title: Prime Suspect

text: The series follows her constant battles to prove herself within a male-dominated profession in which many of her colleagues are determined to see her fail, though she has the support of her boss, Detective Chief Superintendent Mike Kernan (John Benfield), and the loyalty of Detective Sergeant Richard Haskons (Richard Hawley).


title: Prime Suspect

text: In later series, Tennison is reassigned to rotating duties, including a vice squad in Soho and a gang squad in Manchester. She is promoted to Detective Superintendent in series 4 and retires from policing at the end of series 7.


title: Prime Suspect

text: The first series features sexism in the workplace as a significant subplot and a barrier to the investigation. Sequels have tended to downplay this theme, relying on straight procedure or on other subplots, such as institutional racism in "Prime Suspect 2" or child sexual abuse and prostitution in "Prime Suspect 3", but they continue to demonstrate the determination of some of Tennison's male peers and those in upper echelons to see her fail.


title: Prime Suspect

text: Tennison's difficulty in achieving a balance between her work and her life outside the job, and her difficulty in maintaining stable relationships, are recurring themes within the series. Towards the end of "Prime Suspect 3" she arranges to have her pregnancy terminated. As the series progresses, she increasingly relies on alcohol to help her cope. This culminates in the final episode of the series in her attending meetings of Alcoholics Anonymous, where she finally acknowledges and confronts her addiction.


title: Prime Suspect

text: Every series of "Prime Suspect" except series 4 follows a single case and runs around 3 hours (excluding commercials). It has usually been shown in two or four parts. "Prime Suspect 4" is an exception at slightly over five hours, with three separate cases.


title: Prime Suspect

text: The first five series were produced annually from 1991 to 1996, until Mirren left the role, supposedly to avoid typecasting (according to a PBS interview). She returned to play the character in 2003 and again in 2006.


title: Prime Suspect

text: "Prime Suspect" was produced by Granada Television for the ITV network. Series four to seven were co-produced by WGBH Boston for its "Masterpiece Mystery" anthology series.


title: Prime Suspect

text: The first five series were scored by the Academy Award-winning composer Stephen Warbeck, who was nominated for a BAFTA TV Award for "Prime Suspect" series one. Rob Lane composed the music for Series 6. Nicholas Hooper won a BAFTA TV Award for his score for Series 7.


title: Prime Suspect

text: "Prime Suspect" was voted 68th in the list of 100 Greatest British Television Programmes as compiled by a poll given by the British Film Institute, and in 2007 it was listed as one of "Time" magazine's "100 Best TV Shows of All-"TIME"." The series has won multiple BAFTA Awards, Emmy Awards, and a Peabody Award.


title: Prime Suspect

text: "Prime Suspect" won the BAFTA TV Award for Best Drama Serial over "G.B.H." in 1991. Afterwards, four of the seven voting members of the jury raised a discrepancy to jury chairperson Irene Shubik, and later signed a public statement declaring that they had voted for "G.B.H." to win. BAFTA Chairman Richard Price stated that the ballot papers passed on to him by Shubik had shown four votes for "Prime Suspect" and three for "G.B.H." Price claimed that the ballot papers could not be recounted as they had subsequently been destroyed. "Prime Suspect" won Best Drama Serial once more for series three, and was nominated four other times. The series won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Miniseries three times, and was nominated twice more.


title: Prime Suspect

text: Mirren won three BAFTA TV Awards for Best Actress for the role, and has been nominated three other times. She won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie twice, with four additional nominations.


title: Prime Suspect

text: "Prime Suspect 3" was awarded a Peabody Award in 1993 for its realistic scenes and dialogue. Writer/creator Lynda La Plante received an Edgar Award from the Mystery Writers of America for series one in the category of Best TV Feature or Miniseries. The following year, Allan Cubitt won in the same category for series two. "Prime Suspect" was later nominated for series three and six.


title: Prime Suspect

text: Many observers have viewed "Prime Suspect" as the inspiration for female characters in U.S. TV series, particularly noting strong similarities between this series in general—and the character of Jane Tennison in particular—and the later American series "The Closer", starring Kyra Sedgwick in the role of Deputy Chief of Police Brenda Leigh Johnson. Critics noted the similarities between the series in a stronger way during the first seasons of "The Closer", with one 2006 article in "USA Today" calling "The Closer" "an unofficial Americanization" of the British series, and a later reviewer noting that, "When "The Closer" was first shown, critics were quick to compare it to "Prime Suspect"...[and] there's something in that..."


title: Prime Suspect

text: In interviews Sedgwick has acknowledged that "The Closer" owes "a debt" to "Prime Suspect", and that her admiration for that show and for Mirren were factors that first interested her in the role. According to Sedgwick, "Prime Suspect" was one of the shows that "paved the way" for "The Closer", and her manager got her interested in the series by saying that it was "a little bit like "Prime Suspect"." Sedgwick is quoted as saying that the Tennison character did become her inspiration in some ways for her portrayal of Brenda Leigh Johnson.


title: Prime Suspect

text: Reviewers in U.S. papers, including the "Christian Science Monitor", have noted that "The Closer", while not a direct remake of the British series, "owes" much to it, or that it "echoes many of the elements" of it. One "The New York Times" article refers to "The Closer" as a "direct descendant" of "Prime Suspect", although less hard-hitting than the original:


title: Prime Suspect

text: Other reviewers have also made the point that the differences between Tennison and Johnson are as important as their similarities:


title: Prime Suspect

text: NBC picked up an adaptation of the British series for the 2011–2012 season. It was taken off the schedule after 13 episodes were produced.


title: Prime Suspect

text: In 1997 a short spoof episode "Prime Cracker" was produced for the BBC's biennial Red Nose Day charity telethon in aid of Comic Relief. A crossover with ITV stablemate crime drama "Cracker", the spoof starred Mirren and "Cracker" lead Robbie Coltrane as their characters from the respective series, sending up the perceived ultra-seriousness of both shows.


title: Prime Suspect

text: "Dead Ringers" featured a parody with Queen Elizabeth II in the lead role, as a reaction to Helen Mirren's portrayal of her in the 2006 film "The Queen".


title: Prime Suspect

text: A six-part prequel, "Prime Suspect 1973", was announced in 2015 by ITV, based on the book "Tennison" by Lynda La Plante, adapted by Glen Laker. It tells the story of a 22 year old Jane Tennison as a probationary WPC in Hackney, London, investigating her first murder case. The series began airing on 2 March 2017. The role of Tennison is played by Stefanie Martini. In June 2017, ITV confirmed that the series had not been recommissioned for a second series.


title: Prime Suspect

text: On 1 October 2013, Netflix made the Series 1–6 available online for streaming. On 27 August 2013, Acorn Media released the entire series in a seven-disc Blu-ray Disc set. Each disc contains the individual programme, upscaled to 720p HD and converted to 16:9 Widescreen. Bonus material includes a 50-minute behind-the-scenes special, a 23-minute "Series 6" behind-the-scenes featurette, a photo gallery and cast filmographies.


title: Prime Suspect

text: The DVD format of the series was released in 2010 by ITV Studios/Global entertainment. It has an overall running time of 1,437 minutes approximately, and encompasses ten discs, with each Series set on one disc except the triple-episode Series 4, which is set over three discs. As with the Blu-ray production, the final disc contains a Behind-the-Scenes of Series 7.


title: John of Patmos

text: John of Patmos (also called John the Revelator, John the Divine, John the Theologian) is the name traditionally given to the author of the Book of Revelation. The text of Revelation states that John was on Patmos, a Greek island where, according to most biblical historians, he was exiled as a result of anti-Christian persecution under the Roman emperor Domitian.


title: John of Patmos

text: Christian tradition has considered the Book of Revelation's writer to be John the Evangelist (himself identified as John the Apostle), purported author of the Gospel of John. A minority of senior clerics and scholars, such as Eusebius (d. 339/340), recognize at least one further John as a companion of Jesus, John the Presbyter. Some Christian scholars since medieval times separate the disciple from the writer of Revelation.


title: John of Patmos

text: John is considered to have been exiled to Patmos during a time of persecution under the Roman rule of Domitian in the late 1st century. states: "I, John, both your brother and companion in tribulation ... was on the island that is called Patmos for the word of God and for the testimony of Jesus Christ."


title: John of Patmos

text: Early tradition says that John was banished to Patmos by the Roman authorities. This tradition is credible because banishment was a common punishment used during the Imperial period for a number of offenses. Among such offenses were the practices of magic and astrology. Prophecy was viewed by the Romans as belonging to the same category, whether Pagan, Jewish, or Christian. Prophecy with political implications, like that expressed by John in the Book of Revelation, would have been perceived as a threat to Roman political power and order. Three of the islands in the Sporades were places where political offenders were banished. (Pliny, "Natural History" 4.69–70; Tacitus, "Annals" 4.30)


title: John of Patmos

text: According to Tertullian (in "The Prescription of Heretics") John was banished after being plunged into boiling oil in Rome and suffering nothing from it.


title: John of Patmos

text: The author of the Book of Revelation identifies himself only as "John". Traditionally, this was often believed to be the same person as John the Apostle (John, son of Zebedee), one of the apostles of Jesus, to whom the Gospel of John was also attributed. The early-2nd-century writer, Justin Martyr, was the first to equate the author of Revelation with John the Evangelist.


title: John of Patmos

text: Other early Christian writers, such as Dionysius of Alexandria and Eusebius of Caesarea, noting the differences in language and theological outlook between this work and the Gospel, discounted this possibility, and argued for the exclusion of the Book of Revelation from the canon as a result. The early Christian writer Papias appeared in his writings to distinguish between John the Evangelist and John the Elder, and many biblical scholars now contend that the latter was the author of Revelation.


title: Me Against the World

text: Me Against the World is the third studio album by American rapper 2Pac, released on March 14, 1995, by Interscope Records and Jive Records. 2Pac draws lyrical inspiration from his impending prison sentence, troubles with the police, and poverty.


title: Me Against the World

text: According to 2Pac, "Me Against the World" was made to show the hip hop audience his respect for the art form. Lyrically, he intentionally tried to make the album more personal and reflective than his previous efforts. Considered by several music critics to be the best of any of his albums up to that point in his career, the album's musical production was handled by his mentor Shock G, Easy Mo Bee, Tony Pizarro, Johnny "J" and the Danish hip-hop duo Soulshock and Karlin, among others. "Me Against the World" features guest appearances from rap group Dramacydal and rapper Richie Rich.


