title: Artemis Fowl

text: It was announced on 11 October 2017 that Disney immediately removed Harvey Weinstein as the producer of the film as well as terminating its production with The Weinstein Company following a sexual misconduct controversy involving Weinstein. On 20 December 2017, it was announced that Irish newcomer Ferdia Shaw had been cast as Artemis Fowl II, alongside Judi Dench as Commander Root, Josh Gad as Mulch Diggums, Lara McDonnell as Captain Holly Short, and Nonso Anozie as Butler. Principal photography began in March 2018 with filming in England, Northern Ireland, and Ho Chi Minh City.


title: Artemis Fowl

text: On 7 May 2019, the film's originally scheduled release date of 9 August 2019 was delayed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures to 29 May 2020, as part of a change to their release schedule, while Colin Farrell was announced to be portraying Artemis Fowl I. The film was pulled completely on 3 April 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and instead debuted on Disney+, 12 June 2020.


title: Artemis Fowl

text: Upon the film's release, the film was criticised for the removal of the character arcs of both Artemis Fowl II and Holly Short from the book series in the film, with Fowl switched from antagonist to protagonist, and Short being relegated from protagonist to supporting character. McDonnell's casting was also criticised as whitewashing due to Short being physically described in the book series as having nut-brown skin of a coffee complexion. The casting of Nonso Anozie as Butler was also criticised for several reasons: that the character is described as Eurasian who can pass as Japanese and Russian in the book series, and that the character's physical description of terrifying anyone in his presence, combined with his backstory of his family having served the Fowl family for centuries and Anozie's casting, embodies several stereotypes of African Americans, in particular the "scary black man" and "black servant" tropes.


title: Althing

text: The Alþingi ("general meeting" in Icelandic, , anglicised as or ) is the supreme national parliament of Iceland. It is one of the oldest surviving parliaments in the world. The Althing was founded in 930 at ("thing fields" or "assembly fields"), situated approximately east of what later became the country's capital, Reykjavík. Even after Iceland's union with Norway in 1262, the Althing still held its sessions at until 1800, when it was discontinued. It was restored in 1844 by royal decree and moved to Reykjavík. The restored unicameral legislature first came together in 1845 and after 1874 operated in two chambers with an additional third chamber taking on a greater role as the decades passed until 1991 when Althing became once again unicameral. The present parliament building, the , was built in 1881, made of hewn Icelandic stone. The unicameral parliament has 63 members, and is elected every four years based on party-list proportional representation. The current speaker of the Althing is Birgir Ármannsson.


title: Althing

text: The constitution of Iceland provides for six electoral constituencies with the possibility of an increase to seven. The constituency boundaries and the number of seats allocated to each constituency are fixed by legislation. No constituency can be represented by fewer than six seats. Furthermore, each party with more than 5% of the national vote is allocated seats based on its proportion of the national vote in order that the number of members in parliament for each political party should be more or less proportional to its overall electoral support. If the number of voters represented by each member of the Althing in one constituency would be less than half of the comparable ratio in another constituency, the Icelandic National Electoral Commission is tasked with altering the allocation of seats to reduce that difference.


title: Althing

text: The Althing claims to be the longest running parliament in the world. Its establishment as an outdoor assembly or "thing" held on the plains of ('Thing Fields' or 'Assembly Fields') from about 930, laid the foundation for an independent national existence in Iceland. To begin with, the Althing was a general assembly of the Icelandic Commonwealth, where the country's most powerful leaders () met to decide on legislation and dispense justice. All free men could attend the assemblies, which were usually the main social event of the year and drew large crowds of farmers and their families, parties involved in legal disputes, traders, craftsmen, storytellers, and travellers. Those attending the assembly lived in temporary camps () during the session. The centre of the gathering was the , or Law Rock, a rocky outcrop on which the Lawspeaker () took his seat as the presiding official of the assembly. His responsibilities included reciting aloud the laws in effect at the time. It was his duty to proclaim the procedural law of the Althing to those attending the assembly each year.


title: Althing

text: The "Gulathing Law" was adopted in 930 at the first Althing, introduced by who had spent three years in Norway studying their laws. The Icelandic laws conferred a privileged status on the Danes, Swedes and Norwegians.


title: Althing

text: According to , the Althing in 1000 declared Christianity as the official religion. By the summer of 1000, the leaders of Iceland had agreed that prosecuting relatives for blaspheming the old gods was obligatory. Iceland was in the midst of unrest from the spread of Christianity that was introduced by travelers and missionaries sent by the Norwegian king Olaf Tryggvason. The outbreak of warfare in Denmark and Norway prompted , a pagan and chieftain of the Althing, to propose "one law and one religion" to rule over the whole of Iceland, making baptism and conversion to Christianity required by law.


title: Althing

text: Public addresses on matters of importance were delivered at the Law Rock and there the assembly was called to order and dissolved. The , the legislative section of the assembly, was its most powerful institution. It comprised the 39 district Chieftains () plus nine additional members and the Lawspeaker. As the legislative section of the Althing, the took a stand on legal conflicts, adopted new laws and granted exemptions to existing laws. The Althing of old also performed a judicial function and heard legal disputes in addition to the spring assemblies held in each district. After the country had been divided into four-quarters around 965, a court of 36 judges () was established for each of them at the Althing. Another court () was established early in the 11th century. It served as a supreme court of sorts, and assumed the function of hearing cases left unsettled by the other courts. It comprised 48 judges appointed by the of .


title: Althing

text: When the Icelanders submitted to the authority of the Norwegian king under the terms of the "Old Covenant" () in 1262, the function of the Althing changed. The organization of the Commonwealth came to an end and the rule of the country by ceased. Executive power now rested with the king and his officials, the Royal Commissioners () and District Commissioners (). As before, the , now comprising 36 members, continued to be its principal institution and shared formal legislative power with the king. Laws adopted by the were subject to royal assent and, conversely, if the king initiated legislation, the Althing had to give its consent. The Lawspeaker was replaced by two legal administrators, called .


title: Althing

text: Towards the end of the 14th century, royal succession brought both Norway and Iceland under the control of the Danish monarchy. With the introduction of absolute monarchy in Denmark, the Icelanders relinquished their autonomy to the Crown, including the right to initiate and consent to legislation. After that, the Althing served almost exclusively as a court of law until the year 1800.


title: Althing

text: The Althing was disbanded by royal decree in 1800. A new High Court, established by this same decree and located in Reykjavík, took over the functions of Lögrétta. The three appointed judges first convened in Hólavallarskóli on 10 August 1801. The High Court was to hold regular sessions and function as the court of highest instance in the country. It operated until 1920, when the Supreme Court of Iceland was established.


title: Althing

text: A royal decree providing for the establishment of a new Althing was issued on 8 March 1843. Elections were held the following year and the assembly finally met on 1 July 1845 in Reykjavík. Some Icelandic nationalists (the Fjölnir group) did not want Reykjavík as the location for the newly established Althing due to the perception that the city was too influenced by Danes. Jón Sigurðsson claimed that the situating of the Althing in Reykjavík would help make the city Icelandic.


title: Althing

text: It comprised 26 members sitting in a single chamber. One member was elected in each of 20 electoral districts and six "royally nominated Members" were appointed by the king. Suffrage was, following the Danish model, limited to males of substantial means and at least 25 years of age, which to begin with meant only about 5% of the population. A regular session lasted four weeks and could be extended if necessary. During this period, the Althing acted merely as a consultative body for the Crown. It examined proposed legislation and individual members could raise questions for discussion. Draft legislation submitted by the government was given two readings, an introductory one and a final one. Proposals which were adopted were called petitions. The new Althing made a number of improvements to legislation and to the administration of the country.


