international issues.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: Del Naja and Massive Attack's producer Neil Davidge collaborated with United Visual Artists on the large scale installation "Volume" at London's V&A museum in 2006. It consists of a field of 48 luminous, sound-emitting columns that respond to movement. Visitors weave a path through the sculpture, creating their own unique journey in light and music.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: Del Naja took part in a group show in 2007 called "Warpaint" at the Lazarides Gallery in London, featuring his art from the Unkle album "War Stories". He created an exhibition of flags at Massive Attack's Meltdown Festival on London's Southbank Centre in 2008. The installation was called "Favoured Nations". In the exhibition, alternative flags of the British Commonwealth were recoloured in the anarchist red and black and hung from the ceiling of the Royal Festival Hall main floor.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: In a 2010 interview, Del Naja said "Painting is difficult for me because I'm colour blind. Back in the day, I had to label my spray cans with what colour they were because I couldn't tell. It's like the emperor's new clothes: [people] telling me it's great, and me pretending that's what I intended."


title: Robert Del Naja

text: Del Naja had his largest solo art show at the Lazarides gallery in central London from 24 May to 22 June 2013. The show's content spanned a period of over twenty years and featured many of the art pieces that Del Naja created for Massive Attack. Each piece, reinterpreted especially for the exhibition, was hand-printed and finished. The show featured three one-off 'digital infinity mirrors' two of which contained phrases supplied by Reprieve extracted from drone pilot dialogues. Del Naja and Grant DJ'd at the opening night on 23 May.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: A multi-medium show conceived and designed by Del Naja and filmmaker Adam Curtis – in collaboration with United Visual Artists (UVA) – premiered in Manchester in July 2013. The show featured a Curtis film, unofficially titled "The Plan", which was projected onto a huge screen surrounding the audience. The lighting and LED elements that surrounded the film and players were designed by Del Naja and UVA.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: Del Naja orchestrated the show's soundtrack, and the music later became part of the score for Curtis' BBC production entitled HyperNormalisation in 2016.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: During the COVID lockdown, on 19 May 2020 Del Naja launched his Fire Sale website store, selling "Protection", a limited-edition print, in aid of the Bristol Food Union. The print raised more than £100,000 for the charity.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: In July 2020, Massive Attack released a political audiovisual EP called "Eutopia": The 3x track fusion was created across five cities during the Covid-19 global lockdown period. The project was co-written and produced by 3D and Mark Donne, featuring strong arguments for global system change from UN Paris Climate Agreement author Christiana Figueres, founder of the universal basic income principle professor Guy Standing and inventor of the US wealth tax policy Professor Gabriel Zucman.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: In June 2021, Del Naja was presented with a Royal College of Art honorary doctorate - nominated and presented by Sir Jony Ive.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: In March 2022, he started again selling off artwork to help victims of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, with proceeds to go to the Disasters Emergency Committee's humanitarian appeal.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: In 2016, Massive Attack released their EP "Ritual Spirit" as part of a procedural music app called Fantom and was co-developed by Del Naja (with a new version developed in 2019). The "sensory remixer" lets people create unique versions of tracks, with the app taking into account variables like movement, time of day or night, location and what a user's phone camera can see. An Apple Watch version of the app that varies the song's rhythm and harmony based on heartbeat was developed, while live social media notifications sent via a Twitter feed triggered alternative real time mix events.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: In April 2018, Massive Attack encoded Mezzanine into synthetic DNA to mark the 20th anniversary of the 1998 album. A limited number of cans were manufactured with the DNA-encoded audio within matte black paint – each can contained approximately one million copies of the album. Addressing the novel storage method, Del Naja said: "It's a creative way to store your back catalogue, although DNA-encoded spray paint is unlikely to be adopted by street artists seeking anonymity".


title: Robert Del Naja

text: In 2019, Del Naja and Adam Curtis teamed up for a second time on a live show based on the bands' "Mezzanine" album. The show challenged the idea of nostalgia and power, and featured machine learning generative adversarial networks and deep fakes from Mario Klingemann, as well as new films from Curtis that were used to tell a narrative story. They were used as visuals for cover versions of non Massive Attack songs based on samples and loops that made up the album's identity.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: Since the spring 2019, the band's explorations with artificial intelligence have been featured in an international art show that debuted at the Barbican Centre in London, called 'AI – More Than Human'.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: Del Naja's music has been associated with the Bristol sound. He said of the Bristol Scene: "We all grew up listening to punk music and funk stuff and those attitudes sort of snuck into our music. That sort of brought people from different circles together and maybe it wasn't as 'cultural melting pot' as it all sounds but because Bristol is quite a small place, it becomes a lot more focused then."


title: Robert Del Naja

text: Del Naja has been critical of the government policies of the United Kingdom. He was strongly opposed to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and with fellow musician Damon Albarn personally paid for full page adverts in the "NME" magazine. On the eve of the invasion of Iraq, they tried to organise a group of prominent musicians into an anti-war campaign, only according to Del Naja to be greeted with silence bordering on hostility. Massive Attack have previously played two shows in Israel, but have declined recent offers. They have described this "not an action of aggression towards the Israeli people" but "towards the [Israeli] government and its policies", arguing that "the Palestinians [in Gaza and the west bank] have no access to the same fundamental benefits that the Israelis do."