title: Me Against the World

text: Released while Tupac was imprisoned, "Me Against the World" made an immediate impact on the charts, debuting at number one on the "Billboard" 200, holding the top spot for four consecutive weeks, and also topping the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. "Dear Mama" was released as the album's first single in February 1995 and would be the album's most successful single, topping the Hot Rap Singles chart, and peaking at number nine on the "Billboard" Hot 100. While he was in prison, the album overtook Bruce Springsteen's "Greatest Hits" as the best-selling album of the year in the United States at the time.


title: Me Against the World

text: "Me Against the World" was eventually certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). At the 38th Grammy Awards, the album was nominated for Best Rap Album and "Dear Mama" was nominated for Best Rap Solo Performance. The album received acclaimed reviews by critics, being ranked among the best albums of the 1990s. It has been ranked by many critics as one of the greatest hip hop albums, as well as one of the greatest albums of all time. In 2008, the National Association of Recording Merchandisers (NARM), in conjunction with the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, included "Me Against the World" in its list of the Definitive 200 Albums of All Time.


title: Me Against the World

text: By 1994, Tupac Shakur, age 23, was already a prominent and controversial rapper. His second album, "Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z.", going Platinum, had entered the top 25 on the "Billboard" 200, and offered two Gold singles, "I Get Around" and "Keep Ya Head Up", both entering the top 15 of the "Billboard" Hot 100. In rapid succession, however, he had become involved in a string of violent encounters.


title: Me Against the World

text: All for incidents in 1993, Shakur was sentenced to 15 days in jail for assaulting director Allen Hughes while filming "Menace II Society", pled guilty to the attempted assault on a rival rapper and saw the charges dropped after he shot two off-duty police officers. Later that year, Shakur and two associates were charged with gang-raping a female fan in Shakur's hotel room, a charge he vehemently denied. In the ensuing trial, Shakur was acquitted of seven felonies, including rape, sodomy and gun charges, but was convicted of two counts of sexual abuse for unwanted touching and was subsequently sentenced to 18 months to 4.5 years in prison. On November 30, 1994 one day before the jury reached their verdict, Shakur was shot and robbed at gunpoint at the lobby of a New York recording studio. He believed the shooting was set up by East Coast associates and collaborators, such as The Notorious B.I.G., Andre Harrell and Sean "Puffy" Combs.


title: Me Against the World

text: According to Shakur, "Me Against the World" aimed to show the hip-hop audience his respect for the art form. Shakur purposefully made "Me Against the World"s lyrics more personal and reflective than previously. This was widely attributed to Shakur's growing maturity and perhaps an effort to reconcile with his troubled past.


title: Me Against the World

text: Although originally released by Interscope, the album was later released twice by Amaru Entertainment, the label owned by Shakur's mother, Afeni Shakur. The album was recorded at ten different studios, and it was mastered at Bernie Grundman Mastering by Brian Gardner. Several critics found the album's musical production the best on any of Shakur's albums to date.


title: Me Against the World

text: Steve "Flash" Juon of RapReviews, scoring the production a perfect 10 of 10, particularly praised "So Many Tears" and "Temptations". Jon Pareles of the "New York Times" called the production a "fatalistic calm, in a commercial mold", and added that "while 2Pac doesn't sing, other voices do, providing smooth melody". Yet James Bernard of "Entertainment Weekly", dissenting, complained that Shakur's "vocals are buried deep in the mix. That's a shame—if they were more in-your-face, the lackluster beats might be less noticeable."


title: Me Against the World

text: Often depicting the travails of male survival in the ghetto, prominent sentiments include anguish, despair, hopelessness, paranoia, and self-loathing. Such dark tracks, sometimes simultaneously menacing, are "If I Die 2Nite", "Lord Knows", "Outlaw", and "Fuck The World". But there are exceptions. Nostalgic jubilance distinguishes "Old School"—a roster his favorite rap songs, with associated joys, predating his adulthood—while bittersweet optimism occurs in "It Ain't Easy". "Can U Get Away" aims to flirtatiously encourage and lure a romantic interest away from her current, abusive relationship. And the track most popular, "Dear Mama", is a reverent ode to his mother. Throughout the album, Shakur employs various poetical devices, such as alliteration ("If I Die 2Nite") and paired couplets ("Lord Knows").


title: Me Against the World

text: "Me Against the World" debuted at number one on the US "Billboard" 200, selling 210,500 copies in the first week. The album held the top spot for four consecutive weeks. The album also debuted at number one on the US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, thus giving 2Pac the first number one album on both R&B and Pop charts. While Shakur was in prison, the album overtook Bruce Springsteen's "Greatest Hits" as the best-selling album in the United States, a feat which he took pride in. Shakur became the first artist to have a number one album while serving a prison sentence. On December 6, 1995, the album was certified double platinum for sales of over two million copies in the United States.


title: Me Against the World

text: Tupac Shakur's virtual appearance at the annual Coachella Festival (April 15, 2012) led to the album selling 1,000 copies the following week (up by 53% from the previous week).


title: Me Against the World

text: "Dear Mama" was released as the album's first single in February 1995, along with the track "Old School" as the B-side. "Dear Mama" would be the album's most successful single, topping the Hot Rap Singles chart, and peaking at No. 9 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. The single was certified platinum in July 1995, and later placed at No. 51 on the year-end charts.


title: Me Against the World

text: It was reported that "Can U Get Away" was intended to be released as the next single with a music video directed by Shakur's longtime friend Jada Pinkett. Instead, "So Many Tears" was released as the second single, in June 1995. It reached No. 6 on the Hot Rap Singles chart, and No. 44 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Me Against the World

text: "Temptations," released in August, was the third and final single from the album. The single is the least successful of the three released, but still did fairly well on the charts, reaching No. 68 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, No. 35 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks, and No. 13 on the Hot Rap Singles charts.


title: Me Against the World

text: "Me Against the World", the title track, was released as a single in Europe. It included the Soul Power Remix and the Soul Power Hip Hop Remix.


title: Me Against the World

text: "Me Against the World" received critical acclaim. In a contemporary review, Cheo H. Coker at "Rolling Stone" called the album Shakur's best and said it was "by and large a work of pain, anger and burning desperation — [it] is the first time 2Pac has taken the conflicting forces tugging at his psyche head-on". Jon Pareles, writing in "The New York Times", called Shakur the "St. Augustine of gangster rap" due to his ambivalence towards the behavior and nature of the gangster lifestyle. In his review for "The Source", the leading hip-hop magazine in the United States, Allen Gordon hailed Shakur as an elite lyricist on display on the album, called it "his best work by far" and noted that "any complaints critics and fans alike had about Tupac's last two albums can be put to rest". He particularly praised the production and lyricism of the "incredible" title track, "So Many Tears", "Temptations", "Heavy in the Game", "Dear Mama" and "Old School", but also noted "It Ain't Easy", "If I Die 2Nite" and "Young Niggaz" as "notable" tracks.


title: Me Against the World

text: "This may be the first hip-hop blues LP," observed Matt Hall in "Select". "Not so much in the music, although the harp blasts owe more to Howlin' Wolf than Tupac's previous two solo efforts, but more with Shakur's vocals, which are at once rebellious and resigned ... "Me Against the World" is a statement of intent, a note from the depths of America, and a fine, thoughtful LP." In "The Guardian", critic Caroline Sullivan observed a "surprisingly optimistic" and thoughtful 2Pac on display on the album, deeming it "worth a listen" despite criticizing the presence of "anodyne" beats and predictable samples.


title: Me Against the World

text: Jaleel Abdul-Adil of the "Chicago Sun-Times" stated that "2Pac's latest also mixes toughness and tenderness. Desperation follows raw anger on "Fuck the World" and "It Ain't Easy," but most tracks confess frailties beneath the rapper's tough exterior. "Dear Mama" is a tear-jerking tribute to his mother, "Lord Knows" discloses desperate considerations of suicide, and "So Many Tears" ponders a merciless world that wrecks young lives. 2Pac even includes a sorrowful "shout-out" to Robert Sandifer, the Chicago youth whose brief life ended in a brutal shooting. After earlier releases that lacked focus and consistency, 2Pac finally presents a polished project of self-examination and social commentary. It's ironic that it arrives as his sentence begins."


title: Me Against the World

text: Some reviewers were less impressed. James Bernard from "Entertainment Weekly" said, "2Pac does the black-man-backed-into-a-corner routine better than just about anyone because that's largely who he is. When he says it's 'me against the world,' there's an urgency that only comes from experience. On record, the rapper-turned-movie icon’s vocals are buried deep in the mix. That’s a shame-if they were more in-your-face, the lackluster beats might be less noticeable." Robert Christgau of "The Village Voice" said Shakur witlessly exploited fundamental hip hop themes such as persecution while exhibiting an offensive level of self-pity: "His I-love-Mom rings true because Mom was no saint, and his respect for old G's seems genuine, probably because they told him how smart he was. But whether the metaphor be dead homies or suicide threat, the subtext of his persecution complex is his self-regard."


title: Me Against the World

text: "Me Against the World" was one of Tupac's most acclaimed albums, with many calling it the magnum opus of his career; the work is considered one of the greatest and most influential hip hop albums of all time. In a retrospective review, AllMusic editor Steve Huey dubbed the album "[Shakur's] most thematically consistent, least self-contradicting work", and stated, "it may not be his definitive album, but it just might be his best". Steve "Flash" Juon of "RapReviews" seemed to feel differently, remarking that the album "is not only the quintessential Shakur album, but one of the most important rap albums released in the 1990s as a whole". On MTV's "Greatest Rappers of All Time" list, "Me Against the World" was listed as one of Tupac's "certified classic" albums, along with "2Pacalypse Now", "All Eyez on Me" and "". "One of the best five rap albums ever," remarked "Mojo", after Shakur's death.


