title: USS America (CV-66)

text: On 21 October 1981, "America" commenced the northbound transit of the Suez Canal. This transit, unlike the comparatively light-hearted one of 6 May, proved more tense. As a result of the unsettled conditions in Egypt following 6 October 1981 assassination of President Anwar Sadat, the Egyptian government accorded "America"s passage through the Suez Canal the utmost security considerations. The Egyptian Navy provided a patrol vessel to escort the carrier, while an Egyptian Air Force helicopter conducted reconnaissance flight over both banks of the waterway. Egyptian Army units patrolled the adjacent canal roads. Additionally, liaison officers on board the carrier maintained constant touch with the security forces by radio.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: Making the passage of the canal without incident, "America" continued on across the Mediterranean, reaching Palma on 25 October. After a three-day port call, the carrier conducted exercises with Spanish forces, and subsequently sailed for home on 1 November, departing the Mediterranean the following day. She arrived at Norfolk on 12 November.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: Following a short stand down, "America" conducted carrier qualifications in the Virginia Capes operating area, before she moored at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard on 14 December. Emerging from the naval shipyard on 20 April 1982, "America" operated locally off the Virginia Capes. Departing Norfolk on 10 May, the ship steamed to the Guantánamo Bay operating area and returning to her home port on 28 May.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: Following further carrier qualifications off the Virginia Capes the carrier then steamed south to conduct type training in the West Indies, interspersing these evolutions with a port visit to St. Thomas. Returning to Norfolk on 8 July, "America" operated locally from 22 to 24 July, before she sailed on 22 August, with CVW-1 embarked, to participate in joint NATO exercises "United Effort" and "Northern Wedding 82".


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: "America" visited Edinburgh, Scotland, from 15 to 21 September and proceeded thence to Portsmouth, England, arriving there on 23 September. Sailing for the Mediterranean on 26 September, the carrier operated briefly with the 6th Fleet, participating in exercise "Display Determination" from 30 September – 8 October. She then sailed for the United States, and, following her operational readiness evaluation in the Caribbean operating areas, reached Mayport to disembark CVW-1. "America" returned to Norfolk on 4 November.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: "America" departed Norfolk on 8 December 1982, proceeded to the Virginia Capes operating area and embarked CVW-1, and set out across the Atlantic. Visiting Palma on 22 December America remained there through the Christmas holiday, weighing anchor on 28 December to sail for the Lebanese coast, where she was to take up duty in support of the Multinational Peacekeeping Force in strife-torn Lebanon. Relieving USS "Nimitz" on station on 2 January 1983, "America" spent the next 18 days off Lebanon, before "Nimitz" took over on 20 January. Steaming thence to Piraeus, Greece, "America", along with and , anchored there on 23 January for a five-day port visit to Athens.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: Underway on 29 January, the carrier transited the Sea of Crete en route to an overnight anchorage at Port Said. Transiting the Suez Canal on 31 January, "America" reached the Red Sea the same day and reported for duty with the 7th Fleet on 4 February. On 9 February, the carrier and her accompanying battle group conducted exercise "Beacon Flash 83". Subsequently, on 28 February, America and her consorts conducted a "Weapons Week" exercise in the vicinity of Diego Garcia. Following those evolutions, the carrier visited Colombo, Sri Lanka, anchoring on 7 March. Weighing anchor on 12 March, "America" resumed operations in the Indian Ocean soon afterwards, culminating in "Beacon Flash 83-4", and a subsequent port visit to Masirah Island, Oman.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: Steaming thence to Mombasa, Kenya, and a five-day port visit "America" departed that port for a week of intense flight operations, followed by participation in "Beacon Flash 85" on 19 April. Returning to anchor at Masirah Island again three days later, the carrier and her battle group operated in the northern Arabian Sea, en route to the Suez Canal. Transiting that waterway on 4 May, "America" headed for Souda Bay, reaching an anchorage there on 7 May. Five days later, the carrier got underway for Málaga, Spain, reaching her destination on 14 May for a nine-day port visit. The ship subsequently departed Málaga on 23 May, and reached Norfolk on 2 June.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: "America" then entered the Norfolk Naval Shipyard on 8 July. For four months, the ship underwent a period of repairs and alterations, emerging from the yard on 28 October. She then operated locally off the Virginia Capes with CVW-1 embarked, before she proceeded thence to Mayport, and, ultimately, to Puerto Rican waters for refresher training. Subsequently, visiting Nassau, in the Bahamas, for a five-day port visit, "America" returned to the East Coast of the United States, reaching Mayport on 8 December. She then conducted carrier qualifications for both East and West Coast squadrons en route to her home port reaching Norfolk on 14 December.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: The carrier operated locally from Norfolk into February 1984 alternating periods of upkeep in port with carrier qualifications and exercises. She then conducted two periods of type training (6–20 February and 25 March – 8 April), interspersing these with an in-port period at Ft. Lauderdale from 21 to 24 February and then calling at St. Thomas upon conclusion of the second period of training. Returning to Norfolk on 22 March, "America" spent the next month preparing for her next deployment, and got underway to participate in exercise "Ocean Venture" on 24 April. Visiting Caracas, Venezuela, upon conclusion of that evolution, "America" departed on 9 May for the Mediterranean.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: Reaching Málaga, Spain, on 21 May, the carrier commenced her transit of the Mediterranean on 29 May and reached Port Said on 3 June. Transiting the Suez Canal on the following day she passed through the Red Sea and joined the 7th Fleet on 8 June, relieving "Kitty Hawk". On 10 July, while operating in the Indian Ocean, "America" lost an EA-6B Prowler from the VAQ-135 Black Ravens due to a failure of the waist catapult system. The crew ejected but the pilot, LTJG Michael Debartolomeo was killed in the process. An investigation into the Class A mishap revealed that faulty maintenance of the catapult system was to blame. Returning to the 6th Fleet on 29 August, "America" transited the Suez Canal on 2 September bound for Naples.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: The carrier visited Monaco from 13 to 22 September before she participated in one phase of NATO exercise, "Display Determination". After stopping briefly to Naples, "America" returned to sea soon afterwards, and took part in the second phase of "Display Determination" before visiting Catania. She reached Augusta Bay on 27 October, where she was relieved by and sailed for the United States.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: Arriving at Norfolk on 14 November, "America" conducted carrier qualifications in the Virginia Capes operating areas from 29 November – 17 December before returning to port on 18 December. The ship remained in an upkeep status until 18 January 1985, when she shifted to the Norfolk Naval Shipyard for overhaul.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: Emerging from the yard on 13 May for sea trials off the Virginia Capes, "America" remained at Norfolk until 28 May, when she sailed to conduct refresher training. Then, following a port call at Port Everglades, Florida (13–17 June), "America" conducted carrier qualifications before returning to Norfolk on 25 June. The ship operated locally out of Norfolk through mid-August.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: "America" sailed on 24 August to participate in "Ocean Safari", a six-week NATO exercise which ultimately took her to Norwegian waters. After visiting Portsmouth, United Kingdom, upon conclusion of her training, "America" returned to Norfolk on 9 October. She spent the remainder of the year 1985 alternating periods of upkeep in Norfolk, with local operations in the Virginia Capes operating area.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: As the new year, 1986, began, tensions in the Mediterranean basin would result in "America"s sailing to deploy with the 6th Fleet one month earlier than planned. On 7 January 1986, President Ronald Reagan ordered all U.S. citizens out of Libya, and broke off all remaining ties between the two nations. At the same time, President Reagan directed the dispatch of a second carrier battle group to the Mediterranean, and directed the Joint Chiefs of Staff to look into military operations against Libya, a country strongly suspected of fomenting terrorist activity.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: Operations near Libya began at the end of January. These evolutions, collectively named "Attain Document", were carried out from 24 to 31 January 1986 and from 10 to 15 February, by surface ships and aircraft. "America", with CVW-1 embarked, and her accompanying battle group departed Norfolk on 10 March 1986, and arrived in the Mediterranean in time to participate in the third phase of "Attain Document", a freedom of navigation (FON) exercise in the Gulf of Sidra.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: Late on 23 March, American planes flew south of latitude 32-30° N – the "Line of Death" proclaimed by Libyan leader Muammar al-Qadaffi. On 24 March, , accompanied by two destroyers, and , moved south of the "Line", covered by fighter aircraft, at 06:00.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: A Libyan missile installation near Surt (Sirte) launched two Soviet-made SA-5 "Gammon" surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) at 07:52, toward F-14A Tomcats of "America"s VF-102. Later that afternoon, the installation at Surt (Sirte) fired additional SAMs at U.S. planes, but, like the first pair, went wide of their mark. About 14:30, a Libyan missile-equipped Combattante II G-type patrol craft sortied from Misratah, Libya, and approached "Ticonderoga" and her consorts. Two A-6E Intruders from "America"s Attack Squadron 34 (VA 34) fired AGM-84 Harpoon missiles at the craft and sank her in the first use of the Harpoon in combat. Shortly afterwards, when American radars detected the Libyan installation at Sirte activating its target acquisition radars, two A-7 Corsairs from "Saratoga"s VA-81 put the site out of action with AGM-88 HARMs (high-speed anti-radiation missiles).


