title: Hindu astrology

text: Planets are held to signify major details, such as profession, marriage and longevity. Of these indicators, known as Karakas, Parashara considers Atmakaraka most important, signifying broad contours of a person's life.


title: Hindu astrology

text: Rahu and Ketu correspond to the points where the moon crosses the ecliptic plane (known as the ascending and descending nodes of the moon). Classically known in Indian and Western astrology as the "head and tail of the dragon", these planets are represented as a serpent-bodied demon beheaded by the Sudarshan Chakra of Vishnu after attempting to swallow the sun. They are primarily used to calculate the dates of eclipses. They are described as "shadow planets" because they are not visible in the night sky. Rahu has an orbital cycle of 18 years; Ketu has an orbital cycle of seven years, and they are always retrograde in motion and 180 degrees from each other.


title: Hindu astrology

text: A natal chart shows the position of the "grahas" at the moment of birth. Since that moment, the "grahas" have continued to move around the zodiac, interacting with the natal chart grahas. This period of interaction is called "gochara" (Sanskrit: "", 'transit').


title: Hindu astrology

text: The study of transits is based on the transit of the Moon (Chandra), which spans roughly two days, and also on the movement of Mercury (Budha) and Venus (Śukra) across the celestial sphere, which is relatively fast as viewed from Earth. The movement of the slower planets – Jupiter (Guru), Saturn (Śani) and Rāhu–Ketu — is always of considerable importance. Astrologers study the transit of the Daśā lord from various reference points in the horoscope.


title: Hindu astrology

text: In Hindu astronomy, "yoga" (Sanskrit: "", 'union') is a combination of planets placed in a specific relationship to each other.


title: Hindu astrology

text: Rāja yogas are perceived as givers of fame, status and authority, and are typically formed by the association of the Lord of Keṅdras ('quadrants'), when reckoned from the Lagna ('ascendant'), and the Lords of the Trikona ('trines', 120 degrees—first, fifth and ninth houses). The Rāja yogas are culminations of the blessings of Viṣṇu and Lakṣmī. Some planets, such as Mars for Leo Lagna, do not need another "graha" (or Navagraha, 'planet') to create "Rājayoga", but are capable of giving "Rājayoga" by themselves due to their own lordship of the 4th Bhāva ('astrological house') and the 9th Bhāva from the Lagna, the two being a Keṅdra ('angular house'—first, fourth, seventh and tenth houses) and Trikona Bhāva respectively.


title: Hindu astrology

text: Dhana Yogas are formed by the association of wealth-giving planets such as the Dhaneśa or the 2nd Lord and the Lābheśa or the 11th Lord from the Lagna. Dhana Yogas are also formed due to the auspicious placement of the Dārāpada (from "dara", 'spouse' and "pada", 'foot'—one of the four divisions—3 degrees and 20 minutes—of a Nakshatra in the 7th house), when reckoned from the Ārūḍha Lagna (AL). The combination of the Lagneśa and the Bhāgyeśa also leads to wealth through the Lakṣmī Yoga.


title: Hindu astrology

text: Sanyāsa Yogas are formed due to the placement of four or more "grahas", excluding the Sun, in a Keṅdra Bhāva from the Lagna.


title: Hindu astrology

text: There are some overarching yogas in Jyotiṣa such as Amāvasyā Doṣa, Kāla Sarpa Yoga-Kāla Amṛta Yoga and Graha Mālika Yoga that can take precedence over Yamaha yogar planetary placements in the horoscope.


title: Hindu astrology

text: The Hindu Jātaka or Janam Kundali or birth chart, is the Bhāva Chakra (Sanskrit: 'division' 'wheel'), the complete 360° circle of life, divided into houses, and represents a way of enacting the influences in the wheel. Each house has associated kāraka (Sanskrit: 'significator') planets that can alter the interpretation of a particular house. Each Bhāva spans an arc of 30° with twelve Bhāvas in any chart of the horoscope. These are a crucial part of any horoscopic study since the Bhāvas, understood as 'state of being', personalize the Rāśis/ Rashis to the native and each Rāśi/ Rashi apart from indicating its true nature reveals its impact on the person based on the Bhāva occupied. The best way to study the various facets of Jyotiṣa is to see their role in chart evaluation of actual persons and how these are construed.


title: Hindu astrology

text: "Drishti" (Sanskrit: "", 'sight') is an aspect to an entire house. "Grahas" cast only forward aspects, with the furthest aspect being considered the strongest. For example, Jupiter aspects the 5th, 7th and 9th house from its position, Mars aspects the 4th, 7th, and 8th houses from its position, and its 8th house.


title: Hindu astrology

text: The principle of Drishti (aspect) was devised on the basis of the aspect of an army of planets as deity and demon in a war field. Thus the Sun, a deity king with only one full aspect, is more powerful than the demon king Saturn, which has three full aspects.


title: Hindu astrology

text: Aspects can be cast both by the planets (Graha Dṛṣṭi) and by the signs (Rāśi Dṛṣṭi). Planetary aspects are a function of desire, while sign aspects are a function of awareness and cognizance.


title: Hindu astrology

text: There are some higher aspects of Graha Dṛṣṭi (planetary aspects) that are not limited to the Viśeṣa Dṛṣṭi or the special aspects. Rāśi Dṛṣṭi works based on the following formulaic structure: all movable signs aspect fixed signs except the one adjacent, and all dual and mutable signs aspect each other without exception.


title: Mobile Suit Gundam: Iron-Blooded Orphans

text: , also known as Gundam IBO and , is a 2015 Japanese mecha anime series and the fourteenth mainline entry in Sunrise's long-running "Gundam" franchise, succeeding "Gundam Reconguista in G". The series is directed by Tatsuyuki Nagai and written by Mari Okada, a team which previously collaborated on "Toradora!" and "". It aired in Japan on MBS and other JNN stations from October 4, 2015 to March 27, 2016, making this the first Gundam series to return to a Sunday late afternoon time slot since "Mobile Suit Gundam Seed". A second season would premiere the following year on October 2, 2016.


text: "Iron-Blooded Orphans" follows the exploits of a group of juvenile soldiers who establish their own security company after rebelling against the adults who betrayed them on a futuristic, terraformed Mars. The series deals with several real-life problems such as war, slavery, child soldiers, poverty, neo-colonialism, and corruption. The catchphrase of the series is


text: It is the year 323 P.D. (Post Disaster), more than 300 years after a disastrous, interplanetary conflict known as the "Calamity War". Mars has been successfully terraformed and colonized by humans. However, even with the technological advancements, the humans on Mars crave freedom against the government of Earth and seek to improve their livelihoods. Furthermore, while most of Mars' nations have received autonomy, the planet is virtually dependent on Earth for economic development with many living in impoverished conditions.


text: Kudelia Aina Bernstein, a Martian noblewoman, employs the civilian security company Chryse Guard Security (CGS) to transport her to Earth to negotiate the independence of her nation, Chryse, from Earth. But the Earth Military organization Gjallarhorn, attacks CGS in an attempt to halt the Martian independence movement. During the attack, Orga Itsuka, the leader of the Third Army Division within CGS, which is composed of children, decides to rebel against the adult higher-ups who had escaped and left the child and teen foot-soldiers to fight and die as disposable decoys. As all hope seems lost, a young orphan under Orga's command named Mikazuki Augus enters the battle, piloting a hastily repaired mobile suit: the legendary Gundam Barbatos. After repelling Gjallarhorn's attack, Orga and the rest of the Third Army Division dispose of the adult higher-ups who betrayed them and take control of CGS, refounding it as the mercenary company "Tekkadan" (Japanese for "Iron Flower").


text: In Tekkadan's first job, they accept to escort Kudelia to Earth for her to take part in the negotiations with the government of Arbrau, the superpower that rules over Chryse. However, Gjallarhorn's continuous attempts to stop their progress leads Tekkadan to join forces with Teiwaz, a business conglomerate that operates around Jupiter. Under Teiwaz's protection and being secretly assisted by McGillis Fareed, one of the top echelons of Gjallarhorn with his own agenda, Tekkadan successfully takes Kudelia to Earth, and safely escorts her to Arbrau's capital where she successfully negotiates more economic freedom for Mars, while McGillis takes advantage of their success to overthrow his own adoptive father and bolster his position within Gjallarhorn.


text: Some years later, Tekkadan establishes itself as a prominent military company, while Kudelia establishes a mining company in Chryse, working to improve the inhabitants' conditions and McGillis moves forward with his agenda to reform Gjallarhorn. However, one of Gjallarhorn's factions opposing him, the Arianrhod Fleet, led by Rustal Elion, starts working in the shadows to sabotage both McGillis and Tekkadan. McGillis convinces Tekkadan to help him destroy Arianrhod under the promise that once he manages to take full control of Gjallarhorn, he will transfer all authority over Mars to Tekkadan, making them the "de facto" rulers of the planet. However, they are defeated and forced to flee to Mars, where McGillis is killed after a last, failed attempt to kill Rustal and Tekkadan is disbanded after Arianrhod launches an attack to exterminate all members and make an example out of them, but only a few, including Mikazuki, sacrifice themselves to hold out the enemy long enough for the rest to escape safely.


text: In the aftermath several years later, Gjallarhorn repeals its council system and reforms into a more democratic organization, with Rustal as its head. Kudelia becomes the chairwoman of the Mars Union and the surviving Tekkadan members follow their separate ways while remaining in touch, each looking to honor their friends who died to give them a new, brighter future.


text: The series was first teased by Sunrise through a new teaser site for the series, with a countdown to reveal the new main Mobile Suit on July 15, 2015. As it was only referred to as "G-Tekketsu", the details for the new lead Gundam was shown day by day until the full reveal at Sunrise and Bandai's press conference. Following the official unveiling of the series, Sunrise plans for a new wave of merchandise for the series, including Gunpla kits and video game tie-ins. A second Promotional video was then revealed, confirming the voice actors for the series's main cast. The series ran for 25 episodes. During the end credits of episode 25, a second season was confirmed.


text: For episodes 24 and 25, the battle in Edmonton in the fictional state of Arbrau features backgrounds based on actual locations of the city in Alberta, Canada.


