title: Genealogy

text: The American Society of Genealogists is the scholarly honorary society of the U.S. genealogical field. Founded by John Insley Coddington, Arthur Adams, and Meredith B. Colket, Jr., in December 1940, its membership is limited to 50 living fellows. ASG has semi-annually published "The Genealogist", a scholarly journal of genealogical research, since 1980. Fellows of the American Society of Genealogists, who bear the post-nominal acronym FASG, have written some of the most notable genealogical materials of the last half-century.


title: Genealogy

text: Some of the most notable scholarly American genealogical journals are "The American Genealogist", "National Genealogical Society Quarterly", "The New England Historical and Genealogical Register", "The New York Genealogical and Biographical Record", and "The Genealogist".


title: Genealogy

text: Genealogical research is a complex process that uses historical records and sometimes genetic analysis to demonstrate kinship. Reliable conclusions are based on the quality of sources (ideally, original records), the information within those sources, (ideally, primary or firsthand information), and the evidence that can be drawn (directly or indirectly), from that information. In many instances, genealogists must skillfully assemble indirect or circumstantial evidence to build a case for identity and kinship. All evidence and conclusions, together with the documentation that supports them, is then assembled to create a cohesive genealogy or family history.


title: Genealogy

text: Genealogists begin their research by collecting family documents and stories. This creates a foundation for documentary research, which involves examining and evaluating historical records for evidence about ancestors and other relatives, their kinship ties, and the events that occurred in their lives. As a rule, genealogists begin with the present and work backwards in time. Historical, social, and family context is essential to achieving correct identification of individuals and relationships. Source citation is also important when conducting genealogical research. To keep track of collected material, family group sheets and pedigree charts are used. Formerly handwritten, these can now be generated by genealogical software.


title: Genealogy

text: Because a person's DNA contains information that has been passed down relatively unchanged from early ancestors, analysis of DNA is sometimes used for genealogical research. Three DNA types are of particular interest. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is contained in the mitochondria of the egg cell and is passed down from a mother to all of her children, both male and female; however, only females pass it on to their children. Y-DNA is present only in males and is passed down from a father to his sons (direct male line) with only minor mutations occurring over time. Autosomal DNA (atDNA), is found in the 22 non-sex chromosomes (autosomes) and is inherited from both parents; thus, it can uncover relatives from any branch of the family. A genealogical DNA test allows two individuals to find the probability that they are, or are not, related within an estimated number of generations. Individual genetic test results are collected in databases to match people descended from a relatively recent common ancestor. See, for example, the Molecular Genealogy Research Project. Some tests are limited to either the patrilineal or the matrilineal line.


title: Genealogy

text: Most genealogy software programs can export information about persons and their relationships in a standardized format called a GEDCOM. In that format, it can be shared with other genealogists, added to databases, or converted into family web sites. Social networking service (SNS) websites allow genealogists to share data and build their family trees online. Members can upload their family trees and contact other family historians to fill in gaps in their research. In addition to the (SNS) websites, there are other resources that encourage genealogists to connect and share information, such as rootsweb.ancestry.com and rsl.rootsweb.ancestry.com.


title: Genealogy

text: Volunteer efforts figure prominently in genealogy. These range from the extremely informal to the highly organized.


title: Genealogy

text: On the informal side are the many popular and useful message boards such as Rootschat and mailing lists on particular surnames, regions, and other topics. These forums can be used to try to find relatives, request record lookups, obtain research advice, and much more. Many genealogists participate in loosely organized projects, both online and off. These collaborations take numerous forms. Some projects prepare name indexes for records, such as probate cases, and publish the indexes, either online or off. These indexes can be used as finding aids to locate original records. Other projects transcribe or abstract records. Offering record lookups for particular geographic areas is another common service. Volunteers do record lookups or take photos in their home areas for researchers who are unable to travel.


title: Genealogy

text: Those looking for a structured volunteer environment can join one of thousands of genealogical societies worldwide. Most societies have a unique area of focus, such as a particular surname, ethnicity, geographic area, or descendancy from participants in a given historical event. Genealogical societies are almost exclusively staffed by volunteers and may offer a broad range of services, including maintaining libraries for members' use, publishing newsletters, providing research assistance to the public, offering classes or seminars, and organizing record preservation or transcription projects.


title: Genealogy

text: Genealogy software is used to collect, store, sort, and display genealogical data. At a minimum, genealogy software accommodates basic information about individuals, including births, marriages, and deaths. Many programs allow for additional biographical information, including occupation, residence, and notes, and most also offer a method for keeping track of the sources for each piece of evidence.


title: Genealogy

text: Most programs can generate basic kinship charts and reports, allow for the import of digital photographs and the export of data in the GEDCOM format (short for GEnealogical Data COMmunication) so that data can be shared with those using other genealogy software. More advanced features include the ability to restrict the information that is shared, usually by removing information about living people out of privacy concerns; the import of sound files; the generation of family history books, web pages and other publications; the ability to handle same-sex marriages and children born out of wedlock; searching the Internet for data; and the provision of research guidance. Programs may be geared toward a specific religion, with fields relevant to that religion, or to specific nationalities or ethnic groups, with source types relevant for those groups. Online resources involve complex programming and large data bases, such as censuses.


title: Genealogy

text: Genealogists use a wide variety of records in their research. To effectively conduct genealogical research, it is important to understand how the records were created, what information is included in them, and how and where to access them.


title: Genealogy

text: To keep track of their citizens, governments began keeping records of persons who were neither royalty nor nobility. In England and Germany, for example, such record keeping started with parish registers in the 16th century. As more of the population was recorded, there were sufficient records to follow a family. Major life events, such as births, marriages, and deaths, were often documented with a license, permit, or report. Genealogists locate these records in local, regional or national offices or archives and extract information about family relationships and recreate timelines of persons' lives.


title: Genealogy

text: In China, India and other Asian countries, genealogy books are used to record the names, occupations, and other information about family members, with some books dating back hundreds or even thousands of years. In the eastern Indian state of Bihar, there is a written tradition of genealogical records among Maithil Brahmins and Karna Kayasthas called "Panjis", dating to the 12th century CE. Even today these records are consulted prior to marriages.


title: Genealogy

text: In Ireland, genealogical records were recorded by professional families of "senchaidh" (historians) until as late as the mid-17th century. Perhaps the most outstanding example of this genre is Leabhar na nGenealach/The Great Book of Irish Genealogies, by Dubhaltach MacFhirbhisigh (d. 1671), published in 2004.


title: Genealogy

text: The LDS Church has engaged in large-scale microfilming of records of genealogical value. Its Family History Library in Salt Lake City, Utah, houses over 2 million microfiche and microfilms of genealogically relevant material, which are also available for on-site research at over 4,500 Family History Centers worldwide.


title: Genealogy

text: FamilySearch's website includes many resources for genealogists: a FamilyTree database, historical records, digitized family history books, resources and indexing for African American genealogy such as slave and bank records, and a Family History Research Wiki containing research guidance articles.


title: Genealogy

text: Indexing is the process of transcribing parish records, city vital records, and other reports, to a digital database for searching. Volunteers and professionals participate in the indexing process. Since 2006, the microfilm in the FamilySearch granite mountain vault is in the process of being digitally scanned, available online, and eventually indexed.


title: Genealogy

text: For example, after the 72-year legal limit for releasing personal information for the United States Census was reached in 2012, genealogical groups cooperated to index the 132 million residents registered in the 1940 United States Census.


title: Genealogy

text: Between 2006 and 2012, the FamilySearch indexing effort produced more than 1 billion searchable records.


title: Genealogy

text: Sometimes genealogical records are destroyed, whether accidentally or on purpose. In order to do thorough research, genealogists keep track of which records have been destroyed so they know when information they need may be missing. Of particular note for North American genealogy is the 1890 United States Census, which was destroyed in a fire in 1921. Although fragments survive, most of the 1890 census no longer exists. Those looking for genealogical information for families that lived in the United States in 1890 must rely on other information to fill that gap.


title: Genealogy

text: War is another cause of record destruction. During World War II, many European records were destroyed. Communists in China during the Cultural Revolution and in Korea during the Korean War destroyed genealogy books kept by families.


title: Genealogy

text: Often records are destroyed due to accident or neglect. Since genealogical records are often kept on paper and stacked in high-density storage, they are prone to fire, mold, insect damage, and eventual disintegration. Sometimes records of genealogical value are deliberately destroyed by governments or organizations because the records are considered to be unimportant or a privacy risk. Because of this, genealogists often organize efforts to preserve records that are at risk of destruction. FamilySearch has an ongoing program that assesses what useful genealogical records have the most risk of being destroyed, and sends volunteers to digitize such records. In 2017, the government of Sierra Leone asked FamilySearch for help preserving their rapidly deteriorating vital records. FamilySearch has begun digitizing the records and making them available online. The Federation of Genealogical Societies also organized an effort to preserve and digitize United States War of 1812 pension records. In 2010, they began raising funds, which were contribute by genealogists around the United States and matched by Ancestry.com. Their goal was achieved and the process of digitization was able to begin. The digitized records are available for free online.


title: Genealogy

text: Genealogists who seek to reconstruct the lives of each ancestor consider all historical information to be "genealogical" information. Traditionally, the basic information needed to ensure correct identification of each person are place names, occupations, family names, first names, and dates. However, modern genealogists greatly expand this list, recognizing the need to place this information in its historical context in order to properly evaluate genealogical evidence and distinguish between same-name individuals. A great deal of information is available for British ancestry with growing resources for other ethnic groups.


title: Genealogy

text: Family names are simultaneously one of the most important pieces of genealogical information, and a source of significant confusion for researchers.