title: Robert Del Naja

text: In 2005, Del Naja organised and performed at a charity concert in Bristol for Tsunami Relief with Adrian Utley and Geoff Barrow of Portishead. The two-night event featured Massive Attack, Portishead, Robert Plant, The Coral and Damon Albarn. Del Naja and Marshall performed three shows in 2005 in support of Hoping, an organisation that helps raise money, support projects for Palestinian youth in refugee camps in the Gaza strip and the west bank, Lebanon and Syria.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: Del Naja and Thom Yorke of Radiohead threw a Christmas party at an occupied UBS bank in London in December 2011, in recognition and support for the international Occupy movement.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: Having previously boycotted playing at Bristol's Colston Hall due to its connection with the city's historic slave trade, in October 2012, Del Naja heavily criticised Bristol Mayor candidate George Ferguson because of his membership of a local organisation the Society of Merchant Venturers. The organisation dates back to the 16th century and had many connections with the Bristol slave trade, continuing to this day as an elitist private organisation, open to very few by invitation only. In November 2012, Del Naja then took a surprising stance to reverse his position and endorse Ferguson. Del Naja was cited by local media as saying that the other candidates had only party political agendas at heart and a newly elected mayor needed more imagination to help implement creative projects for Bristol.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: In July 2014, Robert Del Naja and Grant Marshall visited the Bourj el-Barajneh refugee camp in Lebanon to meet with Palestinian volunteers at an educational centre. The band's profit from the show in Byblos was donated to the centre.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: In 2016, Robert worked with photographer Giles Duley to show their support for refugees; Massive Attack used his photographs from different sites of the crisis for their new show.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: From 2018, 3D has been supporting the climate activists of the Extinction Rebellion group, which have conducted protests in London since October 2018. In April, he played a DJ set for the Extinction Rebellion protesters in the heart of London in Marble Arch. In July and October 2019, the group protested in 60 other cities worldwide and Del Naja provided a portable radio network using speakers in backpacks with receivers and transmitters for the campaigners in London. Massive Attack concluded their Mezzanine XXI tour of the US in October by organising a benefit gig at Webster Hall in NYC to help pay protestors' legal fees.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: In November 2019, along with other public figures, Massive Attack signed a letter supporting Labour Party leader Jeremy Corbyn describing him as "a beacon of hope in the struggle against emergent far-right nationalism, xenophobia and racism in much of the democratic world" and endorsed him in the 2019 UK general election.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: And on 28 November 2019, Robert Del Naja announced that Massive Attack partnered with a research centre based at the University of Manchester to explore music industry climate impact. He wrote in a column in The Guardian: "The commissioning of the renowned Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research to map the full carbon footprint of typical tour cycles, and to look specifically at the three key areas where CO2 emissions in our sector are generated".


title: Robert Del Naja

text: In May 2020, during the Covid-19 lockdown, 3D called for more government support to be given to those in food poverty after a print fundraising sale in his home town of Bristol raised more than £100,000 to help feed frontline workers and at-risk groups.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: During the spring 2020, 3D also worked on a Massive Attack political audiovisual EP called "Eutopia", consisting of 3 track fusion created across 5 cities during the Covid-19 global lockdown period, with documentary filmmaker Mark Donne, AI art pioneer Mario Klingemann and vocal collaborations with Algiers, Young Fathers and poet Saul Williams. The conceptual project, co-written and produced by 3D and Donne, features strong arguments for global system change from UN Paris Climate Agreement author Christiana Figueres, founder of the universal basic income principle professor Guy Standing and inventor of the US wealth tax policy Professor Gabriel Zucman. Each video ends with a quote from Thomas More's "Utopia". He is mentioned in the credits of Adam Curtis' 2022 film "Traumazone", which documents Russia between 1985 and 1999.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: Del Naja was brought up in Bristol. His father was from Naples, Italy, and as a result he is a passionate supporter of the S.S.C. Napoli football team, as well as Bristol City. Del Naja was arrested and cautioned twice in Bristol during the 1980s for painting graffiti and made to do community service.


title: Robert Del Naja

text: Del Naja attended state school in Filton, Bristol, but did not complete the A-level term and never went on to university.


title: Thadam

text: Thadam () is a 2019 Indian Tamil-language crime thriller film written and directed by Magizh Thirumeni. Produced by Inder Kumar, the film stars Arun Vijay in a double role along with Vidya Pradeep , Tanya Hope, and Smruthi Venkat . The music was composed by Arun Raj, with cinematography by Gopinath and editing by N. B. Srikanth. It marks the Tamil debut of Tanya and the film debut of Smruthi. In the film, police officers try to solve a murder case involving lookalike suspects arrested on the basis of a pictorial evidence.