title: Me Against the World

text: In 1996, at the 38th Grammy Awards, "Me Against the World" was nominated for Best Rap Album and the single "Dear Mama" was nominated for Best Rap Solo Performance. "Me Against the World" won Best Rap Album at the 1996 Soul Train Music Awards. In 2008, the National Association of Recording Merchandisers, in conjunction with the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, recognized "Me Against the World" as one of the "most influential and popular albums", ranking it number 170 on a list of 200 other albums by artists of various musical genres. The album was also included in the book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die".


title: Escape room

text: An escape room, also known as an escape game, puzzle room, exit game, or riddle room is a game in which a team of players discover clues, solve puzzles, and accomplish tasks in one or more rooms in order to accomplish a specific goal in a limited amount of time. The goal is often to escape from the site of the game. Most escape games are cooperative but competitive variants exist. Escape rooms became popular in North America, Europe, and East Asia in the 2010s. Permanent escape rooms in fixed locations were first opened in Asia and followed later in Hungary, Serbia, Australia, New Zealand, Russia, and South America.


title: Escape room

text: Escape rooms are inspired by "escape-the-room"–style video games. This is also the likely source of their name. They are also referred to as "room escapes," "escape games," "exit games," or "live escapes."


title: Escape room

text: In spite of the name, escaping a room may not be the main goal for the players, nor is the game necessarily confined to a single room.


title: Escape room

text: The participants in an escape room normally play as a cooperative team of two to ten players. Games are set in a variety of fictional locations, such as prison cells, dungeons, and space stations. The player's goals and the challenges they encounter usually align with the theme of the room.


title: Escape room

text: The game begins with a brief introduction to the rules of the game and how to win. This can be delivered in the form of video, audio, or a live gamemaster.


title: Escape room

text: Players enter a room or area wherein a clock is started and they have a limited time to complete the game, typically 45 to 60 minutes. During this time, players explore, find clues, and solve puzzles that allow them to progress further in the game. Some escape rooms, especially horror-themed variants, may also include escaping from restraints such as handcuffs or zip ties. Challenges in an escape room generally are more mental than physical, and it is usually not necessary to be physically fit or dexterous. Different skills are required for different types of puzzles, ranging from chemistry to mathematics, geography, and a basic understanding of other subjects. Well-designed escape room puzzles don't require players to have expert knowledge in any particular field; any specialized or little-known information required to solve a puzzle should be obtainable within the room itself.


title: Escape room

text: If players get stuck, there may be a mechanism in place by which they can ask for hints. Hints may be delivered in written, video, or audio form, or by a live gamemaster or actor present in the room.


title: Escape room

text: The players "fail" the room if they are unable to complete all of the puzzles within the allotted time, but most escape room operators strive to ensure that their customers have fun even if they don't win. Players may be given different experiences depending on their success or loss in forms of "good endings" and "bad endings" within the room if they win or fail, respectively. Good endings are usually represented by either escaping "alive" within the time limit, completing the room's objective, or even stopping the threat or antagonist of the story, while bad endings usually represent the players getting "killed" by the main driving force of the story or an antagonist of the room coming to get the players once the timer has run out. Some venues allow players extra time or an expedited walk-through of the remaining puzzles.


title: Escape room

text: Escape rooms test the problem-solving, lateral thinking ("thinking outside the box"), and teamwork skills of participants by providing a variety of puzzles and challenges that unlock access to new items or areas in the game when solved.


title: Escape room

text: Escape room puzzles include word games, numbers, and "arranging things into patterns" such as substitution cyphers, riddles, crosswords, Sudoku, word search, and mathematics; puzzles involving physical objects such as jigsaw puzzles, matchstick puzzles, and chess; and physical activity such as searching for a hidden physical object, assembling an object, navigating mazes, or undoing a rope knot.


title: Escape room

text: Different attractions contained elements similar to modern escape rooms and could thus be seen as precursors to the idea, including haunted houses, scavenger hunts, entertainment center 5 Wits or interactive theater (such as "Sleep No More", inaugurated in 2003).


title: Escape room

text: The format of a room or area containing puzzles or challenges has been featured in multiple TV game shows over the years, including "Now Get Out of That" (1981-1984), "The Adventure Game", "The Crystal Maze", "Fort Boyard" and "Knightmare". Similar experiences can be found in interactive fiction software and escape the room video games.


title: Escape room

text: An additional impetus for escape rooms came from the "escape the room" genre of video games. Escape the room games, which initially began as Flash games for web browsers and then moving onto mobile apps, challenged the player to locate clues and objects within a single room.


title: Escape room

text: Four years later, Real Escape Game (REG) in Japan was developed by 35-year-old Takao Kato, of the Kyoto publishing company, SCRAP Co., in 2007. It is based in Kyoto, Japan and produces a free magazine by the same name. Beyond Japan, Captivate Escape Rooms appeared in Australia and Singapore from 2011, the market growing to over 60 games by 2015. Kazuya Iwata, a friend of Kato, brought Real Escape Game to San Francisco in 2012. The following year, Seattle-based Puzzle Break founded by Nate Martin became the first American-based escape room company. Japanese games were primarily composed of logical puzzles, such as mathematical sequences or color-coding, just like the video games that inspired them.


title: Escape room

text: Parapark, a Hungarian franchise that later operated in 20 locations in Europe and Australia, was founded in 2011 in Budapest. The founder, Attila Gyurkovics, claims he had no information about the Japanese escape games and based the game on Mihály Csíkszentmihályi's flow theory and his job experience as a personality trainer. As opposed to the Japanese precursors, in Parapark's games, players mainly had to find hidden keys or reach seemingly unattainable ones in order to advance.


title: Escape room

text: In 2012, the Swiss physics professor Gabriel Palacios created a scientific escape game for his students. The game was later offered to the public under the name AdventureRooms and distributed as a franchise in twenty countries. AdventureRooms introduced scientific puzzles (e.g. hidden infrared or polarized codes) to the genre.


title: Escape room

text: As of November 2019, there were estimated to be over 50,000 escape rooms worldwide. These can be particularly lucrative for the operators, as the upfront investment has been as low as US$7,000, while a party of 4-8 customers pay around US$25–30 per person for one hour to play, potentially generating annual revenue upwards of several hundred thousand dollars. As the industry has grown, start up costs have increased dramatically and so has the competition. Some customers now expect higher production values and games can cost over $50,000 to create. The UK has seen the market grow over the past 4 years by 93%, 148%, 409% and 43%.


title: Escape room

text: The "South China Morning Post" described escape rooms as a hit among "highly stressed students and overworked young professionals." Sometimes players damage equipment or decorations inside the game area.


title: Escape room

text: The use of Hong Kong room escapes as distractions from the city's living conditions has been reviewed by local journalists.


title: Escape room

text: Early games consisted mainly of puzzles that were solved with paper and pencil. Some versions are digital or printable only. As escape rooms became more sophisticated, physical locks were introduced that could be opened by finding combinations, hidden keys, and codes using objects found in the rooms. These ideas have evolved to include automation technology, immersive decoration, and more elaborate storylines to make puzzles more interactive, and to create an experience that is more theatrical and atmospheric.


title: Escape room

text: The first known fatal accident to occur in an escape room was the death of five 15-year-old girls in a fire in Koszalin, Poland, on January 4, 2019. The fire was caused by a leaky gas container inside a heater and resulted in the death of the five victims from carbon monoxide poisoning. One employee was treated for burns. According to the state firefighting service, the chief failure that led to the deaths was the lack of an effective evacuation route. Shortly after the accident, authorities ordered safety checks in escape rooms across Poland and 13 more such establishments were shut down for safety flaws as a result.


title: Escape room

text: "Reno 911", an American comedy show, aired the episode "Escape-O-Rama Room" in August 2020. Canadian comedy show "Schitt's Creek" aired an escape room episode, "The Bachelor Party", in March 2020. The escape room concept has also been explored in other television programs such as "It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia" and "Harley Quinn".


title: Escape room

text: In 2019, the American psychological horror film "Escape Room" was released in theaters, and its sequel "" came out in 2021 following several delays due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Both films deal with a mysterious, deadly series of puzzle rooms that explore the traumatic pasts of its players. "Escape Room" grossed $155.7million worldwide against a production budget of $9million, and "Tournament of Champions" grossed $51.8million.


title: Escape room

text: In February 2022, the children's book "Escape Room" by Christopher Edge was named "Children's Book of the Week" by "The Times".


title: Metal Lords

text: Metal Lords is a 2022 American teen comedy-drama film written by D. B. Weiss and directed by Peter Sollett. Its story follows two high school best friends and metal music lovers, Hunter and Kevin, who set out to start a metal band, against societal norms. The film was released on Netflix on April 8, 2022.


title: Metal Lords

text: Metalhead Hunter Sylvester jams with his best friend, the insecure Kevin Schlieb, who does not know quite well how to play a whole drum set because he only plays a single drum in the school's marching band. During one of the marching band practices, Kevin witnesses sensitive Scottish student Emily having a full meltdown and quitting the band because of her lack of skills with the clarinet. Later that day, Kevin drags Hunter to a party at Clay Moss' house and tries to be a normal kid while Hunter feels misplaced. Kevin gets drunk and flirts with a girl named Kendall, while Hunter gets into an altercation with jock Rocky "Skip" Hoffman. In the aftermath, Hunter discovers that the school will hold a "Battle of the Bands" and it prompts him to sign up his and Kevin's band named Skullfucker. Hunter steals his father's AMEX card and spends US$13,500 in gear, including a full drum kit for Kevin. Kevin starts practicing at school and during one of those sessions, he discovers that Emily is in fact a skilled cello player. They become interested in each other, which prompts Kevin to give her a copy of a playlist of metal songs that Hunter assigned him as "homework". Meanwhile, Hunter tries to find a bassist to complete the trio, only to be unsuccessful because of lack of interest from the other students, and has a series of run-ins with Skip.


title: Metal Lords

text: Kevin unsuccessfully tries to pitch Emily as their new bassist to Hunter. Afterwards, Kevin calls Emily to apologize for Hunter's behavior and they end up having sex in the back of Emily’s van. Kevin and Emily become a couple, which enrages Hunter, who believes that she will be their "Yoko Ono". Clay hears Kevin playing drums and, since Clay's drummer is going to rehab for substance abuse, Clay asks Kevin to join his band Mollycoddle, for his sister's wedding that weekend. During a speech class, Hunter teases Emily to the point of her melting down, attacking him, and breaking his guitar in the process. Those two facts lead to an argument between Hunter and Kevin, who leaves Skullfucker.