title: Genealogy

text: In many cultures, the name of a person refers to the family to which they belongs. This is called the "family name", "surname", or "last name". Patronymics are names that identify an individual based on the father's name. For example, Marga Olafsdottir is Marga, daughter of Olaf, and Olaf Thorsson is Olaf, son of Thor. Many cultures used patronymics before surnames were adopted or came into use. The Dutch in New York, for example, used the patronymic system of names until 1687 when the advent of English rule mandated surname usage. In Iceland, patronymics are used by a majority of the population. In Denmark and Norway patronymics and farm names were generally in use through the 19th century and beyond, though surnames began to come into fashion toward the end of the 19th century in some parts of the country. Not until 1856 in Denmark and 1923 in Norway were there laws requiring surnames.


title: Genealogy

text: The transmission of names across generations, marriages and other relationships, and immigration may cause difficulty in genealogical research. For instance, women in many cultures have routinely used their spouse's surnames. When a woman remarried, she may have changed her name and the names of her children; only her name; or changed no names. Her birth name (maiden name) may be reflected in her children's middle names; her own middle name; or dropped entirely. Children may sometimes assume stepparent, foster parent, or adoptive parent names. Because official records may reflect many kinds of surname change, without explaining the underlying reason for the change, the correct identification of a person recorded identified with more than one name is challenging. Immigrants to America often Americanized their names.


title: Genealogy

text: Genealogical data regarding given names (first names) is subject to many of the same problems as are family names and place names. Additionally, the use of nicknames is very common. For example, Beth, Lizzie or Betty are all common for Elizabeth, and Jack, John and Jonathan may be interchanged.


title: Genealogy

text: Middle names provide additional information. Middle names may be inherited, follow naming customs, or be treated as part of the family name. For instance, in some Latin cultures, both the mother's family name and the father's family name are used by the children.


title: Genealogy

text: Historically, naming traditions existed in some places and cultures. Even in areas that tended to use naming conventions, however, they were by no means universal. Families may have used them some of the time, among some of their children, or not at all. A pattern might also be broken to name a newborn after a recently deceased sibling, aunt or uncle.


title: Genealogy

text: Another example is in some areas of Germany, where siblings were given the same first name, often of a favourite saint or local nobility, but different second names by which they were known ("Rufname"). If a child died, the next child of the same gender that was born may have been given the same name. It is not uncommon that a list of a particular couple's children will show one or two names repeated.


title: Genealogy

text: Personal names have periods of popularity, so it is not uncommon to find many similarly named people in a generation, and even similarly named families; e.g., "William and Mary and their children David, Mary, and John".


title: Genealogy

text: Many names may be identified strongly with a particular gender; e.g., William for boys, and Mary for girls. Others may be ambiguous, e.g., Lee, or have only slightly variant spellings based on gender, e.g., Frances (usually female) and Francis (usually male).


title: Genealogy

text: While the locations of ancestors' residences and life events are core elements of the genealogist's quest, they can often be confusing. Place names may be subject to variant spellings by partially literate scribes. Locations may have identical or very similar names. For example, the village name Brockton occurs six times in the border area between the English counties of Shropshire and Staffordshire. Shifts in political borders must also be understood. Parish, county, and national borders have frequently been modified. Old records may contain references to farms and villages that have ceased to exist. When working with older records from Poland, where borders and place names have changed frequently in past centuries, a source with maps and sample records such as "A Translation Guide to 19th-Century Polish-Language Civil-Registration Documents" can be invaluable.


title: Genealogy

text: Available sources may include vital records (civil or church registration), censuses, and tax assessments. Oral tradition is also an important source, although it must be used with caution. When no source information is available for a location, circumstantial evidence may provide a probable answer based on a person's or a family's place of residence at the time of the event.


title: Genealogy

text: Maps and gazetteers are important sources for understanding the places researched. They show the relationship of an area to neighboring communities and may be of help in understanding migration patterns. Family tree mapping using online mapping tools such as Google Earth (particularly when used with Historical Map overlays such as those from the David Rumsey Historical Map Collection) assist in the process of understanding the significance of geographical locations.


title: Genealogy

text: It is wise to exercise extreme caution with dates. Dates are more difficult to recall years after an event, and are more easily mistranscribed than other types of genealogical data. Therefore, one should determine whether the date was recorded at the time of the event or at a later date. Dates of birth in vital records or civil registrations and in church records at baptism are generally accurate because they were usually recorded near the time of the event. Family Bibles are often a source for dates, but can be written from memory long after the event. When the same ink and handwriting is used for all entries, the dates were probably written at the same time and therefore will be less reliable since the earlier dates were probably recorded well after the event. The publication date of the Bible also provides a clue about when the dates were recorded since they could not have been recorded at any earlier date.


title: Genealogy

text: People sometimes reduce their age on marriage, and those under "full age" may increase their age in order to marry or to join the armed forces. Census returns are notoriously unreliable for ages or for assuming an approximate death date. Ages over 15 in the 1841 census in the UK are rounded down to the next lower multiple of five years.


title: Genealogy

text: Although baptismal dates are often used to approximate birth dates, some families waited years before baptizing children, and adult baptisms are the norm in some religions. Both birth and marriage dates may have been adjusted to cover for pre-wedding pregnancies.


title: Genealogy

text: Calendar changes must also be considered. In 1752, England and her American colonies changed from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar. In the same year, the date the new year began was changed. Prior to 1752 it was 25 March; this was changed to 1 January. Many other European countries had already made the calendar changes before England had, sometimes centuries earlier. By 1751 there was an 11-day discrepancy between the date in England and the date in other European countries.


title: Genealogy

text: For further detail on the changes involved in moving from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar, see: Gregorian calendar.


title: Genealogy

text: The French Republican Calendar or French Revolutionary Calendar was a calendar proposed during the French Revolution, and used by the French government for about 12 years from late 1793 to 1805, and for 18 days in 1871 in Paris. Dates in official records at this time use the revolutionary calendar and need "translating" into the Gregorian calendar for calculating ages etc. There are various websites which do this.


title: Genealogy

text: Occupational information may be important to understanding an ancestor's life and for distinguishing two people with the same name. A person's occupation may have been related to his or her social status, political interest, and migration pattern. Since skilled trades are often passed from father to son, occupation may also be indirect evidence of a family relationship.


title: Genealogy

text: It is important to remember that a person may change occupations, and that titles change over time as well. Some workers no longer fit for their primary trade often took less prestigious jobs later in life, while others moved upwards in prestige. Many unskilled ancestors had a variety of jobs depending on the season and local trade requirements. Census returns may contain some embellishment; e.g., from labourer to mason, or from journeyman to master craftsman. Names for old or unfamiliar local occupations may cause confusion if poorly legible. For example, an ostler (a keeper of horses) and a hostler (an innkeeper) could easily be confused for one another. Likewise, descriptions of such occupations may also be problematic. The perplexing description "ironer of rabbit burrows" may turn out to describe an ironer (profession) in the Bristol district named Rabbit Burrows. Several trades have regionally preferred terms. For example, "shoemaker" and "cordwainer" have the same meaning. Finally, many apparently obscure jobs are part of a larger trade community, such as watchmaking, framework knitting or gunmaking.


title: Genealogy

text: Occupational data may be reported in occupational licences, tax assessments, membership records of professional organizations, trade directories, census returns, and vital records (civil registration). Occupational dictionaries are available to explain many obscure and archaic trades.


title: Genealogy

text: Information found in historical or genealogical sources can be unreliable and it is good practice to evaluate all sources with a critical eye. Factors influencing the reliability of genealogical information include: the knowledge of the informant (or writer); the bias and mental state of the informant (or writer); the passage of time and the potential for copying and compiling errors.


title: Genealogy

text: The quality of census data has been of special interest to historians, who have investigated reliability issues.


title: Genealogy

text: The informant is the individual who provided the recorded information. Genealogists must carefully consider who provided the information and what they knew. In many cases the informant is identified in the record itself. For example, a death certificate usually has two informants: a physician who provides information about the time and cause of death and a family member who provides the birth date, names of parents, etc.


title: Genealogy

text: When the informant is not identified, one can sometimes deduce information about the identity of the person by careful examination of the source. One should first consider who was alive (and nearby) when the record was created. When the informant is also the person recording the information, the handwriting can be compared to other handwriting samples.


title: Genealogy

text: When a source does not provide clues about the informant, genealogists should treat the source with caution. These sources can be useful if they can be compared with independent sources. For example, a census record by itself cannot be given much weight because the informant is unknown. However, when censuses for several years concur on a piece of information that would not likely be guessed by a neighbor, it is likely that the information in these censuses was provided by a family member or other informed person. On the other hand, information in a single census cannot be confirmed by information in an undocumented compiled genealogy since the genealogy may have used the census record as its source and might therefore be dependent on the same misinformed individual.


title: Genealogy

text: Even individuals who had knowledge of the fact, sometimes intentionally or unintentionally provided false or misleading information. A person may have lied in order to obtain a government benefit (such as a military pension), avoid taxation, or cover up an embarrassing situation (such as the existence of a non-marital child). A person with a distressed state of mind may not be able to accurately recall information. Many genealogical records were recorded at the time of a loved one's death, and so genealogists should consider the effect that grief may have had on the informant of these records.


title: Genealogy

text: The passage of time often affects a person's ability to recall information. Therefore, as a general rule, data recorded soon after the event are usually more reliable than data recorded many years later. However, some types of data are more difficult to recall after many years than others. One type especially prone to recollection errors is dates. Also the ability to recall is affected by the significance that the event had to the individual. These values may have been affected by cultural or individual preferences.


title: Genealogy

text: Genealogists must consider the effects that copying and compiling errors may have had on the information in a source. For this reason, sources are generally categorized in two categories: original and derivative. An original source is one that is not based on another source. A derivative source is information taken from another source. This distinction is important because each time a source is copied, information about the record may be lost and errors may result from the copyist misreading, mistyping, or miswriting the information. Genealogists should consider the number of times information has been copied and the types of derivation a piece of information has undergone. The types of derivatives include: photocopies, transcriptions, abstracts, translations, extractions, and compilations.