title: Althing

text: The Constitution of 1874 granted to the Althing joint legislative power with the Crown in matters of exclusive Icelandic concern. At the same time, the National Treasury acquired powers of taxation and financial allocation. The king retained the right to veto legislation and often, on the advice of his ministers, refused to consent to legislation adopted by the Althing. The number of members of the Althing was increased to 36, 30 of them elected in general elections in eight single-member constituencies and 11 double-member constituencies, the other six appointed by the Crown as before. The Althing was now divided into an upper chamber, known as the "Efri deild" and a lower chamber, known as the "Neðri deild". Six elected members and the six appointed ones sat in the upper chamber, which meant that the latter could prevent legislation from being passed by acting as a bloc. Twenty-four elected representatives sat in the lower chamber. From 1874 until 1915 ad hoc committees were appointed. After 1915 seven standing committees were elected by each of the chambers. Regular sessions of the Althing convened every other year. A supplementary session was first held in 1886, and these became more frequent in the 20th century. The Althing met from 1881 in the newly built Parliament House. The Governor-General ("landshöfðingi") was the highest representative of the government in Iceland and was responsible to the Advisor for Iceland ("Íslandsráðgjafi") in Copenhagen.


title: Althing

text: A constitutional amendment, confirmed on 3 October 1903, granted the Icelanders home rule and parliamentary government. Hannes Hafstein was appointed as the Icelandic minister on 1 February 1904 who was answerable to parliament. The minister had to have the support of the majority of members of the Althing; in the case of a vote of no confidence, he would have to step down. Under the constitutional amendment of 1903, the number of members was increased by four, to a total of forty. Elections to the Althing had traditionally been public – voters declared aloud which of the candidates they supported. In 1908, the secret ballot was adopted, with ballot papers on which the names of the candidates were printed. A single election day for the entire country was at the same time made mandatory. When the Constitution was amended in 1915, the royally nominated members of the Althing were replaced by six national representatives elected by proportional representation for the entire country.


title: Althing

text: The Act of Union (which took effect on 1 December 1918) made Iceland a state in personal union with the king of Denmark. It was set to expire after 25 years, when either state could choose to leave the union. The Althing was granted unrestricted legislative power. In 1920, the number of members of the Althing was increased to 42. Since 1945, the Althing has customarily assembled in the autumn. With the Constitutional Act of 1934, the number of members was increased by seven and the system of national representatives abolished in favour of one providing for eleven seats used to equalize discrepancies between the parties' popular vote and the number of seats they received in the Althing, raising the number of members of the Althing to 49. In 1934, the voting age was also lowered to 21. Further changes in 1942 provided for an additional three members and introduced proportional representation in the double-member constituencies. The constituencies were then 28 in number: 21 single-member constituencies; six double-member constituencies; and Reykjavík, which elected eight members. With the additional eleven equalization seats, the total number of members was thus 52.


title: Althing

text: When Denmark was occupied by Germany on 9 April 1940, the union with Iceland was effectively severed. On the following day, the Althing passed two resolutions, investing the Icelandic cabinet with the power of Head of State and declaring that Iceland would accept full responsibility for both foreign policy and coastal surveillance. A year later, the Althing adopted a law creating the position of Regent to represent the Crown. This position continued until the Act of Union was repealed, and the Republic of Iceland established, at a session of the Althing held at Þingvellir on 17 June 1944.


title: Althing

text: In 1959, the system of electoral districts was changed completely. The country was divided into eight constituencies with proportional representation in each, in addition to the previous eleven equalization seats. The total number of members elected was 60. In 1968, the Althing approved the lowering of the voting age to 20 years. A further amendment to the Constitution in 1984 increased the number of members to 63 and reduced the voting age to 18 years. By a constitutional amendment of June 1999, implemented in May 2003, the constituency system was again changed. The number of constituencies was cut from eight to six; constituency boundaries were to be fixed by law. Further major changes were introduced in the Althing in May 1991: the assembly now sits as a unicameral legislature. There are currently twelve standing committees.


title: Althing

text: While elections may be held every four years, they can be held more frequently due to extenuating circumstances.


title: Topographic map

text: In modern mapping, a topographic map or topographic sheet is a type of map characterized by large-scale detail and quantitative representation of relief features, usually using contour lines (connecting points of equal elevation), but historically using a variety of methods. Traditional definitions require a topographic map to show both natural and artificial features. A topographic survey is typically based upon a systematic observation and published as a map series, made up of two or more map sheets that combine to form the whole map. A topographic map series uses a common specification that includes the range of cartographic symbols employed, as well as a standard geodetic framework that defines the map projection, coordinate system, ellipsoid and geodetic datum. Official topographic maps also adopt a national grid referencing system.


title: Topographic map

text: Other authors define topographic maps by contrasting them with another type of map; they are distinguished from smaller-scale "chorographic maps" that cover large regions, "planimetric maps" that do not show elevations, and "thematic maps" that focus on specific topics.


title: Topographic map

text: However, in the vernacular and day to day world, the representation of relief (contours) is popularly held to define the genre, such that even small-scale maps showing relief are commonly (and erroneously, in the technical sense) called "topographic".


title: Topographic map

text: The study or discipline of topography is a much broader field of study, which takes into account all natural and man-made features of terrain. Maps were among the first artifacts to record observations about topography.


title: Topographic map

text: Topographic maps are based on topographical surveys. Performed at large scales, these surveys are called topographical in the old sense of topography, showing a variety of elevations and landforms. This is in contrast to older cadastral surveys, which primarily show property and governmental boundaries. The first multi-sheet topographic map series of an entire country, the "Carte géométrique de la France", was completed in 1789. The Great Trigonometric Survey of India, started by the East India Company in 1802, then taken over by the British Raj after 1857 was notable as a successful effort on a larger scale and for accurately determining heights of Himalayan peaks from viewpoints over one hundred miles distant.


title: Topographic map

text: Topographic surveys were prepared by the military to assist in planning for battle and for defensive emplacements (thus the name and history of the United Kingdom's Ordnance Survey). As such, elevation information was of vital importance.


title: Topographic map

text: As they evolved, topographic map series became a national resource in modern nations in planning infrastructure and resource exploitation. In the United States, the national map-making function which had been shared by both the Army Corps of Engineers and the Department of the Interior migrated to the newly created United States Geological Survey in 1879, where it has remained since.


title: Topographic map

text: 1913 saw the beginning of the International Map of the World initiative, which set out to map all of Earth's significant land areas at a scale of 1:1 million, on about one thousand sheets, each covering four degrees latitude by six or more degrees longitude. Excluding borders, each sheet was 44 cm high and (depending on latitude) up to 66 cm wide. Although the project eventually foundered, it left an indexing system that remains in use.


title: Topographic map

text: By the 1980s, centralized printing of standardized topographic maps began to be superseded by databases of coordinates that could be used on computers by moderately skilled end users to view or print maps with arbitrary contents, coverage and scale. For example, the federal government of the United States' "TIGER" initiative compiled interlinked databases of federal, state and local political borders and census enumeration areas, and of roadways, railroads, and water features with support for locating street addresses within street segments. TIGER was developed in the 1980s and used in the 1990 and subsequent decennial censuses. Digital elevation models ("DEM") were also compiled, initially from topographic maps and stereographic interpretation of aerial photographs and then from satellite photography and radar data. Since all these were government projects funded with taxes and not classified for national security reasons, the datasets were in the public domain and freely usable without fees or licensing.


title: Topographic map

text: TIGER and DEM datasets greatly facilitated geographic information systems and made the Global Positioning System much more useful by providing context around locations given by the technology as coordinates. Initial applications were mostly professionalized forms such as innovative surveying instruments and agency-level GIS systems tended by experts. By the mid-1990s, increasingly user-friendly resources such as online mapping in two and three dimensions, integration of GPS with mobile phones and automotive navigation systems appeared. As of 2011, the future of standardized, centrally printed topographical maps is left somewhat in doubt.


title: Topographic map

text: Topographic maps have many multiple uses in the present day: any type of geographic planning or large-scale architecture; earth sciences and many other geographic disciplines; mining and other earth-based endeavours; civil engineering and recreational uses such as hiking and orienteering.


title: Topographic map

text: The various features shown on the map are represented by conventional signs or symbols. For example, colors can be used to indicate a classification of roads. These signs are usually explained in the margin of the map, or on a separately published characteristic sheet.


title: Topographic map

text: Topographic maps are also commonly called "contour maps" or "topo maps". In the United States, where the primary national series is organized by a strict 7.5-minute grid, they are often called or "quads" or quadrangles.


title: Topographic map

text: Topographic maps conventionally show topography, or land contours, by means of contour lines. Contour lines are curves that connect contiguous points of the same altitude (isohypse). In other words, every point on the marked line of 100 m elevation is 100 m above mean sea level.