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: One hour after the first patrol boat had sortied, a Soviet-built "Nanuchka"-type patrol craft began heading out into the Gulf of Sidra. Intruders from VA-34 and "Saratoga"s VA-85 attacked with Rockeye cluster bombs, but the craft sought refuge alongside a neutral merchant ship, and avoided destruction. Damaged, she returned to the Port of Benghazi after nightfall.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: The following day, at 02:00 25 March, another "Nanuchka"-II-type patrol boat entered International waters and came under attack from Intruders from VA-85 and "Coral Sea"s VA-55; the former utilized Rockeyes in the attack, the latter then sank the craft with a Harpoon. The same squadrons then attacked and damaged a second "Nanuchka"-II, forcing her to put into Benghazi.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: "Attain Document III" came to a close at 09:00 on 27 March, three days ahead of schedule and after 48 hours of largely unchallenged use of the Gulf of Sidra by the U.S. Navy. Thence steaming to Augusta Bay, Sicily, "America" relieved "Saratoga" on station, and subsequently visited Livorno, Italy, from 4–8 April 1986.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: In the meantime, however, in the wake of the strikes designed to let Col. Qaddafi know that the United States had not only the desire but the capability to respond effectively to terrorism, intelligence information indicated that Qaddafi intended to retaliate.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: On 5 April 1986, two days after a bomb exploded on board a Trans World Airlines (TWA) flight en route to Athens from Rome, killing four U.S. citizens, a bomb exploded in the La Belle Discothèque in West Berlin, killing two U.S. servicemen and a Turkish civilian. Another 222 people were wounded in the bombing – 78 Americans among them. Colonel Qaddafi threatened to escalate the violence against Americans, civilian and military, throughout the world.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: Repeated efforts by the United States to persuade the Libyan leader to forsake terrorism as an instrument of policy, including an attempt to persuade other western nations to isolate Libya peacefully, failed. Rumors of retaliation by the United States were soon followed by Qaddafi's threat to take all foreigners in Libya hostage, to use them as a shield to protect his military installations. In light of that threat, and of the failure to gain peaceful sanctions against Libya, and citing "incontrovertible evidence" of Libyan complicity in the recent terrorist acts, President Reagan directed that attacks on terrorist-related targets in Libya be carried out.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: Operation "El Dorado Canyon" commenced early on the afternoon of 14 April 1986 around 1700 hours British Time as tanker aircraft took off from American RAF bases in England to support the US Air Force General Dynamics F-111F Aardvark and EF-111A Raven planes that soon followed them into the air from other American RAF bases. Thus began their trip to the target, flying around the Iberian Peninsula and through the Strait of Gibraltar, thereby avoiding over flight over France, Spain, and possibly Portugal. Later that afternoon, between 17:45 and 18:20 local time in the Mediterranean Sea, "America" launched six A-6 Intruder strike aircraft from VA-34 and six A-7E Corsair IIs (strike support); "Coral Sea" launched her strike/strike support aircraft, eight A-6Es from VA-55 and six F/A-18 Hornets between 17:50 and 18:20. Both carriers launched additional aircraft to support the strike to provide CAP and other functions.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: "In a spectacular feat of mission planning and execution", the Navy and Air Force planes, based apart, reached their targets on time at 19:00. The F-18 Hornets from "Coral Sea" and A-7 Corsair IIs from "America" launched air-to-surface Shrike and HARM missiles against Libyan SAM sites at Benghazi and Tripoli. Moments later, VA-34's A-6E Intruders dropped their Mk. 82 bombs on the Benghazi military barracks, believed to be an alternate command and control facility for terrorist activities and a billeting area for Qaddafi's elite Jamahiriya Guard, as well as a warehouse for components for MiG aircraft. VA-34's attack heavily damaged the warehouse, destroying four crated MiGs and damaging a fifth.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: Following that counter-terrorist strike, "America" visited Naples from 28 April – 4 May, and then participated in NATO exercise "Distant Hammer" with units of the Italian and Turkish Air Forces, and visited Nice/Monaco upon conclusion of the evolution. During June, the carrier operated with "Coral Sea" and the newly arrived , and took part in a "poopdeck" exercise with Spanish and United States Air Force units off the coast of Spain, arriving at Palma soon after.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: Participating in a NATO exercise, "Tridente", in late June, "America" visited Naples before she participated in a "National Week" exercise. Subsequently, visiting Catania and operating in the central and western Mediterranean, the carrier wound up the month of July at Benidorm, Spain, before returning to sea for further operations at sea in that region. Visiting Naples from 11 to 17 August, "America" spent the rest of her deployment in operations in the western and central Mediterranean before "John F. Kennedy" relieved her at Rota from 28 to 31 August. "America" arrived back at Norfolk Naval Shipyard on 20 November 1986 for an overhaul which lasted until 11 February 1988. She spent the remainder of that year operating along the East Coast and in the Caribbean.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: "America" participated in Operation North Star during February and March 1989, an exercise to rehearse the vestfjord operations planned to project power over the Kola peninsula against the Soviet Union. She was shadowed by a Soviet "Slava-class" cruiser, but shed her tail on departure from the fjord. She returned to Norfolk from the mini-deployment in April to prepare for her upcoming major deployment. "America" departed Norfolk 11 May 1989 for her sixteenth major deployment, to the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean. Her jouney was not without incident. On 13 May 1989, a failed turnover of JP-5 pumproom monitors resulted in a fire and explosion, killing two crew members. The ship was briefly endangered, but after 7 hours of firefighting the situation was under control and normal operations resumed. On 11 August, "Coral Sea" and "America" departed early from separate port visits when they were diverted to the eastern Mediterranean as a show of force in the wake of the suspected hanging of Marine Corps LtCol William R. Higgins by Middle East terrorists, and threats to other hostages. LtCol Higgins had been kidnapped in February 1988 while a member of the United Nations peacekeeping forces in Lebanon. After operations in the Mediterranean, Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean, "America" returned home on 10 November 1989.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: She later evacuated the American Embassy in Lebanon in 1989, and also went on a six month deployment from May 1989 to November 1989 and served during Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm in 1990 and 1991. "America" also Participated in Operation Deny Flight in the mid-1990s.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: On 2 August 1990, the day "America" departed the Norfolk Naval Shipyard following a four-month Selected Restricted Availability, Iraq invaded Kuwait. As the international community geared toward possible military action against Iraq, "America" and CVW-1 rushed toward a much accelerated deployment schedule.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: On 28 December, just over four months after her SRA and having completed a five-month training cycle into two months, "America" deployed to the Red Sea in support of Operation Desert Shield with Captain J. J. Mazach in command. At that time, the combined Command, Control, Communication, Cryptology, and Intelligence (C4I) package installed aboard "America" included systems such as the Navy Tactical Command System Afloat (NTCSA), the Contingency Tactical Action Planning System (CTAPS) and Advance Tracking Prototype. Although these systems were not unique to the fleet, it was the first time they had been integrated into one comprehensive package. Coupled with the disseminated capabilities of the Naval Tactical Data System (NTDS), "America"s C4I package allowed intelligence and operations information to be meshed together into one single tactical picture. Utilizing digital data links between other ships, "America" had intelligence processing capabilities unparalleled by any other ship in the fleet. "America" also deployed with B57 and B61 nuclear weapons aboard.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: On 9 January 1991, the "America" Battle Group transited the Strait of Gibraltar and sailed into the Mediterranean. Less than a week later, on 15–16 January, she passed through the Suez Canal and into the Red Sea on the UN-imposed deadline for Iraq's unconditional withdrawal from Kuwait. The "America" joined and battle groups to form Battle Force Red Sea. At 02:00 hours (Saudi time) on 17 January, Operation Desert Shield became Operation Desert Storm. "America"s embarked airwing, CVW-1, initially provided Combat Air Patrol coverage over the battle force. On the second day of the war, "America" launched its first air strikes, targeting and destroying an ammunition depot north of Baghdad. In the next day's darkness, CVW-1 flew its first night strike of the war against an oil production facility. Strikes of up to five hours into Iraq against bridges, mobile Scud sites, oil production facilities and Iraqi Republican Guard units continued for three weeks, when the focus of the air war changed. On 9 February Captain Kent W. Ewing took command of the great warship at an informal ceremony on the flight deck and newly selected


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: On 14 February, "America" entered the Persian Gulf to become the fourth carrier of Battle Force Zulu. Joining , and strikes were flown into the Kuwait Theater of Operations (KTO), with attacks on Iraqi military forces in Kuwait proper, as well as targets in eastern Iraq. This would make "America" the only carrier to operate on both sides of the Arabian Peninsula during Desert Storm. On 20 February, America's VS-32 became the first S-3 squadron to engage, bomb and destroy a hostile vesselan Iraqi gunboat. On 23 February, aircraft from America destroyed a Silkworm (anti-ship) missile battery after Iraq unsuccessfully fired a missile at . The focus of the war changed again on 24 February with the beginning of the ground assault into Iraq and Kuwait. "America" aircraft provided air support for coalition troops by attacking Iraqi troop, tank and artillery sites in Kuwait, including the highway of death. One hundred hours later, Kuwait was successfully liberated and a cease-fire was ordered. CVW-1's aircraft were credited with destroying close to 387 armored vehicles and tanks in the KTO.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: "America" departed the Persian Gulf on 4 March, with CVW-1 having conducted 3,008 combat sorties, dropped over of ordnance and suffered no aircraft losses during the war. The Red Sea coastal town of Hurghada, Egypt would be "America"s only port visit from 16 to 22 March, following 78 consecutive days at sea.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: After passing through the Suez Canal and exiting the Mediterranean, "America" reached Norfolk on 18 April. She and CVW-1 earned a Navy Unit Commendation, a third for "America", for service during Desert Storm. After a short stay at home, and participating in New York City's Operation Welcome Home/Fleet Week festivities, "America" and CVW-1 once again headed for the Northern Atlantic to participate in NATO exercise "North Star". Departing Norfolk in August for eight weeks, she became the first carrier to conduct flight operations within Havesfjord, Norway. Less than two months later, "America" departed on 2 December for her second deployment of the year. This uneventful six-month deployment would see "America" return to the Persian Gulf, and thus become the first carrier to redeploy to the region following the Gulf War. The entire Kuwaiti leadership and US Ambassador visited for a day to extend their praise and thanks for saving their country.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: Exercises would also place her in the Indian Ocean and Red Sea, as well as the Mediterranean, before returning to Norfolk in June 1992.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: "America" and her Joint Task Group departed Norfolk and other east Coast ports on 11 August 1993 for another major Mediterranean deployment to relieve "Theodore Roosevelt" in Operation Deny Flight. After several weeks supporting United Nations peacekeeping efforts over Bosnia and Herzegovina, "America" transited the Suez on 29 October 1993 to relieve in the Indian Ocean in support of UN humanitarian efforts in Somalia. She was followed, on 1 November by members of her battle group, and the replenished oiler . "America" covered over in a week. Supporting the U.N humanitarian efforts in Somalia was the Naval Battle Force Somalia, commanded by Rear Adm. Arthur Cebrowski, Commander, Carrier Group 6 on "America". Other elements of naval battle force Somalia include "Simpson", amphibious vessels , , , and the 13th Marine Expeditionary Unit.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: Before returning to the Mediterranean, CVW-1 aircraft flew missions into southern Iraq from the Red Sea in support of Operation Southern Watch. On 12 December 1993, "America" transited the Suez before returning to Norfolk in February 1994.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: A unique operation developed 12 September 1994 due to the situation in Haiti. "Dwight D. Eisenhower" and "America" deployed with a large contingent of Army helicopters on board, but no air wings. The carriers headed for the Caribbean in support of President William Clinton's policy to restore democracy to Haiti. "Dwight D. Eisenhower" also embarked Navy squadrons HS-7, HCS-4 and HC-2. This was the first time that carriers deployed operationally with a large contingent of Army helicopters and no air wing on board.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: On 28 August 1995, "America" departed Norfolk on her 20th and final deployment in her 30-year history for anything but a routine six-month deployment to the Mediterranean, the Adriatic Sea and the Persian Gulf. She crossed the Atlantic Ocean in three days rather than the usual six-day transit through a Perfect Storm after leaving Norfolk. The carrier participated in Operation Deny Flight and Operation Deliberate Force, in association with the UN and NATO, and also flew missions in support of Operation Southern Watch over Iraq. "America" visited the capital city of Valletta, Malta, in January 1996 – the first U.S. Navy carrier to visit this historical port in over 24 years. "America", operating from the Adriatic Sea, supported the NATO Implementation Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina for Operation Joint Endeavor before returning to Norfolk, Virginia on 24 February 1996.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: Originally scheduled to undergo a Service Life Extension Program (SLEP) in 1996 for subsequent retirement in 2010, CV-66 fell victim to budget cuts and was instead retired early by the U.S. Navy.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: She was decommissioned in a ceremony at Norfolk Naval Shipyard in Portsmouth, Virginia on 9 August 1996. "America"s final commanding officer was Capt. Robert E. Besal. The guest speaker for the ceremony was Adm. Leighton W. Smith, a former "America" commanding officer. Following the decommissioning, "America" was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register and was transferred to the Ready Reserve Fleet at the Inactive Ship Maintenance Facility in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Though already decommissioned, she was awarded the 1995 Battenberg Cup in recognition of her crew's achievements in her last full year in service.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: "America" was planned to be sold for scrapping. However, she was chosen to be a live-fire test and evaluation platform in 2005, to aid the design of future aircraft carriers. There was some objection to a ship being named after the U.S.A. being deliberately sunk at sea, and a committee of her former crew members and other supporters attempted to save the ship for use as a museum ship. Their efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. In a letter to them, then-Vice Chief of Naval Operations Admiral John B. Nathman explained:


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: On 25 February 2005, a ceremony to salute "America" and her crew was held at the ship's pier in Philadelphia, attended by former crew members and various dignitaries. She departed the Inactive Ship Maintenance Facility on 19 April 2005 to conduct the aforementioned tests. The experiments lasted approximately four weeks. The Navy tested "America" with underwater explosives, watching from afar and through monitoring devices placed on the vessel. These explosions were designed to simulate underwater attacks.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: After the completion of the tests, "America" was sunk in a controlled scuttling on 14 May 2005 at approximately 11:30, although the sinking was not publicized until six days later. At the time, no warship of that size had ever been sunk, and effects were closely monitored; theoretically the tests would reveal data about how supercarriers respond to battle damage.


title: USS America (CV-66)

text: The U.S. Navy released the exact location where "America" was sunk: , around southeast of Cape Hatteras. The wreck lies upright in one piece below the surface of the Atlantic Ocean.


title: The Prince (TV series)

text: The Prince is an American animated sitcom created by Gary Janetti for HBO Max. Originally slated for a late spring 2021 date, HBO Max announced on May 9, 2021, that the series would be delayed due to Prince Philip's death in April 2021. The series premiered on July 29, 2021. In February 2022, HBO Max cancelled the series after one season.


title: The Prince (TV series)

text: "The Prince" focuses on an eight-year-old Prince George who makes life hard for his family and the British monarchy.


title: The Prince (TV series)

text: , Janetti has released five shorts for the series on his Instagram that are not part of the actual series itself, which comment on current events and holidays, such as the pandemic, Halloween, Valentines Day, and Easter. On July 28, 2021, HBO Max announced the series would be released the next day, with 12 episodes.


title: The Prince (TV series)

text: "The Prince" received an overwelmingly negative reception by critics, with some critics and producers criticizing the show as being unfair and inappropriate. Before the series came out, Kayleigh Donaldson of "Pajiba" criticized Janetti, saying that the series "lacks intent and appropriate targets."


title: The Prince (TV series)

text: Joel Keller of "Decider" urged readers to skip the series, describing it as "essentially a royal version of "Family Guy", and not nearly as biting and funny".


title: Afro-Eurasia

text: Afro-Eurasia (also Afroeurasia, Eurafrasia or the Old World) is a landmass comprising the continents of Africa, Asia, and Europe. The terms are compound words of the names of its constituent parts. Its mainland is the largest and most populous contiguous landmass on Earth.


title: Afro-Eurasia

text: Afro-Eurasia encompasses , 57% of the world's land area, and has a population of approximately 6.7 billion people, roughly 86% of the world population.


title: Afro-Eurasia

text: Although Afro-Eurasia is typically considered to comprise two or three separate continents, it is not a proper supercontinent. Instead, it is the largest present part of the supercontinent cycle.


title: Afro-Eurasia

text: The oldest part of Afro-Eurasia is probably the Kaapvaal Craton, which together with Madagascar and parts of India and western Australia formed part of the first supercontinent Vaalbara or Ur around 3 billion years ago. It has made up parts of every supercontinent since. At the breakup of Pangaea around 200 million years ago, the North American and Eurasian Plates together formed Laurasia while the African Plate remained in Gondwana, from which the Indian Plate split off. This impacted southern Asia around 50 million years ago and began the formation of the Himalayas. (Around the same time, it also fused with the Australian Plate.) The Arabian Plate broke off of Africa around 30 million years ago and impacted the Iranian Plate between 19 and 12 million years ago, ultimately forming the Alborz and Zagros chains of Iranian Plate. After this initial connection of Afro-Eurasia, the Betic corridor along the Gibraltar Arc closed a little less than 6 million years ago, fusing Northwest Africa and Iberia together. This led to the nearly complete desiccation of the Mediterranean Basin, the Messinian salinity crisis. Eurasia and Africa were then again separated: the Zanclean Flood around 5.33 million years ago refilled the Mediterranean Sea through the Strait of Gibraltar and the Red Sea and Gulf of Suez Rifts further divided Africa from the Arabian Plate.


title: Afro-Eurasia

text: Today, Africa is joined to Asia only by a relatively narrow land bridge (which has been split by the Suez Canal at the Isthmus of Suez) and remains separated from Europe by the straits of Gibraltar and Sicily. Paleogeologist Ronald Blakey has described the next 15 to 100 million years of tectonic development as fairly settled and predictable. In that time, Africa is expected to continue drifting northward. It will close the Strait of Gibraltar, quickly evaporating the Mediterranean Sea. No supercontinent will form within the settled time frame, however, and the geologic record is full of unexpected shifts in tectonic activity that make further projections "very, very speculative". Three possibilities are known as Novopangaea, Amasia, and Pangaea Proxima. In the first two, the Pacific closes and Africa remains fused to Eurasia, but Eurasia itself splits as Africa and Europe spin towards the west; in the last, the trio spin eastward together as the Atlantic closes, creating land borders with the Americas.


title: Afro-Eurasia

text: This is a list of the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location on Afro-Eurasia.


title: Portia Doubleday

text: Portia Ann Doubleday is an American actress. She is best known for her roles as Sheeni Saunders in the film "Youth in Revolt" (2009), Chris Hargensen in the film "Carrie" (2013), and as Angela Moss in the USA Network television drama "Mr. Robot" (2015–2019).


title: Portia Doubleday

text: Born and raised in Los Angeles, Doubleday is the younger of two daughters of Christina Hart and Frank Doubleday. She grew up in a show business family: her parents are former professional actors, and her older sister, Kaitlin is also an actress. Her mother now works in the entertainment industry as a writer and producer of plays.


title: Portia Doubleday

text: Doubleday attended the Los Angeles Center for Enriched Studies, a magnet school in west Los Angeles. She played soccer for twelve years and described herself as a tomboy to the "Los Angeles Times".


title: Portia Doubleday

text: Doubleday first appeared in a commercial for Goldfish crackers at age eight and had a small role in the film "Legend of the Mummy" (1998). Her parents insisted that she finish high school before pursuing a career in acting.


title: Portia Doubleday

text: After graduating high school Doubleday was cast in the pilot episode of "United States of Tara", a television series created by Diablo Cody. Doubleday played 15-year-old Kate, the daughter of Toni Collette's character. Doubleday was replaced by Brie Larson when the series' creative team chose to go in a different direction with the character. She appeared in the short film "18" in 2009, about a girl dealing with the end of her mother's life.


title: Portia Doubleday

text: Doubleday starred opposite Michael Cera in the 2009 teen comedy "Youth in Revolt", based on the 1993 novel of the same name by C.D. Payne. Doubleday described her character as "mean" and "really complex" to the "Los Angeles Times." She plays Sheeni Saunders, an imaginative girl with a dreary life who meets Michael Cera's character while on a family vacation. The film was directed by Miguel Arteta and premiered at the 2009 Toronto International Film Festival.


title: Portia Doubleday

text: In 2010, Doubleday starred in the drama "Almost Kings" (formerly known as "Touchback") directed by Marvin Jarrett (the founder of "Nylon" magazine). She appeared regularly in the ABC network comedy "Mr. Sunshine," a midseason replacement for the 2010–2011 season. She played the popular and monstrous Chris Hargensen in the 2013 adaptation of "Carrie", a role which was originally held by Nancy Allen. Doubleday dyed her hair brown for the role of Chris who is a natural brunette in the novel. In the same year she played a brief role in "Her" as a sex surrogate.


title: Portia Doubleday

text: In September 2014, it was announced that Doubleday had joined the main cast of the USA Network pilot for the TV series "Mr. Robot". Doubleday plays Malek's character's childhood friend and current co-worker, Angela Moss. The first episode of the series premiered on June 24, 2015. She acted in all four seasons of the show, the final three which premiered in July 2016, October 2017, and October 2019 respectively.