title: Genealogy

text: In addition to copying errors, compiled sources (such as published genealogies and online pedigree databases) are susceptible to misidentification errors and incorrect conclusions based on circumstantial evidence. Identity errors usually occur when two or more individuals are assumed to be the same person. Circumstantial or indirect evidence does not explicitly answer a genealogical question, but either may be used with other sources to answer the question, suggest a probable answer, or eliminate certain possibilities. Compilers sometimes draw hasty conclusions from circumstantial evidence without sufficiently examining all available sources, without properly understanding the evidence, and without appropriately indicating the level of uncertainty.


title: Genealogy

text: In genealogical research, information can be obtained from primary or secondary sources. Primary sources are records that were made at the time of the event, for example a death certificate would be a primary source for a person's death date and place. Secondary sources are records that are made days, weeks, months, or even years after an event.


title: Genealogy

text: Organizations that educate and certify genealogists have established standards and ethical guidelines they instruct genealogists to follow.


title: Genealogy

text: Genealogy research requires analyzing documents and drawing conclusions based on the evidence provided in the available documents. Genealogists need standards to determine whether or not their evaluation of the evidence is accurate. In the past, genealogists in the United States borrowed terms from judicial law to examine evidence found in documents and how they relate to the researcher's conclusions. However, the differences between the two disciplines created a need for genealogists to develop their own standards. In 2000, the Board for Certification of Genealogists published their first manual of standards. The Genealogical Proof Standard created by the Board for Certification of Genealogists is widely distributed in seminars, workshops, and educational materials for genealogists in the United States. Other genealogical organizations around the world have created similar standards they invite genealogists to follow. Such standards provide guidelines for genealogists to evaluate their own research as well as the research of others.


title: Genealogy

text: Genealogists often handle sensitive information and share and publish such information. Because of this, there is a need for ethical standards and boundaries for when information is too sensitive to be published. Historically, some genealogists have fabricated information or have otherwise been untrustworthy. Genealogical organizations around the world have outlined ethical standards as an attempt to eliminate such problems. Ethical standards adopted by various genealogical organizations include:


title: Genealogy

text: In 2015, a committee presented standards for genetic genealogy at the Salt Lake Institute of Genealogy. The standards emphasize that genealogists and testing companies should respect the privacy of clients and recognize the limits of DNA tests. It also discusses how genealogists should thoroughly document conclusions made using DNA evidence. In 2019, the Board for the Certification of Genealogists officially updated their standards and code of ethics to include standards for genetic genealogy.


title: Stoner rock

text: Stoner rock, also known as stoner metal or stoner doom, is a rock music fusion genre that combines elements of doom metal with psychedelic rock and acid rock. The genre emerged during the early 1990s and was pioneered foremost by Kyuss and Sleep.


title: Stoner rock

text: Stoner rock is typically slow-to-mid tempo and features a heavily distorted, groove-laden bass-heavy sound, melodic vocals, and "retro" production. Due to the similarities between stoner and sludge metal, there is often a crossover between the two genres. This hybrid has traits of both styles, but generally lacks stoner metal's laid back atmosphere and its usage of psychedelia.


title: Stoner rock

text: The descriptor "stoner rock" may originate from the title of the 1997 Roadrunner Records compilation "Burn One Up! Music for Stoners". Desert rock is also used interchangeably as a descriptor, and was coined by a MeteorCity Records intern, around the time the label released the 1998 stoner rock compilation "Welcome to MeteorCity"; however, not all stoner rock bands would fall under the descriptor of "desert rock", since bands under this subgenre tend to include more hard rock characteristics.


title: Stoner rock

text: The involvement of cannabis in the creation of "stoner rock/metal" can range among bands in the genre. Bands such as Sleep have involved the concept of cannabis to be part of the core of their albums and songs. The consumption of cannabis is common in the live performances of some stoner rock/metal bands, and bands such as Electric Wizard are known to have concerts with the band members and the crowd participating in smoking cannabis. "Dopesmoker ("previously "Jerusalem") by Sleep received controversy because the 60-minute song is about cannabis, which resulted in conflict with Sleep's record company. Some members of the genre state that "stoner rock is a style, not life," which is interpreted as the band members do not participate in smoking cannabis or are influenced by cannabis. However, the style of their music reflects the sound of "stoner rock/metal." Bands such as King Caravan and Sea of Green have come under terms with this statement. Similarly, Matt Pike from the band High on Fire stated, "It's a very strong scene, but I don't think any of the stoner rock bands want to be labeled as stoner rock ... I might use the word 'stoner' in my lyrics, but I think we're metal, dude. I'd say I was crossover metal, actually, or progressive metal. It's kind of a tough thing to lump into a category, but I guess we get the stoner-rock label because of the whole pot thing."


title: Stoner rock

text: Like most subgenres of music, the origins of stoner rock are hard to trace and pinpoint. Nevertheless, several known progenitors and signature songs are widely credited with helping to shape the genre. Blue Cheer is considered one of the pioneers of the style; as AllMusic author Greg Prato puts it, "When talks about 'stoner rock' come up, one band that tends to get overlooked is Blue Cheer." According to critic Mark Deming, Blue Cheer's first album, "Vincebus Eruptum", "is a glorious celebration of rock & roll primitivism run through enough Marshall amps to deafen an army," not unlike the heaviness of MC5's "Kick Out the Jams" and the Velvet Underground's "White Light/White Heat".


title: Stoner rock

text: "Rolling Stone" claims, "What stoner rock delivers, slowed down and magnified, is the riff, the persistent legacy of Mississippi blues. Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath were the first to make a monolith of it." Sir Lord Baltimore have been called "the godfathers of stoner rock" and Leaf Hound have been cited for influencing countless bands in the stoner rock movement, including Kyuss and Monster Magnet. James Manning of "Time Out London" recognises The Beatles' "I Want You (She's So Heavy)" as "laying the foundations for stoner rock with the relentlessly spiralling outro".


title: Stoner rock

text: Buffalo's 1973 sophomore release "Volcanic Rock" has been "heralded as the first great stoner rock record," the song "Sunrise (Come My Way)" "has since been shamelessly cannibalized for its parts by more stoner-rock bands than you can shake a bong at," and the songs "Till My Death" and "The Prophet" have been likened to later stoner rock. Primevil's album "Smokin' Bats at Campton's" has been called a "touchstone" of stoner rock. Jim DeRogatis has said that stoner rock bands are "reaching back for inspiration to the psychedelic, proto-metallic jamming of bands like Cream, Black Sabbath, Deep Purple, and Hawkwind."


title: Stoner rock

text: According to DeRogatis, the roots of stoner rock can be heard on Black Sabbath's "Master of Reality", Hawkwind's "25 Years On 1973–1977" box set, the aforementioned Blue Cheer album, Deep Purple's "Machine Head" and Blue Öyster Cult's "Workshop of the Telescopes". Black Sabbath's "Master of Reality" is often cited as the first album of the genre, and Martin Popoff states: "When 'Sweet Leaf' kicks in, one witnesses simultaneously the invention of stoner rock". Allmusic summarizes this unique fusion as follows: "Stoner metal bands updated the long, mind-bending jams and ultra-heavy riffs of bands like Black Sabbath, Blue Cheer, Blue Öyster Cult, and Hawkwind by filtering their psychedelia-tinged metal and acid rock through the buzzing sound of early Sub Pop–style grunge." However, Kyuss members Josh Homme and John Garcia have shrugged off the heavy metal influence, and instead cite punk rock and hardcore punk, particularly the sludgy hardcore of Black Flag's album "My War" as influences.


title: Stoner rock

text: The doom metal band Trouble introduced acid rock elements on their 1990 self-titled album, which became even more prominent on 1992's "Manic Frustration". Similarly, the British doom metal band Cathedral increasingly moved toward a psychedelic/stoner sound over the course of their first three releases, culminating in the critically acclaimed 1993 album "The Ethereal Mirror". During this same period, heavy metal band White Zombie achieved multi-platinum success with their two major label albums, significantly expanding the heavy music audience with their groove-based, sample-laden "psychedelic horror" sound.


title: Stoner rock

text: During the early to mid-1990s, a number of southern-California bands developed the style that would be called stoner rock. In 1992, Kyuss emerged from the Palm Desert Scene with "Blues for the Red Sun". Critics have hailed it as "a major milestone in heavy music," while NME described their music as an attempt to figuratively melt "a hundredweight of hot desert sand into metal". In 1992, San Jose doom metal band Sleep released their album "Sleep's Holy Mountain", and along with Kyuss were heralded by the heavy metal press as leaders of the emerging stoner scene. These two bands were among the first to introduce a psychedelic groove to their doom-influenced sound. A year earlier, New Jersey's Monster Magnet released their debut album "Spine of God", which displayed fewer metal influences but was psychedelic and sludgy, in the vein of their California peers. Together with these three bands, southern-Californians Fu Manchu, who released their eponymous album in 1994, are credited with being "one of the most enduring and influential bands" of the genre. In 1994, San Francisco's Acid King and Britain's Acrimony released their debut albums, both of which adopted this psychedelic approach to doom metal. Though more closely associated with the grunge movement (which itself sometimes influenced and occasionally overlapped with stoner rock), Soundgarden has also been cited as "stoner metal" or influential on the stoner rock genre, with their 1994 album "Superunknown" being described as a "stoner rock classic". Other influential bands from this era include Clutch, Sons of Otis and Corrosion of Conformity.