title: Topographic map

text: These maps usually show not only the contours, but also any significant streams or other bodies of water, forest cover, built-up areas or individual buildings (depending on scale), and other features and points of interest such as what direction those streams are flowing.


title: Topographic map

text: Most topographic maps were prepared using photogrammetric interpretation of aerial photography using a stereoplotter. Modern mapping also employs lidar and other Remote sensing techniques. Older topographic maps were prepared using traditional surveying instruments.


title: Topographic map

text: The cartographic style (content and appearance) of topographic maps is highly variable between national mapping organizations. Aesthetic traditions and conventions persist in topographic map symbology, particularly amongst European countries at medium map scales.


title: Topographic map

text: Although virtually the entire terrestrial surface of Earth has been mapped at scale 1:1,000,000, medium and large-scale mapping has been accomplished intensively in some countries and much less in others. Several commercial vendors supply international topographic map series.


title: Topographic map

text: According to 2007/2/EC European directive, national mapping agencies of European Union countries must have publicly available services for searching, viewing and downloading their official map series. Topographic maps produced by some of them are available under a free license that allows re-use, such as a Creative Commons license.


title: Ghalib

text: Mirza Beg Asadullah Khan (Urdu, ; 27 December 1797 – 15 February 1869) also known as Mirza Ghalib (Urdu, ) was an Urdu and Persian poet of the 19th century Mughal and British era in the Indian Subcontinent.


title: Ghalib

text: He was popularly known by the pen names Ghalib (غالب) and Asad (اسد). His honorific was "Dabir-ul-Mulk, Najm-ud-Daula". He is one of the most popular poets in Pakistan and quite well known amongst Urdu-speaking people in India. During his lifetime, the already declining Mughal Empire was eclipsed and displaced by the British East India Company Rule and finally deposed following the defeat of the Indian Rebellion of 1857; these are described through his work.


title: Ghalib

text: He wrote in both Urdu and Persian. Although his Persian Divan (body of work) is at least five times longer than his Urdu Divan, his fame rests on his poetry in Urdu. Today, Ghalib remains one of the most popular poets not only in Pakistan as well as in Urdu-speaking community of India and amongst South Asians all around the world.


title: Ghalib

text: Mirza Ghalib was born in Kala Mahal, Agra into a family of Mughals who moved to Samarkand (in modern-day Uzbekistan) after the downfall of the Seljuk kings. His paternal grandfather, Mirza Qoqan Baig, was a Seljuq Turk who had immigrated to India from Samarkand during the reign of Ahmad Shah (1748–54). He worked in Lahore, Delhi and Jaipur, was awarded the sub-district of Pahasu (Bulandshahr, UP) and finally settled in Agra, UP, India. He had four sons and three daughters.


title: Ghalib

text: Mirza Abdullah Baig (Ghalib's father) married Izzat-ut-Nisa Begum, an ethnic Kashmiri, and then lived at the house of his father-in-law, Ghalib's grandfather. He was employed first by the Nawab of Lucknow and then the Nizam of Hyderabad, Deccan. He died in a battle in 1803 in Alwar and was buried at Rajgarh (Alwar, Rajasthan), when Ghalib was a little over 5 years old. He was then raised by his Uncle Mirza Nasrullah Baig Khan, but in 1806, Nasrullah fell off an elephant and died from related injuries.


title: Ghalib

text: In 1810, at the age of thirteen, Ghalib married Umrao Begum, daughter of Nawab Ilahi Bakhsh (brother of the Nawab of Ferozepur Jhirka). He soon moved to Delhi, along with his younger brother, Mirza Yousuf, who had developed schizophrenia at a young age and later died in Delhi during the chaos of 1857.


title: Ghalib

text: None of his seven children survived beyond infancy. After his marriage, he settled in Delhi. In one of his letters, he describes his marriage as the second imprisonment after the initial confinement that was life itself. The idea that life is one continuous painful struggle that can end only when life itself ends, is a recurring theme in his poetry. One of his couplets puts it in a nutshell:


title: Ghalib

text: There are conflicting reports regarding his relationship with his wife. She was considered to be pious, conservative, and God-fearing.


title: Ghalib

text: In 1850, Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar bestowed upon Mirza Ghalib the title of "Dabir-ul-Mulk" (). The Emperor also added to it the additional title of "Najm-ud-daula" (). The conferment of these titles was symbolic of Mirza Ghalib's incorporation into the nobility of Delhi. He also received the title of "Mirza Nosha" () from the Emperor, thus enabling him to add Mirza to his name. He was also an important courtier of the royal court of the Emperor. As the Emperor was himself a poet, Mirza Ghalib was appointed as his poet tutor in 1854. He was also appointed as a tutor of Prince Fakhr-ud Din Mirza, eldest son of Bahadur Shah II, (d. 10 July 1856). He was also appointed by the Emperor as the royal historian of the Mughal Court.


title: Ghalib

text: Being a member of declining Mughal nobility and old landed aristocracy, he never worked for a livelihood, lived on either royal patronage of Mughal Emperors, credit, or the generosity of his friends. His fame came to him posthumously. He had himself remarked during his lifetime that he would be recognized by later generations. After the decline of the Mughal Empire and the rise of the British Raj, despite his many attempts, Ghalib could never get the full pension restored.


title: Ghalib

text: Ghalib started composing poetry at the age of 11. His first language was Urdu, but Persian and Turkish were also spoken at home. He received an education in Persian and Arabic at a young age. During Ghalib's period, the words "Hindi" and Urdu" were synonyms (see Hindi–Urdu controversy). Ghalib wrote in Perso-Arabic script which is used to write modern Urdu, but often called his language "Hindi"; one of his works was titled "Ode-e-Hindi" ().


title: Ghalib

text: When Ghalib was 14 years old a newly converted Muslim tourist from Iran (Abdus Samad, originally named Hormuzd, a Zoroastrian) came to Agra. He stayed at Ghalib's home for two years and taught him Persian, Arabic, philosophy, and logic.


title: Ghalib

text: Although Ghalib valued Persian over Urdu, his fame rests on his writings in Urdu. Numerous commentaries on Ghalib's "ghazal" compilations have been written by Urdu scholars. The first such elucidation or "Sharh" was written by Ali Haider Nazm Tabatabai of Hyderabad during the rule of the last Nizam of Hyderabad. Before Ghalib, the "ghazal" was primarily an expression of anguished love; but Ghalib expressed philosophy, the travails, and mysteries of life and wrote "ghazals" on many other subjects, vastly expanding the scope of the "ghazal".


title: Ghalib

text: In keeping with the conventions of the classical "ghazal", in most of Ghalib's verses, the identity and the gender of the beloved are indeterminate. The critic/poet/writer Shamsur Rahman Faruqui explains that the convention of having the "idea" of a lover or beloved instead of an actual lover/beloved freed the poet-protagonist-lover from the demands of realism. Love poetry in Urdu from the last quarter of the seventeenth century onwards consists mostly of "poems about love" and not "love poems" in the Western sense of the term.


title: Ghalib

text: The first complete English translation of Ghalib's ghazals was "Love Sonnets of Ghalib", written by Sarfaraz K. Niazi and published by Rupa & Co in India and Ferozsons in Pakistan. It contains complete Roman transliteration, explication, and an extensive lexicon.


title: Ghalib

text: Ghalib has been described as having been concerned about receiving pensions more so than building an estate or engaging in commerce. Ghalib was paid a monthly salary of 62 rupees and 8 annas from his uncle's government pension until 1827. He travelled to Calcutta and presented a petition to the Governor-General to keep receiving money from this pension.


title: Ghalib

text: One of Ghalib's ambitions in life was to become the highest-ranking Ustaad for the royal Mughal Court. This position not only would prove his artistic mastership but also provide a salary of 400 rupees a month. Before becoming the official poet laureate of the court, Ghalib was paid a salary of 50 rupees a month to write histories on the history of the House of Taimur.


title: Ghalib

text: Mirza Ghalib was a gifted letter writer. Not only Urdu poetry but prose is indebted to Mirza Ghalib. His letters gave foundation to easy and popular Urdu. Before Ghalib, letter writing in Urdu was highly ornamental. He made his letters "talk" by using words and sentences as if he were conversing with the reader. According to Ghalib:


title: Ghalib

text: His letters were very informal; sometimes he would just write the name of the person and start the letter. He was very humorous and wrote very interesting letters. In one letter he wrote, "Main koshish karta hoon ke koi aisi baat likhoon jo padhe khush ho jaaye'" (I want to write lines such that whoever reads them would enjoy them). Some scholars say that Ghalib would have the same place in Urdu literature based on his letters only. They have been translated into English by Ralph Russell in "The Oxford Ghalib".