title: Thadam

text: "Thadam" was released theatrically on 1 March 2019, opening to critical acclaim with praise for Arun Vijay's performance and the writing. It was commercially successful, becoming one of the highest-grossing films of the year in Tamil Nadu. The film has been remade in Telugu as "Red" with Ram Pothineni in the lead role. A Hindi-language remake Gumraah starring Aditya Roy Kapur & Mrunal Thakur is also in works.


title: Thadam

text: Ezhil, is a civil engineer from IIT Madras, while his lookalike Kavin, is a gambling thief who deceives people along with his sidekick Suruli. Ezhil's love interest is an IT girl Deepika, while a girl named Ananthi, loves Kavin, unaware of his real identity. One day, Kavin tries to help Suruli pay his debt by extracting money from Ananthi through lies, but she helps him in spite of knowing the truth. After taking the money, Kavin is enraged, and so is Ezhil after a party. That night, one of them breaks into a house and attacks the owner Akash, stabbing him to death. The next day, Kavin frees Suruli by paying his debt and wins Ananthi's trust by returning her money and telling her the truth. However, as the investigation of Akash's murder proceeds, a selfie clicked by a couple nearby is found with either of Ezhil or Kavin in it.


title: Thadam

text: Both Ezhil and Kavin are brought in and investigated without their knowledge of each other's existence. Gopalakrishnan, inspector who shares an old rivalry with Ezhil, tortures him. Ezhil reveals his car broke down, and a call taxi driver helped him, as he didn't have the repair kit. SI Malarvizhi interrogates Kavin, who on the other hand, cites various laws to escape torture. She reaches out to Akash's friend and shows him the photograph of Ezhil/Kavin, but he refuses to recognize him. She also questions Suruli and tells him not to leave the city without permission, but he secretly escapes. Malarvizhi then learns of the rivalry between Ezhil and Gopalakrishnan; Ezhil helped the latter's daughter elope with her lover, much against her father's wishes. The forensic expert informs Malarvizhi about a hair sample recovered from the crime scene and how it doesn't match anyone else in Akash's home.


title: Thadam

text: At the police station, Ezhil tries to escape but is interrupted by Kavin. The two violently fight, hurting everyone and vandalizing the station in the process. Kavin and Ezhil are revealed to be identical twins after their DNA is found identical, and both confess about the same; they parted ways when their parents divorced. Kavin went with his mother, who used to gamble a lot, but wouldn't refuse anyone who asks her help, and one day tried to convince him that she'd give up gambling, but instead committed suicide. Kavin was then taken in by his father but got into a violent fight with him and Ezhil. Both of them were admitted into a mental institution as a result. Growing up as their father died, Kavin became interested in studying the law but left studies due to his lack of college ethics. One day, when Kavin came home and left in front of Ezhil, whose ring for Deepika went missing, Ezhil reported him to the police.


title: Thadam

text: The police beat up Kavin, who himself told Ezhil to look for the ring in the drawer. Ezhil realized his mistake, but Kavin, who came home for a photo of their mother, vowed to seek revenge. On the other hand, Gopalakrishnan still wants to frame Ezhil, but the call taxi driver who helped Ezhil confirms he was really stuck on the night of the murder. It also gets proved that Kavin paid Suruli's debt with gambling money he won after playing all night. The sessions court, weeks later, acquits both Kavin and Ezhil in order to protect the innocent one from punishment. Gopalakrishnan retires without getting his revenge. Months later, while shifting the items of the Police station, Malarvizhi gets glimpse of Deepika's photo in Akash's case, and calls Akash's friend to inquire about the girl he was infatuated with, and was shocked to learn that it was Deepika. Ezhil is finally revealed to have murdered Akash for drugging, kidnapping and raping Deepika to death out of his childhood lust. Akash also bribed the police to avoid charges. When Kavin found out about Akash's murder, he helped Ezhil by getting officially arrested himself as well to throw off the police.


title: Thadam

text: Later, Kavin meets Ezhil on the highway and explains how Malarvizhi can't reopen the case as she created a fake witness to help Ezhil, and could herself get arrested, having done this once which resulted in her suspension. Ezhil hands him over a photograph of them with their mother and tells him he is going to Mumbai, and later to Copenhagen, never to return. Having sold all of his property in India, Ezhil gives a 50% share to Kavin as a tribute. After his marriage with Ananthi, Kavin realizes his lack of trust in his mother prompted her to kill herself. He promises to do better with his wife.


title: Thadam

text: Seven months later, some of the investigating officers appear for a documentary shooting. One of the investigating officers calls the case unprecedented, before someone tells him similar cases occurred in other countries as well.