title: Stoner rock

text: Kyuss broke up in 1995 after the release of their fourth album, with many members going on to develop the stoner and desert rock scene through new projects. In August 1997, Kyuss' Josh Homme founded The Desert Sessions at the now-famous Rancho De La Luna in Joshua Tree, California. This musical collective brings artists together for impromptu writing and recording sessions that yielded ten albums between 1997 and 2003. The project has included members from Kyuss, Fu Manchu, Soundgarden, Monster Magnet, Goatsnake, earthlings? and Eagles of Death Metal, as well as PJ Harvey, Dean Ween and others associated with the Palm Desert scene. Also in 1997, Roadrunner Records released the stoner rock compilation "Burn One Up! Music for Stoners", which includes many of the aforementioned bands, as well as a track by Josh Homme's new band Queens of the Stone Age. In September 1997 Jadd Shickler (of stoner band Spiritu) and Aaron Emmel founded an online store based in Albuquerque, New Mexico called All That's Heavy, which began selling hard-to-find releases of Kyuss, Monster Magnet, and Fu Manchu. They soon expanded the catalog to include artists who stylistically fit with those bands. After half a year they were contacted by the former proprietor for the first Kyuss fan website, who recommended All That's Heavy do a compilation of unsigned bands that Kyuss fans would enjoy. This resulted in the formation of MeteorCity Records and the release of the compilation "Welcome to MeteorCity" in 1998, which included established desert and stoner rock acts, as well as new bands established by John Garcia of Kyuss, Ed Mundell of Monster Magnet, and Pete Stahl of Goatsnake. The album was the first time that the new stoner rock bands Sixty Watt Shaman, Lowrider, The Atomic Bitchwax, Dozer, Goatsnake, and Los Natas were featured on record. According to MeteorCity founders:


title: Stoner rock

text: MeteorCity soon signed a number of musicians and bands from the Palm Desert Scene, including Hermano, Unida and emerging Swedish stoner rock bands such as Lowrider, Dozer and The Mushroom River Band. During this time, The Hidden Hand and Spirit Caravan also began to gain popularity within the developing scene.


title: Stoner rock

text: In June 2000, Josh Homme's new project Queens of the Stone Age released their breakthrough album "Rated R", which helped bring the stoner rock sound into the mainstream, despite the band themselves rejecting both the genre and being labeled as such.


title: Stoner rock

text: "Songs for the Deaf", their next release in 2002, included a single from the album peaking at No. 1 on the US Modern Rock Tracks. Another label focusing on the international stoner rock scene was Small Stone Records, which released a number of compilation albums of stoner rock bands doing covers of 1970s music, including "" (2000), "Sucking the 70's" (2002), and "Sucking the 70's – Back in the Saddle Again" (2006).


title: Stoner rock

text: In 2002, the Orquesta del Desierto was formed featuring key members of the major desert rock bands, and released two albums.


title: Stoner rock

text: In 2009, the magazines "Decibel" and "Terrorizer" released issues featuring a list of the 100 greatest and most important albums of the 2000s, respectively. The stoner band Electric Wizard's "Dopethrone" was featured on both lists, being placed 10th on Decibel's list and 1st on the Terrorizer's one.


title: Stoner rock

text: Since Kyuss' break-up, the success of the bandmates' other projects has caused the Kyuss back catalog to become more widely listened to and their fanbase has inevitably swelled. The sound has been continued on by directly descendant bands Unida, Slo Burn, Hermano, Mondo Generator, Fu Manchu, Brant Bjork and the Bros, and at times by Queens of the Stone Age, who have since largely departed from Kyuss' stoner rock sound, and reject the label, preferring the term "desert rock".


title: Stoner rock

text: As acknowledged by Dave Wyndorf, the lead singer of Monster Magnet, in a 2015 interview: "Europe is really good for psychedelic music." So much so that some US stoner rock bands will even choose to tour Europe rather than North America. Founded by a French aficionado of stoner rock, the website MoreFuzz.net has been a big promoter of the stoner rock scene in Europe and internationally. Stoner rock bands in Europe, much like their North American counterparts, mix elements of heavy rock music with psychedelia and acid rock. The influence of Black Sabbath or Blue Cheer can be heard – among other examples – in bands such as the Swedish Graveyard and the German Kadavar. Instrumental stoner rock bands such as Karma to Burn are rare in the US.


title: Leroy Merlin

text: Leroy Merlin () is a French-headquartered home improvement and gardening retailer serving several countries in Europe, Asia, South America, and Africa. Leroy Merlin is owned by the Mulliez family, which also owns Auchan.


title: Leroy Merlin

text: In 1923, Adolphe Leroy and Rose Merlin, associates in private and business life, opened a business of American surplus. Strengthened by this first success, they decided to sell DIY products and supplies at moderate prices. In 1960, the firm was named Leroy Merlin. It became a precursor, as it was the first company to offer free delivery services.


title: Leroy Merlin

text: Generally established on the outskirts of major towns and cities, Leroy Merlin stores are large centres (9000 m on average) providing self-service and sales assisted services. Its business is centred on six main sectors: DIY, building, gardening, sanitary equipment, renewable energy, and interior decoration.


title: Leroy Merlin

text: Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, many international, particularly Western, companies pulled out of Russia. Leroy Merlin, however, on 11 March announced that it has no plans to reduce its operations in Russia, where it operates 143 stores. On 17 March they cut off the Ukrainian office from corporate communications and stated that they would increase supplies to the Russian Federation.


title: Leroy Merlin

text: Leroy Merlin has a strong presence in Russia and generates 18% of its turnover there. In 2020 the company paid $335 million in taxes as a result of their operations in Russia. The company has been criticized for making indirect contributions to the Russian military effort.


title: Leroy Merlin

text: On the night of 20-21 March 2022, a shopping centre in Kyiv housing a Leroy Merlin shop was bombed. Shop employees called on the company to leave Russia, as did the Ukrainian MP Oleksiy Honcharenko. The latter, elected in the constituency of Odessa and member of the Ukrainian delegation to the parliamentary assembly of the Council of Europe, broadcast a video. The video was shot in front of the devastated store.


title: Leroy Merlin

text: In a statement to AFP, Adeo, Leroy Merlin's holding company, said a closure would be considered a "premeditated bankruptcy" and says that it has an "employer's responsibility towards (its) 45,000 employees and their families who have been contributing to the building of Leroy Merlin Russia for the past 18 years". However, there are reports of insults and threats from customers following the company's continued operations in Russia.


title: Leroy Merlin

text: Spanish electricity utility Endesa has installed a 100 kW solar plant, covering 1700 m² with 670 photovoltaic panels, for Leroy Merlin at its superstore in Rivas Vaciamadrid, Spain.


title: Ally Walker

text: Allene Damian "Ally" Walker (born August 25, 1961) is an American actress. She made her television debut in the NBC daytime soap opera "Santa Barbara" (1988) before landing the leading roles on the short-lived dramas "True Blue" (1989–1990), and "Moon Over Miami" (1993).


title: Ally Walker

text: During the 1990s, Walker had roles in films such as "Universal Soldier" (1992), "Singles" (1992), "When the Bough Breaks" (1994), "While You Were Sleeping" (1995), "Kazaam" (1996), and "Happy, Texas" (1999). From 1996 to 1999, she played the leading role of Doctor Samantha Waters in the NBC crime drama series "Profiler", for which she received Saturn Award for Best Actress on Television nomination. She returned to television with a role in the HBO drama series "Tell Me You Love Me" (2007), and later played villainous Agent June Stahl in the FX crime drama, "Sons of Anarchy" (2008–2010). Walker also had the leading role in the short-lived Lifetime police drama series "The Protector" in 2011. During seasons 4 and 5 (2014 and 2015) of "Longmire", she played Dr. Donna Monaghan, a therapist treating veterans who is the title character's love interest.


title: Ally Walker

text: Walker was born in Tullahoma, Tennessee, to James Joseph Walker, a physicist, and Louhannah (née Mann) who would become an attorney. She grew up in Santa Fe, New Mexico, where her father worked at the Los Alamos National Laboratory. Originally intending to become a scientist, she attended the University of California, Santa Cruz, where she earned a degree in biochemistry. Subsequently, she worked as a researcher on a genetic engineering project, while preparing for medical school at UCLA. While spending a semester at Richmond College of Arts in London, UK, she discovered an interest in performing. Her professional career began when she was cast in the film "Aloha Summer" (1988). Her scene was cut from the final version.


title: Ally Walker

text: In early 1988, Walker joined the cast of NBC daytime soap opera "Santa Barbara", playing Andrea Bedford. Later that year, she began appearing on primetime television. During the 1989–90 television season, she played the female lead in the short-lived NBC crime drama series "True Blue". She later guest-starred on "Matlock", "L.A. Law", and "Tales from the Crypt". She starred in the 1991 NBC television movie "Perry Mason and the Case of the Fatal Fashion" as the devious daughter of Diana Muldaur's character. In 1993, she starred alongside Billy Campbell in the short-lived ABC comedy-drama, "Moon Over Miami".


title: Ally Walker

text: In 1992, Walker played the female leading role opposite Jean-Claude Van Damme in the science-fiction action film "Universal Soldier" directed by Roland Emmerich. Later that year, she played Sheila Kelley's grouchy roommate in the Cameron Crowe romantic comedy "Singles". Her first star-billed role was in the 1994 thriller "When the Bough Breaks". In 1995, she had supporting roles in Sandra Bullock's box-office hit "While You Were Sleeping", and Andy García's flop "Steal Big Steal Little". The following year, Walker co-starred alongside Shaquille O'Neal in the fantasy comedy film, "Kazaam".


title: Ally Walker

text: In 1996, Walker was cast in the leading role as Doctor Samantha Waters in the NBC crime drama series "Profiler", a role for which she received a Saturn Award for Best Actress on Television nomination in 1998, and a Satellite Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama. In 1996, she was listed as one of "People"s "40 Most Fascinating People on TV." Walker starred as the lead during the first three seasons, but left the show in the fall of 1999. She was replaced by Jamie Luner as a new profiler during the show's final season. Later in 1999, Walker co-starred opposite Steve Zahn in the comedy film "Happy, Texas", and played the lead role in the Lifetime television movie, "If You Believe".


title: Ally Walker

text: In 2002, Walker returned to star in and produce the ABC pilot comedy called "My Wonderful Life", which was not picked up. In 2005, she released a documentary film "For Norman... Wherever You Are" as director and producer, which screened at several film festivals. She returned to the New York stage, appearing in a number of Off-Broadway productions. From 2005 to 2010, Walker played many guest roles on television, including "Sleeper Cell", "ER", "The Shield", "Boston Legal", "Law & Order", "", "Southland", and "".