title: Ghalib

text: Ghalib was a chronicler of a turbulent period. One by one, Ghalib saw the bazaars – Khas Bazaar, Urdu Bazaar, Kharam-ka Bazaar, disappear, and whole mohallas (localities) and katras (lanes) vanish. The havelis (mansions) of his friends were razed to the ground. Ghalib wrote that Delhi had become a desert. Water was scarce. Delhi was "a military camp". It was the end of the feudal elite to which Ghalib had belonged. He wrote:


title: Ghalib

text: His original "Takhallus" (pen-name) was Asad (meaning "lion"), drawn from his given name, Asadullah Khan. At some point early in his poetic career he also decided to adopt the pen-name of "Ghalib" (meaning "all conquering," "superior," "most excellent").


title: Ghalib

text: Ghalib’s poetry or shayari had smitten Mughal Badshah of Delhi, Bahadur Shah Zaffar. During the reign of the British, the badshah became a British pensioner. He was kept under strict supervision by the British along with his visitors including Ghalib as they grew suspicious of him. The shayari maestro’s pension was suspended by the British. This made Ghalib take a long journey to Calcutta to make an appeal about his pension to the British Governor General.


title: Ghalib

text: made a huge difference in his literary journey. Mirza Ghalib came to the city of joy and fell in love. His love for Kolkata is depicted in one of his creations, Safar-e-Kalkattah where he talks about his stay in his humble abode, Haveli No 133 situated in the Simla Market Area during his stay in Kolkata. He used to write his verses in Urdu but started writing his poetry in Persian after this visit. He realized that the literary circle of Calcutta was very different from his known world. During his stay in Kolkata, he attended many literary gatherings which were not courtly in nature unlike Delhi. These were far liberal and flexible in nature which is imperative for any individual with a creative bent of mind.


title: Ghalib

text: Mirza Ghalib’s sojourn in Calcutta widened the horizons of his literary journey. He established himself as one of the renowned poets in Calcutta and received both appreciation and criticism from the enlightened audience of the city. During this time, he penned two masnavis in Persian like Chiragh-e Dair (Lamp of the Temple) and Bad-e Mukhalif (Adverse Winds).


title: Ghalib

text: His letters bear a testimony of his tale of love with Calcutta. In a letter that he wrote to Mirza Ali Bakhsh Khan, he says how the city has stolen his heart and left him mesmerized. He referred to the city as a place which offered a remedy for everything except death and also praised the talented people of the city.


title: Ghalib

text: 1855, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan finished his scholarly, well-researched, and illustrated edition of Abul Fazl's Ai’n-e Akbari. Having finished the work to his satisfaction, and believing that Mirza Asadullah Khan Ghalib was a person who would appreciate his labors, he approached the great Ghalib to write a taqriz (in the convention of the times, a laudatory foreword) for it. Ghalib obliged, but what he produced was a short Persian poem castigating the Ai’n-e Akbari and, by implication, the imperial, sumptuous, literate and learned Mughal culture of which it was a product. The least that could be said against it was that the book had little value even as an antique document. Ghalib practically reprimanded Khan for wasting his talents and time on dead things. Worse, he highly praised the "sahibs of England" who at that time held all the keys to all the a’ins in this world.


title: Ghalib

text: The poem was unexpected, but it came at a time when Khan's thought and feelings were already inclining toward change. Ghalib seemed to be acutely aware of a European[English]-sponsored change in world polity, especially Indian polity. Syed Ahmed Khan might well have been piqued at Ghalib's admonitions, but he would also have realized that Ghalib's reading of the situation, though not nuanced enough, was basically accurate. Khan may also have felt that he, being better informed about the English and the outside world, should have himself seen the change that now seemed to be just around the corner. Sir Khan never again wrote a word in praise of the Ai’n-e Akbari and in fact gave up taking an active interest in history and archaeology and became a social reformer.


title: Ghalib

text: Ghalib placed a greater emphasis on seeking of God rather than ritualistic religious practices; although he followed Shia theology and had said many verses in praise of Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib. Ghalib states:


title: Ghalib

text: Like many other Urdu poets, Ghalib was capable of writing profoundly religious poetry, yet was skeptical about some interpretations of the Islamic scriptures done by certain religious leaders. On the idea of paradise, he once wrote in a letter to a friend:


title: Ghalib

text: He staunchly disdained the practices of certain Ulema, who in his poems represent narrow-mindedness and hypocrisy:


title: Ghalib

text: In another verse directed towards certain maulavis (clerics), he criticized them for their ignorance and arrogant certitude: "Look deeper, it is you alone who cannot hear the music of his secrets". In his letters, Ghalib frequently contrasted the narrow legalism of the Ulema with "its pre-occupation with teaching the baniyas and the brats, and wallowing in the problems of menstruation and menstrual bleeding" and real spirituality for which you had to "study the works of the mystics and take into one's heart the essential truth of God's reality and his expression in all things".


title: Ghalib

text: During the anti-British Rebellion in Delhi on 5 October 1857, three weeks after the British troops had entered through Kashmiri Gate, some soldiers climbed into Ghalib's neighbourhood and hauled him off to Colonel Brown () for questioning. He appeared in front of the colonel wearing a Central Asian Turkic style headdress. The colonel, bemused at his appearance, inquired in broken Urdu, "Well? You Muslim?", to which Ghalib replied sardonically, "Half?" The colonel asked, "What does that mean?" In response, Ghalib said, "I drink wine, but I don't eat pork."


title: Ghalib

text: A large part of Ghalib's poetry focuses on the Naʽat, poems in praise of Muhammad, which indicates that Ghalib was a devout Muslim. Ghalib wrote his "Abr-i gauharbar" () as a Naʽat poem. Ghalib also wrote a qasida of 101 verses in dedication to a Naʽat. Ghalib described himself as a sinner who should be silent before Muhammad as he was not worthy of addressing him, who was praised by God.


title: Ghalib

text: In his poem "Chiragh-i-Dair" (, The Lamp of the Temple) which was composed during his trip to Benares during the spring of 1827, Ghalib mused about the land of Hindustan (India) and how Qiyamah (Doomsday) has failed to arrive, in spite of the numerous conflicts plaguing it.


title: Ghalib

text: Ghalib held Persian in high regard, and his knowledge of the language was a point of pride for him. He believed his compositions in Persian were superior to those in Urdu, and hoped readers would evaluate him by the former:


title: Ghalib

text: The majority of Ghalib's poetic compositions in Persian were "qasidahs" dedicated to numerous patron rulers. Ghalib also created "ghazals" and "mathnawis" in Persian. His first published work in the language was a collection of poems titled "May-ḵāna-ye ārzū", released in 1845. He also created prose works, such as "Panj ahang", initially published in 1849. "Mehr-e nīmrūz", published in 1855, was a history of the universe from its creation to the death of Mughal Emperor Humayun. Another such historical work was "Dastanbu", an eyewitness account of the 1857 revolt and its aftermath. Ghalib's last significant work in Persian was "Qaat'i-e Burhaan", a critique of "Burhaan-e-Qaat'i", a controversial Persian dictionary.


title: Ghalib

text: In 2010, Maulana Azad National Urdu University published a compilation of 11,337 poems by Ghalib titled "Kulliyat-e-Ghalib Farsi". A few years before his death, Ghalib had written over 11,000 Persian poems in Persian while also writing over 1,700 Urdu poems.


title: Ghalib

text: Ghalib's closest rival was poet Zauq, tutor of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the then emperor of India with his seat in Delhi. There are some amusing anecdotes of the competition between Ghalib and Zauq and exchange of jibes between them. However, there was mutual respect for each other's talent. Both also admired and acknowledged the supremacy of Meer Taqi Meer, a towering figure of 18th century Urdu Poetry. Another poet Momin, whose "ghazals" had a distinctly lyrical flavour, was also a famous contemporary of Ghalib. One of the towering figures in Urdu literature Altaf Hussain Hali was a "shagird" () of Ghalib. Hali has also written a biography of Ghalib titled "Yaadgaar-e-Ghalib".