title: Thadam

text: In March 2017, Arun Vijay revealed that he would next work on a film directed by Magizh Thirumeni, which marks the second film for the duo after "Thadaiyara Thaakka" (2012). Produced by Inder Kumar, the film was launched in April 2017 at Chennai. Arun Vijay was reported to be playing a double role, while the film would be based on a real life story. The film has three heroines, Tanya Hope, Vidya Pradeep and Smruthi Venkat. Arun Raj was selected to compose the music for this film, marking his first collaboration between Magizh Tirumeni and Arun Vijay. Gopinath and N. B. Srikanth were signed on to be the film's cinematographer and editor. FEFSI Vijayan and Meera Krishnan were also cast in the film before the film entered production in June 2017.


title: Thadam

text: Sify stated 3.5 out of 5 stars stating "The presentation is smart and stylish. An engaging whodunit thriller from the word go. The biggest strength is Arun Vijay and his convincing performance as Ezhil and Kavin". The Times of India rated 3.5 out of 5 stars stating "Thadam has an intriguingly written flow of events which begins from the pre-interval point and maintains the suspense factor till the end". "Behindwoods" rated 3 out of 5 stars stating "Thadam's intriguing screenplay especially in the second half makes it an engaging investigative thriller that should not be missed". The Hindu stated "Thadam by Magizh Thirumeni is an effective murder mystery involving identical twins". Film Companion rated 2.5 out of 5 stars stating "The cinematographer keeps throwing in slightly angled frames, which give the sense of a dual reality: one normal, one skewed. We think we know who did it — but do we?" India Today rated 2.5 out of 5 stars stating "Director Magizh Thirumeni's second film with Arun Vijay, Thadam, deals with a sensitive and intriguing murder mystery. But the screenplay is messed up and filled with spoonfeeding moments, says our review". "IndiaGlitz" rated 2.75 out of 5 stars stating "Go for this murder mystery/psychological thriller film that is different from the usual fare". The Indian Express rated 3 out of 5 stars stating "At first glance, Thadam, inspired by real events, comes across as a pretty straightforward urban thriller. But as the layers peel, you discover it is cleverly written—in parts". Firstpost rated 3 out of 5 stars stating "Thadam is an out-and-out Arun Vijay film. A well made thriller which takes the audiences by surprise in its climax with some twists and turns". Deccan Chronicle rated 3.5 out of 5 stars stating "Barring couple of dull moments, Thadam is a well-written engrossing thriller worth a watch". The News Minute rated 3 out of 5 stars stating "The film has a deceptively simple storyline but the treatment makes all the difference".


title: Thadam

text: This film's soundtrack is composed by Arun Raj making his debut as a music director. Lyrics are written by Arun Raj, Madhan Karky, Thamarai, and Magizh Thirumeni


title: Thadam

text: Thadam grossed Rs 2.3 cr in its third weekend, taking its estimated cumulative gross in Tamil Nadu to Rs 18.4 cr at the end of 20 days.


title: Thermal radiation

text: Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation generated by the thermal motion of particles in matter. Thermal radiation is generated when heat from the movement of charges in the material (electrons and protons in common forms of matter) is converted to electromagnetic radiation. All matter with a temperature greater than absolute zero emits thermal radiation. At room temperature, most of the emission is in the infrared (IR) spectrum. Particle motion results in charge-acceleration or dipole oscillation which produces electromagnetic radiation.


title: Thermal radiation

text: Infrared radiation emitted by animals (detectable with an infrared camera) and cosmic microwave background radiation are examples of thermal radiation.


title: Thermal radiation

text: If a radiation object meets the physical characteristics of a black body in thermodynamic equilibrium, the radiation is called blackbody radiation. Planck's law describes the spectrum of blackbody radiation, which depends solely on the object's temperature. Wien's displacement law determines the most likely frequency of the emitted radiation, and the Stefan–Boltzmann law gives the radiant intensity.


title: Thermal radiation

text: Thermal radiation is the emission of electromagnetic waves from all matter that has a temperature greater than absolute zero. Thermal radiation reflects the conversion of thermal energy into electromagnetic energy. Thermal energy is the kinetic energy of random movements of atoms and molecules in matter. All matter with a nonzero temperature is composed of particles with kinetic energy. These atoms and molecules are composed of charged particles, i.e., protons and electrons. The kinetic interactions among matter particles result in charge acceleration and dipole oscillation. This results in the electrodynamic generation of coupled electric and magnetic fields, resulting in the emission of photons, radiating energy away from the body. Electromagnetic radiation, including visible light, will propagate indefinitely in vacuum.


title: Thermal radiation

text: The characteristics of thermal radiation depend on various properties of the surface from which it is emanating, including its temperature, its spectral emissivity, as expressed by Kirchhoff's law. The radiation is not monochromatic, i.e., it does not consist of only a single frequency, but comprises a continuous spectrum of photon energies, its characteristic spectrum. If the radiating body and its surface are in thermodynamic equilibrium and the surface has perfect absorptivity at all wavelengths, it is characterized as a black body. A black body is also a perfect emitter. The radiation of such perfect emitters is called black-body radiation. The ratio of any body's emission relative to that of a black body is the body's emissivity, so that a black body has an emissivity of unity (i.e., one).