title: Metal Lords

text: Kevin performs with Mollycoddle at Clay's sister's wedding, while Hunter tries to break into the wedding to get Kevin back into Skullfucker and is arrested for trespassing. Afterwards, Kevin is invited to hang out with Clay's friends and to perform with Mollycoddle in the Battle of the Bands, which he reluctantly accepts. Kendall invites a drunk Kevin into the pool and flirts with him. While they make out, Kevin's conscience materializes in the form of heavy-metal musicians Scott Ian, Tom Morello, Kirk Hammett and Rob Halford. Halford makes Kevin realize that he indeed loves Emily and gets back with her. Kevin also realizes that he needs Hunter back, only to discover that Hunter was sent to rehab by his father, as a punishment for his misbehavior.


title: Metal Lords

text: Hunter discovers that the clinic is run by Dr. Troy Nix, famed lead guitarist of metal band Killoton and former Battle of the Bands champion; Nix explains that Killoton broke up because of his alcohol abuse and fraught relationships among the band members, which prompted Nix to get his life straight, become a doctor and help other addicts. Dr. Nix says that, while Hunter is fit for discharge, it won't happen until the next week because of the clinic's policies. Kevin breaks into the clinic and breaks out Hunter and Mollycoddle's drummer; they run into Dr. Nix during their escape, but Nix lets them go after giving Hunter a better guitar pick. Hunter and Kevin go to Emily's home, where Hunter apologizes to Emily and invites her to be their cellist, but Emily turns them down, saying that she's not ready yet.


title: Metal Lords

text: On the night of the Battle of the Bands, Kevin apologizes to Clay, saying that he can only play in one band, but presents Mollycoddle's drummer, now sober, to replace him. As Kevin and Hunter are getting ready for their performance as a duo Emily appears to perform with them with an electric cello and decked out in gothic-metal attire. Just as they're about to take the stage, Dean Swanson warns them that the name "Skullfucker" is inappropriate for the event, forcing Emily to quickly change the band's name to Skullflower. Despite initial skepticism and confusion, their performance wins over the crowd, until a drunk Skip is shoved out of a mosh pit and pushes Hunter into his amp stack in the middle of his solo, making Hunter fall down and get crushed by his amplifiers, breaking his leg in the process.


title: Metal Lords

text: Later, Kevin, Emily and a recuperating Hunter read the city's newspaper reporting that they went viral with their concert, despite losing the Battle of the Bands and coming in second place to Mollycoddle; they conclude they're the moral winners of the contest (they were the last band to play, which made them headliners, the entire crowd loved them and sang the chorus of their original song, and Hunter's injury landed them on the front page of the newspaper) and they begin to practice in Hunter's basement with renewed vigor and camaraderie.


title: Metal Lords

text: Scott Ian, Tom Morello, Kirk Hammett and Rob Halford appear in cameo roles as themselves representing Kevin's conscience.


title: Metal Lords

text: "Metal Lords" was shot in Portland, Oregon. The school scenes were shot at Parkrose Middle School and Parkrose High School, while the Battle of the Bands scenes were filmed at Revolution Hall.


title: Metal Lords

text: On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 59 out of 100 based on reviews from 20 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Hydrogen atom

text: A hydrogen atom is an atom of the chemical element hydrogen. The electrically neutral atom contains a single positively charged proton and a single negatively charged electron bound to the nucleus by the Coulomb force. Atomic hydrogen constitutes about 75% of the baryonic mass of the universe.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: In everyday life on Earth, isolated hydrogen atoms (called "atomic hydrogen") are extremely rare. Instead, a hydrogen atom tends to combine with other atoms in compounds, or with another hydrogen atom to form ordinary (diatomic) hydrogen gas, H. "Atomic hydrogen" and "hydrogen atom" in ordinary English use have overlapping, yet distinct, meanings. For example, a water molecule contains two hydrogen atoms, but does not contain atomic hydrogen (which would refer to isolated hydrogen atoms).


title: Hydrogen atom

text: Atomic spectroscopy shows that there is a discrete infinite set of states in which a hydrogen (or any) atom can exist, contrary to the predictions of classical physics. Attempts to develop a theoretical understanding of the states of the hydrogen atom have been important to the history of quantum mechanics, since all other atoms can be roughly understood by knowing in detail about this simplest atomic structure.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: The most abundant isotope, hydrogen-1, protium, or light hydrogen, contains no neutrons and is simply a proton and an electron. Protium is stable and makes up 99.985% of naturally occurring hydrogen atoms.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: Deuterium contains one neutron and one proton in its nucleus. Deuterium is stable and makes up 0.0156% of naturally occurring hydrogen and is used in industrial processes like nuclear reactors and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: Tritium contains two neutrons and one proton in its nucleus and is not stable, decaying with a half-life of 12.32 years. Because of its short half-life, tritium does not exist in nature except in trace amounts.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: Heavier isotopes of hydrogen are only created artificially in particle accelerators and have half-lives on the order of 10 seconds. They are unbound resonances located beyond the neutron drip line; this results in prompt emission of a neutron.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: The formulas below are valid for all three isotopes of hydrogen, but slightly different values of the Rydberg constant (correction formula given below) must be used for each hydrogen isotope.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: Lone neutral hydrogen atoms are rare under normal conditions. However, neutral hydrogen is common when it is covalently bound to another atom, and hydrogen atoms can also exist in cationic and anionic forms.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: If a neutral hydrogen atom loses its electron, it becomes a cation. The resulting ion, which consists solely of a proton for the usual isotope, is written as "H" and sometimes called "hydron". Free protons are common in the interstellar medium, and solar wind. In the context of aqueous solutions of classical Brønsted–Lowry acids, such as hydrochloric acid, it is actually hydronium, HO, that is meant. Instead of a literal ionized single hydrogen atom being formed, the acid transfers the hydrogen to HO, forming HO.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: If instead a hydrogen atom gains a second electron, it becomes an anion. The hydrogen anion is written as "H" and called "hydride".


title: Hydrogen atom

text: The hydrogen atom has special significance in quantum mechanics and quantum field theory as a simple two-body problem physical system which has yielded many simple analytical solutions in closed-form.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: Experiments by Ernest Rutherford in 1909 showed the structure of the atom to be a dense, positive nucleus with a tenuous negative charge cloud around it. This immediately raised questions about how such a system could be stable. Classical electromagnetism had shown that any accelerating charge radiates energy, as shown by the Larmor formula. If the electron is assumed to orbit in a perfect circle and radiates energy continuously, the electron would rapidly spiral into the nucleus with a fall time of:


title: Hydrogen atom

text: where formula_2 is the Bohr radius and formula_3 is the classical electron radius. If this were true, all atoms would instantly collapse, however atoms seem to be stable. Furthermore, the spiral inward would release a smear of electromagnetic frequencies as the orbit got smaller. Instead, atoms were observed to only emit discrete frequencies of radiation. The resolution would lie in the development of quantum mechanics.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: In 1913, Niels Bohr obtained the energy levels and spectral frequencies of the hydrogen atom after making a number of simple assumptions in order to correct the failed classical model. The assumptions included:


title: Hydrogen atom

text: and formula_6 is Planck constant over formula_7. He also supposed that the centripetal force which keeps the electron in its orbit is provided by the Coulomb force, and that energy is conserved. Bohr derived the energy of each orbit of the hydrogen atom to be:


title: Hydrogen atom

text: where formula_9 is the electron mass, formula_10 is the electron charge, formula_11 is the vacuum permittivity, and formula_12 is the quantum number (now known as the principal quantum number). Bohr's predictions matched experiments measuring the hydrogen spectral series to the first order, giving more confidence to a theory that used quantized values.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: is called the Rydberg unit of energy. It is related to the Rydberg constant formula_15 of atomic physics by formula_16


title: Hydrogen atom

text: The exact value of the Rydberg constant assumes that the nucleus is infinitely massive with respect to the electron. For hydrogen-1, hydrogen-2 (deuterium), and hydrogen-3 (tritium) which have finite mass, the constant must be slightly modified to use the reduced mass of the system, rather than simply the mass of the electron. This includes the kinetic energy of the nucleus in the problem, because the total (electron plus nuclear) kinetic energy is equivalent to the kinetic energy of the reduced mass moving with a velocity equal to the electron velocity relative to the nucleus. However, since the nucleus is much heavier than the electron, the electron mass and reduced mass are nearly the same. The Rydberg constant "R" for a hydrogen atom (one electron), "R" is given by


title: Hydrogen atom

text: where formula_18 is the mass of the atomic nucleus. For hydrogen-1, the quantity formula_19 is about 1/1836 (i.e. the electron-to-proton mass ratio). For deuterium and tritium, the ratios are about 1/3670 and 1/5497 respectively. These figures, when added to 1 in the denominator, represent very small corrections in the value of "R", and thus only small corrections to all energy levels in corresponding hydrogen isotopes.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: Most of these shortcomings were resolved by Arnold Sommerfeld's modification of the Bohr model. Sommerfeld introduced two additional degrees of freedom, allowing an electron to move on an elliptical orbit characterized by its eccentricity and declination with respect to a chosen axis. This introduced two additional quantum numbers, which correspond to the orbital angular momentum and its projection on the chosen axis. Thus the correct multiplicity of states (except for the factor 2 accounting for the yet unknown electron spin) was found. Further, by applying special relativity to the elliptic orbits, Sommerfeld succeeded in deriving the correct expression for the fine structure of hydrogen spectra (which happens to be exactly the same as in the most elaborate Dirac theory). However, some observed phenomena, such as the anomalous Zeeman effect, remained unexplained. These issues were resolved with the full development of quantum mechanics and the Dirac equation. It is often alleged that the Schrödinger equation is superior to the Bohr–Sommerfeld theory in describing hydrogen atom. This is not the case, as most of the results of both approaches coincide or are very close (a remarkable exception is the problem of hydrogen atom in crossed electric and magnetic fields, which cannot be self-consistently solved in the framework of the Bohr–Sommerfeld theory), and in both theories the main shortcomings result from the absence of the electron spin. It was the complete failure of the Bohr–Sommerfeld theory to explain many-electron systems (such as helium atom or hydrogen molecule) which demonstrated its inadequacy in describing quantum phenomena.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: The Schrödinger equation allows one to calculate the stationary states and also the time evolution of quantum systems. Exact analytical answers are available for the nonrelativistic hydrogen atom. Before we go to present a formal account, here we give an elementary overview.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: Given that the hydrogen atom contains a nucleus and an electron, quantum mechanics allows one to predict the probability of finding the electron at any given radial distance formula_22. It is given by the square of a mathematical function known as the "wavefunction," which is a solution of the Schrödinger equation. The lowest energy equilibrium state of the hydrogen atom is known as the ground state. The ground state wave function is known as the formula_23 wavefunction. It is written as:


title: Hydrogen atom

text: Here, formula_2 is the numerical value of the Bohr radius. The probability density of finding the electron at a distance formula_22 in any radial direction is the squared value of the wavefunction:


title: Hydrogen atom

text: The formula_28 wavefunction is spherically symmetric, and the surface area of a shell at distance formula_22 is formula_30, so the total probability formula_31 of the electron being in a shell at a distance formula_22 and thickness formula_33 is


title: Hydrogen atom

text: It turns out that this is a maximum at formula_35. That is, the Bohr picture of an electron orbiting the nucleus at radius formula_2 corresponds to the most probable radius. Actually, there is a finite probability that the electron may be found at any place formula_22, with the


title: Hydrogen atom

text: probability indicated by the square of the wavefunction. Since the probability of finding the electron "somewhere" in the whole volume is unity, the integral of formula_31 is unity. Then we say that the wavefunction is properly normalized.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: As discussed below, the ground state formula_28 is also indicated by the quantum numbers formula_40. The second lowest energy states, just above the ground state, are given by the quantum numbers formula_41, formula_42, and formula_43. These formula_44 states all have the same energy and are known as the formula_45 and formula_46 states. There is one formula_45 state:


title: Hydrogen atom

text: An electron in the formula_45 or formula_46 state is most likely to be found in the second Bohr orbit with energy given by the Bohr formula.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: The Hamiltonian of the hydrogen atom is the radial kinetic energy operator and Coulomb attraction force between the positive proton and negative electron. Using the time-independent Schrödinger equation, ignoring all spin-coupling interactions and using the reduced mass formula_54, the equation is written as:


title: Hydrogen atom

text: This is a separable, partial differential equation which can be solved in terms of special functions. When the wavefunction is separated as product of functions formula_57, formula_58, and formula_59 three independent differential functions appears with A and B being the separation constants:


title: Hydrogen atom

text: Additionally, these wavefunctions are "normalized" (i.e., the integral of their modulus square equals 1) and orthogonal:


title: Hydrogen atom

text: where formula_78 is the state represented by the wavefunction formula_79 in Dirac notation, and formula_80 is the Kronecker delta function.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: The wavefunctions in momentum space are related to the wavefunctions in position space through a Fourier transform


title: Hydrogen atom

text: The solutions to the Schrödinger equation for hydrogen are analytical, giving a simple expression for the hydrogen energy levels and thus the frequencies of the hydrogen spectral lines and fully reproduced the Bohr model and went beyond it. It also yields two other quantum numbers and the shape of the electron's wave function ("orbital") for the various possible quantum-mechanical states, thus explaining the anisotropic character of atomic bonds.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: The Schrödinger equation also applies to more complicated atoms and molecules. When there is more than one electron or nucleus the solution is not analytical and either computer calculations are necessary or simplifying assumptions must be made.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: Since the Schrödinger equation is only valid for non-relativistic quantum mechanics, the solutions it yields for the hydrogen atom are not entirely correct. The Dirac equation of relativistic quantum theory improves these solutions (see below).


title: Hydrogen atom

text: The solution of the Schrödinger equation (wave equation) for the hydrogen atom uses the fact that the Coulomb potential produced by the nucleus is isotropic (it is radially symmetric in space and only depends on the distance to the nucleus). Although the resulting energy eigenfunctions (the "orbitals") are not necessarily isotropic themselves, their dependence on the angular coordinates follows completely generally from this isotropy of the underlying potential: the eigenstates of the Hamiltonian (that is, the energy eigenstates) can be chosen as simultaneous eigenstates of the angular momentum operator. This corresponds to the fact that angular momentum is conserved in the orbital motion of the electron around the nucleus. Therefore, the energy eigenstates may be classified by two angular momentum quantum numbers, formula_70 and formula_71 (both are integers). The angular momentum quantum number formula_88 determines the magnitude of the angular momentum. The magnetic quantum number formula_89 determines the projection of the angular momentum on the (arbitrarily chosen) formula_90-axis.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: In addition to mathematical expressions for total angular momentum and angular momentum projection of wavefunctions, an expression for the radial dependence of the wave functions must be found. It is only here that the details of the formula_91 Coulomb potential enter (leading to Laguerre polynomials in formula_22). This leads to a third quantum number, the principal quantum number formula_74. The principal quantum number in hydrogen is related to the atom's total energy.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: Note that the maximum value of the angular momentum quantum number is limited by the principal quantum number: it can run only up to formula_94, i.e., formula_95.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: Due to angular momentum conservation, states of the same formula_70 but different formula_71 have the same energy (this holds for all problems with rotational symmetry). In addition, for the hydrogen atom, states of the same formula_98 but different formula_70 are also degenerate (i.e., they have the same energy). However, this is a specific property of hydrogen and is no longer true for more complicated atoms which have an (effective) potential differing from the form formula_91 (due to the presence of the inner electrons shielding the nucleus potential).


title: Hydrogen atom

text: Taking into account the spin of the electron adds a last quantum number, the projection of the electron's spin angular momentum along the formula_90-axis, which can take on two values. Therefore, any eigenstate of the electron in the hydrogen atom is described fully by four quantum numbers. According to the usual rules of quantum mechanics, the actual state of the electron may be any superposition of these states. This explains also why the choice of formula_90-axis for the directional quantization of the angular momentum vector is immaterial: an orbital of given formula_70 and formula_104 obtained for another preferred axis formula_105 can always be represented as a suitable superposition of the various states of different formula_71 (but same formula_70) that have been obtained for formula_90.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: In 1928, Paul Dirac found an equation that was fully compatible with special relativity, and (as a consequence) made the wave function a 4-component "Dirac spinor" including "up" and "down" spin components, with both positive and "negative" energy (or matter and antimatter). The solution to this equation gave the following results, more accurate than the Schrödinger solution.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: The energy levels of hydrogen, including fine structure (excluding Lamb shift and hyperfine structure), are given by the Sommerfeld fine-structure expression:


title: Hydrogen atom

text: where formula_21 is the fine-structure constant and formula_111 is the total angular momentum quantum number, which is equal to formula_112, depending on the orientation of the electron spin relative to the orbital angular momentum. This formula represents a small correction to the energy obtained by Bohr and Schrödinger as given above. The factor in square brackets in the last expression is nearly one; the extra term arises from relativistic effects (for details, see #Features going beyond the Schrödinger solution). It is worth noting that this expression was first obtained by A. Sommerfeld in 1916 based on the relativistic version of the old Bohr theory. Sommerfeld has however used different notation for the quantum numbers.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: The image to the right shows the first few hydrogen atom orbitals (energy eigenfunctions). These are cross-sections of the probability density that are color-coded (black represents zero density and white represents the highest density). The angular momentum (orbital) quantum number "ℓ" is denoted in each column, using the usual spectroscopic letter code ("s" means "ℓ" = 0, "p" means "ℓ" = 1, "d" means "ℓ" = 2). The main (principal) quantum number "n" (= 1, 2, 3, ...) is marked to the right of each row. For all pictures the magnetic quantum number "m" has been set to 0, and the cross-sectional plane is the "xz"-plane ("z" is the vertical axis). The probability density in three-dimensional space is obtained by rotating the one shown here around the "z"-axis.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: The "ground state", i.e. the state of lowest energy, in which the electron is usually found, is the first one, the 1"s" state (principal quantum level "n" = 1, "ℓ" = 0).


title: Hydrogen atom

text: Black lines occur in each but the first orbital: these are the nodes of the wavefunction, i.e. where the probability density is zero. (More precisely, the nodes are spherical harmonics that appear as a result of solving the Schrödinger equation in spherical coordinates.)


title: Hydrogen atom

text: There are several important effects that are neglected by the Schrödinger equation and which are responsible for certain small but measurable deviations of the real spectral lines from the predicted ones:


title: Hydrogen atom

text: Both of these features (and more) are incorporated in the relativistic Dirac equation, with predictions that come still closer to experiment. Again the Dirac equation may be solved analytically in the special case of a two-body system, such as the hydrogen atom. The resulting solution quantum states now must be classified by the total angular momentum number (arising through the coupling between electron spin and orbital angular momentum). States of the same and the same are still degenerate. Thus, direct analytical solution of Dirac equation predicts 2S() and 2P() levels of hydrogen to have exactly the same energy, which is in a contradiction with observations (Lamb–Retherford experiment).


title: Hydrogen atom

text: For these developments, it was essential that the solution of the Dirac equation for the hydrogen atom could be worked out exactly, such that any experimentally observed deviation had to be taken seriously as a signal of failure of the theory.