title: Portia Doubleday

text: In November 2018, it was announced that Doubleday had joined the cast of the film "Fantasy Island", an adaptation of the show of the same name. The movie was released on February 14, 2020.


title: Day trading

text: Day trading is a form of speculation in securities in which a trader buys and sells a financial instrument within the same trading day, so that all positions are closed before the market closes for the trading day to avoid unmanageable risks and negative price gaps between one day's close and the next day's price at the open. Traders who trade in this capacity are generally classified as speculators. Day trading contrasts with the long-term trades underlying buy-and-hold and value investing strategies. Day trading may require fast trade execution, sometimes as fast as milli-seconds in scalping, therefore a direct-access day trading software is often needed.


title: Day trading

text: Day traders generally use leverage such as margin loans; in the United States, Regulation T permits an initial maximum leverage of 2:1, but many brokers will permit 4:1 intraday leverage as long as the leverage is reduced to 2:1 or less by the end of the trading day. In the United States, based on rules by the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority, people who make more than 3 day trades per 5-trading-day period are termed pattern day traders and are required to maintain $25,000 in equity in their accounts. However, a day trader with the legal minimum of $25,000 in their account can buy $100,000 (4× leverage) worth of stock during the day, as long as half of those positions are exited before the market close. Because of the high risk of margin use, and of other day trading practices, a day trader will often have to exit a losing position very quickly, in order to prevent a greater, unacceptable loss, or even a disastrous loss, much larger than their original investment, or even larger than their account value. Since margin interest is typically only charged on overnight balances, the trader may pay no interest fees for the margin loan, though still running the risk of margin calls. Margin interest rates are usually based on the broker's call rate.


title: Day trading

text: Some of the more commonly day-traded financial instruments are stocks, options, currency (including cryptocurrency), contracts for difference, and futures contracts such as stock market index futures, interest rate futures, currency futures and commodity futures.


title: Day trading

text: Day trading was once an activity that was exclusive to financial firms and professional speculators. Many day traders are bank or investment firm employees working as specialists in equity investment and investment management. Day trading gained popularity after the deregulation of commissions in the United States in 1975, the advent of electronic trading platforms in the 1990s, and with the stock price volatility during the dot-com bubble. Recent 2020 pandemic lockdowns and following market volatility has caused a significant number of retail traders to enter the market.


title: Day trading

text: Some day traders use an intra-day technique known as scalping that has the trader holding a position briefly, for a few minutes to only seconds.


title: Day trading

text: Day traders may be professionals that work for large financial institutions, are trained by other professionals or mentors, do not use their own capital, or receive a base salary of approximately $50,000 to $70,000 as well as the possibility for bonuses of 10%–30% of the profits realized. Individuals can day trade with as little as $100, or even less, with fractional shares.


title: Day trading

text: Because of the nature of financial leverage and the rapid returns that are possible, day trading results can range from extremely profitable to extremely unprofitable; high-risk profile traders can generate either huge percentage returns or huge percentage losses.


title: Day trading

text: Day trading is risky, and the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission has made the following warnings to day traders:


title: Day trading

text: A 2019 research paper analyzed the performance of individual day traders in the Brazilian equity futures market. Based on trading records from 2012 to 2017, it was concluded that day trading is almost uniformly unprofitable:


title: Day trading

text: An article in "Forbes" quoting someone from an educational trading website stated that "the success rate for day traders is estimated to be around only 10%, so ... 90% are losing money," adding "only 1% of [day] traders "really" make money."


title: Day trading

text: Day trading requires a sound and rehearsed method to provide a statistical edge on each trade and should not be engaged on a whim.


title: Day trading

text: The following are several basic trading strategies by which day traders attempt to make profits. In addition, some day traders also use contrarian investing strategies (more commonly seen in algorithmic trading) to trade specifically against irrational behavior from day traders using the approaches below. It is important for a trader to remain flexible and adjust techniques to match changing market conditions.


title: Day trading

text: Some of these approaches require short selling stocks; the trader borrows stock from their broker and sells the borrowed stock, hoping that the price will fall and they will be able to purchase the shares at a lower price, thus keeping the difference as their profit. There are several technical problems with short sales: the broker may not have shares to lend in a specific issue, the broker can call for the return of its shares at any time, and some restrictions are imposed in America by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission on short-selling (see uptick rule for details). Some of these restrictions (in particular the uptick rule) don't apply to trades of stocks that are actually shares of an exchange-traded fund (ETF).


title: Day trading

text: Trend following, or momentum trading, is a strategy used in all trading time-frames, assumes that financial instruments which have been rising steadily will continue to rise, and vice versa with falling. Traders can profit by buying an instrument which has been rising, or short selling a falling one, in the expectation that the trend will continue. These traders use technical analysis to identify trends.


title: Day trading

text: Contrarian investing is a market timing strategy used in all trading time-frames. It assumes that financial instruments that have been rising steadily will reverse and start to fall, and vice versa. The contrarian trader buys an instrument which has been falling, or short-sells a rising one, in the expectation that the trend will change.


title: Day trading

text: Range trading, or range-bound trading, is a trading style in which stocks are watched that have either been rising off a support price or falling off a resistance price. That is, every time the stock hits a high, it falls back to the low, and vice versa. Such a stock is said to be "trading in a range", which is the opposite of trending. The range trader therefore buys the stock at or near the low price, and sells (and possibly short sells) at the high. A related approach to range trading is looking for moves outside of an established range, called a breakout (price moves up) or a breakdown (price moves down), and assume that once the range has been broken prices will continue in that direction for some time.


title: Day trading

text: Scalping was originally referred to as spread trading. Scalping is a trading style where small price gaps created by the bid–ask spread are exploited by the speculator. It normally involves establishing and liquidating a position quickly, usually within minutes or even seconds.


title: Day trading

text: Scalping highly liquid instruments for off-the-floor day traders involves taking quick profits while minimizing risk (loss exposure). It applies technical analysis concepts such as over/under-bought, support and resistance zones as well as trendline, trading channel to enter the market at key points and take quick profits from small moves. The basic idea of scalping is to exploit the inefficiency of the market when volatility increases and the trading range expands. Scalpers also use the "fade" technique. When stock values suddenly rise, they short sell securities that seem overvalued.


title: Day trading

text: Rebate trading is an equity trading style that uses ECN rebates as a primary source of profit and revenue. Most ECNs charge commissions to customers who want to have their orders filled immediately at the best prices available, but the ECNs "pay" commissions to buyers or sellers who "add liquidity" by placing limit orders that create "market-making" in a security. Rebate traders seek to make money from these rebates and will usually maximize their returns by trading low priced, high volume stocks. This enables them to trade more shares and contribute more liquidity with a set amount of capital, while limiting the risk that they will not be able to exit a position in the stock.


title: Day trading

text: The basic strategy of trading the news is to buy a stock which has just announced good news, or short sell on bad news. Such events provide enormous volatility in a stock and therefore the greatest chance for quick profits (or losses). Determining whether news is "good" or "bad" must be determined by the price action of the stock, because the market reaction may not match the tone of the news itself. This is because rumors or estimates of the event (like those issued by market and industry analysts) will already have been circulated before the official release, causing prices to move in anticipation. The price movement caused by the official news will therefore be determined by how good the news is relative to the market's expectations, not how good it is in absolute terms.


title: Day trading

text: Price action trading relies on technical analysis but does not rely on conventional indicators. These traders rely on a combination of price movement, chart patterns, volume, and other raw market data to gauge whether or not they should take a trade. This is seen as a "minimalist" approach to trading but is not by any means easier than any other trading methodology. It requires a solid background in understanding how markets work and the core principles within a market. However, the benefit for this methodology is that it is effective in virtually any market (stocks, foreign exchange, futures, gold, oil, etc.).


title: Day trading

text: Market-neutral trading is a strategy that is designed to mitigate risk in which a trader takes a long position in one security and a short position in another security that is related.


title: Day trading

text: It is estimated that more than 75% of stock trades in United States are generated by algorithmic trading or high-frequency trading. The increased use of algorithms and quantitative techniques has led to more competition and smaller profits. Algorithmic trading is used by banks and hedge funds as well as retail traders. Retail traders can buy commercially available automated trading systems or develop their own automatic trading software.


title: Day trading

text: Commissions for direct access trading, such as that offered by Interactive Brokers are calculated based on volume, and are usually 0.5 cents per share or $0.25 per futures contract. The more shares traded, the cheaper the commission. Most brokers in the United States, especially those that receive payment for order flow do not charge commissions.


title: Day trading

text: The numerical difference between the bid and ask prices is referred to as the bid–ask spread. Most worldwide markets operate on a bid-ask-based system.


title: Day trading

text: The ask prices are immediate execution (market) prices for quick buyers (ask takers) while bid prices are for quick sellers (bid takers). If a trade is executed at quoted prices, closing the trade immediately without queuing would always cause a loss because the bid price is always less than the ask price at any point in time.


title: Day trading

text: The bid–ask spread is two sides of the same coin. The spread can be viewed as trading bonuses or costs according to different parties and different strategies. On one hand, traders who do NOT wish to queue their order, instead paying the market price, pay the spreads (costs). On the other hand, traders who wish to queue and wait for execution receive the spreads (bonuses). Some day trading strategies attempt to capture the spread as additional, or even the only, profits for successful trades.


title: Day trading

text: Market data is necessary for day traders to be competitive. A real-time data feed requires paying fees to the respective stock exchanges, usually combined with the broker's charges; these fees are usually very low compared to the other costs of trading. The fees may be waived for promotional purposes or for customers meeting a minimum monthly volume of trades. Even a moderately active day trader can expect to meet these requirements, making the basic data feed essentially "free". In addition to the raw market data, some traders purchase more advanced data feeds that include historical data and features such as scanning large numbers of stocks in the live market for unusual activity. Complicated analysis and charting software are other popular additions. These types of systems can cost from tens to hundreds of dollars per month to access.