title: Thermal radiation

text: Absorptivity, reflectivity, and emissivity of all bodies are dependent on the wavelength of the radiation. Due to reciprocity, absorptivity and emissivity for any particular wavelength are equal at equilibrium – a good absorber is necessarily a good emitter, and a poor absorber is a poor emitter. The temperature determines the wavelength distribution of the electromagnetic radiation. For example, the white paint in the diagram to the right is highly reflective to visible light (reflectivity about 0.80), and so appears white to the human eye due to reflecting sunlight, which has a peak wavelength of about 0.5 micrometers. However, its emissivity at a temperature of about , peak wavelength of about 12 micrometers, is 0.95. Thus, to thermal radiation it appears black.


title: Thermal radiation

text: The distribution of power that a black body emits with varying frequency is described by Planck's law. At any given temperature, there is a frequency "f" at which the power emitted is a maximum. Wien's displacement law, and the fact that the frequency is inversely proportional to the wavelength, indicates that the peak frequency "f" is proportional to the absolute temperature "T" of the black body. The photosphere of the sun, at a temperature of approximately 6000 K, emits radiation principally in the (human-)visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Earth's atmosphere is partly transparent to visible light, and the light reaching the surface is absorbed or reflected. Earth's surface emits the absorbed radiation, approximating the behavior of a black body at 300 K with spectral peak at "f". At these lower frequencies, the atmosphere is largely opaque and radiation from Earth's surface is absorbed or scattered by the atmosphere. Though about 10% of this radiation escapes into space, most is absorbed and then re-emitted by atmospheric gases. It is this spectral selectivity of the atmosphere that is responsible for the planetary greenhouse effect, contributing to global warming and climate change in general (but also critically contributing to climate stability when the composition and properties of the atmosphere are not changing).


title: Thermal radiation

text: The incandescent light bulb has a spectrum overlapping the black body spectra of the sun and the earth. Some of the photons emitted by a tungsten light bulb filament at 3000 K are in the visible spectrum. Most of the energy is associated with photons of longer wavelengths; these do not help a person see, but still transfer heat to the environment, as can be deduced empirically by observing an incandescent light bulb. Whenever EM radiation is emitted and then absorbed, heat is transferred. This principle is used in microwave ovens, laser cutting, and RF hair removal.


title: Thermal radiation

text: Unlike conductive and convective forms of heat transfer, thermal radiation can be concentrated in a tiny spot by using reflecting mirrors, which concentrating solar power takes advantage of. Instead of mirrors, Fresnel lenses can also be used to concentrate radiant energy. (In principle, any kind of lens can be used, but only the Fresnel lens design is practical for very large lenses.) Either method can be used to quickly vaporize water into steam using sunlight. For example, the sunlight reflected from mirrors heats the PS10 Solar Power Plant, and during the day it can heat water to .


title: Thermal radiation

text: Lighter colors and also whites and metallic substances absorb less of the illuminating light, and as a result heat up less; but otherwise color makes little difference as regards heat transfer between an object at everyday temperatures and its surroundings, since the dominant emitted wavelengths are nowhere near the visible spectrum, but rather in the far infrared. Emissivities at those wavelengths are largely unrelated to visual emissivities (visible colors); in the far infra-red, most objects have high emissivities. Thus, except in sunlight, the color of clothing makes little difference as regards warmth; likewise, paint color of houses makes little difference to warmth except when the painted part is sunlit.


title: Thermal radiation

text: The main exception to this is shiny metal surfaces, which have low emissivities both in the visible wavelengths and in the far infrared. Such surfaces can be used to reduce heat transfer in both directions; an example of this is the multi-layer insulation used to insulate spacecraft.


title: Thermal radiation

text: Low-emissivity windows in houses are a more complicated technology, since they must have low emissivity at thermal wavelengths while remaining transparent to visible light.


title: Thermal radiation

text: Nanostructures with spectrally selective thermal emittance properties offer numerous technological applications for energy generation and efficiency, e.g., for daytime radiative cooling of photovoltaic cells and buildings. These applications require high emittance in the frequency range corresponding to the atmospheric transparency window in 8 to 13 micron wavelength range. A selective emitter radiating strongly in this range is thus exposed to the clear sky, enabling the use of the outer space as a very low temperature heat sink.


title: Thermal radiation

text: Personalized cooling technology is another example of an application where optical spectral selectivity can be beneficial. Conventional personal cooling is typically achieved through heat conduction and convection. However, the human body is a very efficient emitter of infrared radiation, which provides an additional cooling mechanism. Most conventional fabrics are opaque to infrared radiation and block thermal emission from the body to the environment. Fabrics for personalized cooling applications have been proposed that enable infrared transmission to directly pass through clothing, while being opaque at visible wavelengths, allowing the wearer to remain cooler.