text: "Mobile Suit Gundam: Iron-Blooded Orphans" premiered in Japan on MBS and TBS on October 4, 2015 Sunday at 5:00 PM, replacing "The Heroic Legend of Arslan" on its initial timeslot. It is the first Gundam series to return on the late afternoon schedule since "Mobile Suit Gundam AGE". Sunrise announced that the series will be streamed worldwide on YouTube via the Gundam.Info Channel, Funimation, Hulu, Crunchyroll, and Daisuki. On October 9, 2015, Sunrise announced at their panel at New York Comic Con that the anime will get an English dub to be produced by Bang Zoom! Entertainment. Turner Broadcasting began broadcasting the series on Adult Swim's Toonami programming block on June 5, 2016 with season 2 premiering on October 8, 2017.


text: Following the conclusion to the anime's 25th episode, it was announced that a second season would premiere in the fall of 2016. The anime concluded on April 2, 2017 with the second season's 25th episode, bringing the overall episode count in the series to 50.


text: Bandai Visual released the first volume of the series in both Blu-ray and DVD on December 24, 2015, containing a serial code for "Mobile Suit Gundam Extreme Vs. Force" to obtain the Gundam Barbatos. In the 2017 Anime Expo, Funimation announced that the series will be released on home video in partnership with Sunrise for North American Territories, marking as the first Gundam series to be co-licensed by a company other than Right Stuf Inc. and Nozomi Entertainment. Both seasons of the series were later added to Netflix for paid streaming on November 5, 2019.


text: A manga adaptation by Kazuma Isobe began its serialization in the December Issue of "Gundam Ace" on October 26, 2015. A Side Story manga titled is launched in both Hobby Japan and "Gundam Ace" in June 2016.


text: The soundtrack is composed by Masaru Yokoyama ("Nobunaga The Fool", "Freezing"). The first season's opening theme song is titled "Raise your flag", performed by Man with a Mission, while the ending theme is "Orphans no Namida" performed by Misia and co-written by Shiro Sagisu. From episode 14 onwards the opening theme is "Survivor" by , while the ending theme is titled by TRUE. The ending theme for episode 19 is by ., and "Orphans no Namida" is used again for the ending of episode 21.


text: First used as the end track of episode 26, "RAGE OF DUST" by Spyair is the opening theme beginning with episode 27, while the ending theme for episodes 27 and following is by Granrodeo. From episode 39 onward, the opening theme is "Fighter" by Kana-Boon while the ending is performed by Uru.


text: The series's main mobile suit (1st form) first appeared on the PlayStation Vita game "Mobile Suit Gundam Extreme Vs. Force" through the first Blu-ray volume serial code. The mobile suit (4th form) also appeared in the PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita game "Gundam Breaker 3" and the arcade Game "Mobile Suit Gundam Extreme Vs. Maxi Boost ON". Later, Gundam Barbatos 6th form, Gundam Barbatos Lupus, Gundam Gusion and Gusion Rebake, Gundam Kimaris and Gundam Astaroth was released as DLC units for "Gundam Breaker 3". Gundam Kimaris Trooper is added in "Mobile Suit Gundam Extreme Vs. Maxi Boost ON"s expansion pack and later supplant by the Second Season's main mobile suit, Gundam Barbatos Lupus and later, Gundam Gusion Rebake Full City and Gundam Bael. In "Mobile Suit Gundam Extreme Vs. 2", Gundam Barbatos Lupus Rex is a playable unit. The Graze Ein serves as a boss unit. Gundam Kimaris Vidar was later added as a playable unit. In "Mobile Suit Gundam Extreme Vs. 2 XBoost", Gundam Flauros (Ryusei-Go) was later added as a playable unit.


text: An official spinoff game, titled was announced on January 7, 2019 as part of Gundam's 40th Anniversary celebration. The game is currently on development for both iOS and Android, with animated scenes done by Sunrise Beyond. It will be directed by Tatsuyuki Nagai and written by Hajime Kamoshida. The game is announced to be part of the "Iron Blooded Orphans G" mobile game and is scheduled to be released in 2022.


text: Merchandising of the series is officially linked to Bandai's long running Gunpla model line and related collectable merchandise. Both the High Grade and 1/100 scale models of the titular mecha, Gundam Barbatos, were unveiled during the press conference and both stated for a Fall 2015 release, alongside the standard and commander versions of the HG Graze and weapon packs for the main mobile suit. A NXEDGE Style version of the Gundam Barbatos was also revealed. The titular gundam, Gundam Barbatos is also released as part of the Master Grade line of gunpla models.


text: The series premiere received mostly positive reviews from critics. Anime News Network's Nick Creamer gave the first episode a 4 out 5 stars, saying that "Iron-Blooded Orphans hits the ground running, establishing its world in the natural conversations of its many characters." He goes on to say that "Mari Okada's an inconsistent writer, but definitely a talented one, and given the focus of a traditional Gundam-style opening, her gift for illustrating character shines through." Zac Bertschy gave the series a 4.5 for the first episode, saying "Iron-Blooded Orphans has a lot of moving parts, but it's only deceptively complex; this episode starts out confusing (due to the relatively haphazard way they introduce all the various factions and the sizable cast) but as it goes on it all becomes very clear". He also adds "Instantly likable characters, desperate battles, a broad science fiction story about a colony struggling for independence, giant robots and even a Char-like smooth-talking pretty boy weirdo who's working with the bad guys; what's not to love?"


text: However, the series has received some criticism from the Japanese Broadcasting Ethics and Program Improvement Organization, regarding the harsh themes and depictions of child soldiers in the anime. They also stated that "several nonresistant prisoners and enemy soldiers are gunned down by the young male protagonist. If you look at the title, one would immediately think of this as a children's show and that many children would be watching.", referring to one scene in Episode 3, and that "If you want to broadcast such material, please provide some sort of age limit for viewers."


title: Hydrogen production

text: Hydrogen production is the family of industrial methods for generating hydrogen gas. As of 2020, the majority of hydrogen (∼95%) is produced from fossil fuels by steam reforming of natural gas and other light hydrocarbons, partial oxidation of heavier hydrocarbons, and coal gasification. Other methods of hydrogen production include biomass gasification, zero-CO-emission methane pyrolysis, and electrolysis of water. The latter processes, methane pyrolysis as well as water electrolysis can be done directly with any source of electricity, such as solar power.


title: Hydrogen production

text: The production of hydrogen plays a key role in any industrialized society, since hydrogen is required for many essential chemical processes. In 2020, roughly 87 million tons of hydrogen was produced worldwide for various uses, such as oil refining, and in the production of ammonia (NH) (through the Haber process) and methanol (CHOH) (through reduction of carbon monoxide [CO]), and also as a fuel in transportation. The global hydrogen generation market was valued at US$135.94 billion in 2021, and expected to grow to US$219.2 billion by 2030, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.4% from 2021 to 2030.


title: Hydrogen production

text: There are four main sources for the commercial production of hydrogen: natural gas, oil, coal, and electrolysis; which account for 48%, 30%, 18% and 4% of the world's hydrogen production respectively. Fossil fuels are the dominant source of industrial hydrogen. Carbon dioxide can be separated from natural gas with a 70–85% efficiency for hydrogen production and from other hydrocarbons to varying degrees of efficiency. Specifically, bulk hydrogen is usually produced by the steam reforming of methane or natural gas.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Steam methane reforming (SMR) is a method of producing hydrogen from natural gas, which is mostly methane (CH). It is currently the cheapest source of industrial hydrogen. Nearly 50% of the world's hydrogen is being produced by this method. The process consists of heating the gas to between in the presence of steam and a nickel catalyst. The resulting endothermic reaction breaks up the methane molecules and forms carbon monoxide and molecular hydrogen (H).


title: Hydrogen production

text: The carbon monoxide gas can then be passed with steam over iron oxide or other oxides and undergo a water-gas shift reaction to obtain further quantities of H. The downside to this process is that its byproducts are major atmospheric release of CO, CO and other greenhouse gases. Depending on the quality of the feedstock (natural gas, rich gases, naphtha, etc.), one ton of hydrogen produced will also produce 9 to 12 tons of CO, a greenhouse gas that may be captured.


title: Hydrogen production

text: For this process, high temperature steam (HO) reacts with methane (CH) in an endothermic reaction to yield syngas.


title: Hydrogen production

text: In a second stage, additional hydrogen is generated through the lower-temperature, exothermic, water-gas shift reaction, performed at about :


title: Hydrogen production

text: Essentially, the oxygen (O) atom is stripped from the additional water (steam) to oxidize CO to CO. This oxidation also provides energy to maintain the reaction. Additional heat required to drive the process is generally supplied by burning some portion of the methane.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Pyrolysis of methane is a hydrogen production process from natural gas. Hydrogen separation occurs in one step via flow through a molten metal catalyst in a "bubble column". It is a "no-greenhouse-gas" approach for potentially low-cost hydrogen production being measured for its capability to scale up and for operation at scale.


title: Hydrogen production

text: The process is conducted at higher temperatures (1065 °C or 1950 °F). Other forms of methane pyrolysis, such as the thermo-catalytic decomposition of methane, however, are able to operate at a reduced temperature between 600 °C - 1000 °C depending on the chosen catalyst.


title: Hydrogen production

text: The industrial quality solid carbon can then be sold as manufacturing feedstock or landfilled, it is not released into the atmosphere and does not pollute groundwater in landfills.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Hydrogen production from heavy hydrocarbons, which are unsuitable for catalytic steam reforming, is achieved by partial oxidation. A fuel-air or fuel-oxygen mixture is partially combusted, resulting in a hydrogen- and carbon monoxide-rich syngas. More hydrogen and carbon dioxide are then obtained from carbon monoxide (and water) via the water-gas shift reaction. Carbon dioxide can be co-fed to lower the hydrogen to carbon monoxide ratio.


title: Hydrogen production

text: The partial oxidation reaction occurs when a substoichiometric fuel-air mixture or fuel-oxygen is partially combusted in a reformer or partial oxidation reactor. A distinction is made between "thermal" partial oxidation (TPOX) and "catalytic" partial oxidation (CPOX). The chemical reaction takes the general form:


title: Hydrogen production

text: Idealized examples for heating oil and coal, assuming compositions CH and CH respectively, are as follows:


title: Hydrogen production

text: The Kværner process or Kvaerner carbon black & hydrogen process (CB&H) is a plasma reforming method, developed in the 1980s by a Norwegian company of the same name, for the production of hydrogen and carbon black from liquid hydrocarbons (CH). Of the available energy of the feed, approximately 48% is contained in the hydrogen, 40% is contained in activated carbon and 10% in superheated steam. CO is not produced in the process.