title: Day trading

text: Before 1975, stockbrokerage commissions in the United States were fixed at 1% of the amount of the trade, i.e. to purchase $10,000 worth of stock cost the buyer $100 in commissions and same 1% to sell and traders had to make "over" 2% to cover their costs, which was not likely in a single trading day.


title: Day trading

text: In 1975, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) made fixed commission rates illegal and commission rates dropped significantly.


title: Day trading

text: Financial settlement periods used to be much longer. Before the early 1990s at the London Stock Exchange, for example, stock could be paid for up to 10 working days after it was bought, allowing traders to buy (or sell) shares at the beginning of a settlement period only to sell (or buy) them before the end of the period hoping for a rise in price. This activity was identical to modern day trading, but for the longer duration of the settlement period. But today, to reduce market risk, the settlement period is typically T+2 (two working days) and brokers usually require that funds are posted in advance of any trade. Reducing the settlement period reduces the likelihood of default, but was impossible before the advent of electronic ownership transfer.


title: Day trading

text: Electronic communication networks (ECNs), large proprietary computer networks on which brokers can list a certain amount of securities to sell at a certain price (the asking price or "ask") or offer to buy a certain amount of securities at a certain price (the "bid"), first became a factor with the launch of Instinet in 1969. However, at first, they generally offered better pricing to large traders.


title: Day trading

text: The next important step in facilitating day trading was the founding in 1971 of NASDAQ - a virtual stock exchange on which orders were transmitted electronically. Moving from paper share certificates and written share registers to "dematerialized" shares, traders used computerized trading and registration that required not only extensive changes to legislation but also the development of the necessary technology: online and real time systems rather than batch; electronic communications rather than the postal service, telex or the physical shipment of computer tapes, and the development of secure cryptographic algorithms.


title: Day trading

text: These developments heralded the appearance of "market makers": the NASDAQ equivalent of a NYSE specialist. A market maker has an inventory of stocks to buy and sell, and simultaneously offers to buy and sell the same stock. Obviously, it will offer to sell stock at a higher price than the price at which it offers to buy. This difference is known as the "spread". The market maker is indifferent as to whether the stock goes up or down, it simply tries to constantly buy for less than it sells. A persistent trend in one direction will result in a loss for the market maker, but the strategy is overall positive (otherwise they would exit the business). Today there are about 500 firms who participate as market makers on ECNs, each generally making a market in four to forty different stocks. Without any legal obligations, market makers were free to offer smaller spreads on electronic communication networks than on the NASDAQ.


title: Day trading

text: After Black Monday (1987), the SEC adopted "Order Handling Rules" which required market makers to publish their best bid and ask on the NASDAQ.


title: Day trading

text: Another reform made was the "Small-order execution system", or "SOES", which required market makers to buy or sell, immediately, small orders (up to 1,000 shares) at the market maker's listed bid or ask. The design of the system gave rise to arbitrage by a small group of traders known as the "SOES bandits", who made sizable profits buying and selling small orders to market makers by anticipating price moves before they were reflected in the published inside bid/ask prices. The SOES system ultimately led to trading facilitated by software instead of market makers via ECNs.


title: Day trading

text: In the late 1990s, existing ECNs began to offer their services to small investors. New ECNs arose, most importantly Archipelago (NYSE Arca) Instinet, SuperDot, and Island ECN. Archipelago eventually became a stock exchange and in 2005 was purchased by the NYSE.


title: Day trading

text: The ability for individuals to day trade via electronic trading platforms coincided with the extreme bull market in technological issues from 1997 to early 2000, known as the dot-com bubble. From 1997 to 2000, the NASDAQ rose from 1,200 to 5,000. Many naive investors with little market experience made huge profits buying these stocks in the morning and selling them in the afternoon, at 400% margin rates. An unprecedented amount of personal investing occurred during the boom and stories of people quitting their jobs to day trade were common.


title: Day trading

text: In March 2000, this bubble burst, and many less-experienced day traders began to lose money as fast, or faster, than they had made during the buying frenzy. The NASDAQ crashed from 5000 back to 1200; many of the less-experienced traders went broke, although obviously it was possible to have made a fortune during that time by short selling or playing on volatility.


title: Day trading

text: In parallel to stock trading, starting at the end of the 1990s, several new market maker firms provided foreign exchange and derivative day trading through electronic trading platforms. These allowed day traders to have instant access to decentralised markets such as forex and global markets through derivatives such as contracts for difference. Most of these firms were based in the UK and later in less restrictive jurisdictions, this was in part due to the regulations in the US prohibiting this type of over-the-counter trading. These firms typically provide trading on margin allowing day traders to take large position with relatively small capital, but with the associated increase in risk. The retail foreign exchange trading became popular to day trade due to its liquidity and the 24-hour nature of the market.


title: Just-in-time compilation

text: In computing, just-in-time (JIT) compilation (also dynamic translation or run-time compilations) is a way of executing computer code that involves compilation during execution of a program (at run time) rather than before execution. This may consist of source code translation but is more commonly bytecode translation to machine code, which is then executed directly. A system implementing a JIT compiler typically continuously analyses the code being executed and identifies parts of the code where the speedup gained from compilation or recompilation would outweigh the overhead of compiling that code.


title: Just-in-time compilation

text: JIT compilation is a combination of the two traditional approaches to translation to machine code—ahead-of-time compilation (AOT), and interpretation—and combines some advantages and drawbacks of both. Roughly, JIT compilation combines the speed of compiled code with the flexibility of interpretation, with the overhead of an interpreter and the additional overhead of compiling and linking (not just interpreting). JIT compilation is a form of dynamic compilation, and allows adaptive optimization such as dynamic recompilation and microarchitecture-specific speedups. Interpretation and JIT compilation are particularly suited for dynamic programming languages, as the runtime system can handle late-bound data types and enforce security guarantees.


title: Just-in-time compilation

text: The earliest published JIT compiler is generally attributed to work on LISP by John McCarthy in 1960. In his seminal paper "Recursive functions of symbolic expressions and their computation by machine, Part I", he mentions functions that are translated during runtime, thereby sparing the need to save the compiler output to punch cards (although this would be more accurately known as a "Compile and go system"). Another early example was by Ken Thompson, who in 1968 gave one of the first applications of regular expressions, here for pattern matching in the text editor QED. For speed, Thompson implemented regular expression matching by JITing to IBM 7094 code on the Compatible Time-Sharing System. An influential technique for deriving compiled code from interpretation was pioneered by James G. Mitchell in 1970, which he implemented for the experimental language "LC²".


title: Just-in-time compilation

text: Smalltalk (c. 1983) pioneered new aspects of JIT compilations. For example, translation to machine code was done on demand, and the result was cached for later use. When memory became scarce, the system would delete some of this code and regenerate it when it was needed again. Sun's Self language improved these techniques extensively and was at one point the fastest Smalltalk system in the world, achieving up to half the speed of optimized C but with a fully object-oriented language.


title: Just-in-time compilation

text: Self was abandoned by Sun, but the research went into the Java language. The term "Just-in-time compilation" was borrowed from the manufacturing term "Just in time" and popularized by Java, with James Gosling using the term from 1993. Currently JITing is used by most implementations of the Java Virtual Machine, as HotSpot builds on, and extensively uses, this research base.


title: Just-in-time compilation

text: The HP project Dynamo was an experimental JIT compiler where the 'bytecode' format and the machine code format were the same; the system turned PA-6000 machine code into PA-8000 machine code. Counterintuitively, this resulted in speed ups, in some cases of 30% since doing this permitted optimizations at the machine code level, for example, inlining code for better cache usage and optimizations of calls to dynamic libraries and many other run-time optimizations which conventional compilers are not able to attempt.


title: Just-in-time compilation

text: In a bytecode-compiled system, source code is translated to an intermediate representation known as bytecode. Bytecode is not the machine code for any particular computer, and may be portable among computer architectures. The bytecode may then be interpreted by, or run on a virtual machine. The JIT compiler reads the bytecodes in many sections (or in full, rarely) and compiles them dynamically into machine code so the program can run faster. This can be done per-file, per-function or even on any arbitrary code fragment; the code can be compiled when it is about to be executed (hence the name "just-in-time"), and then cached and reused later without needing to be recompiled.


title: Just-in-time compilation

text: In contrast, a traditional "interpreted virtual machine" will simply interpret the bytecode, generally with much lower performance. Some "interpreter"s even interpret source code, without the step of first compiling to bytecode, with even worse performance. "Statically-compiled code" or "native code" is compiled prior to deployment. A "dynamic compilation environment" is one in which the compiler can be used during execution. A common goal of using JIT techniques is to reach or surpass the performance of static compilation, while maintaining the advantages of bytecode interpretation: Much of the "heavy lifting" of parsing the original source code and performing basic optimization is often handled at compile time, prior to deployment: compilation from bytecode to machine code is much faster than compiling from source. The deployed bytecode is portable, unlike native code. Since the runtime has control over the compilation, like interpreted bytecode, it can run in a secure sandbox. Compilers from bytecode to machine code are easier to write, because the portable bytecode compiler has already done much of the work.


title: Just-in-time compilation

text: JIT code generally offers far better performance than interpreters. In addition, it can in some cases offer better performance than static compilation, as many optimizations are only feasible at run-time:


title: Just-in-time compilation

text: Because a JIT must render and execute a native binary image at runtime, true machine-code JITs necessitate platforms that allow for data to be executed at runtime, making using such JITs on a Harvard architecture-based machine impossible; the same can be said for certain operating systems and virtual machines as well. However, a special type of "JIT" may potentially "not" target the physical machine's CPU architecture, but rather an optimized VM bytecode where limitations on raw machine code prevail, especially where that bytecode's VM eventually leverages a JIT to native code.


title: Just-in-time compilation

text: JIT causes a slight to noticeable delay in the initial execution of an application, due to the time taken to load and compile the bytecode. Sometimes this delay is called "startup time delay" or "warm-up time". In general, the more optimization JIT performs, the better the code it will generate, but the initial delay will also increase. A JIT compiler therefore has to make a trade-off between the compilation time and the quality of the code it hopes to generate. Startup time can include increased IO-bound operations in addition to JIT compilation: for example, the "rt.jar" class data file for the Java Virtual Machine (JVM) is 40 MB and the JVM must seek a lot of data in this contextually huge file.