title: Thermal radiation

text: The general properties of thermal radiation as described by Planck's law apply if the linear dimension of all parts considered, as well as radii of curvature of all surfaces are large compared with the wavelength of the ray considered' (typically from 8-25 micrometres for the emitter at 300 K). Indeed, thermal radiation as discussed above takes only radiating waves (far-field, or electromagnetic radiation) into account. A more sophisticated framework involving electromagnetic theory must be used for smaller distances from the thermal source or surface (near-field radiative heat transfer). For example, although far-field thermal radiation at distances from surfaces of more than one wavelength is generally not coherent to any extent, near-field thermal radiation (i.e., radiation at distances of a fraction of various radiation wavelengths) may exhibit a degree of both temporal and spatial coherence.


title: Thermal radiation

text: Planck's law of thermal radiation has been challenged in recent decades by predictions and successful demonstrations of the radiative heat transfer between objects separated by nanoscale gaps that deviate significantly from the law predictions. This deviation is especially strong (up to several orders in magnitude) when the emitter and absorber support surface polariton modes that can couple through the gap separating cold and hot objects. However, to take advantage of the surface-polariton-mediated near-field radiative heat transfer, the two objects need to be separated by ultra-narrow gaps on the order of microns or even nanometers. This limitation significantly complicates practical device designs.


title: Thermal radiation

text: Another way to modify the object thermal emission spectrum is by reducing the dimensionality of the emitter itself. This approach builds upon the concept of confining electrons in quantum wells, wires and dots, and tailors thermal emission by engineering confined photon states in two- and three-dimensional potential traps, including wells, wires, and dots. Such spatial confinement concentrates photon states and enhances thermal emission at select frequencies. To achieve the required level of photon confinement, the dimensions of the radiating objects should be on the order of or below the thermal wavelength predicted by Planck's law. Most importantly, the emission spectrum of thermal wells, wires and dots deviates from Planck's law predictions not only in the near field, but also in the far field, which significantly expands the range of their applications.


title: Thermal radiation

text: The time to a damage from exposure to radiative heat is a function of the rate of delivery of the heat. Radiative heat flux and effects:


title: Thermal radiation

text: Thermal radiation is one of the three principal mechanisms of heat transfer. It entails the emission of a spectrum of electromagnetic radiation due to an object's temperature. Other mechanisms are convection and conduction.


title: Thermal radiation

text: Radiation heat transfer is characteristically different from the other two in that it does not require a medium and, in fact it reaches maximum efficiency in a vacuum. Electromagnetic radiation has some proper characteristics depending on the frequency and wavelengths of the radiation. The phenomenon of radiation is not yet fully understood. Two theories have been used to explain radiation; however neither of them is perfectly satisfactory.


title: Thermal radiation

text: First, the earlier theory which originated from the concept of a hypothetical medium referred as ether. Ether supposedly fills all evacuated or non-evacuated spaces. The transmission of light or of radiant heat are allowed by the propagation of electromagnetic waves in the ether. television and radio broadcasting waves are types of electromagnetic waves with specific wavelengths. All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed; therefore, shorter wavelengths are associated with high frequencies. Since every body or fluid is submerged in the ether, due to the vibration of the molecules, any body or fluid can potentially initiate an electromagnetic wave. All bodies generate and receive electromagnetic waves at the expense of its stored energy


title: Thermal radiation

text: The second theory of radiation is best known as the quantum theory and was first offered by Max Planck in 1900. According to this theory, energy emitted by a radiator is not continuous but is in the form of quanta. Planck claimed that quantities had different sizes and frequencies of vibration similarly to the wave theory. The energy "E" is found by the expression "E" = "hν", where "h" is the Planck constant and "ν" is the frequency. Higher frequencies are originated by high temperatures and create an increase of energy in the quantum. While the propagation of electromagnetic waves of all wavelengths is often referred as "radiation", thermal radiation is often constrained to the visible and infrared regions. For engineering purposes, it may be stated that thermal radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation which varies on the nature of a surface and its temperature. Radiation waves may travel in unusual patterns compared to conduction heat flow. Radiation allows waves to travel from a heated body through a cold nonabsorbing or partially absorbing medium and reach a warmer body again. This is the case of the radiation waves that travel from the sun to the earth.


title: Thermal radiation

text: Here, formula_2 represents the spectral absorption component, formula_3 spectral reflection component and formula_4 the spectral transmission component. These elements are a function of the wavelength (formula_5) of the electromagnetic radiation. The spectral absorption is equal to the emissivity formula_6; this relation is known as Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation. An object is called a black body if this holds for all frequencies, and the following formula applies:


title: Thermal radiation

text: Reflectivity deviates from the other properties in that it is bidirectional in nature. In other words, this property depends on the direction of the incident of radiation as well as the direction of the reflection. Therefore, the reflected rays of a radiation spectrum incident on a real surface in a specified direction forms an irregular shape that is not easily predictable. In practice, surfaces are often assumed to reflect either in a perfectly specular or a diffuse manner. In a specular reflection, the angles of reflection and incidence are equal. In diffuse reflection, radiation is reflected equally in all directions. Reflection from smooth and polished surfaces can be assumed to be specular reflection, whereas reflection from rough surfaces approximates diffuse reflection. In radiation analysis a surface is defined as smooth if the height of the surface roughness is much smaller relative to the wavelength of the incident radiation.