title: Ghalib

text: Ghalib was not only a poet, he was also a prolific prose writer. His letters are a reflection of the political and social climate of the time. They also refer to many contemporaries like Mir Mehdi Majrooh, who himself was a good poet and Ghalib's lifelong acquaintance. The poems written by Ghalib were tough to understand. He sometimes made the sentence syntax so complex that people had difficulty in understanding them. Once, Hakeem Agha Jaan Aish aka Aish Dehlvi, a poet of Ghalib's era, read a couplet in a Mushaira mocking Ghalib:


title: Ghalib

text: In prose Ghalib brought a revolution in Urdu literature by developing an easy, simple and beautiful way of writing.


title: Ghalib

text: Before Ghalib Urdu was a complex language, Ghalib introduced a simple style of prose in Urdu which is like a conversation.


title: Ghalib

text: Ghalib was buried in Hazrat Nizamuddin near the tomb of Nizamuddin Auliya. The side view of Mazar-e-Ghalib is shown in the image.


title: Ghalib

text: This couplet has two meanings. On one hand, he says that there is loneliness all over the place, which is quite scary and makes him want to return to his secure and cosy home. On the other hand, a second meaning can be taken from this: there is this loneliness which resembles my home. My home is also a deserted place just like this one. That duality is something which Ghalib thrives on.


title: Ghalib

text: He died in Delhi on 15 February 1869. The house where he lived in Gali Qasim Jaan, Ballimaran, Chandni Chowk, in Old Delhi known as the "Ghalib ki Haveli" is now a museum dedicated to him.


title: Ghalib

text: Ghazal maestros like Jagjit Singh, Mehdi Hassan, Iqbal Bano, Abida Parveen, Farida Khanum, Tina Sani, Madam Noor Jehan, Mohammed Rafi, Asha Bhosle, Begum Akhtar, Ghulam Ali, Lata Mangeshkar, Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, Rahat Fateh Ali Khan have sung his ghazals.


title: Ghalib

text: Bharat Bhushan plays Ghalib and Suraiya plays his courtesan lover, Chaudvin in the film "Mirza Ghalib" (1954). The musical score of the film was composed by Ghulam Mohammed and his compositions of Ghalib's famous "ghazals" are likely to remain everlasting favorites.


title: Ghalib

text: A Pakistani film named "Ghalib" was released in 1961. The film was directed and produced by Ataullah Hashmi for S.K. Pictures. The music was composed by Tassaduq Hussain. The film starred Pakistani film superstar Sudhir playing Ghalib and Madam Noor Jehan playing his courtesan lover, Chaudvin. The film was released on 24 November 1961 and reached average status at the box-office, however, the music remains memorable in Pakistan to this day.


title: Ghalib

text: Gulzar produced a TV serial, "Mirza Ghalib" (1988), telecast on DD National. Naseeruddin Shah played the role of Ghalib in the serial, and it featured "ghazals" sung and composed by Jagjit Singh and Chitra Singh. The serial's music has since been recognised as Jagjit Singh and Chitra Singh's magnum opus, enjoying a cult following in the Indian subcontinent.


title: Ghalib

text: Another television show, "Mirza Ghalib: The Playful Muse", aired on DD National in 1989; various ghazals by Ghalib were rendered in different musical styles by singers and musicians in each episode.


title: Ghalib

text: Ghalib's life is the subject of hundreds of plays regularly performed in Northern India and Pakistan. These plays are based on his life and his personal and professional relationships.


title: Ghalib

text: Starting from the "Parsi Theatre" and "Hindustani Theatre" days, the first phase of his stage portrayal culminated in Sheila Bhatia's production, written by Mehdi Saheb. Mohd Ayub performed this role so many times that many theatre-goers used to call him Ghalib. The Sheila Bhatia production celebrated his famous ghazals which used to be presented one after another. Ghalib's character lacked subtlety and he was shown philandering with the courtesan, Chaudvin, famously played by Punjabi singer Madan Bala Sandhu. Later Begum Abida Ahmed, wife of the late President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, supported many very costly productions. This was perhaps the golden period of plays celebrating Ghalib's life, including many other productions such as Surendra Verma's play which was performed by the National School of Drama. "Qaid-e-Hayat" (Imprisonment of Life, 1983), written by Surendra Verma, talks about the personal life of the poet Ghalib, including his financial hardships and his tragic love for Katiba, a woman calligraphist, who was working on his "diwan". Over the years, it has been directed by numerous theatre directors, including Ram Gopal Bajaj in 1989, at the National School of Drama. This period also saw numerous college and university productions performed by students' groups. Writers whose scripts were popular during this period include Jameel Shaidai, Danish Iqbal and Devender Singh. Ghalib also inspired a chain of comedies. One such classic comedy is "Ghalib in New Delhi" which has been staged more than three hundred times by Dr. Sayeed Alam. Danish Iqbal's play "Main Gaya Waqt Nahin Hoon" and Sayeed's play "Ghalib Ke Khutoot" are still being performed at various Indian cities. The name of play 'Main Gaya Waqt Nahin Hoon' was later changed to 'Anti-National Ghalib', which has had several successful shows in DelhiNCR. Now being produced under the banner of Aatrangi Pitaara Foundation.


title: Ghalib

text: The 2015 film Masaan contains various examples of poetry and shaayari by Ghalib, along with works by Akbar Allahabadi, Basheer Badr, Chakbast, and Dushyant Kumar. Explaining this as a conscious tribute, the film's lyricist Varun Grover explained that he wanted to show


title: Ghalib

text: the character of Shaalu (played by Shweta Tripathi) as a person whose hobby is to read Hindi poetry and shaayari, as this is a common hobby of young people in Northern India, especially when in love, but this aspect is rarely shown in Hindi films.


title: Ghalib

text: Ghalib was commemorated on his 220th birth anniversary by Search Engine Google which showed a special doodle on its Indian home page for him on 27 December 2017.


title: Ghalib

text: A statue of Ghalib was inaugurated in early 2000 in Jamia Millia Islamia in Delhi. The status depicts Mirza Ghalib as a great Urdu poet. It is located inside the gate number seven of the university campus.


title: Ghalib

text: A wall mural (or relief) was inaugurated on 21 January 2019 at the Mirza Ghalib Road (formerly known as Clare Road) in the Nagpada Locality of Mumbai. The mural measuring 10 ft. x 42 ft. depicts Ghalibs life and his works. It also depicts the impact that Ghalib had on poetry and art in India. The mural is located outside a Municipal Garden near the Madanpura Area of Mumbai, which was once a hub for art, literature, writers and poets.


title: White spirit

text: White spirit (AU, UK & Ireland) or mineral spirits (US, Canada), also known as mineral turpentine (AU/NZ), turpentine substitute, and petroleum spirits, is a petroleum-derived clear liquid used as a common organic solvent in painting. There are also terms for specific kinds of white spirit, including Stoddard solvent and solvent naphtha (petroleum). White spirit is often used as a paint thinner, or as a component thereof, though paint thinner is a broader category of solvent. Odorless mineral spirits (OMS) have been refined to remove the more toxic aromatic compounds, and are recommended for applications such as oil painting.


title: White spirit

text: A mixture of aliphatic, open-chain or alicyclic C to C hydrocarbons, white spirit is insoluble in water and is used as an extraction solvent, as a cleaning solvent, as a degreasing solvent and as a solvent in aerosols, paints, wood preservatives, lacquers, varnishes, and asphalt products. In western Europe about 60% of the total white spirit consumption is used in paints, lacquers and varnishes. White spirit is the most widely used solvent in the paint industry. In households, white spirit is commonly used to clean paint brushes after use, to clean auto parts and tools, as a starting fluid for charcoal grills, to remove adhesive residue from non-porous surfaces, and many other common tasks.


title: White spirit

text: The word "mineral" in "mineral spirits" or "mineral turpentine" is meant to distinguish it from distilled spirits (alcoholic beverages distilled from fermented biological material) or from true turpentine (distilled tree resin).


title: White spirit

text: Three different types and three different grades of white spirit exist. The "type" refers to whether the solvent has been subjected to hydrodesulfurization (removal of sulfur) alone (type 1), solvent extraction (type 2) or hydrogenation (type 3).