title: Ally Walker

text: In 2007, Walker starred in the HBO drama series about sexual relationships, "Tell Me You Love Me". The series was cancelled after a single season. In 2009, she co-starred in films "Toe to Toe" and "Wonderful World" opposite Matthew Broderick. From 2008 to 2010, Walker had the recurring role as ATF Agent June Stahl, a major antagonist on the FX crime drama series "Sons of Anarchy".


title: Ally Walker

text: In 2011, Walker played the leading role in the Lifetime police drama series "The Protector", which revolves around a single mother who struggles to balance her family and professional life as an LAPD homicide detective. The series was canceled after one season. In 2014, she played Chyler Leigh' lead character's mother in the short-lived NBC police procedural, "Taxi Brooklyn". She made her feature scripted film directing and writing debut with "Sex, Death and Bowling" starring Selma Blair. In 2015, she was cast in the recurring roles in the Netflix crime drama "Longmire", and USA Network thriller, "Colony".


title: Ally Walker

text: On June 14, 1997, Walker married John Landgraf, then a producer for NBC, at her parents' home in Santa Fe, New Mexico. The couple have three sons. Their names are Walker, Will, and Cal. She has a sister named Elizabeth and a brother named Jim. Finally, her sister also has a grandson named Arlo.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Smokeless powder is a type of propellant used in firearms and artillery that produces less smoke and less fouling when fired compared to gunpowder ("black powder"). The combustion products are mainly gaseous, compared to around 55% solid products (mostly potassium carbonate, potassium sulfate, and potassium sulfide) for black powder. In addition, smokeless powder does not leave the thick, heavy fouling of hygroscopic material associated with black powder that causes rusting of the barrel. Despite its name, smokeless powder is not completely free of smoke; while there may be little noticeable smoke from small-arms ammunition, smoke from artillery fire can be substantial.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Originally invented in 1884 by Paul Vieille, the most common formulations are based on nitrocellulose, but the term was also used to describe various picrate mixtures with nitrate, chlorate, or dichromate oxidizers during the late 19th century, before the advantages of nitrocellulose became evident.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Smokeless powders are typically classified as division 1.3 explosives under the UN "Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods – Model Regulations", regional regulations (such as ADR) and national regulations. However, they are used as solid propellants; in normal use, they undergo deflagration rather than detonation.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Smokeless powder made autoloading firearms with many moving parts feasible (which would otherwise jam or seize under heavy black powder fouling). Smokeless powder allowed the development of modern semi- and fully automatic firearms and lighter breeches and barrels for artillery.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Before the widespread introduction of smokeless powder the use of gunpowder or black powder caused many problems on the battlefield. Military commanders since the Napoleonic Wars reported difficulty with giving orders on a battlefield obscured by the smoke of firing. Visual signals could not be seen through the thick smoke from the gunpowder used by the guns. Unless there was a strong wind, after a few shots, soldiers using gunpowder ammunition would have their view obscured by a huge cloud of smoke. Snipers or other concealed shooters were given away by a cloud of smoke over the firing position. Gunpowder produces lower pressures and is about three times less powerful when compared to smokeless powder. Gunpowder is also hygroscopic (i.e., it attracts moisture from the air), making cleaning mandatory after every use. Likewise, gunpowder's tendency to produce severe fouling causes actions to jam and often makes reloading difficult.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Nitroglycerine was synthesized by the Italian chemist Ascanio Sobrero in 1847. It was subsequently developed and manufactured by Alfred Nobel as an industrial explosive, but even then it was unsuitable as a propellant: despite its energetic and smokeless qualities, it detonates instead of deflagrating smoothly, making it more liable to shatter a gun, rather than propel a projectile out of it. Nitroglycerine is also highly sensitive, making it unfit to be carried in battlefield conditions.


title: Smokeless powder

text: A major step forward was the invention of guncotton, a nitrocellulose-based material, by German chemist Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1846. He promoted its use as a blasting explosive and sold manufacturing rights to the Austrian Empire. Guncotton was more powerful than gunpowder, but at the same time was once again somewhat more unstable. John Taylor obtained an English patent for guncotton; and John Hall & Sons began manufacture in Faversham.


title: Smokeless powder

text: English interest languished after an explosion destroyed the Faversham factory in 1847. Austrian Baron Wilhelm Lenk von Wolfsberg built two guncotton plants producing artillery propellent, but it too was dangerous under field conditions, and guns that could fire thousands of rounds using black powder would reach the end of their service life after only a few hundred shots with the more powerful guncotton. Small arms could not withstand the pressures generated by guncotton.


title: Smokeless powder

text: After one of the Austrian factories blew up in 1862, Thomas Prentice & Company began manufacturing guncotton in Stowmarket in 1863; and British War Office chemist Sir Frederick Abel began thorough research at Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills leading to a manufacturing process that eliminated the impurities in nitrocellulose making it safer to produce and a stable product safer to handle. Abel patented this process in 1865 when the second Austrian guncotton factory exploded. After the Stowmarket factory exploded in 1871, Waltham Abbey began production of guncotton for torpedo and mine warheads.


title: Smokeless powder

text: In 1863, Prussian artillery captain Johann F. E. Schultze patented a small-arms propellant of nitrated hardwood impregnated with saltpeter or barium nitrate. Prentice received an 1866 patent for a sporting powder of nitrated paper manufactured at Stowmarket, but ballistic uniformity suffered as the paper absorbed atmospheric moisture. In 1871, Frederick Volkmann received an Austrian patent for a colloided version of Schultze powder called "Collodin", which he manufactured near Vienna for use in sporting firearms. Austrian patents were not published at the time, and the Austrian Empire considered the operation a violation of the government monopoly on explosives manufacture and closed the Volkmann factory in 1875.


title: Smokeless powder

text: In 1882, the Explosives Company at Stowmarket patented an improved formulation of nitrated cotton gelatinised by ether-alcohol with nitrates of potassium and barium. These propellants were suitable for shotguns but not rifles, because rifling results in resistance to a smooth expansion of the gas, which is reduced in smoothbore shotguns.


title: Smokeless powder

text: In 1884, Paul Vieille invented a smokeless powder called Poudre B (short for "poudre blanche", white powder, as distinguished from black powder) made from 68.2% insoluble nitrocellulose, 29.8% soluble nitrocellulose gelatinized with ether and 2% paraffin. This was adopted for the Lebel rifle chambered in 8×50mmR Lebel. It was passed through rollers to form paper thin sheets, which were cut into flakes of the desired size. The resulting propellant, today known as "pyrocellulose", contains somewhat less nitrogen than guncotton and is less volatile. A particularly good feature of the propellant is that it will not detonate unless it is compressed, making it very safe to handle under normal conditions. Vieille's powder revolutionized the effectiveness of small guns because it gave off almost no smoke and was three times more powerful than black powder. Higher muzzle velocity meant a flatter trajectory and less wind drift and bullet drop, making shots practicable. Since less powder was needed to propel a bullet, the cartridge could be made smaller and lighter. This allowed troops to carry more ammunition for the same weight. Also, it would burn even when wet. Black powder ammunition had to be kept dry and was almost always stored and transported in watertight cartridges. Other European countries swiftly followed and started using their own versions of Poudre B, the first being Germany and Austria, which introduced new weapons in 1888. Subsequently, Poudre B was modified several times with various compounds being added and removed. Krupp began adding diphenylamine as a stabilizer in 1888.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Meanwhile, in 1887, Alfred Nobel obtained an English patent for a smokeless gunpowder he called Ballistite. In this propellant the fibrous structure of cotton (nitro-cellulose) was destroyed by a nitroglycerine solution instead of a solvent. In England in 1889, a similar powder was patented by Hiram Maxim, and in the United States in 1890 by Hudson Maxim. Ballistite was patented in the United States in 1891. The Germans adopted ballistite for naval use in 1898, calling it WPC/98. The Italians adopted it as "filite", in cord instead of flake form, but realising its drawbacks changed to a formulation with nitroglycerine they called "solenite". In 1891 the Russians tasked the chemist Mendeleev with finding a suitable propellant. He created nitrocellulose gelatinised by ether-alcohol, which produced more nitrogen and more uniform colloidal structure than the French use of nitro-cottons in Poudre B. He called it pyrocollodion.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Britain conducted trials on all the various types of propellant brought to their attention, but were dissatisfied with them all and sought something superior to all existing types. In 1889, Sir Frederick Abel, James Dewar and Dr W Kellner patented (Nos 5614 and 11,664 in the names of Abel and Dewar) a new formulation that was manufactured at the Royal Gunpowder Factory at Waltham Abbey. It entered British service in 1891 as Cordite Mark 1. Its main composition was 58% nitroglycerine, 37% guncotton and 3% mineral jelly. A modified version, Cordite MD, entered service in 1901, with the guncotton percentage increased to 65% and nitroglycerine reduced to 30%. This change reduced the combustion temperature and hence erosion and barrel wear. Cordite's advantages over gunpowder were reduced maximum pressure in the chamber (hence lighter breeches, etc.) but longer high pressure. Cordite could be made in any desired shape or size. The creation of cordite led to a lengthy court battle between Nobel, Maxim, and another inventor over alleged British patent infringement.