title: Hydrogen atom

text: In the language of Heisenberg's matrix mechanics, the hydrogen atom was first solved by Wolfgang Pauli using a rotational symmetry in four dimensions [O(4)-symmetry] generated by the angular momentum


title: Hydrogen atom

text: and the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector. By extending the symmetry group O(4) to the dynamical group O(4,2),


title: Hydrogen atom

text: In 1979 the (non-relativistic) hydrogen atom was solved for the first time within Feynman's path integral formulation


title: Hydrogen atom

text: of quantum mechanics by Duru and Kleinert. This work greatly extended the range of applicability of Feynman's method.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: Woolworths Supermarkets (colloquially known in Australia as "Woolies") is an Australian chain of supermarkets and grocery stores owned by Woolworths Group. Founded in 1924, Woolworths today is Australia's biggest supermarket chain with a market share of 33% as of 2019.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: Woolworths specialises in groceries (vegetables, fruit, meat, packaged foods, etc.), but also sells magazines, DVDs, health and beauty products, household products, pet and baby supplies, and stationery. As of the end of June 2020, there were 987 Woolworths supermarkets and 64 Woolworths Metro convenience stores. Woolworths Online (formerly HomeShop) is a "click and collect" and home delivery service for Woolworths supermarkets.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: Woolworths Limited (now Woolworths Group) was founded on 22 September 1924 by five Australian entrepreneursPercy Christmas, Stanley Chatterton, Cecil Scott Waine, George Creed and Ernest Williams. The first store was opened on 5 December 1924 in Pitt Street of Sydney's Imperial Arcade, called "Woolworths Stupendous Bargain Basement". Following the first store there were only 29 shareholders and there was little interest to accelerate the brand's growth. However, as trading continued and shareholders brought more capital, the dividends paid by the company increased from 5% to 50% after its third year of operation.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: Consumer interest in the company grew after December 1924, as more branches of the store were established across Australia. Woolworths stores began selling a variety of goods, claiming the lowest prices as well as money back guarantees. At the forefront of innovation in Australia, Woolworths stores became the first variety store in the world to install receipt printing cash register machines in 1926.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: The second Woolworths supermarket was opened on 6 August 1927, on Queen Street in Brisbane. The first Woolworths store in New Zealand was opened in 1929, but the chain has since been rebranded as Countdown . Following the opening of the Hobart store in 1940, Woolworths had a store in every state in Australia.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: With the company and its stores running successfully, Woolworths began to experiment with expanding their grocery rangemore stores began stocking fresh fruits and vegetables and a larger range of food. The first self-service store in Beverly Hills, Sydney was opened in 1955. In 1958 the first supermarket was opened at Dee Why, followed by the first purpose built supermarket at Warrawong in 1960. As Woolworths gradually focused more on groceries, the first Big W department store was opened in 1964 at Jesmond, New South Wales.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: In 2018, Woolworths Group stopped providing single-use plastic bags during checkout at the same time as Coles Supermarkets, bringing them in line with Australia's third-biggest supermarket, Aldi. In the following three months, Australian's plastic bag use dropped by 80%, leading to 1.5 billion fewer bags going to landfill. Woolworths also committed to removing 180 tonnes of plastic packaging from their products in 2018.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: In 1982, Woolworths Limited acquired two Tasmanian grocery brands: Roelf Vos and Purity, which were converted into Woolworths stores in 2000.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: In 1958 Woolworths Limited acquired all 32 Brisbane Cash & Carry stores, which was a popular Brisbane grocery store chain. These were then later rebranded into Woolworths stores.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: After the arrival of American supermarket giant Safeway Inc. in Australia in 1962, Australian Safeway Pty Ltd was bought by Woolworths in 1985 . Woolworths Limited acquired all of the Safeway stores and the naming rights in exchange for a 19.99% equity interest in Woolworths Limited. At the time of the acquisition, Safeway had 126 stores across Victoria, Queensland and New South Wales. All Safeway stores in Queensland and New South Wales were rebranded as Woolworths supermarkets, but most Victorian stores continued trading as Safeway. In 2008, Woolworths announced it would rebrand Safeway stores as Woolworths, and this process was completed in June 2017.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: In 1987, Woolworths launched the "Fresh Food People" campaign after implementing new company protocols for their fresh food departments. The slogan changed slightly in 2012 to "Australia's Fresh Food People" to promote the fact that 96% of fresh produce sold in Woolworths supermarkets is grown in Australia. In 2014 the original "The Fresh Food People" slogan returned with a new lineup of television commercials. Various other catchphrases have been used in recent advertisements, including "That's Today's Fresh Food People", and "Get Your Woolies Worth."


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: Loyalty schemes include a number of incentives for purchasing at their stores by subsidising petrol prices at Caltex Woolworths petrol stations and the now defunct Woolworths Plus Petrol. Discounts included 2-cent, 4-cent, 6-cent and in some regional areas 10-cent discounts on fuel, rewarded for purchases over certain amounts.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: In September 2007, Woolworths began a trial in central-west New South Wales of Everyday Rewards, a Woolworths shopping card that automatically tracks supermarket purchases and fuel discounts, thus eliminating the need for shoppers to retain paper coupons. In addition it allows Woolworths to record purchases made by customers to offer them relevant promotions and for studies in demographics and marketing, hence incentives for customers who register their details. This followed Woolworths' announcement that it was planning to launch a general purpose credit card in 2008. Woolworths offered these credit card holders reward vouchers redeemable throughout its store network. Woolworths subsequently announced that the "Woolworths Everyday Money MasterCard" would be launched on 26 August 2008, allowing customers to earn shopping cards redeemable at Woolworths Group retailers.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: In February 2008, following the New South Wales trial, Woolworths announced that its Everyday Rewards card would be rolled out nationally. The implementation began with South Australia and Northern Territory in mid-February 2008, and to other states (excluding Tasmania) by the end of May 2008. During the NSW trial, 50,000 cards were issued to customers.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: Woolworths stated in June 2008 that "well over a million" shoppers had taken a card and registered their details. In August 2008, there were 3.8 million cards on issue, with 2.4 million cards registered.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: From June 2009, Everyday Rewards cardholders were able to earn Qantas Frequent Flyer points by using their Everyday Rewards cards. Cardholders who had successfully linked their Frequent Flyer card to their registered Everyday Rewards card can earn one Frequent Flyer point for every dollar over $30 that they spent in store. In August 2009, Woolworths announced that there were 3.8 million cards registered, of which 1.2 million were linked to a Qantas Frequent Flyer account. On 26 October 2015, Woolworths announced that customer loyalty cards would no longer earn Qantas Frequent Flyer points from 1 January 2016, instead receiving more discounts on groceries. The new discount program came into effect on 28 October 2015. Everyday Rewards cardholders were sent new Woolworths Rewards cards. However 29 July 2020, the program was once again renamed Everyday Rewards.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: On 31 August 2016, Woolworths made significant changes to the rewards program in response to customer feedback. Cardholders are able to earn 1 point per $1 spent on eligible products at Woolworths Supermarkets and Caltex Woolworths branded fuel outlets. When 2000 points have been accrued, a $10 discount can be applied to their next eligible transaction in Woolworths Supermarkets. Customers are also given the choice to "bank" their discounts until Christmas time, with the discounts able to be spent from 1 December until 1 January each year. Woolworths also reintroduced the ability to earn Qantas Frequent Flyer points when customers use their Rewards card. When 2,000 points have been accrued, instead of receiving a $10 discount, those points can be converted to 1000 Frequent Flyer points.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: The Frequent Shopper Club, stylised as F$C, was a reward program for shopping in Woolworths stores in Tasmania. It was started by Purity Supermarkets in 1992, and was in use until January 2021.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: The program offered a $20 voucher for every 2000 points accrued. As of November 2017, Woolworths launched a basic website for the Frequent Shopper Club.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: In July 2020, Woolworths announced that the program would be folded into the Everyday Rewards program.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: A budget label covering everyday household products and groceries. Products within this range typically feature a red and white Woolworths logo on the top left corner on the front side of the packaging.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: Woolworths' most populous own brand range, it features food lines in all categories across the store. Products in this range feature a green and white logo. Customer can become part of a food sampling group called "Bunch" in order to test foods within this range and provide feedback to make improvements.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: This own brand features premium products which are usually only available around Christmas time, and include products such as Christmas puddings, fruit mince pies and cakes.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: Macro features a range of foods that are free from artificial sweeteners, colours, flavours, added MSG and hydrogenated oils. Many products in this range are promoted as organic foods. The brand was acquired by Woolworths in 2009, along with nine store leases in New South Wales and Victoria originally intended for use by its Thomas Dux Grocer business. As a result of the ceasing of operations of Thomas Dux in 2017 only two of the former Macro Wholefoods sites are still leased by Woolworths, from 2017 being used as Woolworths Metro supermarkets. However in 2021 one of the sites, in Black Rock, Victoria, was closed and is thought to be being replaced by a BWS or Dan Murphy's liquor outlet. Despite the closure of the sites, the brand is still sold in Woolworths supermarkets today.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: This range is a collaboration between Woolworths and Australian personal trainer Michelle Bridges. The range is exclusively chilled and frozen meals, all of which include 2–3 serves of vegetables, grains and protein, and are all under 450 calories per serve.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: This is a fresh produce brand which features fruit and vegetables, such as carrots, lemons and apples, that are oddly shaped or are otherwise imperfect. These products are sold at a cheaper price as a compromise to this.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: In July 2020, Woolworths were found guilty of breaching spam laws in excess of 5 million times and failing to unsubscribe customers from their mailing lists when requested to do so. The Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) found Woolworths had unlawfully spammed more than a million customers between October 2018 and July 2019. The supermarket was found to have repeatedly ignored consumers who had tried to prevent receipt of marketing emails and had not attempted to improve, despite the AMCA notifying the company that they had received customer complaints. The company was fined $1,003,800.


title: Woolworths Supermarkets

text: ACMA chairman Nerida O'Loughlin said of the violation: "The spam rules have been in place for 17 years and Woolworths is a large and sophisticated organisation. The scale and prolonged nature of the non-compliance is inexcusable."


title: Anticonvulsant

text: Anticonvulsants (also known as antiepileptic drugs or recently as antiseizure drugs) are a diverse group of pharmacological agents used in the treatment of epileptic seizures. Anticonvulsants are also increasingly being used in the treatment of bipolar disorder and borderline personality disorder, since many seem to act as mood stabilizers, and for the treatment of neuropathic pain. Anticonvulsants suppress the excessive rapid firing of neurons during seizures. Anticonvulsants also prevent the spread of the seizure within the brain.


title: Anticonvulsant

text: Conventional antiepileptic drugs may block sodium channels or enhance γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) function. Several antiepileptic drugs have multiple or uncertain mechanisms of action. Next to the voltage-gated sodium channels and components of the GABA system, their targets include GABA receptors, the GAT-1 GABA transporter, and GABA transaminase. Additional targets include voltage-gated calcium channels, SV2A, and α2δ. By blocking sodium or calcium channels, antiepileptic drugs reduce the release of excitatory glutamate, whose release is considered to be elevated in epilepsy, but also that of GABA. This is probably a side effect or even the actual mechanism of action for some antiepileptic drugs, since GABA can itself, directly or indirectly, act proconvulsively. Another potential target of antiepileptic drugs is the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha.