title: Hydrogen production

text: A variation of this process is presented in 2009 using, plasma arc waste disposal technology for the production of hydrogen, heat and carbon from methane and natural gas in a plasma converter.


title: Hydrogen production

text: For the production of hydrogen from coal, coal gasification is used. The process of coal gasification uses steam and oxygen to break molecular bonds in coal and form a gaseous mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Carbon dioxide and pollutants may be more easily removed from gas obtained from coal gasification versus coal combustion. Another method for conversion is low-temperature and high-temperature coal carbonization.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Coke oven gas made from pyrolysis (oxygen free heating) of coal has about 60% hydrogen, the rest being methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, ammonia, molecular nitrogen, and hydrogen sulfide (HS). Hydrogen can be separated from other impurities by the pressure-swing adsorption process. Japanese steel companies have carried out production of hydrogen by this method.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Petroleum coke can also be converted to hydrogen-rich syngas via coal gasification. The produced syngas consists mainly of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and HS from the sulfur in the coke feed. Gasification is an option for producing hydrogen from almost any carbon source.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Injecting appropriate microbes into depleted oils allows them to extract hydrogen from the remaining, unrecoverable oil. Since the only inputs are the microbes, production costs are low. The method also produces concentrated that needs to be captured and stored.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Methods to produce hydrogen without the use of fossil fuels involve the process of water splitting, or splitting the water molecule (HO) into its components oxygen and hydrogen. When the source of energy for water splitting is renewable or low-carbon, the hydrogen produced is sometimes referred to as green hydrogen. The conversion can be accomplished in several ways, but all methods are generally more expensive than fossil-fuel based production methods.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Around 8 GW of electrolysis capacity is installed worldwide in 2020, accounting for around 4% of global hydrogen production.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Electrolysis consists of using electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. Electrolysis of water is 70–80% efficient (a 20–30% conversion loss) while steam reforming of natural gas has a thermal efficiency between 70 and 85%. The electrical efficiency of electrolysis is expected to reach 82–86% before 2030, while also maintaining durability as progress in this area continues apace.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Water electrolysis can operate between , while steam methane reforming requires temperatures between . The difference between the two methods is the primary energy used; either electricity (for electrolysis) or natural gas (for steam methane reforming). Due to their use of water, a readily available resource, electrolysis and similar water-splitting methods have attracted the interest of the scientific community. With the objective of reducing the cost of hydrogen production, renewable sources of energy have been targeted to allow electrolysis.


title: Hydrogen production

text: There are three main types of electrolytic cells, solid oxide electrolyser cells (SOECs), polymer electrolyte membrane cells (PEM) and alkaline electrolysis cells (AECs). Traditionally, alkaline electrolysers are cheaper in terms of investment (they generally use nickel catalysts), but less-efficient; PEM electrolysers, conversely, are more expensive (they generally use expensive platinum group metal catalysts) but are more efficient and can operate at higher current densities, and can therefore be possibly cheaper if the hydrogen production is large enough.


title: Hydrogen production

text: SOECs operate at high temperatures, typically around . At these high temperatures, a significant amount of the energy required can be provided as thermal energy (heat), and as such is termed high-temperature electrolysis. The heat energy can be provided from a number of different sources, including waste industrial heat, nuclear power stations or concentrated solar thermal plants. This has the potential to reduce the overall cost of the hydrogen produced by reducing the amount of electrical energy required for electrolysis.


title: Hydrogen production

text: PEM electrolysis cells typically operate below . These cells have the advantage of being comparatively simple and can be designed to accept widely varying voltage inputs, which makes them ideal for use with renewable sources of energy such as photovoltaic solar panels. AECs optimally operate at high concentrations of electrolyte (KOH or potassium carbonate) and at high temperatures, often near .


title: Hydrogen production

text: Efficiency of modern hydrogen generators is measured by "energy consumed per standard volume of hydrogen" (MJ/m), assuming standard temperature and pressure of the H. The lower the energy used by a generator, the higher would be its efficiency; a 100%-efficient electrolyser would consume of hydrogen, . Practical electrolysis typically uses a rotating electrolyser, where centrifugal force helps separate gas bubbles from water. Such an electrolyser at 15 bar pressure may consume , and a further if the hydrogen is compressed for use in hydrogen cars.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Conventional alkaline electrolysis has an efficiency of about 70%, however advanced alkaline water electrolyser with efficiency of up to 82% are available. Accounting for the use of the higher heat value (because inefficiency via heat can be redirected back into the system to create the steam required by the catalyst), average working efficiencies for PEM electrolysis are around 80%, or 82% using the most modern alkaline electrolysers.


title: Hydrogen production

text: PEM efficiency is expected to increase to approximately 86% before 2030. Theoretical efficiency for PEM electrolysers is predicted up to 94%.


title: Hydrogen production

text: As of 2020, the cost of hydrogen by electrolysis is around $3–8/kg. Considering the industrial production of hydrogen, and using current best processes for water electrolysis (PEM or alkaline electrolysis) which have an effective electrical efficiency of 70–82%, producing 1 kg of hydrogen (which has a specific energy of 143 MJ/kg or about 40 kWh/kg) requires 50–55 kWh of electricity. At an electricity cost of $0.06/kWh, as set out in the Department of Energy hydrogen production targets for 2015, the hydrogen cost is $3/kg.


title: Hydrogen production

text: The US DOE target price for hydrogen in 2020 is $2.30/kg, requiring an electricity cost of $0.037/kWh, which is achievable given recent PPA tenders for wind and solar in many regions. The report by IRENA.ORG is an extensive factual report of present-day industrial hydrogen production consuming about 53 to 70 kWh per kg could go down to about 45 kWh/kg . The thermodynamic energy required for hydrogen by electrolysis translates to 33 kWh/kg, which is higher than steam reforming with carbon capture and higher than methane pyrolysis.


title: Hydrogen production

text: One of the advantages of electrolysis over hydrogen from steam methane reforming (SMR) is that the hydrogen can be produced on-site, meaning that the costly process of delivery via truck or pipeline is avoided.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Steam methane reforming is between $1–3/kg on average. This makes production of hydrogen via electrolysis cost competitive in many regions already, as outlined by Nel Hydrogen and others, including an article by the IEA examining the conditions which could lead to a competitive advantage for electrolysis.


title: Hydrogen production

text: In addition to reduce the voltage required for electrolysis via the increasing of the temperature of the electrolysis cell it is also possible to electrochemically consume the oxygen produced in an electrolyser by introducing a fuel (such as carbon/coal, methanol, ethanol, formic acid, glycerol, etc.) into the oxygen side of the reactor. This reduces the required electrical energy and has the potential to reduce the cost of hydrogen to less than 40~60% with the remaining energy provided in this manner.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Carbon/hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis (CAWE) has the potential to offer a less energy intensive, cleaner method of using chemical energy in various sources of carbon, such as low-rank and high sulfur coals, biomass, alcohols and methane (Natural Gas), where pure CO produced can be easily sequestered without the need for separation.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Nuclear radiation can break water bonds through radiolysis. In the Mponeng gold mine, South Africa, researchers found bacteria in a naturally occurring high radiation zone. The bacterial community which was dominated by a new phylotype of "Desulfotomaculum", was feeding on primarily radiolytically produced hydrogen.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Water spontaneously dissociates at around 2500 °C, but this thermolysis occurs at temperatures too high for usual process piping and equipment resulting in a rather low commercialization potential.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Hydrogen production via water thermolysis based on solar energy involves using solar concentrators to directly collect solar energy to heat water to 2500 K, at which temperature it decomposes into H and O. The heating temperature can be reduced by applying catalysts which allow the water decomposition by steps with lower energy.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Pyrolysis can be divided into different types based on the pyrolysis temperature, namely low-temperature slow pyrolysis, medium-temperature rapid pyrolysis, and high-temperature flash pyrolysis. The source energy is mainly solar energy, with help of photosynthetic microorganisms to decompose water or biomass to produce hydrogen. However, this process has relatively low hydrogen yields and high operating cost. It is not a feasible method for industry.


title: Hydrogen production

text: The high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR) is one of the most promising CO-free nuclear technique to produce hydrogen by splitting water in a large scale. In this method, iodine-sulfur (IS) thermo-chemical cycle for splitting water and high-temperature steam electrolysis (HTSE) were selected as the main processes for nuclear hydrogen production. The S-I cycle follows three chemical reactions:


title: Hydrogen production

text: The hydrogen production rate of HTGR with IS cycle is approximately 0.68 kg/s, and the capital cost to build a unit of power plant is $100 million.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Thermochemical cycles combine solely heat sources ("thermo") with "chemical" reactions to split water into its hydrogen and oxygen components. The term "cycle" is used because aside from water, hydrogen and oxygen, the chemical compounds used in these processes are continuously recycled. If electricity is partially used as an input, the resulting thermochemical cycle is defined as a hybrid one.


title: Hydrogen production

text: The sulfur-iodine cycle (S-I cycle) is a thermochemical cycle processes which generates hydrogen from water with an efficiency of approximately 50%. The sulfur and iodine used in the process are recovered and reused, and not consumed by the process. The cycle can be performed with any source of very high temperatures, approximately 950 °C, such as by Concentrating solar power systems (CSP) and is regarded as being well suited to the production of hydrogen by high-temperature nuclear reactors, and as such, is being studied in the High-temperature engineering test reactor in Japan. There are other hybrid cycles that use both high temperatures and some electricity, such as the Copper–chlorine cycle, it is classified as a hybrid thermochemical cycle because it uses an electrochemical reaction in one of the reaction steps, it operates at 530 °C and has an efficiency of 43 percent.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Ferrosilicon is used by the military to quickly produce hydrogen for balloons. The chemical reaction uses sodium hydroxide, ferrosilicon, and water. The generator is small enough to fit a truck and requires only a small amount of electric power, the materials are stable and not combustible, and they do not generate hydrogen until mixed. The method has been in use since World War I. A heavy steel pressure vessel is filled with sodium hydroxide and ferrosilicon, closed, and a controlled amount of water is added; the dissolving of the hydroxide heats the mixture to about 93 °C and starts the reaction; sodium silicate, hydrogen and steam are produced.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Biological hydrogen can be produced in an algae bioreactor. In the late 1990s it was discovered that if the algae are deprived of sulfur it will switch from the production of oxygen, i.e. normal photosynthesis, to the production of hydrogen. It seems that the production is now economically feasible by surpassing the 7–10 percent energy efficiency (the conversion of sunlight into hydrogen) barrier. with a hydrogen production rate of 10–12 ml per liter culture per hour.