title: Smokeless powder

text: The Anglo-American Explosives Company began manufacturing its shotgun powder in Oakland, New Jersey in 1890. DuPont began producing guncotton at Carneys Point Township, New Jersey in 1891. Charles E. Munroe of the Naval Torpedo Station in Newport, Rhode Island patented a formulation of guncotton colloided with nitrobenzene, called "Indurite", in 1891. Several United States firms began producing smokeless powder when Winchester Repeating Arms Company started loading sporting cartridges with Explosives Company powder in 1893. California Powder Works began producing a mixture of nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose with ammonium picrate as "Peyton Powder", Leonard Smokeless Powder Company began producing nitroglycerine–nitrocellulose "Ruby" powders, Laflin & Rand negotiated a license to produce "Ballistite", and DuPont started producing smokeless shotgun powder. The United States Army evaluated 25 varieties of smokeless powder and selected "Ruby" and "Peyton Powders" as the most suitable for use in the Krag–Jørgensen service rifle. "Ruby" was preferred, because tin-plating was required to protect brass cartridge cases from picric acid in the "Peyton Powder". Rather than paying the required royalties for "Ballistite", Laflin & Rand financed Leonard's reorganization as the American Smokeless Powder Company. United States Army Lieutenant Whistler assisted American Smokeless Powder Company factory superintendent Aspinwall in formulating an improved powder named W.A. for their efforts. W.A. smokeless powder was the standard for United States military service rifles from 1897 until 1908.


title: Smokeless powder

text: In 1897, United States Navy Lieutenant John Bernadou patented a nitrocellulose powder colloided with ether-alcohol. The Navy licensed or sold patents for this formulation to DuPont and the California Powder Works while retaining manufacturing rights for the Naval Powder Factory, Indian Head, Maryland constructed in 1900. The United States Army adopted the Navy single-base formulation in 1908 and began manufacture at Picatinny Arsenal. By that time Laflin & Rand had taken over the American Powder Company to protect their investment, and Laflin & Rand had been purchased by DuPont in 1902. Upon securing a 99-year lease of the Explosives Company in 1903, DuPont enjoyed use of all significant smokeless powder patents in the United States, and was able to optimize production of smokeless powder. When government anti-trust action forced divestiture in 1912, DuPont retained the nitrocellulose smokeless powder formulations used by the United States military and released the double-base formulations used in sporting ammunition to the reorganized Hercules Powder Company. These newer and more powerful propellants were more stable and thus safer to handle than Poudre B.


title: Smokeless powder

text: The properties of the propellant are greatly influenced by the size and shape of its pieces. The specific surface area of the propellant influences the speed of burning, and the size and shape of the particles determine the specific surface area. By manipulation of the shape it is possible to influence the burning rate and hence the rate at which pressure builds during combustion. Smokeless powder burns only on the surfaces of the pieces. Larger pieces burn more slowly, and the burn rate is further controlled by flame-deterrent coatings that retard burning slightly. The intent is to regulate the burn rate so that a more or less constant pressure is exerted on the propelled projectile as long as it is in the barrel so as to obtain the highest velocity. The perforations stabilize the burn rate because as the outside burns inward (thus shrinking the burning surface area) the inside is burning outward (thus increasing the burning surface area, but faster, so as to fill up the increasing volume of barrel presented by the departing projectile). Fast-burning pistol powders are made by extruding shapes with more area such as flakes or by flattening the spherical granules. Drying is usually performed under a vacuum. The solvents are condensed and recycled. The granules are also coated with graphite to prevent static electricity sparks from causing undesired ignitions.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Smokeless powder does not leave the thick, heavy fouling of hygroscopic material associated with black powder that causes rusting of the barrel (though some primer compounds can leave hygroscopic salts that have a similar effect; non-corrosive primer compounds were introduced in the 1920s).)


title: Smokeless powder

text: Faster-burning propellants generate higher temperatures and higher pressures, however they also increase wear on gun barrels.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Nitrocellulose deteriorates with time, yielding acidic byproducts. Those byproducts catalyze the further deterioration, increasing its rate. The released heat, in case of bulk storage of the powder, or too large blocks of solid propellant, can cause self-ignition of the material. Single-base nitrocellulose propellants are hygroscopic and most susceptible to degradation; double-base and triple-base propellants tend to deteriorate more slowly. To neutralize the decomposition products, which could otherwise cause corrosion of metals of the cartridges and gun barrels, calcium carbonate is added to some formulations.


title: Smokeless powder

text: To prevent buildup of the deterioration products, stabilizers are added. Diphenylamine is one of the most common stabilizers used. Nitrated analogs of diphenylamine formed in the process of stabilizing decomposing powder are sometimes used as stabilizers themselves. The stabilizers are added in the amount of 0.5–2% of the total amount of the formulation; higher amounts tend to degrade its ballistic properties. The amount of the stabilizer is depleted with time. Propellants in storage should be periodically tested for the amount of stabilizer remaining, as its depletion may lead to auto-ignition of the propellant.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Currently, propellants using nitrocellulose (detonation velocity , RE factor 1.10) (typically an ether-alcohol colloid of nitrocellulose) as the sole explosive propellant ingredient are described as single-base powder.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Propellants mixtures containing nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin (detonation velocity , RE factor 1.54) as explosive propellant ingredients are known as double-base powder. Alternatively diethylene glycol dinitrate (detonation velocity , RE factor 1.17) can be used as a nitroglycerin replacement when reduced flame temperatures without sacrificing chamber pressure are of importance. Reduction of flame temperature significantly reduces barrel erosion and hence wear.


title: Smokeless powder

text: During the 1930s, "triple-base propellant" containing nitrocellulose, nitroglycerin or diethylene glycol dinitrate, and a substantial quantity of nitroguanidine (detonation velocity , RE factor 0.95) as explosive propellant ingredients was developed. These "cold propellant" mixtures have reduced flash and flame temperature without sacrificing chamber pressure compared to single- and double-base propellants, albeit at the cost of more smoke. In practice, triple base propellants are reserved mainly for large caliber ammunition such as used in (naval) artillery and tank guns, which suffer from bore erosion the most. During World War II, it had some use by British artillery. After that war it became the standard propellant in all British large caliber ammunition designs except small-arms. Most western nations, except the United States, followed a similar path.


title: Smokeless powder

text: In the late 20th century new propellant formulations started to appear. These are based on nitroguanidine and high explosives of the RDX type (detonation velocity , RE factor 1.60).


title: Smokeless powder

text: Detonation velocities are of limited value in assessing the reaction rates of nitrocellulose propellants formulated to avoid detonation. Although the slower reaction is often described as burning because of similar gaseous end products at elevated temperatures, the decomposition differs from combustion in an oxygen atmosphere. Conversion of nitrocellulose propellants to high-pressure gas proceeds from the exposed surface to the interior of each solid particle in accordance with Piobert's law. Studies of solid single- and double-base propellant reactions suggest reaction rate is controlled by heat transfer through the temperature gradient across a series of zones or phases as the reaction proceeds from the surface into the solid. The deepest portion of the solid experiencing heat transfer melts and begins phase transition from solid to gas in a "foam zone". The gaseous propellant decomposes into simpler molecules in a surrounding "fizz zone". Energy is released in a luminous outer "flame zone" where the simpler gas molecules react to form conventional combustion products like steam and carbon monoxide. The "foam zone" acts as an insulator slowing the rate of heat transfer from the "flame zone" into the unreacted solid. Reaction rates vary with pressure; because the foam allows less effective heat transfer at low pressure, with greater heat transfer as higher pressures compress the gas volume of that foam. Propellants designed for a minimum heat transfer pressure may fail to sustain the "flame zone" at lower pressures.


title: Smokeless powder

text: The energetic components used in smokeless propellants include nitrocellulose (the most common), nitroglycerin, nitroguanidine, DINA (bis-nitroxyethylnitramine; diethanolamine dinitrate, DEADN; DHE), Fivonite (2,2,5,5-tetramethylol-cyclopentanone tetranitrate, CyP), DGN (diethylene glycol dinitrate), and acetyl cellulose.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Deterrents (or moderants) are used to slow the burning rate. Deterrents include centralites (symmetrical diphenyl urea—primarily diethyl or dimethyl), dibutyl phthalate, dinitrotoluene (toxic and carcinogenic), akardite (asymmetrical diphenyl urea), ortho-Tolyl urethane, and polyester adipate. Camphor was formerly used but is now obsolete.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Stabilizers prevent or slow down self-decomposition. These include diphenylamine, petroleum jelly, calcium carbonate, magnesium oxide, sodium bicarbonate, and beta-Naphthol methyl ether Obsolete stabilizers include amyl alcohol and aniline.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Decoppering additives hinder the buildup of copper residues from the gun barrel rifling. These include tin metal and compounds (e.g., tin dioxide), and bismuth metal and compounds (e.g., bismuth trioxide, bismuth subcarbonate, bismuth nitrate, bismuth antimonide); the bismuth compounds are favored as copper dissolves in molten bismuth, forming brittle and easily removable alloy. Lead foil and lead compounds have been phased out due to toxicity.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Wear reduction materials including wax, talc and titanium dioxide are added to lower the wear of the gun barrel liners. Large guns use polyurethane jackets over the powder bags.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Other additives include ethyl acetate (a solvent for manufacture of spherical powder), rosin (a surfactant to hold the grain shape of spherical powder) and graphite (a lubricant to cover the grains and prevent them from sticking together, and to dissipate static electricity).