title: Just-in-time compilation

text: One possible optimization, used by Sun's HotSpot Java Virtual Machine, is to combine interpretation and JIT compilation. The application code is initially interpreted, but the JVM monitors which sequences of bytecode are frequently executed and translates them to machine code for direct execution on the hardware. For bytecode which is executed only a few times, this saves the compilation time and reduces the initial latency; for frequently executed bytecode, JIT compilation is used to run at high speed, after an initial phase of slow interpretation. Additionally, since a program spends most time executing a minority of its code, the reduced compilation time is significant. Finally, during the initial code interpretation, execution statistics can be collected before compilation, which helps to perform better optimization.


title: Just-in-time compilation

text: The correct tradeoff can vary due to circumstances. For example, Sun's Java Virtual Machine has two major modes—client and server. In client mode, minimal compilation and optimization is performed, to reduce startup time. In server mode, extensive compilation and optimization is performed, to maximize performance once the application is running by sacrificing startup time. Other Java just-in-time compilers have used a runtime measurement of the number of times a method has executed combined with the bytecode size of a method as a heuristic to decide when to compile. Still another uses the number of times executed combined with the detection of loops. In general, it is much harder to accurately predict which methods to optimize in short-running applications than in long-running ones.


title: Just-in-time compilation

text: Native Image Generator (Ngen) by Microsoft is another approach at reducing the initial delay. Ngen pre-compiles (or "pre-JITs") bytecode in a Common Intermediate Language image into machine native code. As a result, no runtime compilation is needed. .NET Framework 2.0 shipped with Visual Studio 2005 runs Ngen on all of the Microsoft library DLLs right after the installation. Pre-jitting provides a way to improve the startup time. However, the quality of code it generates might not be as good as the one that is JITed, for the same reasons why code compiled statically, without profile-guided optimization, cannot be as good as JIT compiled code in the extreme case: the lack of profiling data to drive, for instance, inline caching.


title: Just-in-time compilation

text: There also exist Java implementations that combine an AOT (ahead-of-time) compiler with either a JIT compiler (Excelsior JET) or interpreter (GNU Compiler for Java).


title: Just-in-time compilation

text: JIT compilation may not reliably achieve its goal, namely entering a steady state of improved performance after a short initial warmup period. Across eight different virtual machines, measured six widely-used microbenchmarks which are commonly used by virtual machine implementors as optimisation targets, running them repeatedly within a single process execution. On Linux, they found that 8.7% to 9.6% of process executions failed to reach a steady state of performance, 16.7% to 17.9% entered a steady state of "reduced" performance after a warmup period, and 56.5% pairings of a specific virtual machine running a specific benchmark failed to consistently see a steady-state non-degradation of performance across multiple executions (i.e., at least one execution failed to reach a steady state or saw reduced performance in the steady state). Even where an improved steady-state was reached, it sometimes took many hundreds of iterations. instead focused on the HotSpot virtual machine but with a much wider array of benchmarks, finding that 10.9% of process executions failed to reach a steady state of performance, and 43.5% of benchmarks did not consistently attain a steady state across multiple executions.


title: Just-in-time compilation

text: JIT compilation fundamentally uses executable data, and thus poses security challenges and possible exploits.


title: Just-in-time compilation

text: Implementation of JIT compilation consists of compiling source code or byte code to machine code and executing it. This is generally done directly in memory: the JIT compiler outputs the machine code directly into memory and immediately executes it, rather than outputting it to disk and then invoking the code as a separate program, as in usual ahead of time compilation. In modern architectures this runs into a problem due to executable space protection: arbitrary memory cannot be executed, as otherwise there is a potential security hole. Thus memory must be marked as executable; for security reasons this should be done "after" the code has been written to memory, and marked read-only, as writable/executable memory is a security hole (see W^X). For instance Firefox's JIT compiler for Javascript introduced this protection in a release version with Firefox 46.


title: Just-in-time compilation

text: JIT spraying is a class of computer security exploits that use JIT compilation for heap spraying: the resulting memory is then executable, which allows an exploit if execution can be moved into the heap.


title: Just-in-time compilation

text: JIT compilation can be applied to some programs, or can be used for certain capacities, particularly dynamic capacities such as regular expressions. For example, a text editor may compile a regular expression provided at runtime to machine code to allow faster matching: this cannot be done ahead of time, as the pattern is only provided at runtime. Several modern runtime environments rely on JIT compilation for high-speed code execution, including most implementations of Java, together with Microsoft's .NET. Similarly, many regular-expression libraries feature JIT compilation of regular expressions, either to bytecode or to machine code. JIT compilation is also used in some emulators, in order to translate machine code from one CPU architecture to another.


title: Just-in-time compilation

text: A common implementation of JIT compilation is to first have AOT compilation to bytecode (virtual machine code), known as "bytecode compilation", and then have JIT compilation to machine code (dynamic compilation), rather than interpretation of the bytecode. This improves the runtime performance compared to interpretation, at the cost of lag due to compilation. JIT compilers translate continuously, as with interpreters, but caching of compiled code minimizes lag on future execution of the same code during a given run. Since only part of the program is compiled, there is significantly less lag than if the entire program were compiled prior to execution.


title: Rectangle

text: In Euclidean plane geometry, a rectangle is a quadrilateral with four right angles. It can also be defined as: an equiangular quadrilateral, since equiangular means that all of its angles are equal (360°/4 = 90°); or a parallelogram containing a right angle. A rectangle with four sides of equal length is a "square". The term "oblong" is occasionally used to refer to a non-square rectangle. A rectangle with vertices "ABCD" would be denoted as .


title: Rectangle

text: The word rectangle comes from the Latin "rectangulus", which is a combination of "rectus" (as an adjective, right, proper) and "angulus" (angle).


title: Rectangle

text: A crossed rectangle is a crossed (self-intersecting) quadrilateral which consists of two opposite sides of a rectangle along with the two diagonals (therefore only two sides are parallel). It is a special case of an antiparallelogram, and its angles are not right angles and not all equal, though opposite angles are equal. Other geometries, such as spherical, elliptic, and hyperbolic, have so-called rectangles with opposite sides equal in length and equal angles that are not right angles.


title: Rectangle

text: Rectangles are involved in many tiling problems, such as tiling the plane by rectangles or tiling a rectangle by polygons.


title: Rectangle

text: A rectangle is a special case of a parallelogram in which each pair of adjacent sides is perpendicular.


title: Rectangle

text: A parallelogram is a special case of a trapezium (known as a trapezoid in North America) in which "both" pairs of opposite sides are parallel and equal in length.


title: Rectangle

text: De Villiers defines a rectangle more generally as any quadrilateral with axes of symmetry through each pair of opposite sides. This definition includes both right-angled rectangles and crossed rectangles. Each has an axis of symmetry parallel to and equidistant from a pair of opposite sides, and another which is the perpendicular bisector of those sides, but, in the case of the crossed rectangle, the first axis is not an axis of symmetry for either side that it bisects.


title: Rectangle

text: Quadrilaterals with two axes of symmetry, each through a pair of opposite sides, belong to the larger class of quadrilaterals with at least one axis of symmetry through a pair of opposite sides. These quadrilaterals comprise isosceles trapezia and crossed isosceles trapezia (crossed quadrilaterals with the same vertex arrangement as isosceles trapezia).


title: Rectangle

text: A rectangle in the plane can be defined by five independent degrees of freedom consisting, for example, of three for position (comprising two of translation and one of rotation), one for shape (aspect ratio), and one for overall size (area).


title: Rectangle

text: The isoperimetric theorem for rectangles states that among all rectangles of a given perimeter, the square has the largest area.


title: Rectangle

text: The Japanese theorem for cyclic quadrilaterals states that the incentres of the four triangles determined by the vertices of a cyclic quadrilateral taken three at a time form a rectangle.


title: Rectangle

text: The British flag theorem states that with vertices denoted "A", "B", "C", and "D", for any point "P" on the same plane of a rectangle:


title: Rectangle

text: For every convex body "C" in the plane, we can inscribe a rectangle "r" in "C" such that a homothetic copy "R" of "r" is circumscribed about "C" and the positive homothety ratio is at most 2 and formula_10.


title: Rectangle

text: A "crossed" "quadrilateral" (self-intersecting) consists of two opposite sides of a non-self-intersecting quadrilateral along with the two diagonals. Similarly, a crossed rectangle is a "crossed quadrilateral" which consists of two opposite sides of a rectangle along with the two diagonals. It has the same vertex arrangement as the rectangle. It appears as two identical triangles with a common vertex, but the geometric intersection is not considered a vertex.


title: Rectangle

text: A "crossed quadrilateral" is sometimes likened to a bow tie or butterfly, sometimes called an "angular eight". A three-dimensional rectangular wire frame that is twisted can take the shape of a bow tie.


title: Rectangle

text: The interior of a "crossed rectangle" can have a polygon density of ±1 in each triangle, dependent upon the winding orientation as clockwise or counterclockwise.


title: Rectangle

text: A "crossed rectangle" may be considered equiangular if right and left turns are allowed. As with any "crossed quadrilateral", the sum of its interior angles is 720°, allowing for internal angles to appear on the outside and exceed 180°.


title: Rectangle

text: In spherical geometry, a spherical rectangle is a figure whose four edges are great circle arcs which meet at equal angles greater than 90°. Opposite arcs are equal in length. The surface of a sphere in Euclidean solid geometry is a non-Euclidean surface in the sense of elliptic geometry. Spherical geometry is the simplest form of elliptic geometry.


title: Rectangle

text: In elliptic geometry, an elliptic rectangle is a figure in the elliptic plane whose four edges are elliptic arcs which meet at equal angles greater than 90°. Opposite arcs are equal in length.


title: Rectangle

text: In hyperbolic geometry, a hyperbolic rectangle is a figure in the hyperbolic plane whose four edges are hyperbolic arcs which meet at equal angles less than 90°. Opposite arcs are equal in length.