title: Hydrogen production

text: The conversion of solar energy to hydrogen by means of water splitting process is one of the most interesting ways to achieve clean and renewable energy systems. However, if this process is assisted by photocatalysts suspended directly in water instead of using photovoltaic and an electrolytic system the reaction is in just one step, it can be made more efficient.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Biomass and waste streams can in principle be converted into biohydrogen with biomass gasification, steam reforming, or biological conversion like biocatalysed electrolysis or fermentative hydrogen production.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Among hydrogen production methods such as steam methane reforming, thermal cracking, coal and biomass gasification and pyrolysis, electrolysis, and photolysis, biological ones are more eco-friendly and less energy intensive. In addition, a wide variety of waste and low-value materials such as agricultural biomass as renewable sources can be utilized to produce hydrogen via biochemical pathways. Nevertheless, at present hydrogen is produced mainly from fossil fuels, in particular, natural gas which are non-renewable sources. Hydrogen is not only the cleanest fuel but also widely used in a number of industries, especially fertilizer, petrochemical and food ones.


title: Hydrogen production

text: This makes it logical to investigate alternative sources for hydrogen production. The main biochemical technologies to produce hydrogen are dark and photo fermentation processes. In dark fermentation, carbohydrates are converted to hydrogen by fermentative microorganisms including strict anaerobe and facultative anaerobe bacteria. A theoretical maximum of 4 mol H/mol glucose can be produced and, besides hydrogen, sugars are converted to volatile fatty acids (VFAs) and alcohols as by-products during this process. Photo fermentative bacteria are able to generate hydrogen from VFAs. Hence, metabolites formed in dark fermentation can be used as feedstock in photo fermentation to enhance the overall yield of hydrogen.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Biohydrogen can be produced in bioreactors. The process involves bacteria consuming hydrocarbons and producing hydrogen and CO. The CO and hydrogen can be separated.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Fermentative hydrogen production is the fermentative conversion of organic substrate to biohydrogen manifested by a diverse group of bacteria using multi enzyme systems involving three steps similar to anaerobic conversion. Dark fermentation reactions do not require light energy, so they are capable of constantly producing hydrogen from organic compounds throughout the day and night. Photofermentation differs from dark fermentation because it only proceeds in the presence of light. For example, photo-fermentation with Rhodobacter sphaeroides SH2C can be employed to convert small molecular fatty acids into hydrogen.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Fermentative hydrogen production can be done using direct biophotolysis by green algae, indirect biophotolysis by cyanobacteria, photo-fermentation by anaerobic photosynthetic bacteria and dark fermentation by anaerobic fermentative bacteria. For example, studies on hydrogen production using "H. salinarium", an anaerobic photosynthetic bacteria, coupled to a hydrogenase donor like "E. coli", are reported in literature. "Enterobacter aerogenes" is another hydrogen producer.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Besides dark fermentation, electrohydrogenesis (electrolysis using microbes) is another possibility. Using microbial fuel cells, wastewater or plants can be used to generate power. Biocatalysed electrolysis should not be confused with biological hydrogen production, as the latter only uses algae and with the latter, the algae itself generates the hydrogen instantly, where with biocatalysed electrolysis, this happens after running through the microbial fuel cell and a variety of aquatic plants can be used. These include reed sweetgrass, cordgrass, rice, tomatoes, lupines and algae.


title: Hydrogen production

text: An aluminum alloy powder invented by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory in 2017 was shown to be capable of producing hydrogen gas upon contact with water or any liquid containing water due to its unique nanoscale galvanic microstructure. It reportedly generates hydrogen at 100 percent of the theoretical yield without the need for any catalysts, chemicals, or externally supplied power.


title: Hydrogen production

text: As of 2020, most hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels, resulting in carbon dioxide emissions. This is often referred to as grey hydrogen when emissions are released to the atmosphere, and blue hydrogen when emissions are captured through carbon capture and storage (CCS). Blue hydrogen has been estimated to have a greenhouse gas footprint 20% greater than burning gas or coal for heat and 60% greater when compared to burning diesel for heat, assuming US up- and mid-stream methane leakage rates and production via steam methane reformers (SMR) retrofitted with carbon dioxide capture.


title: Hydrogen production

text: The use of autothermal reformers (ATR) with integrated capture of carbon dioxide allow higher capture rates at satisfactory energy efficiencies and life cycle assessments have shown lower greenhouse gas emissions for such plants compared to SMRs with carbon dioxide capture. Application of ATR technology with integrated capture of carbon dioxide in Europe has been assessed to have a lower greenhouse gas footprint than burning natural gas, e.g. for the H21 project with a reported reduction of 68% due to a reduced carbon dioxide intensity of natural gas combined with a more suitable reactor type for capture of carbon dioxide.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Hydrogen produced using the newer, non-polluting technology methane pyrolysis is often referred to as turquoise hydrogen. High quality hydrogen is produced directly from natural gas and the associated non-polluting solid carbon is not released into the atmosphere and can then be sold for industrial use or stored in landfill.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Hydrogen produced from renewable energy sources is often referred to as green hydrogen. There are two practical ways of producing hydrogen from renewable energy sources. One is to use power to gas, in which electric power is used to produce hydrogen from electrolysis of water, and the other is to use landfill gas to produce hydrogen in a steam reformer. Hydrogen fuel, when produced by renewable sources of energy like wind or solar power, is a renewable fuel. Hydrogen produced from nuclear energy via electrolysis is sometimes viewed as a subset of green hydrogen, but can also be referred to as pink hydrogen. The Oskarshamn Nuclear Power Plant made an agreement in January 2022 to supply commercial pink hydrogen in the order of kilograms per day.


title: Hydrogen production

text: , estimated costs of production are $1–1.80/kg for grey hydrogen and blue hydrogen, and $2.50–6.80 for green hydrogen.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Hydrogen is used for the conversion of heavy petroleum fractions into lighter ones via hydrocracking. It is also used in other processes including the aromatization process, hydrodesulfurization and the production of ammonia via the Haber process, the primary industrial method for the production of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer for growing 47 percent of food worldwide.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Hydrogen may be used in fuel cells for local electricity generation or potentially as a transportation fuel.


title: Hydrogen production

text: Hydrogen is produced as a by-product of industrial chlorine production by electrolysis. Although requiring expensive technologies, hydrogen can be cooled, compressed and purified for use in other processes on site or sold to a customer via pipeline, cylinders or trucks. The discovery and development of less expensive methods of production of bulk hydrogen is relevant to the establishment of a hydrogen economy.


title: Echolalia

text: Echolalia is the unsolicited repetition of vocalizations made by another person (when repeated by the same person, it is called palilalia). In its profound form it is automatic and effortless. It is one of the echophenomena, closely related to echopraxia, the automatic repetition of movements made by another person; both are "subsets of imitative behavior" whereby sounds or actions are imitated "without explicit awareness". Echolalia may be an immediate reaction to a stimulus or may be delayed.


title: Echolalia

text: Echolalia occurs in many cases of autism spectrum disorder and Tourette syndrome. It may also occur in several other neurological conditions such as some forms of dementia or stroke-related aphasia.


title: Echolalia

text: The word "echolalia" is derived from the Greek ("ēchō"), meaning "echo" or "to repeat", and ("laliá") meaning "speech" or "talk" (of onomatopoeic origin, from the verb ("laléo"), meaning "to talk").


title: Echolalia

text: Echolalia can be categorized as either immediate (occurring immediately after the stimulus) or delayed (some time after the occurrence of a stimulus). Immediate echolalia results from quick recall of information from the short-term memory and "superficial linguistic processing". A typical pediatric presentation of immediate echolalia might be as follows: a child is asked "Do you want dinner?"; the child echoes back "Do you want dinner?", followed by a pause, and then a response, "Yes. What's for dinner?" In delayed echolalia the patient repeats words, phrases, or multiple sentences after a delay that can be anywhere from hours to years later. Immediate echolalia can be indicative that a developmental disorder exists, but this is not necessarily the case. Sometimes echolalia can be observed when an individual echoes back a statement to indicate they are contemplating a response and fully heard the original statement.


title: Echolalia

text: Researchers observed the daily repetitions of an autistic six-year-old in order to examine the differences between triggers for delayed versus immediate echolalia. Researchers further distinguished immediate echos by the sequential context in which they occur: after corrections, after directives, or in indiscernible sequential positions. Delayed echos are distinguished on the basis of ownership: self-echos, other-echos, and impersonal echos. The results showed that nearly all immediate echos produced by the six-year-old were found in sequential contexts, while the delayed echoes also occurred in the basis of ownership.


title: Echolalia

text: Although echolalia can be an impairment, the symptoms can involve a large selection of underlying meanings and behaviors across and within subjects. "Mitigated echolalia" refers to a repetition in which the original stimulus is somewhat altered, and "ambient echolalia" refers to the repetition (typically occurring in individuals with dementia) of environmental stimuli such as a television program running in the background.


title: Echolalia

text: Examples of mitigated echolalia are pronoun changes or syntax corrections. The first can be seen in the example of asking the patient "Where are you going?" and with patient responding "Where am I going?" The latter would be seen in the clinician asking "Where are I going?" and the patient repeating "Where am I going?" In mitigated echolalia some language processing is occurring. Mitigated echolalia can be seen in dyspraxia and aphasia of speech.


title: Echolalia

text: A Japanese case report describes a 20-year-old college student who was admitted to the hospital complaining about headaches and meningitis; however, he also exhibited signs of ambient echolalia. The researchers stated that the young patient's repetition was occurring at approximately the same tempo as his normal speech rate. The patient did not simply repeat words he had heard one after another. The patient reported that his ambient echolalia appeared to be random but appeared when he was distracted. He was also aware of his echolalia, but said he is unable to stop the repetitions.