title: Smokeless powder

text: Flash reducers dim muzzle flash, the light emitted in the vicinity of the muzzle by the hot propellant gases and the chemical reactions that follow as the gases mix with the surrounding air. Before projectiles exit, a slight pre-flash may occur from gases leaking past the projectiles. Following muzzle exit, the heat of gases is usually sufficient to emit visible radiation: the primary flash. The gases expand but as they pass through the Mach disc, they are re-compressed to produce an intermediate flash. Hot, combustible gases (e.g. hydrogen and carbon-monoxide) may follow when they mix with oxygen in the surrounding air to produce the secondary flash, the brightest. The secondary flash does not usually occur with small arms.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Nitrocellulose contains insufficient oxygen to completely oxidize its carbon and hydrogen. The oxygen deficit is increased by addition of graphite and organic stabilizers. Products of combustion within the gun barrel include flammable gasses like hydrogen and carbon monoxide. At high temperature, these flammable gasses will ignite when turbulently mixed with atmospheric oxygen beyond the muzzle of the gun. During night engagements, the flash produced by ignition can reveal the location of the gun to enemy forces and cause temporary night-blindness among the gun crew by photo-bleaching visual purple.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Flash suppressors are commonly used on small arms to reduce the flash signature, but this approach is not practical for artillery. Artillery muzzle flash up to from the muzzle has been observed, and can be reflected off clouds and be visible for distances up to . For artillery, the most effective method is a propellant that produces a large proportion of inert nitrogen at relatively low temperatures that dilutes the combustible gases. Triple based propellants are used for this because of the nitrogen in the nitroguanidine.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Flash reducers include potassium chloride, potassium nitrate, potassium sulfate, and potassium bitartrate (potassium hydrogen tartrate: a byproduct of wine production formerly used by French artillery). Before the use of triple based propellants, the usual method of flash reduction was to add inorganic salts like potassium chloride so their specific heat capacity might reduce the temperature of combustion gasses and their finely divided particulate smoke might block visible wavelengths of radiant energy of combustion.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Smokeless powder may be corned into small spherical balls or extruded into cylinders or strips with many cross-sectional shapes (strips with various rectangular proportions, single or multi-hole cylinders, slotted cylinders) using solvents such as ether. These extrusions can be cut into short ("flakes") or long pieces ("cords" many inches long). Cannon powder has the largest pieces.


title: Smokeless powder

text: The United States Navy manufactured single-base tubular powder for naval artillery at Indian Head, Maryland, beginning in 1900. Similar procedures were used for United States Army production at Picatinny Arsenal beginning in 1907 and for manufacture of smaller grained Improved Military Rifle (IMR) powders after 1914. Short-fiber cotton linter was boiled in a solution of sodium hydroxide to remove vegetable waxes, and then dried before conversion to nitrocellulose by mixing with concentrated nitric and sulfuric acids. Nitrocellulose still resembles fibrous cotton at this point in the manufacturing process, and was typically identified as pyrocellulose because it would spontaneously ignite in air until unreacted acid was removed. The term guncotton was also used; although some references identify guncotton as a more extensively nitrated and refined product used in torpedo and mine warheads prior to use of TNT.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Unreacted acid was removed from pyrocellulose pulp by a multistage draining and water washing process similar to that used in paper mills during production of chemical woodpulp. Pressurized alcohol removed remaining water from drained pyrocellulose prior to mixing with ether and diphenylamine. The mixture was then fed through a press extruding a long tubular cord form to be cut into grains of the desired length.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Alcohol and ether were then evaporated from "green" powder grains to a remaining solvent concentration between 3 percent for rifle powders and 7 percent for large artillery powder grains. Burning rate is inversely proportional to solvent concentration. Grains were coated with electrically conductive graphite to minimize generation of static electricity during subsequent blending. "Lots" containing more than ten tonnes of powder grains were mixed through a tower arrangement of blending hoppers to minimize ballistic differences. Each blended lot was then subjected to testing to determine the correct loading charge for the desired performance.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Military quantities of old smokeless powder were sometimes reworked into new lots of propellants. Through the 1920s Fred Olsen worked at Picatinny Arsenal experimenting with ways to salvage tons of single-base cannon powder manufactured for World War I. Olsen was employed by Western Cartridge Company in 1929 and developed a process for manufacturing spherical smokeless powder by 1933. Reworked powder or washed pyrocellulose can be dissolved in ethyl acetate containing small quantities of desired stabilizers and other additives. The resultant syrup, combined with water and surfactants, can be heated and agitated in a pressurized container until the syrup forms an emulsion of small spherical globules of the desired size. Ethyl acetate distills off as pressure is slowly reduced to leave small spheres of nitrocellulose and additives. The spheres can be subsequently modified by adding nitroglycerine to increase energy, flattening between rollers to a uniform minimum dimension, coating with phthalate deterrents to retard ignition, and/or glazing with graphite to improve flow characteristics during blending.


title: Smokeless powder

text: Modern smokeless powder is produced in the United States by St. Marks Powder, Inc. owned by General Dynamics.


title: Only God Forgives

text: Only God Forgives is a 2013 action film written and directed by Nicolas Winding Refn and starring Ryan Gosling, Kristin Scott Thomas, and Vithaya Pansringarm. The film was shot on location in Bangkok, Thailand, and, as with the director's earlier film "Drive", is dedicated to Chilean director Alejandro Jodorowsky. It competed for the Palme d'Or at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival.


title: Only God Forgives

text: Only God Forgives opened at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival to polarized reviews. Most of the criticism focused on the screenplay and characterization, while praise was directed towards the visuals and soundtrack.


title: Only God Forgives

text: Brothers Julian and Billy, American expatriates, run a Muay Thai boxing club in Bangkok, Thailand, as a front for drug dealing. One night, Billy goes looking for sex. He visits a brothel, saying he wants a fourteen-year-old girl but the brothel-keeper refuses. Billy asks if the brothel-master has a daughter and when told that he has, Billy says to bring her in. After the brothel-master refuses, Billy attacks him with a wine bottle, and breaks into the room where the prostitutes are on display, attacking one of them. At another location, he later rapes and kills an underage prostitute and is cornered by Thai police. Chang, the vigilante-like police lieutenant, brings the girl's father Choi to identify his daughter's body and allows Choi to beat Billy to death. Julian, the quiet brother, likes to be tied up while watching his favorite prostitute, Mai, masturbate. Chang later severs Choi's right forearm with his sword for allowing his daughter to be a prostitute. During a session with Mai, Julian has a vision of his hand being cut off by Chang in a dark room.


title: Only God Forgives

text: Upon discovering his brother's murder, Julian and his crew confront Choi, but Julian spares his life. Crystal, the brothers' mother, arrives in Bangkok and demands that he kill the man responsible for Billy's death. Julian refuses, believing Choi's revenge was justified. After having Choi killed, Crystal learns of Chang's involvement. She meets with Byron, a rival drug dealer, and offers to cut him into her drug operation in exchange for a hit on Chang.


title: Only God Forgives

text: Chang investigates Choi's murder and concludes Julian isn't the killer. That evening, Julian brings Mai, posing as his girlfriend, to meet Crystal at a restaurant. Crystal discovers the ruse, insults Mai and demeans Julian, pronouncing him sexually inferior to Billy and saying that Billy was everything that Julian isn't. Julian accepts Crystal's verbal abuse. After the dinner, when Mai asks why he lets her behave that way, Julian tells her "She's my mother." He tells her she can keep the dress he bought for her to wear to the dinner but she refuses it. Julian becomes angry and tells her to take the dress off. She does so, stripping to her underwear and holding the dress out to Julian.


title: Only God Forgives

text: Two hitmen hired by Byron attempt to kill Chang with machine guns at a restaurant, causing the deaths of numerous customers and two of Chang's men. Chang kills one, then brutally tortures and interrogates the other one. The hitman leads Chang to Li Po, who has resorted to arranging hits to pay for his disabled son. Chang kills the hitman with his sword but spares Li Po. Chang finds Byron in a club and tortures him to death, but fails to find who ordered the hit.


title: Only God Forgives

text: After recognizing Chang as the man from his visions and failing to follow him, Julian eventually finds Chang and challenges him to a fight at his boxing club. Chang quickly defeats Julian, who fails to land a single blow. Afterwards, Crystal tells Julian that Chang has figured out she ordered the hit. She pleads with Julian to kill Chang, like he killed his father for her. She promises that after Julian eliminates Chang, they'll go back home and she'll be a true mother to him.


title: Only God Forgives

text: With his associate Charlie, Julian infiltrates Chang's home and plan to ambush him. After learning Charlie was instructed to execute the entire family, Julian kills Charlie before he can murder Chang's daughter.


title: Only God Forgives

text: Chang confronts Crystal in her hotel room. She tells him that Julian killed his father with his bare hands and that Julian is violent and deranged. Chang stabs her in the throat. Later, Julian returns to the hotel and finds his mother's corpse. He approaches her body, cuts open her abdomen, and shoves his hand inside it.


title: Only God Forgives

text: Julian later stands in a field with Chang, offering him his hands voluntarily so he can cut them off with the same weapon with which he killed Crystal. Chang is last seen performing a song in a karaoke club filled with fellow police officers.


title: Only God Forgives

text: Refn has said that "[f]rom the beginning, [he] had the idea of a thriller produced as a western, all in the Far East, and with a modern cowboy hero." He originally planned to direct "Only God Forgives" directly after "Valhalla Rising" (2009), but he accepted Gosling's request to direct "Drive" instead. Gosling has described the script of "Only God Forgives" as "the strangest thing I've ever read and it's only going to get stranger." Like "Drive", the film was largely shot chronologically and scenes were often edited the day they were shot.


title: Only God Forgives

text: Footage was screened at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival. Refn drew a connection between "Only God Forgives" and "Drive", saying that "["Only God Forgives"] is very much a continuation of that language"—"[i]t's based on real emotions, but set in a heightened reality. It's a fairy tale."


title: Only God Forgives

text: The film received a very divided response at its Cannes press screening; it was booed by many of the audience of journalists and critics while also receiving a standing ovation.


title: Only God Forgives

text: It received a polarized response from mainstream critics: review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 41% based on reviews from 163 critics, with a weighted average of 5.15/10. The site's consensus states: "Director Refn remains as visually stylish as ever, but "Only God Forgives" fails to add enough narrative smarts or relatable characters to ground its beautifully filmed depravity." Metacritic assigns the film a weighted average rating of 37 out of 100 based on the reviews of 39 professional critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".


title: Only God Forgives

text: Robbie Collin of "The Daily Telegraph" reflected concerns over the film in a three out of five star review. "The film's characters are non-people; the things they say to each other are non-conversations, the events they enact are non-drama," he wrote. But he praised Refn for following up his commercially successful film "Drive" with "...this abstruse, neon-dunked nightmare that spits in the face of coherence and flicks at the earlobes of good taste".