title: White spirit

text: Each type comprises three grades: low flash grade, regular grade, and high flash grade ("flash" refers to flash point). The grade is determined by the crude oil used as the starting material and the conditions of distillation.


title: White spirit

text: In addition there is type 0, which is defined as distillation fraction with no further treatment, consisting predominantly of saturated C to C hydrocarbons with a boiling range of .


title: White spirit

text: Stoddard solvent is a specific mixture of hydrocarbons, typically over 65% C or higher hydrocarbons, developed in 1924 by Atlanta dry cleaner W. J. Stoddard and Lloyd E. Jackson of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research as a less flammable petroleum-based dry cleaning solvent than the petroleum solvents then in use. Dry cleaners began using the result of their work in 1928 and it soon became the predominant dry cleaning solvent in the United States, until the late 1950s.


title: White spirit

text: Turpentine substitute is generally not made to a standard and can have a wider range of components than products marketed as white spirit, which is made to a standard (in the UK, British Standard BS 245, in Germany, DIN 51632). Turpentine substitute can be used for general cleaning but is not recommended for paint thinning as it may adversely affect drying times due to the less volatile components; while it may be used for brush cleaning its heavier components may leave an oily residue.


title: White spirit

text: Type 1 white spirit is mainly used in most of Europe and Stoddard solvent is used in the US, both of which correspond to each other.


title: White spirit

text: In industry, white spirit is used for cleaning and degreasing machine tools and parts, and in conjunction with cutting oil as a thread cutting and reaming lubricant.


title: White spirit

text: White spirit is commonly used for cutting fluid in ultraprecision lathes (commonly referred to as diamond turning machines).


title: White spirit

text: white spirit is used for regripping golf clubs. After the old grip is removed, the white spirit is poured into the new grip and shaken. After the white spirit is poured on, the new underlying tape and the new grip are slid on. After an hour of drying out, the new grip and club are ready to use.


title: White spirit

text: White spirit is an inexpensive petroleum-based replacement for the vegetable-based turpentine. It is commonly used as a paint thinner for oil-based paint and cleaning brushes, and as an organic solvent in other applications. Mineral turpentine is chemically very different from turpentine, which mainly consists of pinene, and it has inferior solvent properties. Artists use white spirit as an alternative to turpentine since it is less flammable and less toxic. Because of interactions with pigments in oil paints, artists require a higher grade of white spirit than many industrial users, including the complete absence of residual sulfur.


title: White spirit

text: White spirit was formerly an active ingredient in the laundry soap Fels Naptha, used to dissolve oils and grease in laundry stains, and as a popular remedy for eliminating the irritant oil urushiol in poison ivy. It was removed as a potential health risk.


title: White spirit

text: White spirit has a characteristic unpleasant kerosene-like odor. Chemical manufacturers have developed a low odor version of mineral turpentine which contains less of the highly volatile shorter hydrocarbons. Odorless mineral spirits is white spirit that has been further refined to remove the more toxic aromatic compounds, and is recommended for applications such as oil painting, where humans have close contact with the solvent.


title: White spirit

text: In screen printing (also referred to as silk-screening), white spirit is often used to clean and unclog screens after printing with oil-based textile and plastisol inks. It is also used to thin inks used in making monoprints.


title: White spirit

text: White spirits are a major ingredient in some popular automotive fuel/oil additives, such as Marvel Mystery Oil, as they are capable of dissolving varnish and sludge buildup.


title: White spirit

text: Although white spirit is used as an alternative to kerosene in portable stoves , this is not advisable as typical grades of white spirit have a lower flash point than kerosene. It cannot be used as an alternative to white gas, which is a much more volatile gasoline-like fuel.


title: White spirit

text: White spirit is mainly classed as an irritant. It has a fairly low acute toxicity by inhalation of the vapour, dermal (touching the skin) and oral (ingestion) routes. However, acute exposure can lead to central nervous system depression resulting in lack of coordination and slowed reactions. Exposure to very high concentrations in enclosed spaces can lead to general narcotic effects (drowsiness, dizziness, nausea, etc.) and can eventually lead to unconsciousness. Oral ingestion presents a high aspiration hazard. Prolonged or repeated skin exposure over a long period of time can result in severe irritant dermatitis, also called contact dermatitis.


title: White spirit

text: Continuous exposure to an average white spirit concentration of 240 mg/m (40 ppm) for more than 13 years can lead to chronic central nervous system effects. Similar long-term studies have been made in which some of the observed effects included memory impairment, poor concentration, increased irritability etc. White spirit is implicated in the development of chronic toxic encephalopathy (CTE) among house painters. In severe cases CTE may lead to disability and personality changes. These effects in painters were first studied in the 1970s in the Nordic countries.


title: White spirit

text: Owing to the volatility and low bioavailability of its constituents, white spirit, although it is moderately toxic to aquatic organisms, is unlikely to present significant hazards to the environment. It should not however, be purposely poured down the sink or freshwater drain.


title: White spirit

text: People can be exposed to Stoddard solvent in the workplace by breathing it in, swallowing it, skin contact, and eye contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (Permissible exposure limit) for Stoddard solvent exposure in the workplace as 500 ppm (2900 mg/m) over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a Recommended exposure limit (REL) of 350 mg/m over an 8-hour workday and 1800 mg/m over 15 minutes. At levels of 20,000 mg/m, Stoddard solvent is immediately dangerous to life and health.


title: Surimi

text: The most common surimi product in the Western market is imitation crab meat. Such a product often is sold as "krab," "imitation crab" and "mock crab" in the United States, and as "seafood sticks", "crab sticks", "fish sticks", "seafood highlighter" or "seafood extender" in Commonwealth nations. In Britain, the product is sometimes known as "seafood sticks" to avoid breaking Trading Standards rules on false advertising.


title: Surimi

text: Fish pastes have been a popular food in East Asia. In China, the food is used to make fish balls (魚蛋/魚丸) and ingredients in a thick soup known as "Geng" (羹) common in Fujian cuisine. In Japan, the earliest surimi production was in 1115 for making "kamaboko". Alaska pollock, native to the seas around Japan, played an important role in the development of processed surimi due to its high protein biomass. Satsumaage, chikuwa, and hanpen were other major surimi foods prior to 1960.


title: Surimi

text: After World War 2, machines were used to process surimi, but it was always sold fresh, since freezing had a negative effect on the finished product by denaturing the gel-forming capability of the surimi. Between 1945 and 1950, record catches of pollock in Hokkaido (primarily for harvesting the roe) resulted in large quantities of fish meat, so the Hokkaido Fisheries Research Station established a team to make better use of the excess. A team, led by K. Nishiya, discovered the addition of salt during the processing prevented the spongey texture that resulted after freezing, and also began using salted surimi in the manufacture of fish sausages. In 1969, Nishitani Yōsuke further discovered that the use of sucrose, or other carbohydrates such as sorbitol, acted as a cryoprotectant by stabilizing the Actomyosin in the surimi without denaturing the fish protein the way salt does.


title: Surimi

text: Surimi industrial technology developed by Japan in the early 1960s promoted the growth of the surimi industry. In 1963, the government of Hokkaido applied for a patent on the surimi processing technology, and companies such as Nippon Suisan and Maruha-Nichiro implemented at-sea frozen fish processing in the mid 1960s. After a peak of surimi consumption in 1975, consumption in Japan began to decline as the preference for other meats (beef, pork) went up, and lower quality products on the market influenced consumer opinion of surimi overall. Although the quality standards for fish in Japanese surimi products was quite high, the consumer perception of surimi generally attributes it to by-catch and lower quality fish.


title: Surimi

text: When the Magnuson–Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act was enacted in 1976, the United States became involved in the surimi industry through joint ventures with Japanese fish processors. Imitation crab products were developed in Japan between 1973 and 1975, and although not as popular in Japan, opened the door to international surimi consumption. Further developments for using different types of fish were made since the 1980s. The first US surimi processing plant was built in 1984 on Kodiak Island, and Canada in 1995, aided by Japanese technicians.