title: Echolalia

text: Echolalia can be an indicator of communication disorders in autism, but is neither unique to, nor synonymous with syndromes. Echophenomena (particularly echolalia and echopraxia) were defining characteristics in the early descriptions of Tourette syndrome (TS). Echolalia also occurs in aphasia, schizophrenia, dementia, catatonia, epilepsy, after cerebral infarction (stroke), closed head injury, in blind children, children with language impairments, as well as certain developing neurotypical children. Other disorders associated with echolalia are Pick's disease, frontotemporal dementia, corticobasal degeneration, progressive supranuclear palsy, as well as pervasive developmental disorder.


title: Echolalia

text: In transcortical sensory aphasia, echolalia is common, with the patient incorporating another person's words or sentences into his or her own response. While these patients lack language comprehension, they are still able to read.


title: Echolalia

text: Echolalia can be the result of left hemisphere damage. Specifically, damage to the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere has been linked to effortful echolalia. Cases of echolalia have appeared after lesions of the left medial frontal lobe and supplemental motor areas. Unintentional or nonfunctional echolalia shows similarities to imitation behavior seen after disinhibition of the frontal network is most likely related to mirror neurons. In cases where echolalia is a part of mixed transitory aphasia, the perisylvian language area remains intact, but the surrounding anterior and posterior association cortexes degenerate or experience infarction.


title: Echolalia

text: Echolalia is common in young children who are first learning to speak. Echolalia is a form of imitation. Imitation is a useful, normal and necessary component of social learning: "imitative learning" occurs when the "observer acquires new behaviors through imitation" and "mimicry" or "automatic imitation" occurs when a "reenacted behavior is based on previously acquired motor (or vocal) patterns". Ganos "et al" (2012) define echolalia as an "automatic imitative action without explicit awareness". Children often first babble syllables and eventually words they hear. For example, a baby may often hear the word "bottle" in various sentences. The baby first repeats with only syllables such as "baba" but as their language skills progress the child will eventually be able to say the word "bottle". Echolalia becomes less and less common as a child's language skills develop. It is not possible to distinguish the imitative learning form of echolalia that occurs as part of normal development from automatic imitation or echolalia characteristic of a disorder until about the age of three, when some ability for self-regulation is developed. A disorder may be suspected if automatic imitation persists beyond the age of three.


title: Echolalia

text: Before the 1980s, echolalia was regarded as negative, non-functional behavior. However, researchers such as Barry Prizant and colleagues have emphasized the communicative function of echolalia. Among the communicative functions noted are turntaking, requesting, self-regulation and rehearsal to aid comprehension. Echolalia can be categorized as communicative (in context and with "apparent communicative purpose") vs. semicommunicative (an "unclear communicative meaning").


title: Echolalia

text: The use of echolalia in task response to facilitate generalization is an area that holds much promise. Research in this area is certainly needed. Marjorie H. Charlop performed a series of task experiments with autistic children. The results suggest that perhaps in certain tasks (i.e., receptive labeling), echolalia should not be eliminated, but taken advantage of as it may facilitate acquisition and generalization for autistic children.


title: Echolalia

text: Echolalia and echopraxia are distinguishing tics of Tourette syndrome (TS); the echolalic repetitions of individuals with TS are mainly echoes from within their own "tic repertoire". Evidence points to a healthy mirror neuron system (MNS) but "inadequate imitation-control mechanism, which make them vulnerable to interferences".


title: Echolalia

text: It is estimated that up to 75% of people on the autism spectrum have exhibited echolalia. A symptom of some children with ASD is the struggle to produce spontaneous speech. Studies have shown that in some cases echolalia is used as a coping mechanism allowing an autistic person to contribute to a conversation when unable to produce spontaneous speech. Studies in the 1980s showed that there may be communicative intent with delayed echolalia, "depending on the context in which it occurs"; this research on autistic children "raised questions related to behavior modification programs that defended the revocation or replacement of immediate echolalia".


title: Echolalia

text: Uta Frith, Prizant and others have interpreted echolalia as evidence of "gestalt" processing in autistic children, including in the acquisition of language. However, a 1990 study on the acquisition of grammar by Tager-Flusberg and Calkins found that echolalia did not facilitate grammatical development in autistic children.


title: Wong (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Wong is a fictional character in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) film franchise, based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name and portrayed by Benedict Wong. In the franchise, Wong is depicted as Dr. Stephen Strange's friend and fellow sorcerer, being a member of the Masters of the Mystic Arts. After Strange disappears during the Blip, he assumes his position of Sorcerer Supreme, which he retains even after Strange returns five years later.


title: Wong (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: , Wong has appeared in six films, most recently in "Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness", as well as in the Disney+ television series "" (both 2022). Alternate versions of Wong also appear in the animated series "What If...?" (2021).


title: Wong (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: The character is depicted in Marvel Comics as Doctor Strange's Asian, "tea-making manservant", a racial stereotype that "Doctor Strange" (2016) director Scott Derrickson did not want in the film, and so the character was not included in the film's script. After the non-Asian actress Tilda Swinton was cast as the other significant Asian character from the "Doctor Strange" comics, the Ancient One, Derrickson felt obligated to find a way to include Wong in the film. The character as he ultimately appears is "completely subverted as a character and reworked into something that didn't fall into any of the stereotypes of the comics", which Derrickson was pleased gave an Asian character "a strong presence in the movie". Benedict Wong was also pleased with the changes made to the character, and described him as "a drill sergeant to Kamar-Taj" rather than a manservant. He does not practice martial arts in the film, avoiding another racial stereotype. Derrickson added that Wong would have "a strong presence" in the MCU moving forward.


title: Wong (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Benedict Wong portrays Wong in the MCU films "Doctor Strange" (2016), "" (2018), "" (2019), "Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings" (2021), "" (2021), and "Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness" (2022), and in the Disney+ series "" (2022). The actor was excited "to be sat at a table of Asian excellence" amongst the cast of "Shang-Chi". He also voiced an alternate version of Wong in the "What If...?" episode "What If... Doctor Strange Lost His Heart Instead of His Hands?", while another version of the character has a silent appearance in "What If... Zombies?!".


title: Wong (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Prior to 2016, Wong becomes Kamar-Taj's librarian after the previous one was beheaded by Kaecilius. In 2016, he meets Dr. Stephen Strange while on the latter's journey to fix his hands, listening to the songs of Beyoncé after hearing Strange mention her. A few months later in 2017, he is killed while defending the Hong Kong Sanctum, but is revived by Strange using the Time Stone. After defeating Kaecilius and Dormammu, Strange takes residence in the New York Sanctum and continues his studies with Wong.


title: Wong (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: In 2018, Bruce Banner crash-lands in the Sanctum and warns Wong and Strange about the coming threat, recruiting Tony Stark. Ebony Maw and Cull Obsidian then arrive in New York and battle Wong, Strange, and Stark, with Wong defeating Obsidian by sending him through a portal. With Strange kidnapped by Maw, Wong stays behind to guard the Sanctum. Wong later survives the Blip and becomes the next Sorcerer Supreme by default, retaining this position even after Strange is returned from the Blip.


title: Wong (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: In 2023, Wong is called in by a restored Strange to get the other sorcerers, the restored Avengers, Guardians of the Galaxy, the Ravagers, and the armies of Wakanda and Asgard to defeat an alternate Thanos’ army at the destroyed Avengers Compound. Wong later attends Stark's funeral.


title: Wong (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: In 2024, in order to train as Sorcerer Supreme, Wong facilitates Emil Blonsky's prison escape and battles him in an underground fight club while in his Abomination form by creating a portal through which Blonsky punches himself. Wong offers asylum at Kamar-Taj, but Blonsky decides to return to prison.


title: Wong (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Later, Wong appears before Shang-Chi and Katy in a San Francisco restaurant and has them accompany him to Kamar-Taj, where he calls Banner and Carol Danvers via holographic projection. They learn that the Ten Rings are sending out a beacon to a location unknown. Afterward, Wong joins Shang-Chi and Katy to sing karaoke at a nightclub.


title: Wong (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Wong later encounters Peter Parker, who came to the Sanctum to consult with Strange about making the world forget Quentin Beck's public revelation of his identity as Spider-Man. Strange proposes a memory spell, which Wong cautions to be dangerous, but does not stop Strange as Wong concedes that Parker had suffered a lot. Wong leaves for Kamar-Taj, not wishing in being involved further.


title: Wong (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Sometime later, after Stephen Strange begins fighting an interdimensional demon in New York, Wong joins the fight and the two eventually kill the creature while saving a girl, who introduces herself as America Chavez. Chavez explains she can travel through the multiverse and other creatures are after her power. Chavez takes Wong and Strange to the corpse of an alternate version of Strange who was killed by the demon, with Wong and Strange being determined that witchcraft was involved and takes her to Kamar-Taj.


title: Wong (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Strange tells Wanda Maximoff about Chavez, not realizing that she has become corrupted by the "Darkhold" and intends on using Chavez to take her power to find her children Billy and Tommy, whom she created during her time in Westview. Strange tells Wong about Wanda, with him and other sorcerers preparing to protect Kamar-Taj. Maximoff arrives and attacks Kamar-Taj, killing many sorcerers. During the attack, Chavez's powers are triggered and she and Strange escape in a portal, leaving Wong behind in Maximoff's captivity. Maximoff begins to conduct a "Darkhold" spell known as "dream walking", to find a version of herself with her kids across the multiverse and take over her body. After Sara, a sorceress, sacrifices herself to destroy the "Darkhold" and break the dream-walk, Maximoff forces Wong to lead her to Mount Wundagore, the source of the "Darkhold"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s power and the location of a shrine to the Scarlet Witch, allowing her to reestablish the dream-walk with her Earth-838 self.