title: Only God Forgives

text: Peter Bradshaw of "The Guardian" gave it five out of five stars, calling it gripping and praising the "pure formal brilliance" of every scene and frame, though he notes that it will "have people running for the exits, and running for the hills" with its extreme violence. In an alternative review published in "The Guardian", John Patterson was highly critical of the film, citing its lack of originality and the low degree of focus on plot: "Somewhere in here is a story that Refn can hardly be bothered to tell... I feel the ghosts of other movies—his influences, his inspirations—crowding in on his own work, suffocating him, and somehow leaving less of him on screen."


title: Only God Forgives

text: Bill Gibron of "PopMatters" wrote "David Lynch must be laughing. If he had created something like "Only God Forgives", substituting his own quirky casting for the rather staid choices made by actual director Nicolas Winding Refn, he would have walked away from Cannes 2013 with yet another Palme d'Or, another notch in his already sizeable artistic belt, and the kind of critical appreciation that only comes when a proven auteur once again establishes his creative credentials."


title: Only God Forgives

text: Richard Roeper of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave this film a positive review, giving it three and a half stars saying: "Refn's follow-up effort to the similarly polarizing "Drive" (which I thought was flat-out great) is even more stylized and daring. "Drive" star Ryan Gosling (who is clearly interested in carving out a career with at least as many bold, indie-type roles as commercial, leading-man fare) strikes a Brando pose playing Julian, a smoldering, seemingly lethal American who navigates the seediest sides of Bangkok."


title: Ilyushin Il-62

text: The Ilyushin Il-62 (; NATO reporting name: Classic) is a Soviet long-range narrow-body jetliner conceived in 1960 by Ilyushin. As successor to the popular turboprop Il-18 and with capacity for almost 200 passengers and crew, the Il-62 was the world's largest jet airliner when first flown in 1963. One of four pioneering long-range designs (the others being Boeing 707, Douglas DC-8, and Vickers VC10), it was the first such type to be operated by the Soviet Union and a number of allied nations.


title: Ilyushin Il-62

text: The Il-62 entered Aeroflot civilian service on 15 September 1967 with an inaugural passenger flight from Moscow to Montreal, and remained the standard long-range airliner for the Soviet Union (and later, Russia) for several decades. It was the first Soviet pressurised aircraft with non-circular cross-section fuselage and ergonomic passenger doors, and the first Soviet jet with six-abreast seating (the turboprop Tu-114 shared this arrangement) and international-standard position lights.


title: Ilyushin Il-62

text: Over 30 nations operated the Il-62 with over 80 examples exported and others having been leased by Soviet-sphere and several Western airlines. The Il-62M variant became the longest-serving model in its airliner class (average age of examples in service as of 2016 is over 32 years). Special VIP (salon) and other conversions were also developed and used as head-of-state transport by some 14 countries. However, because it is expensive to operate compared to newer generation airliners, the number in service was greatly reduced after the 2008 Great Recession. The Il-62's successors include the wide-bodied Il-86 and Il-96, both of which were made in much smaller numbers and neither of which was widely exported.


title: Ilyushin Il-62

text: The Ilyushin OKB presented a proposal for a four-engined long-range jet airliner in February 1960, receiving the go-ahead from the Soviet Council of Ministers on 18 June 1960, with the Kuznetsov Design Bureau being instructed at the same time to develop the NK-8 turbofan to power the new airliner. The official specification required that the airliner, designated Il-62, must carry 165 economy-class passengers over a distance of 4,500 km (2,800 mi) or 100 first class passengers over 6,700 km (4,200 mi).


title: Ilyushin Il-62

text: The Il-62 replaced the fast turboprop Tu-114 on long range routes. As the Tu-114 was just entering service when the Il-62 was on the drawing board, Ilyushin had time for an unhurried design, test, and development programme. This was useful, since the Il-62 did call for significant development.


title: Ilyushin Il-62

text: The Il-62 and the British Vickers VC10 are the only commercial airliners with four engines fitted in twinned/paired nacelles by the sides of, and beneath, a "T" shaped empennage (T-tail). In the case of Ilyushin, the configuration was dictated by TsAGI, the Soviet Union's aerospace agency, since Ilyushin's design bureau lacked the resources to engage in configuration studies. This layout allowed the wing design to be optimised for aerodynamic efficiency, without being cluttered by having to carry engines. In addition, the rear-mounted engines reduced engine noise in the cabin and allowed smaller vertical tail surfaces (as the yawing moment in the event of an engine failure was reduced compared to wing mounted engines). These advantages are balanced by a number of drawbacks. The wing structure, lacking the weight of heavy engines to pull down against the wing bending moment, needed to be heavier, as did the rear fuselage structure, which had to carry the engines. In addition, aerodynamic wash (shadow) from the wing blankets the tail when the nose is pitched up (high angle of attack) leading the aircraft into a condition known as deep stall. This called for complex and (in the 1960s) unreliable automatic stall warning systems such as stick shakers and stick pushers to prevent the aircraft from stalling, although the Il-62's wing was designed to prevent deep stall.


title: Ilyushin Il-62

text: Early aircraft (prototypes, pre-production and initial production aircraft) display an evolution from thin or thick kinked leading inboard edges to the ultimate thick and straight 1966 shape. The characteristic "dog-tooth" also moved until fixed before production began. The engine installation also evolved, with the engines' longitudinal axes canted by 3 degrees from the horizontal, addition of thrust reversers to the outer engines, and slimming down of the entire installation as production began.


title: Ilyushin Il-62

text: The prototype was grossly underpowered as its intended NK-8 engines were not ready, and small Lyulka AL-7 turbojet engines had to be installed temporarily. The prototype with AL-7PB engines (registered СССР-06156) first flew on 3 January 1963, but crashed after clipping a perimeter fence during a maximum weight testing flight of the development program. The production Il-62 was powered by the originally intended rear-mounted Kuznetsov NK-8-4 engines. The first Il-62 powered with NK-8 engines (registered СССР-06153) first flew in 1964.


title: Ilyushin Il-62

text: The Il-62M variant (first flight in 1971, introduced in 1973) has more powerful, more efficient, and quieter Soloviev D-30KU engines and a fin fuel tank. Beneath the skin, the Il-62M has simpler and lighter single-slotted flaps and incremental aerodynamic improvements. Most important of these was the addition of spoilerons (spoilers or wing-mounted lift-disruptors which can act in the same capacity as ailerons by differential deployment in cruising flight), or in concert to kill lift on landing, and the ability to use idle reverse thrust in flight during the final approach so as to shorten the landing run. All but one example in service today are Il-62M. In 1978, the Il-62MK was further developed to seat up to 198 passengers and carry some two tonnes (4,400 lb) more payload and/or fuel than the Il-62M.


title: Ilyushin Il-62

text: Other versions were also planned, including a stretched version to seat up to 250 passengers and a shrunk version to suit smaller airfields.


title: Ilyushin Il-62

text: The Il-62 has tricycle landing gear with an additional lightweight gear strut at the rear of the fuselage which extends when the aircraft reaches its parking position. Aircraft with rear-mounted engines are usually tail-heavy when sitting empty on the ground, and to prevent the aircraft from tipping up on its tail, various devices are used for supporting the tail – from simple "pogo stick" fixed struts on small aircraft, to light-weight extendable struts (Il-62). Aircraft like DC-9 or Boeing 727 use an airstair door under their tail which serves the dual purpose of a tail support as well as an extra door for passenger loading.


title: Ilyushin Il-62

text: The Il-62 is the largest airliner ever built with all-manual flight controls, using steel cables, rods, pulleys, aerodynamic and weight balances, and trim tabs. The Il-62 also has a forward-mounted tank serving as a water ballast. This may be used when the aircraft flies empty or lightly loaded. If this is a fact, it would rank the Il-62 alongside other airliners that use ballast, notably the French Caravelle and the Soviet Tu-154. Due to the rear-mounted powerplants, the wings are aerodynamically clean, and takeoff and landing aids are employed without the disturbing effect of engine nacelles, resulting in free airflow over the dorsal wing surface. This allows the aircraft to fly through air turbulence of 16–18 m/s without affecting its stability.


title: Ilyushin Il-62

text: Another key Il-62 trademark is the "saw tooth" ("dog-tooth") on the wing leading edge. This prominent feature acts as an aerodynamic fence vortex generator (without which the wings would be almost vortex-free), and fixed leading edge droop/slat/flap. It ensures vice-free behaviour at high angles of attack and assists efficient long-range cruise. The saw tooth removes the need for hydraulic controls, stick shakers, and stick pushers. Later models of the VC10 (for British United Airways and Ghana Airways) also adopted this feature, in their case closer to the wing tips.


title: Ilyushin Il-62

text: Early NK-8-4-engined Il-62s suffered from performance problems including fatigue and overheating issues with the engines, sometimes leading to false fire alarms which could possibly cause the crew to accidentally shut down paired engines to prevent contiguous engine and fuselage damage. Flying with only two paired engines on the same side would, however, render the aircraft unbalanced and difficult to control. Subsequent modifications to the Il-62 and the VC10 (which had a similar engine arrangement) largely rectified this problem. There were two fatal Il-62 losses involving engine failure, both occurring with aircraft owned by LOT Polish Airlines, which had also leased a number of Il-62s from Aeroflot and Tarom. The higher fatality accident (183) was a fully laden Il-62M Flight 5055 on 9 May 1987 which experienced a rear fuselage fire that possibly went unnoticed by the crew, hence their decision not to land at one of two nearby airports. Control of the plane was eventually lost on the return flight to Warsaw, most likely due to one of the auxiliary fuel tanks fitted to some LOT Il-62s having ignited. The other was an unmodified (early version) NK-8-4-powered Il-62 Flight 007 which crashed on 14 March 1980 with 87 fatalities after being fitted with an engine that had previously caused vibration problems when used on two other LOT aircraft (the investigation suggested that the turbine disc was damaged before its final installation).