title: Surimi

text: In the early 1990s and the late 2000s, the price of surimi skyrocketed. This impacted many small Japanese kamaboko companies, causing many to bankrupt due to cost of materials as well as the diminishing habit of eating kamaboko daily by younger generations. As the price rose, surimi industry sought methods to minimize waste. The decanter technique, developed in the mid 1990s, further improved the recovery of fish meat during the washing process.


title: Surimi

text: Two to three million tons of fish from around the world, amounting to 2–3 percent of the world fisheries' supply, are used for the production of surimi and surimi-based products. The United States and Japan are major producers of surimi and surimi-based products. Thailand has become an important producer. China's role as producer is increasing. Many newcomers to the surimi industry have emerged, including Lithuania, Vietnam, Chile, the Faroe Islands, France, and Malaysia.


title: Surimi

text: Lean meat from fish or land animals is first separated or minced. The meat then is rinsed numerous times to eliminate undesirable odors. The result is beaten and pulverized to form a gelatinous paste. Depending on the desired texture and flavor of the surimi product, the gelatinous paste is mixed with differing proportions of additives such as starch, egg white, salt, vegetable oil, humectants, sorbitol, sugar, soy protein, seasonings, and enhancers such as transglutaminases and monosodium glutamate (MSG).


title: Surimi

text: If the surimi is to be packed and frozen, food-grade cryoprotectants are added as preservatives while the meat paste is being mixed. Under most circumstances, surimi is processed immediately into a formed and cured product.


title: Surimi

text: Typically the resulting paste, depending on the type of fish and whether it was rinsed in the production process, is tasteless and must be flavored artificially. According to the United States Department of Agriculture National Nutrient Database, fish surimi contains about 76% water, 15% protein, 6.85% carbohydrate, and 0.9% fat.


title: Surimi

text: In North America and Europe, surimi also alludes to fish-based products manufactured using this process. A generic term for fish-based surimi in Japanese is "fish-puréed products" ( "gyoniku neri seihin"). The gelling quality of whitefish make them ideal for surimi production, but other fish including the dark meat, has been incorporated as technological advances solve gelling issues.


title: Surimi

text: Although seen less commonly in Japanese and Western markets, pork surimi (肉漿) is a common product found in a wide array of Chinese foods. The process of making pork surimi is similar to making fish surimi except that leaner cuts of meat are used and rinsing is omitted. Pork surimi is made into pork balls (Chinese: "gòngwán"; 貢丸) which, when cooked, have a texture similar to fish balls, but are much firmer and denser.


title: Surimi

text: Pork surimi also is mixed with flour and water to make a type of dumpling wrapper called "yànpí" (燕皮 or 肉燕皮) that has the similar firm and bouncy texture of cooked surimi.


title: Surimi

text: Beef surimi also can be shaped into a ball form to make "beef balls" (牛肉丸). When beef surimi is mixed with chopped beef tendons and formed into balls, "beef tendon balls" (牛筋丸) are produced. Both of these products commonly are used in Chinese hot pot as well as served in Vietnamese "phở". Bakso, made from beef surimi, is a popular common food found in Indonesia.


title: Surimi

text: The surimi process also is used to make turkey products. It is used to make turkey burgers, turkey sausage, turkey pastrami, turkey franks, turkey loaf and turkey salami.


title: Surimi

text: The curing of the fish paste is caused by the polymerization of myosin when heated. The species of fish is the most important factor that affects this curing process. Many pelagic fish with higher fat contents lack the needed type of heat-curing myosin and are not used for surimi.


title: Surimi

text: Certain kinds of fish, such as the Pacific whiting, cannot form firm surimi without additives such as egg white or potato starch. Before the outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, mad cow disease), it was an industrial practice to add bovine blood plasma into the fish paste to help its curing or gel-forming. Today some manufacturers may use a transglutaminase to improve the texture of surimi. Although illegal, the practice of adding borax to fish balls and surimi to heighten the bouncy texture of the fish balls and whiten the product is widespread in Asia.


title: Surimi

text: Surimi is a useful ingredient for producing various kinds of processed foods. It allows a manufacturer to imitate the texture and taste of a more expensive product, such as lobster tail, using a relatively low-cost material. Surimi is an inexpensive source of protein.


title: Surimi

text: In Asian cultures, surimi is eaten as a food in its own right and seldom used to imitate other foods. In Japan, fish cakes (kamaboko) and fish sausages, as well as other extruded fish products, are commonly sold as cured surimi.


title: Surimi

text: In Chinese cuisine, fish surimi, often called "fish paste", is used directly as stuffing or made into balls. Balls made from lean beef (牛肉丸, lit. "beef ball") and pork surimi often are seen in Chinese cuisine. Fried, steamed, and boiled surimi products also are found commonly in Southeast Asian cuisine.


title: Surimi

text: In the West, surimi products usually are imitation seafood products, such as crab, abalone, shrimp, calamari, and scallop. Several companies do produce surimi sausages, luncheon meats, hams, and burgers. Some examples include Salmolux salmon burgers and SeaPak surimi ham, salami, and rolls. A patent was issued for the process of making even higher-quality proteins from fish such as in the making of imitation steak from surimi. Surimi is also used to make kosher imitation shrimp and crabmeat, using only kosher fish such as pollock. There is also a surimi salad which consists of imitation crab meat mixed with mayonnaise and vegetables.


title: Jim Threapleton

text: James Edward Threapleton (born November 8, 1973, Wharfedale, West Riding of Yorkshire, England) is an English film director. Threapleton has worked as an assistant director on many films, including "Hideous Kinky".


title: Jim Threapleton

text: His first work as a director (and writer) was the film "Extraordinary Rendition", starring Omar Berdouni and Andy Serkis, which premiered at the 2007 Locarno Film Festival.


title: Jim Threapleton

text: The elder of two boys, he has a younger brother Robin. He and Kate Winslet, who he met on the set of "Hideous Kinky", married on 22 November 1998 in Reading, Berkshire, Winslet's hometown. They have a daughter, Mia Honey Threapleton (born 12 October 2000 in London). The couple separated in September 2001 and divorced on 13 December 2001.


title: Jim Threapleton

text: In 2008 Threapleton married his second wife, Julie Vuorinen, a school administrator and teacher to special needs students. They have two daughters, Olivia, born in 2009, and Georgia, born in 2013.


title: Alexandre Desplat

text: Alexandre Michel Gérard Desplat (; born 23 August 1961) is a French film composer and conductor. He has won many awards, including two Academy Awards, for his musical scores to the films "The Grand Budapest Hotel" and "The Shape of Water", and has received nine additional Academy Award nominations, ten César nominations (winning three), eleven BAFTA nominations (winning three), twelve Golden Globe Award nominations (winning two) and ten Grammy nominations (winning two).


title: Alexandre Desplat

text: Desplat has composed scores for a wide range of films, including low-budget independent productions and large-scale blockbusters, such as "The Queen", "The Golden Compass", "Mr. Magorium's Wonder Emporium", "The Curious Case of Benjamin Button", "", "Fantastic Mr. Fox", "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1" "& Part 2", "Little Women", "The King's Speech", "The Danish Girl", "The Imitation Game", "Moonrise Kingdom", "Argo", "Rise of the Guardians", "Zero Dark Thirty", "The Midnight Sky", "Godzilla", "Philomena", "Unbroken", "The Secret Life of Pets", "Isle of Dogs", and "The French Dispatch".


title: Alexandre Desplat

text: Alexandre Desplat was born in Paris. His father, Jacques Desplat, was a Frenchman originally from Sarlat-la-Canéda. His mother, Katie Ladopoulou, is a Greek poet originally from Athens. Desplat's parents had met in the United States while they were both students at the University of California, Berkeley. They married in San Francisco and returned to France, settling in Paris. Alexandre has two older sisters, Marie-Christine (also known as Kiki) and Rosalinda.


title: Alexandre Desplat

text: Desplat began playing the piano at the age of five. He later picked up the trumpet, before switching to flute at nine. Desplat's musical interests were wide, ranging from French composers as Maurice Ravel and Claude Debussy, to jazz and world music. He developed an early appreciation for film music, courtesy of the movie soundtracks his parents brought back from the United States. He began collecting Bernard Herrmann's Hitchcock soundtracks as a teen and eventually decided to pursue a career as a film composer after hearing John Williams's "Star Wars" score in 1977. Other early sources of Desplat's inspiration include the music of Maurice Jarre, Nino Rota and Georges Delerue.