title: Wong (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Strange, in another universe, kill that universe's corrupted Strange and takes his version of the "Darkhold" to dream walk into the corpse of his deceased counterpart and go after Maximoff, who was casting a spell on Chavez on Mount Wundagore to take her powers and kill her. With help from Wong and Chavez, they transport Maximoff back to Earth-838 and that universe's Maximoff household, where she realizes that her actions have frightened that universe's kids. Out of regret, she decides to destroy the "Darkhold" in all universes, apparently sacrificing herself to do so by using her powers to bring down Mount Wundagore. Chavez returns Strange to Earth-616, where Chavez begins training at Kamar-Taj under Wong's supervision.


title: Wong (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: In 2025, Wong meets with lawyer Jennifer Walters, who is representing Blonsky for parole, after footage of the fight between the pair was leaked and released. Wong confirms he broke Blonsky out of prison and attends his parole hearing as a witness; he departs after a parole board member states he committed a crime by facilitating a prisoner escape.


title: Wong (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Later, Wong finds out about magician Donny Blaze who was misusing the magic he learned at Mystic Castle after Madisynn King accidentally ended up in Kamar-Taj where she spoiled an episode of "The Sopranos" for him. Jennifer Walters is enlisted as his lawyer where he told her that Blaze was expelled from Kamar-Taj for unethical power use by bringing beer kegs and a fraternity brother to Kamar-Taj. This leads to Walters and lead a cease and desist case against Blaze and Mystic Castle's owner Cornelius P. Willows. Madisynn was used as a witness to corroborate Wong's claim. Judge Hanna states that she will take a week to render her verdict as Madisynn leaves with Wong and Walters while spoiling another episode of "The Sopranos". During his next show, Blaze accidentally summons a swarm of demons into his magic show, causing Walters and Wong to help. Before Walters has Wong banish the final demon, she uses it to intimidate Blaze and Willows to follow the cease and desist order which they reluctantly do. In the mid-credits, Wong and Madisynn later watch "This Is Us" together.


title: Wong (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: When Blonsky is sent back to prison, Wong again breaks him out and allows him to move into Kamar-Taj.


title: Wong (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Alternate versions of Wong are seen in the Disney+ animated series "What If...?", with Benedict Wong returning to voice the character.


title: Wong (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: In an alternate 2016, Wong opposes Doctor Strange Supreme's several attempts to save his girlfriend, Dr. Christine Palmer. Despite these efforts, Supreme's universe-destroying paradox occurs, consuming Wong. After the timeline is split, an earlier Wong and Strange attempt to stop Supreme, only to be consumed again.


title: Wong (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: In an alternate 2018, zombified versions of Wong, Strange, and Tony Stark devour and infect Ebony Maw and Cull Obsidian. They attempt to eat Bruce Banner, but they are killed by Wasp while Banner is saved by Spider-Man.


title: Wong (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Shania Russell of "/Film" called Wong "the [MCU]'s most underrated wonder". Wong's appearances in "Shang-Chi", "No Way Home", "Multiverse of Madness", and "She-Hulk" has drawn comparison between him and Phil Coulson.


title: Religious war

text: A religious war or a war of religion, sometimes also known as a holy war (), is a war which is primarily caused or justified by differences in religion. In the modern period, there are frequent debates over the extent to which religious, economic, ethnic or other aspects of a conflict are predominant in a given war. The degree to which a war may be considered religious depends on many underlying questions, such as the definition of religion, the definition of 'religious war' (taking religious traditions on violence such as 'holy war' into account), and the applicability of religion to war as opposed to other possible factors. Answers to these questions heavily influence conclusions on how prevalent religious wars have been as opposed to other types of wars.


title: Religious war

text: According to scholars such as Jeffrey Burton Russell, conflicts may not be rooted strictly in religion and instead may be a cover for the underlying secular power, ethnic, social, political, and economic reasons for conflict. Other scholars have argued that what is termed "religious wars" is a largely "Western dichotomy" and a modern invention from the past few centuries, arguing that all wars that are classed as "religious" have secular (economic or political) ramifications. In several conflicts including the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, the Syrian civil war, and the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, religious elements are overtly present, but variously described as fundamentalism or religious extremism—depending upon the observer's sympathies. However, studies on these cases often conclude that ethnic animosities drive much of the conflicts.


title: Religious war

text: According to the "Encyclopedia of Wars", out of all 1,763 known/recorded historical conflicts, 121, or 6.87%, had religion as their primary cause. Matthew White's "The Great Big Book of Horrible Things" gives religion as the primary cause of 11 of the world's 100 deadliest atrocities.


title: Religious war

text: Konrad Repgen (1987) pointed out that belligerents may have multiple intentions to wage a war, may have had ulterior motives that historians can no longer discover, and therefore, calling something a 'religious war' (or 'war of succession') based merely on a motive that a belligerent may have had, doesn't necessarily make it one. Although ulterior motives may never be known, war proclamations do provide evidence for a belligerent's legitimisation of the war to the public. Repgen therefore concluded:


title: Religious war

text: Philip Benedict (2006) argued that Repgen's definition of 'religious war' was too narrow, because sometimes both legitimisation and motivation can established. David Onnekink (2013) added that a 'religious war' is not necessarily the same as a 'holy war' ("bellum sacrum"): 'After all, it is perfectly acceptable to suggest that a worldly prince, say, a Lutheran prince in Reformation Germany, engages in religious warfare using mercenary armies.' While a holy war needs to be authorised by a religious leader and fought by pious soldiers, a religious war does not, he reasoned. His definition of 'war of religion' thus became:


title: Religious war

text: Some commentators have questioned the applicability of religion to war, in part because the word "religion" itself is difficult to define, particularly posing challenges when one tries to apply it to non-Western cultures. Secondly, it has been argued that religion is difficult to isolate as a factor, and is often just one of many factors driving a war. For example, many armed conflicts may be simultaneously wars of succession as well as wars of religion when two rival claimants to a throne also represent opposing religions. Examples include the War of the Three Henrys and the Succession of Henry IV of France during the French Wars of Religion, the Hessian War and the War of the Jülich Succession during the Reformation in Germany, and the Jacobite risings (including the Williamite–Jacobite wars) during the Reformation in Great Britain and Ireland.


title: Religious war

text: John Morreall and Tamara Sonn (2013) have argued that since there is no consensus on definitions of "religion" among scholars and no way to isolate "religion" from the rest of the more likely motivational dimensions (social, political, and economic); it is incorrect to label any violent event as "religious".


title: Religious war

text: Theologian William T. Cavanaugh in his "Myth of Religious Violence" (2009) argues that the very concept of "religion" is a modern Western concept that was invented recently in history. As such, he argues that the concept of "religious violence" or "religious wars" are incorrectly used to anachronistically label people and conflicts as participants in religious ideologies that never existed in the first place. The concept of "religion" as an abstraction which entails distinct sets of beliefs or doctrines is a recently invented concept in the English language since such usage began with texts from the 17th century due to the splitting of Christendom during the Protestant Reformation and more prevalent colonization or globalization in the age of exploration which involved contact with numerous foreign and indigenous cultures with non-European languages. It was in the 17th century that the concept of "religion" received its modern shape despite the fact that the Bible, the Quran, and other ancient sacred texts did not have a concept of religion in the original languages and neither did the people or the cultures in which these sacred texts were written. The modern word "religion" comes from the Latin word "religio" which, in the ancient and medieval world, was understood as an individual virtue of worship, never as doctrine, practice, or actual source of knowledge. Cavanaugh argued that all wars that are classed as "religious" have secular (economic or political) ramifications. Similar opinions were expressed as early as the 1760s, during the Seven Years' War, widely recognized to be "religious" in motivation, noting that the warring factions were not necessarily split along confessional lines as much as along secular interests.


title: Religious war

text: There is no precise equivalent of "religion" in Hebrew, and Judaism does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities. In the Quran, the Arabic word "din" is often translated as "religion" in modern translations, but up to the mid-17th century, translators expressed "din" as "law".


title: Religious war

text: It was in the 19th century that the terms "Buddhism", "Hinduism", "Taoism", and "Confucianism" first emerged. Throughout its long history, Japan had no concept of "religion" since there was no corresponding Japanese word, nor anything close to its meaning, but when American warships appeared off the coast of Japan in 1853 and forced the Japanese government to sign treaties demanding, among other things, freedom of religion, the country had to contend with this Western idea. According to the philologist Max Müller, what is called ancient religion today, would have only been understood as "law" by the people in the ancient world. In Sanskrit word dharma, sometimes translated as "religion", also means law. Throughout the classical Indian subcontinent, the study of law consisted of concepts such as penance through piety and ceremonial as well as practical traditions. Medieval Japan at first had a similar union between "imperial law" and universal or "Buddha law", but these later became independent sources of power.


title: Religious war

text: According to McGarry & O'Leary (1995), it is evident that religion as one aspect of a people's cultural heritage may serve as a cultural marker or ideological rationalization for a conflict that has deeper ethnic and cultural differences. They argued this specifically in the case of The Troubles in Northern Ireland, often portrayed as a religious conflict of a Catholic vs. a Protestant faction, while the more fundamental cause of the conflict was supposedly ethnic or nationalistic rather than religious in nature. Since the native Irish were mostly Catholic and the later British-sponsored immigrants were mainly Protestant, the terms become shorthand for the two cultures, but McGarry & O'Leary argued that it would be inaccurate to describe the conflict as a religious one.


title: Religious war

text: In their 2015 review of violence and peacemaking in world religions, Irfan Omar and Michael Duffey stated: "This book does not ignore violence committed in the name of religion. Analyses of case studies of seeming religious violence often conclude that ethnic animosities strongly drive violence."


title: Religious war

text: The definition of 'religious war' and the applicability of religion to war have a strong influence on how many wars may be properly labelled 'religious wars', and thus how prevalent religious wars have been as opposed to other wars.


title: Religious war

text: According to Kalevi Holsti (1991, p. 308, Table 12.2), who catalogued and categorised wars from 1648 to 1989 into 24 categories of 'issues that generated wars', 'protect[ion of] religious confrères' (co-religionists) was (one of) the primary cause(s) of 14% of all wars during 1648–1714, 11% during 1715–1814, 10% during 1815–1914, and 0% during 1918–1941 and 1945–1989. Additionally, he found 'ethnic/religious unification/irredenta' to be (one of) the primary cause(s) of 0% of all wars during 1648–1714 and 1715–1814, 6% during 1815–1914, 17% during 1918–1941, and 12% during 1945–1989.