title: Thermal radiation

text: In a practical situation and room-temperature setting, humans lose considerable energy due to thermal radiation in infra-red in addition to that lost by conduction to air (aided by concurrent convection, or other air movement like drafts). The heat energy lost is partially regained by absorbing heat radiation from walls or other surroundings. (Heat gained by conduction would occur for air temperature higher than body temperature.) Otherwise, body temperature is maintained from generated heat through internal metabolism. Human skin has an emissivity of very close to 1.0. Using the formulas below shows a human, having roughly in surface area, and a temperature of about 307 K, continuously radiates approximately 1000 watts. If people are indoors, surrounded by surfaces at 296 K, they receive back about 900 watts from the wall, ceiling, and other surroundings, so the net loss is only about 100 watts. These heat transfer estimates are highly dependent on extrinsic variables, such as wearing clothes, i.e. decreasing total thermal circuit conductivity, therefore reducing total output heat flux. Only truly "gray" systems (relative equivalent emissivity/absorptivity and no directional transmissivity dependence in "all" control volume bodies considered) can achieve reasonable steady-state heat flux estimates through the Stefan-Boltzmann law. Encountering this "ideally calculable" situation is almost impossible (although common engineering procedures surrender the dependency of these unknown variables and "assume" this to be the case). Optimistically, these "gray" approximations will get close to real solutions, as most divergence from Stefan-Boltzmann solutions is very small (especially in most STP lab controlled environments).


title: Thermal radiation

text: If objects appear white (reflective in the visual spectrum), they are not necessarily equally reflective (and thus non-emissive) in the thermal infrared – see the diagram at the left. Most household radiators are painted white, which is sensible given that they are not hot enough to radiate any significant amount of heat, and are not designed as thermal radiators at all – instead, they are actually convectors, and painting them matt black would make little difference to their efficacy. Acrylic and urethane based white paints have 93% blackbody radiation efficiency at room temperature (meaning the term "black body" does not always correspond to the visually perceived color of an object). These materials that do not follow the "black color = high emissivity/absorptivity" caveat will most likely have functional spectral emissivity/absorptivity dependence.


title: Thermal radiation

text: Calculation of radiative heat transfer between groups of object, including a 'cavity' or 'surroundings' requires solution of a set of simultaneous equations using the radiosity method. In these calculations, the geometrical configuration of the problem is distilled to a set of numbers called view factors, which give the proportion of radiation leaving any given surface that hits another specific surface. These calculations are important in the fields of solar thermal energy, boiler and furnace design and raytraced computer graphics.


title: Thermal radiation

text: A selective surface can be used when energy is being extracted from the sun. Selective surfaces can also be used on solar collectors. We can find out how much help a selective surface coating is by looking at the equilibrium temperature of a plate that is being heated through solar radiation. If the plate is receiving a solar irradiation of 1350 W/m (minimum is 1325 W/m on 4 July and maximum is 1418 W/m on 3 January) from the sun the temperature of the plate where the radiation leaving is equal to the radiation being received by the plate is 393 K (248 °F). If the plate has a selective surface with an emissivity of 0.9 and a cut off wavelength of 2.0 μm, the equilibrium temperature is approximately 1250 K (1790 °F). The calculations were made neglecting convective heat transfer and neglecting the solar irradiation absorbed in the clouds/atmosphere for simplicity, the theory is still the same for an actual problem.


title: Thermal radiation

text: To reduce the heat transfer from a surface, such as a glass window, a clear reflective film with a low emissivity coating can be placed on the interior of the surface. "Low-emittance (low-E) coatings are microscopically thin, virtually invisible, metal or metallic oxide layers deposited on a window or skylight glazing surface primarily to reduce the U-factor by suppressing radiative heat flow". By adding this coating we are limiting the amount of radiation that leaves the window thus increasing the amount of heat that is retained inside the window.


title: Thermal radiation

text: Since any electromagnetic radiation, including thermal radiation, conveys momentum as well as energy, thermal radiation also induces very small forces on the radiating or absorbing objects. Normally these forces are negligible, but they must be taken into account when considering spacecraft navigation. The Pioneer anomaly, where the motion of the craft slightly deviated from that expected from gravity alone, was eventually tracked down to asymmetric thermal radiation from the spacecraft. Similarly, the orbits of asteroids are perturbed since the asteroid absorbs solar radiation on the side facing the sun, but then re-emits the energy at a different angle as the rotation of the asteroid carries the warm surface out of the sun's view (the YORP effect).


title: Thermal radiation

text: Thermal radiation power of a black body in the orthogonal direction per unit area of radiating surface per unit of solid angle and per unit frequency formula_8 is given by Planck's law as:


title: Thermal radiation

text: This formula mathematically follows from calculation of spectral distribution of energy in quantized electromagnetic field which is in complete thermal equilibrium with the radiating object. Plancks law shows that radiative energy increases with temperature, and explains why the peak of an emission spectrum shifts to shorter wavelengths at higher temperatures. It can also be found that energy emitted at shorter wavelengths increases more rapidly with temperature relative to longer wavelengths. The equation is derived as an infinite sum over all possible frequencies in a semi-sphere region. The energy, formula_11, of each photon is multiplied by the number of states available at that frequency, and the probability that each of those states will be occupied.