title: Rectangle

text: The rectangle is used in many periodic tessellation patterns, in brickwork, for example, these tilings:


title: Rectangle

text: A rectangle tiled by squares, rectangles, or triangles is said to be a "squared", "rectangled", or "triangulated" (or "triangled") rectangle respectively. The tiled rectangle is "perfect" if the tiles are similar and finite in number and no two tiles are the same size. If two such tiles are the same size, the tiling is "imperfect". In a perfect (or imperfect) triangled rectangle the triangles must be right triangles. A database of all known perfect rectangles, perfect squares and related shapes can be found at squaring.net. The lowest number of squares need for a perfect tiling of a rectangle is 9 and the lowest number needed for a perfect tilling a square is 21, found in 1978 by computer search.


title: Rectangle

text: A rectangle has commensurable sides if and only if it is tileable by a finite number of unequal squares. The same is true if the tiles are unequal isosceles right triangles.


title: Rectangle

text: The tilings of rectangles by other tiles which have attracted the most attention are those by congruent non-rectangular polyominoes, allowing all rotations and reflections. There are also tilings by congruent polyaboloes.


title: John Falstaff

text: Sir John Falstaff is a fictional character who appears in three plays by William Shakespeare and is eulogised in a fourth. His significance as a fully developed character is primarily formed in the plays "Henry IV, Part 1" and "Part 2", where he is a companion to Prince Hal, the future King Henry V of England. Falstaff is also featured as the buffoonish suitor of two married women in "The Merry Wives of Windsor". Though primarily a comic figure, Falstaff embodies a depth common to Shakespeare's major characters. A fat, vain, and boastful knight, he spends most of his time drinking at the Boar's Head Inn with petty criminals, living on stolen or borrowed money. Falstaff leads the apparently wayward Prince Hal into trouble, and is ultimately repudiated after Hal becomes king.


title: John Falstaff

text: Falstaff has since appeared in other media, including operas by Giuseppe Verdi, Ralph Vaughan Williams, and Otto Nicolai, and in Orson Welles' 1966 film "Chimes at Midnight". The operas focus on his role in "The Merry Wives of Windsor", while the film adapts from the Henriad and "The Merry Wives". Welles, who played Falstaff in his film, considered the character to be "Shakespeare's greatest creation".


title: John Falstaff

text: Falstaff appears in three of Shakespeare's plays: "Henry IV, Part 1", "Henry IV, Part 2", and "The Merry Wives of Windsor". His death is mentioned in "Henry V", but he has no lines, nor is it directed that he appear on stage. However, many stage and film adaptations have seen it necessary to include Falstaff for the insight he provides into King Henry V's character. The most notable examples in cinema are Laurence Olivier's 1944 version and Kenneth Branagh's 1989 film, both of which draw additional material from the "Henry IV" plays.


title: John Falstaff

text: The character is known to have been very popular with audiences at the time, and for many years afterwards. According to Leonard Digges, writing shortly after Shakespeare's death, while many plays could not get good audiences, "let but Falstaff come, Hal, Poins, the rest, you scarce shall have a room".


title: John Falstaff

text: King Henry is troubled by the behaviour of his son and heir, the Prince of Wales. Hal (the future Henry V) has lost his authority at court and spends his time in taverns with low companions. He has become an object of scorn to the nobility and his worthiness to succeed his father is doubted. Hal's main companion in enjoying the low life is Sir John Falstaff. Fat, old, drunk, and corrupt as he is, he has a charisma and a zest for life that captivates the Prince.


title: John Falstaff

text: Hal likes Falstaff but makes no pretence of being like him. He enjoys insulting his dissolute friend and makes sport of him. He and Poins pretend to go along with a plan by Falstaff and three friends to carry out a highway robbery, but then attack the robbers in disguise and in turn steal their loot, after which Hal returns it to its owner. Hal tells the audience that he will soon abandon this life and assume his rightful high place in affairs by showing himself worthy through some (unspecified) noble exploits. Hal believes that this sudden change will gain him additional approval and earn him respect at court.


title: John Falstaff

text: Falstaff, who has "misused the King's press damnably", by taking money from able-bodied men who wished to evade service and by keeping the wages of those he recruited who were killed in battle ("food for powder, food for powder") is obliged to play a role in the Battle of Shrewsbury. Left on his own during Hal's duel with Hotspur, he feigns death to avoid attack by Douglas. After Hal leaves both Hotspur and Falstaff on the field and being thought dead, Falstaff revives, stabs Hotspur's corpse in the thigh and claims credit for the kill. Though Hal knows better, he is merciful to Falstaff, who subsequently states that he wants to amend his life and begin "to live cleanly as a nobleman should do".


title: John Falstaff

text: The play focuses on Prince Hal's journey toward kingship, and his ultimate rejection of Falstaff. However, unlike "Part One", Hal's and Falstaff's stories are almost entirely separate, as the two characters meet only twice and very briefly. The tone of much of the play is elegiac, focusing on Falstaff's age and his closeness to death, which parallels that of the increasingly sick king.


title: John Falstaff

text: Falstaff is still drinking and engaging in petty criminality in the London underworld. He first appears, followed by a new character, a young page whom Prince Hal has assigned him as a joke. Falstaff enquires what the doctor has said about the analysis of his urine, and the page cryptically informs him that the urine is healthier than the patient. Falstaff delivers one of his most characteristic lines: "I am not only witty in myself, but the cause that wit is in other men." Falstaff promises to outfit the page in "vile apparel" (ragged clothing). He then complains of his insolvency, blaming it on "consumption of the purse." They go off, Falstaff vowing to find a wife "in the stews" (i.e., the local brothels).


title: John Falstaff

text: The Lord Chief Justice enters, looking for Falstaff. Falstaff at first feigns deafness in order to avoid conversing with him. When this tactic fails, Falstaff pretends to mistake him for someone else. As the Chief Justice attempts to question Falstaff about a recent robbery, Falstaff insists on turning the subject of the conversation to the nature of the illness afflicting the King. He then adopts the pretense of being a much younger man than the Chief Justice: "You that are old consider not the capacities of us that are young." Finally, he asks the Chief Justice for one thousand pounds to help outfit a military expedition, but is denied.


title: John Falstaff

text: He has a relationship with Doll Tearsheet, a prostitute, who gets into a fight with Ancient Pistol, Falstaff's ensign. After Falstaff ejects Pistol, Doll asks him about the Prince. Falstaff is embarrassed when his derogatory remarks are overheard by Hal, who is present disguised as a musician. Falstaff tries to talk his way out of it, but Hal is unconvinced. When news of a second rebellion arrives, Falstaff joins the army again, and goes to the country to raise forces. There he encounters an old school friend, Justice Shallow, and they reminisce about their youthful follies. Shallow brings forward potential recruits for the loyalist army: Mouldy, Bullcalf, Feeble, Shadow and Wart, a motley collection of rustic yokels. Falstaff and his cronies accept bribes from two of them, Mouldy and Bullcalf, not to be conscripted.


title: John Falstaff

text: In the final scene, Falstaff, having learned from Pistol that Hal is now King, travels to London in expectation of great rewards. But Hal rejects him, saying that he has now changed, and can no longer associate with such people. The London lowlifes, expecting a paradise of thieves under Hal's governance, are instead purged and imprisoned by the authorities.


title: John Falstaff

text: Although Falstaff does not appear on stage in "Henry V", his death is the main subject of Act 2, Scene 3, in which Mistress Quickly delivers a memorable eulogy:


title: John Falstaff

text: There is a similarity in Shakespeare's description of the death of Falstaff, and in Plato's description of the death of Socrates. In a description in Plato's dialogue "Phaedo", after Socrates has drunk hemlock, the man who gave him the poisonfelt him, and after an interval examined his feet and legs; he then pinched his foot hard and asked if he would feel it, and Socrates said not. And then he felt his shins once more; and moving upwards in this way, he showed us that he was becoming cold and numb. He went on feeling him and said the when the coldness reached his heart, he would be gone.


title: John Falstaff

text: Falstaff arrives in Windsor very short on money. To obtain financial advantage, he decides to court two wealthy married women, Mistress Ford and Mistress Page. Falstaff decides to send the women identical love letters and asks his servants – Pistol and Nym – to deliver them to the wives. When they refuse, Falstaff sacks them, and, in revenge, the men tell Ford and Page (the husbands) of Falstaff's intentions. Page is not concerned, but the jealous Ford persuades the Host of the Garter Inn to introduce him to Falstaff as a 'Master Brook' so that he can find out Falstaff's plans.


title: John Falstaff

text: When the women receive the letters, each goes to tell the other, and they quickly find that the letters are almost identical. The "merry wives" are not interested in the ageing, overweight Falstaff as a suitor; however, for the sake of their own amusement and to gain revenge for his indecent assumptions towards them both, they pretend to respond to his advances.


title: John Falstaff

text: This all results in great embarrassment for Falstaff. Mr. Ford poses as 'Mr. Brook' and says he is in love with Mistress Ford but cannot woo her as she is too virtuous. He offers to pay Falstaff to court her, saying that once she has lost her honour he will be able to tempt her himself. Falstaff cannot believe his luck, and tells 'Brook' he has already arranged to meet Mistress Ford while her husband is out. Falstaff leaves to keep his appointment and Ford soliloquises that he is right to suspect his wife and that the trusting Page is a fool.


title: John Falstaff

text: When Falstaff arrives to meet Mistress Ford, the merry wives trick him into hiding in a laundry basket ("buck basket") full of filthy, smelly clothes awaiting laundering. When the jealous Ford returns to try and catch his wife with the knight, the wives have the basket taken away and the contents (including Falstaff) dumped into the river. Although this affects Falstaff's pride, his ego is surprisingly resilient. He is convinced that the wives are just playing hard to get with him, so he continues his pursuit of sexual advancement, with its attendant capital and opportunities for blackmail.


title: John Falstaff

text: Again Falstaff goes to meet the women but Mistress Page comes back and warns Mistress Ford of her husband's approach again. They try to think of ways to hide him other than the laundry basket which he refuses to get into again. They trick him again, this time into disguising himself as Mistress Ford's maid's obese aunt, known as "the fat woman of Brentford". Ford tries once again to catch his wife with the knight but ends up beating the "old woman", whom he despises, and throwing her out of his house. Black and blue, Falstaff laments his bad luck.