title: Religious war

text: In their 1997 "Encyclopedia of Wars", authors Charles Phillips and Alan Axelrod documented 1763 notable wars in world history, out of which 121 wars were in the "religious wars" category in the index. They note that before the 17th century, much of the "reasons" for conflicts were explained through the lens of religion and that after that time wars were explained through the lens of wars as a way to further sovereign interests. Some commentators have concluded that only 123 wars (7%) out of these 1763 wars were fundamentally originated by religious motivations. Andrew Holt (2018) traced the origin of the 'only 123 religious wars' claim back to the 2008 book "The Irrational Atheist" of far-right activist Vox Day, which he notes is slightly adjusted compared to the 121 that is indeed found in the "Encyclopedia of Wars" itself.


title: Religious war

text: "The Encyclopedia of War", edited by Gordon Martel, using the criteria that the armed conflict must involve some overt religious action, concludes that 6% of the wars listed in their encyclopedia can be labelled religious wars.


title: Religious war

text: While early empires could be described as henotheistic, i.e. dominated by a single god of the ruling elite (as Marduk in the Babylonian empire, Assur in the Assyrian empire, etc.), or more directly by deifying the ruler in an imperial cult, the concept of "holy war" enters a new phase with the development of monotheism.


title: Religious war

text: During classical antiquity, the Greco-Roman world had a pantheon with particular attributes and interest areas. Ares personified war. While he received occasional sacrifice from armies going to war, there was only a very limited "cult of Ares". In Sparta, however, each company of youths sacrificed to Enyalios before engaging in ritual fighting at the Phoebaeum.


title: Religious war

text: Hans M. Barstad (2008) claimed that this ancient Greek attitude to war and religion differed from that of ancient Israel and Judah: 'Quite unlike what we find with the Greeks, holy war permeated ancient Israelite society.' Moreover, ever since the pioneering study of Manfred Weippert, "»Heiliger Krieg« in Israel und Assyrien" (1972), scholars have been comparing the holy war concept in the (monotheistic) Hebrew Bible with other (polytheistic) ancient Near Eastern war traditions, and found 'many [striking] similarities in phraseology and ideology'.


title: Religious war

text: According to historian Edward Peters, before the 11th century, Christians had not developed a concept of holy war ("bellum sacrum"), whereby fighting itself might be considered a penitential and spiritually meritorious act. During the ninth and tenth centuries, multiple invasions occurred which led some regions to make their own armies to defend themselves and this slowly lead to the emergence of the Crusades, the concept of "holy war", and terminology such as "enemies of God" in the 11th century. In early Christianity, St. Augustine's concept of just war ("bellum iustum") was widely accepted, but warfare was not regarded as a virtuous activity and expressions of concern for the salvation of those who killed enemies in battle, regardless of the cause for which they fought, was common.


title: Religious war

text: During the era of the Crusades, some of the Crusaders who fought in the name of God were recognized as the "Milites Christi", the soldiers or the knights of Christ.


title: Religious war

text: The Crusades were a series of military campaigns against the Muslim Conquests that were waged from the end of the 11th century through the 13th century. Originally, the goal of the Crusaders was the recapture of Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the Muslims, and the provision of support to the besieged Christian Byzantine Empire which was waging a war against Muslim Seljuq expansion into Asia Minor and Europe proper. Later, Crusades were launched against other targets, either for religious reasons, such as the Albigensian Crusade, the Northern Crusades, or because of political conflicts, such as the Aragonese Crusade. In 1095, at the Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II raised the level of the war from a "bellum iustum" (a "just war"), to a "bellum sacrum" (a "holy war").


title: Religious war

text: In the Hindu texts, "dharma-yuddha" refers to a war that is fought while following several rules that make the war fair. In other words, just conduct within a war ("jus in bello") is important in Vedic and epic literature such as the "Mahabharata" and the "Ramayana". However, according to Torkel Berkke, the "Mahabharata" does not provide a clear discussion on who has the authority to initiate a war ("jus ad bellum"), nor on what makes a war just ("bellum justum").


title: Religious war

text: The Muslim conquests were a military expansion on an unprecedented scale, beginning in the lifetime of Muhammad and spanning the centuries, down to the Ottoman wars in Europe. Until the 13th century, the Muslim conquests were those of a more or less coherent empire, the Caliphate, but after the Mongol invasions, expansion continued on all fronts (other than Iberia which was lost in the Reconquista) for another half millennium until the final collapse of the Mughal Empire in the east and the Ottoman Empire in the west with the onset of the modern period.


title: Religious war

text: There were also a number of periods of infighting among Muslims; these are known by the term Fitna and mostly concern the early period of Islam, from the 7th to 11th centuries, i.e. before the collapse of the Caliphate and the emergence of the various later Islamic empires.


title: Religious war

text: While technically, the millennium of Muslim conquests could be classified as "religious war", the applicability of the term has been questioned.


title: Religious war

text: The reason is that the very notion of a "religious war" as opposed to a "secular war" is the result of the Western concept of the separation of Church and State. No such division has ever existed in the Islamic world, and consequently, there cannot be a real division between wars that are "religious" from such that are "non-religious". Islam does not have any normative tradition of pacifism, and warfare has been integral part of Islamic history both for the defense and the spread of the faith since the time of Muhammad. This was formalised in the juristic definition of war in Islam, which continues to hold normative power in contemporary Islam, inextricably linking political and religious justification of war. This normative concept is known as "Jihad", an Arabic word with the meaning "to strive; to struggle" (viz. "in the way of God"), which includes the aspect of struggle "by the sword".


title: Religious war

text: The first forms of military jihad occurred after the migration (hijra) of Muhammad and his small group of followers to Medina from Mecca and the conversion of several inhabitants of the city to Islam. The first revelation concerning the struggle against the Meccans was :


title: Religious war

text: This happened many times throughout history, beginning with Muhammad's battles against the polytheist Arabs including the Battle of Badr (624), and battles in Uhud (625), Khandaq (627), Mecca (630) and Hunayn (630).


title: Religious war

text: Reuven Firestone (2012) stated 'that holy war is a common theme in the Hebrew Bible. Divinely legitimized through the authority of biblical scripture and its interpretation, holy war became a historical reality for the Jews of antiquity. Among at least some of the Jewish groups of the late Second Temple period until the middle of the second century, C.E., holy war was an operative institution. That is, Jews engaged in what is defined here as holy war.' He mentioned the Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE), the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE) and the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE) as three examples of a "holy war" or "Commanded War" (Hebrew: מלחמת מצווה "Milkhemet Mitzvah") in the eyes of Rabbinic Judaism at the time. He asserted that this concept may have re-emerged in modern times within some factions of the Zionist movement, particularly Revisionist Zionism.


title: Religious war

text: In 2016, however, Firestone made a distinction between what he regarded as the Hebrew Bible's concept and the 'Western' concept of holy war: ""Holy war" is a Western concept referring to war that is fought for religion, against adherents of other religions, often in order to promote religion through conversion, and with no specific geographic limitation. This concept does not occur in the Hebrew Bible, whose wars are not fought for religion or in order to promote it but, rather, in order to preserve religion and a religiously unique people in relation to a specific and limited geography."


title: Religious war

text: Several scholars regard war narratives in the Hebrew Bible, such as the war against the Midianites in Numbers 31, to be a holy war, with Niditch (1995) asserting the presence of a 'priestly ideology of war in Numbers 31'. Hamilton (2005) argued that the two major concerns of Number 31 are the idea that war is a defiling activity, but Israelite soldiers need to be ritually pure, so they may only fight wars for a holy cause, and are required to cleanse themselves afterwards to restore their ritual purity. The Israelite campaign against Midian was blessed by the Israelite god Yahweh, and could therefore be considered a holy war. Olson (2012), who believed the war narrative to be a fictional story with a theological purpose, noted that the Israelite soldiers' actions in Numbers 31 closely followed the holy war regulations set out in Deuteronomy 20:14, although Moses' commandment to also kill the captive male children and non-virgin women was a marked departure from these regulations. He concluded: "Many aspects of this holy war text may be troublesome to a contemporary reader. But understood within the symbolic world of the ancient writers of Numbers, the story of the war against the Midianites is a kind of dress rehearsal that builds confidence and hope in anticipation of the actual conquest of Canaan that lay ahead."


title: Religious war

text: Dawn (2016) stated: "From the earliest days of Israel's existence as a people, holy war was a sacred institution, undertaken as a cultic act of a religious community".


title: Religious war

text: In Greek antiquity, four (or five) wars were fought in and around the Panhellenic sanctuary at Delphi (the Pythia (Oracle) residing in the Temple of Apollo) against persons or states who allegedly committed sacrilegious acts before the god Apollo. The following are distinguished:


title: Religious war

text: Firestone (2012) stated that in the eyes of ancient Rabbinic Judaism, the Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE), the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE) and the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE) were "holy wars" or "Commanded Wars" (Hebrew: מלחמת מצווה "Milkhemet Mitzvah").


title: Religious war

text: The Saxon Wars (772–804) of Frankish king Charlemagne against the Saxons under Widukind were described by Jim Bradbury (2004) as 'in essence a frontier struggle and a religious war against pagans – devil-worshippers according to Einhard.' He noted that Charlemagne ordered the destruction of the Irminsul, an object sacred to the Saxons. Per Ullidtz (2010) stated that previous Frankish–Saxon conflicts spanning almost a century 'had been mostly a border war', 'but under Charles it changed character': because of 'Charles' idea of unity, of a king over all German tribes, and of universal Christianity in all of his kingdom, it changed into a mission from heaven.' Similarly, a successful Carolingian campaign against the Pannonian Avars in the 790s led to their forced conversion to Christianity. The earlier Merovingian conquests of Thuringia, Allemannia and Bavaria had also resulted in their Christianisation by 555, although the Frisians resisted with similar determinacy as the Saxons during the Frisian–Frankish wars (7th and 8th century), with both tribes killing several Christian missionaries in defence of their Germanic paganism, to the horror of Christian hagiographers.