title: Thermal radiation

text: Integrating the above equation over formula_8 the power output given by the Stefan–Boltzmann law is obtained, as:


title: Thermal radiation

text: where the constant of proportionality formula_14 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant and formula_15 is the radiating surface area.


title: Thermal radiation

text: The wavelength formula_16, for which the emission intensity is highest, is given by Wien's displacement law as:


title: Thermal radiation

text: For surfaces which are not black bodies, one has to consider the (generally frequency dependent) emissivity factor formula_18. This factor has to be multiplied with the radiation spectrum formula before integration. If it is taken as a constant, the resulting formula for the power output can be written in a way that contains formula_6 as a factor:


title: Thermal radiation

text: This type of theoretical model, with frequency-independent emissivity lower than that of a perfect black body, is often known as a "grey body". For frequency-dependent emissivity, the solution for the integrated power depends on the functional form of the dependence, though in general there is no simple expression for it. Practically speaking, if the emissivity of the body is roughly constant around the peak emission wavelength, the gray body model tends to work fairly well since the weight of the curve around the peak emission tends to dominate the integral.


title: Thermal radiation

text: The "net" radiative heat transfer from one surface to another is the radiation leaving the first surface for the other minus that arriving from the second surface.


title: Thermal radiation

text: Formulas for radiative heat transfer can be derived for more particular or more elaborate physical arrangements, such as between parallel plates, concentric spheres and the internal surfaces of a cylinder.


title: Casimir Pulaski

text: Kazimierz Michał Władysław Wiktor Pułaski of the Ślepowron coat of arms (; Casimir Pulaski ; March 4 or March 6, 1745 October 11, 1779) was a Polish nobleman, soldier, and military commander who has been called, together with his counterpart Michael Kovats de Fabriczy, "the father of the American cavalry."


title: Casimir Pulaski

text: Born in Warsaw and following in his father's footsteps, he became interested in politics at an early age. He soon became involved in the military and in revolutionary affairs in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Pulaski was one of the leading military commanders for the Bar Confederation and fought against the Commonwealth's foreign domination. When this uprising failed, he was driven into exile. Following a recommendation by Benjamin Franklin, Pulaski traveled to North America to help in the American Revolutionary War. He distinguished himself throughout the revolution, most notably when he saved the life of George Washington. Pulaski became a general in the Continental Army, and he and his friend, Michael Kovats, created the Pulaski Cavalry Legion and reformed the American cavalry as a whole. At the Battle of Savannah, while leading a cavalry charge against British forces, he was fatally wounded by grapeshot and died shortly after.


title: Casimir Pulaski

text: Pulaski is remembered as a hero who fought for independence and freedom in Poland and the United States. Numerous places and events are named in his honor, and he is commemorated by many works of art. Pulaski is one of only eight people to be awarded honorary United States citizenship. Analyses since the 1990s of Pulaski's presumed remains have raised the possibility that Pulaski was intersex.


title: Casimir Pulaski

text: Pulaski was born on March 6, 1745, in the manor house of the Pułaski family in Warsaw, Poland. Casimir was the second eldest son of Marianna Zielińska and Józef Pułaski, who was an "advocatus" at the Crown Tribunal, the Starost of Warka, and one of the town's most notable inhabitants. He was a brother of Franciszek Ksawery Pułaski and Antoni Pułaski. His family bore the Ślepowron coat of arms. The Pułaski family was Roman Catholic and early in his youth, Casimir Pulaski attended an elite college run by Theatines, a male religious order of the Catholic Church in Warsaw, but did not finish his education.


title: Casimir Pulaski

text: There is some circumstantial evidence that Pulaski was a Freemason. When Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette laid the cornerstone of the monument erected in Pulaski's honour in Monterey Square in Savannah in 1824, a full Masonic ceremony took place with Richard T. Turner, High Priest of the Georgia chapter, conducting the service. Other sources claim Pulaski was a member of the Masonic Army Lodge in Maryland. A Masonic Lodge in Chicago is named "Casimir Pulaski Lodge, No.1167", and a brochure issued by the lodge claims he obtained the degree of Master Mason on June 19, 1779, and was buried with full Masonic honours. To date, no surviving documents of Pulaski's actual membership have been found.


title: Casimir Pulaski

text: In 1762, Pulaski started his military career as a page of Carl Christian Joseph of Saxony, Duke of Courland and the Polish king's vassal. He spent six months at the ducal court in Mitau, during which the court was interned in the palaces by the Russian forces occupying the area. He then returned to Warsaw, and his father gave him the village of Zezulińce in Podole; from that time, Pulaski used the title of Starost of Zezulińce.