title: Anticonvulsant

text: Some anticonvulsants have shown antiepileptogenic effects in animal models of epilepsy. That is, they either prevent the development of epilepsy or can halt or reverse the progression of epilepsy. However, no drug has been shown in human trials to prevent epileptogenesis (the development of epilepsy in an individual at risk, such as after a head injury).


title: Anticonvulsant

text: Anticonvulsants are more accurately called antiepileptic drugs (abbreviated "AEDs"), and are often referred to as antiseizure drugs because they provide symptomatic treatment only and have not been demonstrated to alter the course of epilepsy.


title: Anticonvulsant

text: The usual method of achieving approval for a drug is to show it is effective when compared against placebo, or that it is more effective than an existing drug. In monotherapy (where only one drug is taken) it is considered unethical by most to conduct a trial with placebo on a new drug of uncertain efficacy. This is because untreated epilepsy leaves the patient at significant risk of death. Therefore, almost all new epilepsy drugs are initially approved only as adjunctive (add-on) therapies. Patients whose epilepsy is currently uncontrolled by their medication (i.e., it is refractory to treatment) are selected to see if supplementing the medication with the new drug leads to an improvement in seizure control. Any reduction in the frequency of seizures is compared against a placebo. The lack of superiority over existing treatment, combined with lacking placebo-controlled trials, means that few modern drugs have earned FDA approval as initial monotherapy. In contrast, Europe only requires equivalence to existing treatments and has approved many more. Despite their lack of FDA approval, the American Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society still recommend a number of these new drugs as initial monotherapy.


title: Anticonvulsant

text: Barbiturates are drugs that act as central nervous system (CNS) depressants, and by virtue of this they produce a wide spectrum of effects, from mild sedation to anesthesia. The following are classified as anticonvulsants:


title: Anticonvulsant

text: Phenobarbital was the main anticonvulsant from 1912 until the development of phenytoin in 1938. Today, phenobarbital is rarely used to treat epilepsy in new patients since there are other effective drugs that are less sedating. Phenobarbital sodium injection can be used to stop acute convulsions or status epilepticus, but a benzodiazepine such as lorazepam, diazepam or midazolam is usually tried first. Other barbiturates only have an anticonvulsant effect at anaesthetic doses.


title: Anticonvulsant

text: The benzodiazepines are a class of drugs with hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsive, amnestic and muscle relaxant properties. Benzodiazepines act as a central nervous system depressant. The relative strength of each of these properties in any given benzodiazepine varies greatly and influences the indications for which it is prescribed. Long-term use can be problematic due to the development of tolerance to the anticonvulsant effects and dependency. Of many drugs in this class, only a few are used to treat epilepsy:


title: Anticonvulsant

text: Nitrazepam, temazepam, and especially nimetazepam are powerful anticonvulsant agents, however their use is rare due to an increased incidence of side effects and strong sedative and motor-impairing properties.


title: Anticonvulsant

text: Gabapentinoids are used in, epilepsy, neuropathic pain, fibromyalgia, restless leg syndrome, opioid withdrawal and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Gabapentinoids block Voltage gated Calcium channels, mainly the N-Type, and P/Q type calcium channels. The following are Gabapentinoids:


title: Anticonvulsant

text: "Gabapentinoids are analogs of GABA, but they do not act on GABA. They have analgesic anticonvulsant and anxiolytic effects."


title: Anticonvulsant

text: The ketogenic diet and vagus nerve stimulation are alternative treatments for epilepsy without the involvement of pharmaceuticals. However, both of them can cause severe adverse effects. The adverse effects of vagus nerve stimulation are more severe, and its efficacy is questionable in comparison to medications or the ketogenic diet.


title: Anticonvulsant

text: According to guidelines by the American Academy of Neurology and American Epilepsy Society, mainly based on a major article review in 2004, patients with newly diagnosed epilepsy who require treatment can be initiated on standard anticonvulsants such as carbamazepine, phenytoin, valproic acid/valproate semisodium, phenobarbital, or on the newer anticonvulsants gabapentin, lamotrigine, oxcarbazepine or topiramate. The choice of anticonvulsants depends on individual patient characteristics. Both newer and older drugs are generally equally effective in new onset epilepsy. The newer drugs tend to have fewer side effects. For newly diagnosed partial or mixed seizures, there is evidence for using gabapentin, lamotrigine, oxcarbazepine or topiramate as monotherapy. Lamotrigine can be included in the options for children with newly diagnosed absence seizures.


title: Anticonvulsant

text: The first anticonvulsant was bromide, suggested in 1857 by the British gynecologist Charles Locock who used it to treat women with "hysterical epilepsy" (probably "catamenial epilepsy"). Bromides are effective against epilepsy, and also cause impotence, which is not related to its anti-epileptic effects. Bromide also suffered from the way it affected behaviour, introducing the idea of the "epileptic personality" which was actually a result of medication. Phenobarbital was first used in 1912 for both its sedative and antiepileptic properties. By the 1930s, the development of animal models in epilepsy research led to the development of phenytoin by Tracy Putnam and H. Houston Merritt, which had the distinct advantage of treating epileptic seizures with less sedation. By the 1970s, a National Institutes of Health initiative, the Anticonvulsant Screening Program, headed by J. Kiffin Penry, served as a mechanism for drawing the interest and abilities of pharmaceutical companies in the development of new anticonvulsant medications.


title: Anticonvulsant

text: The following table lists anticonvulsant drugs together with the date their marketing was approved in the US, UK and France. Data for the UK and France are incomplete. In recent years, the European Medicines Agency has approved drugs throughout the European Union. Some of the drugs are no longer marketed.


title: Anticonvulsant

text: During pregnancy, the metabolism of several anticonvulsants is affected. There may be an increase in the clearance and resultant decrease in the blood concentration of lamotrigine, phenytoin, and to a lesser extent carbamazepine, and possibly decreases the level of levetiracetam and the active oxcarbazepine metabolite, the monohydroxy derivative. Therefore, these drugs should be monitored during use in pregnancy.


title: Anticonvulsant

text: Many of the common used medications, such as valproate, phenytoin, carbamazepine, phenobarbitol, gabapentin have been reported to cause increased risk of birth defects. Among anticonvulsants, levetiracetam and lamotrigine seem to carry the lowest risk of causing birth defects. The risk of untreated epilepsy is believed to be greater than the risk of adverse effects caused by these medications, necessitating continuation of antiepileptic treatment.


title: Anticonvulsant

text: Valproic acid, and its derivatives such as sodium valproate and divalproex sodium, causes cognitive deficit in the child, with an increased dose causing decreased intelligence quotient. On the other hand, evidence is conflicting for carbamazepine regarding any increased risk of congenital physical anomalies or neurodevelopmental disorders by intrauterine exposure. Similarly, children exposed lamotrigine or phenytoin in the womb do not seem to differ in their skills compared to those who were exposed to carbamazepine.


title: Anticonvulsant

text: There is inadequate evidence to determine if newborns of women with epilepsy taking anticonvulsants have a substantially increased risk of hemorrhagic disease of the newborn.


title: Anticonvulsant

text: Regarding breastfeeding, some anticonvulsants probably pass into breast milk in clinically significant amounts, including primidone and levetiracetam. On the other hand, valproate, phenobarbital, phenytoin, and carbamazepine probably are not transferred into breast milk in clinically important amounts.


title: Anticonvulsant

text: Data from studies conducted on women taking antiepileptic drugs for non-epileptic reasons, including depression and bipolar disorder, show that if high doses of the drugs are taken during the first trimester of pregnancy then there is the potential of an increased risk of congenital malformations.


title: Anticonvulsant

text: Pregnancy planning is being explored as a method that could decrease the risk of possible birth defects. Since the first trimester is the most susceptible period for fetal development, planning a routine antiepileptic drug dose that is safer for the first trimester could be beneficial to prevent pregnancy complications.


title: Anticonvulsant

text: In animal models, several anticonvulsant drugs have been demonstrated to induce neuronal apoptosis in the developing brain.


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: The Kakatiya dynasty (IAST: Kākatīya) was an Indian dynasty that ruled most of eastern Deccan region comprising present day Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, and parts of eastern Karnataka and southern Odisha between 12th and 14th centuries. Their capital was Orugallu, now known as Warangal.


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: Early Kakatiya rulers served as feudatories to Rashtrakutas and Western Chalukyas for more than two centuries. They assumed sovereignty under Prataparudra I in 1163 CE by suppressing other Chalukya subordinates in the Telangana region. Ganapati Deva (r. 1199–1262) significantly expanded Kakatiya lands during the 1230s and brought under Kakatiya control the Telugu-speaking lowland delta areas around the Godavari and Krishna rivers. Ganapati Deva was succeeded by Rudrama Devi (r. 1262–1289) who is one of the few queens in Indian history. Marco Polo, who visited India around 1289–1293, made note of Rudrama Devi's rule and nature in flattering terms. She successfully repelled the attacks of Yadavas (Seuna) of Devagiri into the Kakatiyan territory.


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: In 1303, Alauddin Khilji, the emperor of the Delhi Sultanate invaded the Kakatiya territory which ended up as a disaster for the Turks. But after the successful siege of Warangal in 1310, Prataparudra II was forced to pay annual tribute to Delhi. Another attack by Ulugh Khan in 1323 saw stiff resistance by the Kakatiyan army, but they were finally defeated. The demise of Kakatiya dynasty resulted in confusion and anarchy under alien rulers for sometime, before Musunuri Nayaks united the various Telugu clans and recovered Warangal from the Delhi Sultanate.


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: Kakatiyas unified the distinct upland and lowland cultures of Telugu lands, which brought into being a feeling of cultural affinity between those who spoke the Telugu language. Kakatiya period also saw the construction of reservoirs for irrigation in the uplands called "tanks" many of which are still used today. They were egalitarian in nature and anyone, regardless of birth, could acquire the "nayaka" title that denoted the warrior status. They recruited peasants into the military which resulted in a new warrior class and provided social mobility. Kakatiya era also saw the development of a distinct style of architecture which improved and innovated upon the existing modes. Most notable examples are the Thousand Pillar Temple in Hanamkonda, Ramappa Temple in Palampet, Warangal Fort, and Kota Gullu in Ghanpur.