title: Religious war

text: The Crusades are a prime example of wars whose religious elements have been extensively debated for centuries, with some groups of people in some periods emphasising, restoring or overstating the religious aspects, and other groups of people in some periods denying, nuancing or downplaying the religious aspects of the Crusades in favour of other factors. "Winkler Prins"/"Encarta" (2002) concluded: "The traditional explanation for the Crusades (a religious enthusiasm that found an outlet in a Holy War) has also retained its value in modern historical scholarship, keeping in mind the fact that it has been pointed out that a complex set of socio-economic and political factors allowed this enthusiasm to manifest itself."


title: Religious war

text: The Crusades against Muslim expansion in the 11th century were recognized as a "holy war" or a "bellum sacrum" by later writers in the 17th century. The early modern wars against the Ottoman Empire were seen as a seamless continuation of this conflict by contemporaries.


title: Religious war

text: Jim Bradbury (2004) noted that the belligerents in the "Reconquista" were not all equally motivated by religion, and that a distinction should be made between 'secular rulers' on the one hand, and on the other hand Christian military orders which came from elsewhere (including the three main orders of Knights Templar, Knights Hospitaller and Teutonic Knights), or were established inside Iberia (such as those of Santiago, Alcántara and Calatrava). '[The Knights] were more committed to religious war than some of their secular counterparts, were opposed to treating with Muslims and carried out raids and even atrocities, such as decapitating Muslim prisoners.'


title: Religious war

text: The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, known in Arab history as the Battle of Al-Uqab (معركة العقاب), was fought on 16 July 1212 and it was an important turning point in both the "Reconquista" and the medieval history of Spain. The forces of King Alfonso VIII of Castile were joined by the armies of his Christian rivals, Sancho VII of Navarre, Pedro II of Aragon and Afonso II of Portugal in battle against the Berber Muslim Almohad conquerors of the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula.


title: Religious war

text: The relative importance of the various factors that caused the Hussite Wars (1419–1434) is debated. Kokkonen & Sundell (2017) claimed that the death of king Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia on 19 August 1419 is the event that sparked the Hussite rebellion against his nominal heir Sigismund (then king of Germany, Hungary and Croatia), making it essentially a war of succession. Nolan (2006) named religion as one of several significant causes, summarising the Hussites' motives as 'doctrinal as well as "nationalistic" and constitutional', and providing a series of issues that led to war: the trial and execution of Jan Hus (1415) 'provoked the conflict', the Defenestration of Prague (30 July 1419) 'began the conflict', while 'fighting began after King Wenceslaus died, shortly after the defenestration' (that is, after 19 August 1419). Nolan described the wars' goals and character as follows: 'The main aim of the Hussites was to prevent the hated Sigismund mounting the throne of Bohemia, but fighting between Bohemian Hussites and Catholics spread into Moravia. (...) cross-class support gave the Hussite Wars a tripartite and even "national" character unusual for the age, and a religious and social unity of purpose, faith, and hate'. "Winkler Prins"/"Encarta" (2002) described the Hussites as a 'movement which developed from a religious denomination to a nationalist faction, opposed to German and Papal influence; in the bloody "Hussite Wars" (1419–1438), they managed to resist.' It didn't mention the succession of Wenceslaus by Sigismund, but noted elsewhere that it was Sigismund's policy of Catholic Church unity which prompted him to urge Antipope John XXIII to convene the Council of Constance in 1414, which ultimately condemned Jan Hus.


title: Religious war

text: Buddhism was formally introduced into Japan by missionaries from the kingdom of Baekje in 552. Adherents of the native Shinto religion resisted the spread of Buddhism, and several military conflicts broke out, starting with the Soga–Mononobe conflict (552–587) between the pro-Shinto Mononobe clan (and Nakatomi clan) and the pro-Buddhist Soga clan. Although the political power each of the clans could wield over the royal family was also an important factor, and was arguably a strategic reason for the Soga to adopt and promote Buddhism as a means to increase their authority, the religious beliefs from both doctrines, as well as religious explanations from events that happened after the arrival of Buddhism, were also causes of the conflict that escalated to war. Whereas the Soga argued that Buddhism was a better religion because it had come from China and Korea, whose civilisations were widely regarded as superior and to be emulated in Yamato (the central kingdom of Japan), the Mononobe and Nakatomi maintained that there should be continuity of tradition and that worshipping the native gods ("kami") was in the best interest of the Japanese. Unable to reach a decision, Emperor Kinmei (r. 539–571) maintained Shinto as the royal religion, but allowed the Soga to erect a temple for the statue of Buddha. Afterwards, an epidemic broke out, which Shintoists attributed to the anger of the native gods to the intrusion of Buddhism; in reaction, some burnt down the Buddhist temple and threw the Buddha statue into a canal. However, the epidemic worsened, which Buddhists in turn interpreted as the anger of Buddha to the sacrilege committed against his temple and statue. Both during the 585 and 587 wars of succession, the opposing camps were drawn along the Shinto–Buddhist divide, and the Soga clan's victory resulted in the imposition of Buddhism as the Yamato court religion under the regency of Prince Shotoku.


title: Religious war

text: There have been several religious wars in the Toltec Empire of Mesoamerica (c. 980–1110) between devotees of Tezcatlipoca and followers of Quetzalcoatl; the latter lost and were driven to flee to the Yucatán Peninsula.


title: Religious war

text: The term "religious war" was used to describe, controversially at the time, what are now known as the European wars of religion, and especially the then-ongoing Seven Years' War, from at least the mid 18th century. The "Encyclopædia Britannica" maintains that "[the] wars of religion of this period [were] fought mainly for confessional security and political gain".


title: Religious war

text: In 16th-century France, there was a series of wars between Roman Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots primarily), known as the French Wars of Religion. In the first half of the 17th century, the German states, Scandinavia (Sweden, primarily) and Poland were beset by religious warfare during the Thirty Years War. Roman Catholicism and Protestantism figured on the opposing sides of this conflict, though Catholic France took the side of the Protestants, but it did so for purely political reasons.


title: Religious war

text: In the late 20th century, a number of revisionist historians such as William M. Lamont regarded the English Civil War (1642–1651) as a religious war, with John Morrill (1993) stating: 'The English Civil War was not the first European revolution: it was the last of the Wars of Religion.' This view has been criticised by various pre-, post- and anti-revisionist historians. Glen Burgess (1998) examined political propaganda written by the Parliamentarian politicians and clerics at the time, noting that many were or may have been motivated by their Puritan religious beliefs to support the war against the 'Catholic' king Charles I of England, but tried to express and legitimise their opposition and rebellion in terms of a legal revolt against a monarch who had violated crucial constitutional principles and thus had to be overthrown. They even warned their Parliamentarian allies to not make overt use of religious arguments in making their case for war against the king. However, in some cases it may be argued that they hid their pro-Anglican and anti-Catholic motives behind legal parlance, for example by emphasising that the Church of England was the "legally established" religion: 'Seen in this light, the defenses of Parliament's war, with their apparent legal-constitutional thrust, are not at all ways of saying that the struggle was not religious. On the contrary, they are ways of saying that it was.' Burgess concluded: '[T]he Civil War left behind it just the sort of evidence that we could reasonably expect a war of religion to leave.'


title: Religious war

text: The Ethiopian–Adal War (1529–1543) was a military conflict between the Abyssinians and the Adal Sultanate. The Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi came close to extinguishing the ancient realm of Abyssinia, and forcibly converting all of its surviving subjects to Islam. The intervention of the European Cristóvão da Gama attempted to help to prevent this outcome, but he was killed by al-Ghazi. However, both polities exhausted their resources and manpower in this conflict, allowing the northward migration of the Oromo into their present homelands to the north and west of Addis Ababa. Many historians trace the origins of hostility between Somalia and Ethiopia to this war.


title: Religious war

text: The Greek War of Independence (1821–1829) has sometimes been considered a religious war between Christians and Muslims, especially in its early phase. The Greek Declaration of Independence (issued on 15 January 1822) legitimised the armed rebellion against the Ottoman Empire in a mix of religious and nationalist terms: 'The war we are waging against the Turks, far from being founded in demagoguery, seditiousness or the selfish interests of any one part of the Greek nation, is a national and holy war (...). It is from these principles of natural rights and desiring to assimilate ourselves with our European Christian brethren, that we have embarked upon our war against the Turks.' Scottish writer Felicia Skene remarked in 1877: 'The Greek war of independence has never been called a religious war, and yet it had a better claim to that appellation than many a conflict which has been so named by the chroniclers of the past. It is a significant fact that the standard of revolt was raised by no mere patriot, but by Germanus, the aged Archbishop of Patras, who came forward, strong in his spiritual dignity (...) to be the first champion in the cause of Hellenic liberty.' Ian Morris (1994) stated that 'the uprising in 1821 was mainly a religious war', but that philhellene Western volunteers joined the war for quite different reasons, namely to 'regenerate' Greece and thereby Europe, motivated by Romantic ideas about European history and civilisation, and Orientalist views of Ottoman culture. The Filiki Eteria, the main organisation driving the rebellion, was split between two groups: one advocated the restoration of the Byzantine Empire on religious grounds, and to encourage all Christians within Ottoman territory to join the Greek revolutionaries; the other advocated the Megali Idea, a large Greek nation-state based on shared language rather than religion. Both of these grand objectives failed, but a smaller version of the latter goal was accepted by most members of the Eteria by 1823, and this goal was generally compatible with the motives of philhellenes who travelled to Greece to enter the war in 1821–23.


title: Religious war

text: The Israeli–Palestinian conflict can primarily be viewed as an ethnic conflict between two parties where one party is most often portrayed as a singular ethno-religious group which only consists of the Jewish majority and ignores non-Jewish minority Israeli citizens who support the existence of a Zionist state to varying degrees, especially the Druze and the Circassians who, for example, volunteer to serve in the IDF, participate in combat and are represented in the Israeli parliament in higher numbers and greater percentages than Israeli Jews are as well as Israeli Arabs, Samaritans, various other Christians, and Negev Bedouin; the other party is sometimes presented as an ethnic group which is multi-religious (although most numerously consisting of Muslims, then Christians, then other religious groups up to and including Samaritans and even Jews). Yet despite the multi-religious composition of both of the parties in the conflict, elements on both sides often view it as a religious war between Jews and Muslims. In 1929, religious tensions between Muslim and Jewish Palestinians over Jews praying at the Wailing Wall led to the 1929 Palestine riots including the Hebron and Safed ethnic cleansings of Jews.