title: John Falstaff

text: Eventually the wives tell their husbands about the series of jokes they have played on Falstaff, and together they devise one last trick which ends up with the Knight being humiliated in front of the whole town. They tell Falstaff to dress as "Herne, the Hunter" and meet them by an old oak tree in Windsor Forest (now part of Windsor Great Park). They then dress several of the local children as fairies and get them to pinch and burn Falstaff to punish him.


title: John Falstaff

text: The wives meet Falstaff, and almost immediately the "fairies" attack. After the chaos, the characters reveal their true identities to Falstaff. Although he is embarrassed, Falstaff takes the joke surprisingly well, as he sees it was what he deserved. Ford says he must pay back the 20 pounds 'Brook' gave him and takes the Knight's horses as recompense. Eventually they all leave together and Mistress Page even invites Falstaff to come with them: "let us every one go home, and laugh this sport o'er by a country fire; Sir John and all".


title: John Falstaff

text: Shakespeare originally named Falstaff "John Oldcastle". Lord Cobham, a descendant of the historical John Oldcastle (d. 1417), complained, forcing Shakespeare to change the name. Shakespeare's "Henry IV" plays and "Henry V" adapted and developed the material in an earlier play called "The Famous Victories of Henry V", in which Sir John "Jockey" Oldcastle appears as a dissolute companion of the young Henry. Prince Hal refers to Falstaff as "my old lad of the castle" in the first act of the play; the epilogue to "Henry IV, Part 2", moreover, explicitly disavows any connection between Falstaff and Oldcastle: "Oldcastle died a martyr, and this is not the man."


title: John Falstaff

text: The historical Oldcastle was a Lollard who was executed for heresy and rebellion, and he was respected by many Protestants as a martyr. In addition to the anonymous "The Famous Victories of Henry V", in which Oldcastle is Henry V's companion, Oldcastle's history is described in Raphael Holinshed's "Chronicles", Shakespeare's usual source for his histories.


title: John Falstaff

text: It is not clear, however, if Shakespeare characterised Falstaff as he did for dramatic purposes, or because of a specific desire to satirise Oldcastle or the Cobhams. Cobham was a common butt of veiled satire in Elizabethan popular literature; he figures in Ben Jonson's "Every Man in His Humour" and may have been part of the reason "The Isle of Dogs" was suppressed. Shakespeare's desire to burlesque a hero of early English Protestantism could indicate Roman Catholic sympathies, but Henry Brooke, 11th Baron Cobham was sufficiently sympathetic to Catholicism that in 1603, he was imprisoned as part of the Main Plot to place Arbella Stuart on the English throne, so if Shakespeare wished to use Oldcastle to embarrass the Cobhams, he seems unlikely to have done so on religious grounds.


title: John Falstaff

text: The Cobhams appear to have intervened while Shakespeare was in the process of writing either "The Merry Wives of Windsor" or the second part of "Henry IV". The first part of "Henry IV" was probably written and performed in 1596, and the name Oldcastle had almost certainly been allowed by Master of the Revels Edmund Tilney. William Brooke, 10th Baron Cobham may have become aware of the offensive representation after a public performance; he may also have learned of it while it was being prepared for a court performance (Cobham was at that time Lord Chamberlain). As father-in-law to the newly widowed Robert Cecil, Cobham certainly possessed the influence at court to get his complaint heard quickly. Shakespeare may have included a sly retaliation against the complaint in his play "The Merry Wives of Windsor" (published after the "Henry IV" series). In the play, the paranoid, jealous Master Ford uses the alias "Brook" to fool Falstaff, perhaps in reference to William Brooke. At any rate, the name is Falstaff in the "Henry IV, Part 1" quarto, of 1598, and the epilogue to the second part, published in 1600, contains this clarification:


title: John Falstaff

text: The new name "Falstaff" probably derived from the medieval knight Sir John Fastolf (who may also have been a Lollard). The historical John Fastolf fought at the Battle of Patay against Joan of Arc, which the English lost. Fastolf's previous actions as a soldier had earned him wide respect, but he seems to have become a scapegoat after the debacle. He was among the few English military leaders to avoid death or capture during the battle, and although there is no evidence that he acted with cowardice, he was temporarily stripped of his knighthood. Fastolf appears in "Henry VI, Part 1" in which he is portrayed as an abject coward. In the" First Folio "his name is spelled "Falstaffe", so Shakespeare may have directly appropriated the spelling of the name he used in the earlier play. In a further comic double meaning, the name implies impotence.


title: John Falstaff

text: It has been suggested that the dissolute writer Robert Greene may also have been an inspiration for the character of Falstaff. This theory was first proposed in 1930 and has been championed by Stephen Greenblatt. Notorious for a life of dissipation and debauchery somewhat similar to Falstaff, he was among the first to mention Shakespeare in his work (in "Greene's Groats-Worth of Wit"), suggesting to Greenblatt that the older writer may have influenced Shakespeare's characterisation.


title: John Falstaff

text: All references to "Henry IV, Part 1", "Henry IV, Part 2", and "The Merry Wives of Windsor", unless otherwise specified, are taken from the Folger Shakespeare Library's "Folger Digital Editions" texts edited by Barbara Mowat, Paul Werstine, Michael Poston, and Rebecca Niles. Under their referencing system, 3.1.55 means act 3, scene 1, line 55.


title: Kingdom of Nepal

text: The Kingdom of Nepal (), also known as the Gorkha Empire () or Asal Hindustan ()(), was a Hindu kingdom in South Asia, formed in 1768, by the unification of Nepal. Founded by King Prithvi Narayan Shah, a Gorkha monarch who claimed to be of Khas Thakuri origin, it existed for 240 years until the abolition of the Nepalese monarchy in 2008. During this period, Nepal was formally under the rule of the Shah dynasty, which exercised varying degrees of power during the kingdom's existence.


title: Kingdom of Nepal

text: After the invasion of Tibet and plundering of Digarcha by Nepali forces under Prince Regent Bahadur Shah in 1792, the Dalai Lama and Chinese Ambans reported to the Chinese administration for military support. The Chinese and Tibetan forces under Fuk'anggan attacked Nepal but went for negotiations after failure at Nuwakot. "Mulkaji" Damodar Pande, who was the most influential among the four Kajis, was appointed after removal of Bahadur Shah. Chief "Kaji" ("Mulkaji") Kirtiman Singh Basnyat, tried to protect king Girvan Yuddha Shah and keep former king, Rana Bahadur Shah away from Nepal. However, on 4 March 1804, the former king came back and took over as "Mukhtiyar" (premier) and Damodar Pande was then beheaded in Thankot. The 1806 Bhandarkhal massacre instigated upon the death of Rana Bahadur Shah, set forth the rise of authoritative "Mukhtiyar" Bhimsen Thapa, who became the "de facto" ruler of Nepal from 1806 to 1837. During the early nineteenth century, however, the expansion of the East India Company's rule in India led to the Anglo-Nepalese War (1814–1816), which resulted in Nepal's defeat. Under the Treaty of Sugauli, the kingdom retained its internal independence, but in exchange for territorial concessions, marking the Mechi and Sharda rivers as the boundary of Nepalese territories. The territory of the kingdom before the Sugauli treaty is sometimes nascently referred to as "Greater Nepal". In the political scenario, the death of "Mukhtiyar" Mathbar Singh Thapa ended the Thapa hegemony and set the stage for the Kot massacre. This resulted in the ascendancy of the Rana dynasty of Khas (Chhetri) and made the office of the Prime Minister of Nepal hereditary in their family for the next century, from 1843 to 1951. Beginning with Jung Bahadur, the first Rana ruler, the Rana dynasty reduced the Shah monarch to a figurehead role. The Rana rule was marked by tyranny, debauchery, economic exploitation and religious persecution.


title: Kingdom of Nepal

text: In July 1950, the newly independent Republic of India signed a friendship treaty in which both nations agreed to respect the other's sovereignty. In November of the same year, India played an important role in supporting King Tribhuvan, whom the Rana leader Mohan Shumsher Jang Bahadur Rana had attempted to depose and replace with his infant grandson who would later become King Gyanendra. With Indian support for a new government consisting largely of the Nepali Congress, King Tribhuvan ended the Rana regime in 1951.


title: Kingdom of Nepal

text: Unsuccessful attempts were made to implement reforms and adopt a constitution during the 1960s and 1970s. An economic crisis at the end of the 1980s led to a popular movement that brought about parliamentary elections and the adoption of a constitutional monarchy in 1990. The 1990s saw the beginning of the Nepalese Civil War (1996–2006), a conflict between government forces and the insurgent forces of the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist). The situation of the Nepalese monarchy was further destabilised by the 2001 Nepalese royal massacre.


title: Kingdom of Nepal

text: As a result of the massacre, King Gyanendra returned to the throne. His imposition of direct rule in 2005 provoked a protest movement unifying the Maoist insurgency and pro-democracy activists. He was eventually forced to restore the House of Representatives, which in 2007 adopted an interim constitution greatly restricting the powers of the Nepalese monarchy. Following an election held the next year, the Nepalese Constituent Assembly formally abolished the kingdom in its first session on 28 May 2008, declaring the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal in its place.


title: Kingdom of Nepal

text: Until the abolition of the monarchy, Nepal was the world's only country to have Hinduism as its state religion; since becoming a republic, the country is now formally a secular state.


title: Kingdom of Nepal

text: The country was expanded from the one of the Chaubise principality called the Gorkha Kingdom. The Parbate Brahmins and the ruling Shah dynasty as well as the Chhetri (Kshatriya) aristocratic clans such as the Pande family, Basnyat family, Thapa dynasty and Kunwar family (later Rana dynasty) among the Gorkhali people trace their ancestry to the Hindu Rajputs and Brahmins of Northern India who entered modern Nepal from the West following Muslim advances. The actual historical process however by which this migration took place and the history of the Gorkhalis' ultimate conquest of Nepal span a couple of centuries and are drastically different from what Chauhan proposes. More importantly, Chauhan's overall thesis claiming the existence of a Gurkha identity way before the Shahs came to the Nepali hills is not supported by historical evidence available in Nepal. In Nepal, the warrior people are not referred to as 'Gurkhas', they are called 'Gorkhalis', meaning the 'inhabitants of Gorkha.' Their famed battle cry is ""Jai Kali, Jai Gorakhnath, Jai Manakamana"".