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: Studies of the inscriptions and coinage by the historian Dineshchandra Sircar reveal that there was no contemporary standard spelling of the family name. Variants include "Kakatiya", "Kakatiyya", "Kakita", "Kakati" and "Kakatya". The family name was often prefixed to the name of the monarch, giving constructs such as "Kakatiya-Prataparudra". Some of the monarchs also had alternate names; for example, "Venkata" and "Venkataraya" may have been alternate names of Prataparuda I, with the former appearing on a coin in the form "Venkata-Kakatiya".


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: According to Kakatiya inscriptions, the family's name derives from the name of a place called Kakati. However, Kumarasvami Somapithin, in his 15th century commentary on Vidynatha's "Prataparudra-Yashobhushanam" or "Prataparudriya" states that the family was named after their tutelary goddess Kakati, a form of Durga. It is possible that the early Kakatiya chiefs resided at a place called Kakati, which had a shrine of their tutelary goddess.


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: Although the Hindu mythological texts do not mention any such form of Durga, the worship of a goddess named Kakati is attested by several other sources. For example, Vallabharaya's "Krida-bhiramamu" mentions an image of Kakatamma ("Mother Kakati") in the Kakatiya capital Orugallu. The 16th century Shitap Khan inscription mentions the reinstallation of the image of goddess Jaganmatruka (mother of the universe) and the lotus seat of the Kakatirajya, which had been destroyed by the Turushkas (Turkic people). According to one theory, Kakati was originally a Jain goddess (possibly Padmavati), and later came to be regarded as a form of Durga.


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: The Bayyaram tank inscription from the reign of Ganapati-deva states that the Kakatiya chief Venna (c. 9th century) resided at Kakati, because of which his descendants came to be known as Kakatishas ("lords of Kakati"). Ganapati-deva's Garavapadu charter traces the family's ancestry to Durjaya, and states that his descendant Karikala Chola arrived at a town called Kakati during a hunting expedition, and set up his camp there. The modern identity of Kakati is uncertain: different historians have variously attempted to identify it with modern Kakati village in Karnataka and Kanker in Chhattisgarh. "Siddheshvara-Charitra", a later literary work, states that the ancestors of the Kakatiya family lived at Kandarapura (identified with modern Kandhar in Maharashtra). However, no other evidence supports this tradition. Later, the Kakatiya capital Orugallu (present-day Warangal) was also called "Kakati-pura" ("Kakati town"), as attested by some inscriptions of the dynasty.


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: Much of the information about the Kakatiya period comes from inscriptions, including around 1,000 stone inscriptions, and 12 copper-plate inscriptions. Most of these inscriptions document matters relating to religion, such as donations to Hindu temples. They are particularly abundant for the period 1175–1324 CE, which is the period when the dynasty most flourished and are a reflection of that. The probability is that many inscriptions have been lost due to buildings falling into disuse and also the ravages of subsequent rulers, most notably the Muslim Mughal Empire in the Telangana region. Inscriptions are still being discovered today but governmental agencies tend to concentrate on recording those that are already known rather than searching for new examples. A 1978 book written by P.V.P. Sastry on the history of the Kakatiyas, published by the Government of Andhra Pradesh also constitutes as one of the sources.


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: Information about the Kakatiya period also comes from Sanskrit and Telugu literary works written during Kakatiya and post-Kakatiya period. The most notable among these works include "Prataparudriyam", "Krida-bhiramamu", "Panditaradhya-charitamu", "Sivayogasaramu", "Nitisara", "Niti-sastra-muktavali", "Nrutya-ratnavali", "Pratapa-charita", "Siddhesvara-charitra", "Somadeva-rajiyamu", "Palnativira-charitra", "Velugotivari-vamsavali", and "Velugotivari-vamsacharitra". Chronicles by Muslim authors such as Isami and Firishta describe Prataparudra's defeats against the Muslim armies. The Kannada text "Kumara-Ramana-charita" also provides information about Prataparudra's relations with the Kampili kingdom.


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: Besides epigraphs and literature, the forts, temples and tanks constructed during the Kakatiya period are an important source of information about the contemporary society, art and architecture.


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: The Kakatiya rulers traced their ancestry to a legendary chief or ruler named Durjaya. Many other ruling dynasties of Andhra also claimed descent from Durjaya. Nothing further is known about this chief.


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: Most of the Kakatiya records do not mention the Varna (social class) of the family, but the majority of the ones that do, proudly describe them as Shudra. Examples include the Bothpur and Vaddamanu inscriptions of Ganapati's general Malyala Gunda "senani". The Kakatiyas also maintained marital relations with other Shudra families, such as the Kotas and the Natavadi chiefs. All these evidences indicate that the Kakatiyas were of Shudra origin.


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: A few copper-plate inscriptions of the Kakatiya family describe them as belonging to the Kshatriya (warrior) varna. These inscriptions primarily document grants to Brahmans, and appear to be inspired by the genealogies of the imperial Cholas. For example, the Motupalli inscription of Ganapati counts legendary solar dynasty kings such as Rama among the ancestors of Durjaya, the progenitor of the Kakatiya family. The Malkapuram inscription of Visvesvara Sivacharya, the preceptor of Kakatiya rulers Ganapati-deva and Rudrama-devi, also connects the Kakatiyas to the solar dynasty (Sūryavaṃsa). The term "Kshatriya" in these panegyric records appears to signify the family's warrior-like qualities rather than their actual varna.


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: According to an interpretation of the Mangallu and the Bayyaram inscriptions, the Kakatiyas were not just Rashtrakuta vassals, but also a branch of the Rashtrakuta family.


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: The 956 CE Mangallu inscription was issued by the Vengi Chalukya prince Dānārnava, at the request of the Kakatiya chief Gunda IV. The inscription names Gundyana's ancestors as Gundiya-Rashtrakuta (Gunda III) and Eriya-Rashtrakuta (Erra). This suggests that Gunda IV was a Rashtrakuta general, and not a Vengi Chalukya subordinate, as assumed by some earlier historians.


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: The Bayyaram tank inscription, which records the construction of "Dharma-kirti-samudra" tank by Ganapati's sister Mailama (or Mailamba), provides another genealogical list. The similarities of names mentioned in the Mangallu and Bayyaram inscriptions lists suggest that both of these refer to the same family:


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: The significance of the suffix "Rashtrakuta" in the names of the early Kakatiya chiefs is debated. According to one theory, the suffix only implies that these chiefs were Rashtrakuta subordinates. This theory is based on the fact that the phrase "Rashtrakuta-kutumbinah" appears in several Rashtrakuta-era copper-plate inscriptions, and refers to the officers and subjects of the Rashtrakuta kingdom.


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: According to another theory, the suffix implies that the Kakatiyas were a branch of the Rashtrakuta family, because the term "Rashtrakuta-kutumbinah" was used for officers employed by the Rashtrakuta administration, not feudatory chiefs: the early records of the Kakatiya chiefs describe them as "samantas" (feudatory chiefs). The Kazipet Darga inscription of Durgaraja states that his father Beta II was born in the family of Samanta Viṣṭi. Historian P.V.P. Sastry theorises that "Viṣṭi" is a corruption of Vrishni, the name of a clan from which some Rashtrakutas claimed descent. He notes that some chiefs of Rashtrakuta origin adopted the title "Viṭṭi-narayana", which means "as great as Narayana (Krishna) of the Vitti (Vrishni) family. Sastry further proposes that the term "Voddi", which appears in the phrase "Voddi-kula" ("Voddi family") in the Mangallu inscription may be same as "Viṣṭi". Sastry also believes that the early Kakatiya chiefs followed Jainism, which was also patronized by the Rashtrakutas, thus strengthening the view that the two dynasties were connected (see Religion section below).


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: The Kakatiyas seemed to have adopted the mythical bird Garuda as their royal insignia, as attested by the Ekamranatha temple inscription of Ganapati-deva, the Palampet inscription of the Kakatiya general Recharla Rudra, and Vidyanatha's "Prataparudriya". The Bayyaram tank inscription calls the Kakatiya chief Beta I (son of Gunda IV) "Garudamka"-Beta, and "Garuda" here appears to refer to the family's emblem. In Hindu mythology, Garuda is the vahana of god Vishnu. The Rashtrakutas and some other dynsaties of Deccan claimed descent from the Vrishni clan (associated with Vishnu's avatar Krishna), and had adopted Garuda as their royal insignia. According to Sastry, this corroborates the theory that the Kakatiyas were associated with the Rashtrakuta family. Sastry further speculates that the Kakatiyas may have adopted the Garuda symbol because of Jain influence: the yaksha of the Jain tirthankara Shantinatha is represented by the Garuda symbol. However, when the Kakatiyas switched their allegiance to the Chalukyas of Kalyani, they also adopted the varaha symbol used by the Chalukyas.


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: Based on Ganapati-deva's Garavapadu inscription, which names Karikala Chola among the family's ancestors, epigraphist C.R.K. Charlu theorised that the Kakatiyas were a branch of the Telugu Cholas. However, no other Kakatiya record mentions Karikala, and unlike the Telugu Cholas, the Kakatiyas did not claim to belong to the Kashyapa-gotra. Therefore, Sastry dismisses Charlu's theory as untenable.


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: The regnal years of the early members of the Kakatiya family are not certain. The earliest known Kakatiya chief is Venna or Vanna (r. c. 800-815), who was born in the family of Durjaya, and ruled from Kakati. According to Kakatiya inscriptions, he ruled from a town called Kakati, because of which his family was called Kakatishas ("lords of Kakati"). Not much is known about his successors Gunda I and Gunda II, who ruled during c. 815-865 CE. The Bayyaram tank inscription compares his successors - Gunda I, Gunda II, and Gunda III - to the three Ramas (Parashurama, Dasharatha-Rama, and Balarama).


title: Kakatiya dynasty

text: The c. 956 CE Mangallu inscription suggests that the Kakatiyas came to the Telugu-speaking region as commanders of the Rashtrakuta armies. The earliest of these was Venna's son Gunda III, who died during Krishna II's invasion of the Vengi Chalukya kingdom around 895 CE. Krishna II captured the Kurravadi (possibly present-day Kuravi) region from the Vengi Chalukyas, and probably appointed Gunda III's son Erra as a governor there. Not much is known about Erra's son Betiya.