title: Alexandre Desplat

text: Desplat studied at the Conservatoire de Paris under Claude Ballif. During this period, he also took a summer course under Iannis Xenakis. Desplat also studied under Jack Hayes in Los Angeles. After leaving the Conservatoire, the then 20-year-old Desplat joined a theatrical troupe, where he wrote and played music.


title: Alexandre Desplat

text: When recording the music for his first film, he met violinist Dominique Lemonnier, who became his favorite soloist and artistic director. They later married.


title: Alexandre Desplat

text: Desplat has worked on many films since the 1980s. His big Hollywood break came in 2003 with the soundtrack for the film "Girl with a Pearl Earring," a drama set in 17th-century Delft exploring a fictional muse of Vermeer.


title: Alexandre Desplat

text: Desplat has composed extensively for French cinema, Hollywood, and incidental music for over 100 films, including "Lapse of Memory" (1992), "Family Express" (1992), "Regarde Les Hommes Tomber" (1994), "Les Péchés Mortels" (1995), César-nominated "Un Héros Très Discret" (1996), "Une Minute de Silence" (1998), "Sweet Revenge" (1998), "Le Château des Singes" (1999), "Reines d'un Jour" (2001), the César-nominated "Sur mes lèvres" (2002), "Rire et Châtiment" (2003), "Syriana" (2005), the César-winner "The Beat That My Heart Skipped" (2005), "The Queen" (2006), "Fantastic Mr. Fox" (2009), "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1" (2010), "The Ghost Writer" (2010), Daniel Auteuil's remake of "La Fille du Puisatier" (2011), "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2" (2011) and "The Grand Budapest Hotel" (2014).


title: Alexandre Desplat

text: Desplat has composed individual songs that have been sung in films by such artists as Akhenaton, Kate Beckinsale, Charlotte Gainsbourg, Valérie Lemercier, Miosotis and Catherine Ringer. He has also written music for the theatre, including pieces performed at the Comédie Française. Desplat has conducted performances of his music played by the London Symphony Orchestra, the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and the Munich Symphony Orchestra. Desplat has also given Master Classes at La Sorbonne in Paris and the Royal College of Music in London.


title: Alexandre Desplat

text: In 2007, he composed the scores for Philip Pullman's "Golden Compass"; Zach Helm's BAFTA nominated directorial debut "Mr. Magorium's Wonder Emporium" with American composer Aaron Zigman; and the Ang Lee movie "Lust, Caution". Prior to these break-out works, he contributed scores for "The Luzhin Defence", "Girl with a Pearl Earring", "Syriana", "Birth", "Hostage", "Casanova" and "The Nest."


title: Alexandre Desplat

text: For "The Painted Veil", he won the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score, Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Music, and the 2006 World Soundtrack Award. He won the 2007 BMI Film Music Award, 2007 World Soundtrack Award, 2007 European Film Award, and received his first Academy Award nomination for Best Original Score for "The Queen". He also won the Silver Berlin Bear at the Berlin Film Festival for Best Film Music in "The Beat that My Heart Skipped". In 2008, Desplat received his second Oscar nomination for David Fincher's "Curious Case of Benjamin Button". Desplat received his third Oscar nomination and a BAFTA nomination for "Fantastic Mr. Fox" in 2010, both of which were won by Michael Giacchino for "Up".


title: Alexandre Desplat

text: Desplat has composed music for "Largo Winch", based on the Belgian comic; "Afterwards" a French-Canadian psychological thriller film directed by Gilles Bourdos in English; Anne Fontaine's "Coco avant Chanel," based on the life of designer Coco Chanel; Robert Guédiguian's "L'Armée du Crime"; "Cheri", reuniting him with director Stephen Frears, whom he collaborated with on "The Queen"; "Un Prophète" reuniting with director Jacques Audiard; "Julie & Julia" directed by Nora Ephron; "Fantastic Mr. Fox", directed by Wes Anderson and based on the novel by Roald Dahl; "New Moon", directed by Chris Weitz; Roman Polanski's "Ghost Writer"; "Tamara Drewe"; "The Special Relationship"; and "The King's Speech" which earned Desplat his fourth Oscar nomination.


title: Alexandre Desplat

text: In early 2011, Desplat began to write the music to "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2". He reunited with director David Yates, who offered Desplat the opportunity to score the second part after his work on the "Part 1" soundtrack in 2010 "enchanted everyone in the control room". Desplat's soundtrack sequel to the 2008 film "Largo Winch" was released in 2011 and was well received.


title: Alexandre Desplat

text: Desplat's 2011 projects included "The Tree of Life", directed by Terrence Malick (which he actually recorded in early 2010), "A Better Life", "La Fille du Puisatier", Roman Polanski's "Carnage", George Clooney's "Ides of March", and the logo for the French film company StudioCanal.


title: Alexandre Desplat

text: Desplat started 2012 with "Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close", the Florent Emilio Siri-directed biopic "Cloclo", and DreamWorks Animation's "Rise of the Guardians". His other scores of 2013 included "Rust and Bone", "Zero Dark Thirty", and "Argo", the latter of which earned him Oscar, Golden Globe and BAFTA nominations.


title: Alexandre Desplat

text: In June 2013, Desplat's first Concerto for Flute & Orchestra premiered in France with flautist Jean Ferrandis and the Orchestre National des Pays de la Loire conducted by John Axelrod. His Trois Etudes for piano originally written for pianist Lang Lang had its U.S. premiere in October 2013 played by pianist Gloria Cheng. He received a sixth Oscar nomination for his score to "Philomena", which marked his fourth collaboration with director Stephen Frears.


title: Alexandre Desplat

text: On 23 June 2014, it was announced that Desplat would head the jury at the 71st Venice International Film Festival. He wrote five major scores during 2014, with "The Grand Budapest Hotel" winning him his first Academy Award. His score for "The Imitation Game" was also nominated, and his win therefore marked the first time a composer had won against another of their own scores since John Williams won for "Star Wars" (beating "Close Encounters of the Third Kind") in 1978, and only the seventh time overall (Alfred Newman, Bernard Herrmann, Max Steiner, Miklos Rozsa and Johnny Green are the only other composers to achieve this).


title: Alexandre Desplat

text: On 16 March 2015, It was announced that Desplat would be composing the first anthology film of the new Disney Star Wars films, called "Rogue One". In September 2016, he stepped down due to reshoots of the film, and was then replaced by Michael Giacchino.


title: Alexandre Desplat

text: In 2018, he won his second Academy Award for "The Shape of Water" and premiered a new work for solo flute played by Emmanuel Pahud.


title: Alexandre Desplat

text: Desplat has received many awards and nominations for his work including two Academy Awards, three BAFTA Awards and two Golden Globe Awards.


title: Kahlúa

text: Kahlúa () is a brand of coffee liqueur owned by the Pernod Ricard company and produced in Veracruz, Mexico. The drink contains rum, sugar, and arabica coffee.


title: Kahlúa

text: Pedro Domecq began producing Kahlúa in 1936. It was named Kahlúa, meaning "House of the Acolhua people" in the Veracruz Nahuatl language. Jules Berman was the first importer of the liqueur to the United States, earning him the nickname "Mr. Kahlua".


title: Kahlúa

text: The company merged in 1994 with Allied Lyons to become Allied Domecq. In turn, that company was partially acquired in 2005 by Pernod Ricard, the largest spirits distributor in the world since its merger with the Swedish Vin & Sprit in March 2008.


title: Kahlúa

text: Since 2004, the alcohol content of Kahlúa is 20.0%; earlier versions had 26.5%. In 2002, a more expensive, high-end product called "Kahlúa Especial" became available in the United States, Canada and Australia after previously being offered only in duty-free markets. Made with arabica coffee beans grown in Veracruz, Mexico, Kahlúa Especial has an alcohol content of 36%, has a lower viscosity, and is less sweet than the regular version.


title: Kahlúa

text: In 2021 Kahlúa introduced a new bottle design. It also reduced the alcohol content to 16% "to address 'evolving' consumer trends towards conscious drinking and lower-alcohol options."


title: Kahlúa

text: Kahlúa is used to make cocktails or drink neat or on ice. Some people use it when baking desserts, and/or as a topping for ice cream, cakes, and cheesecakes.


title: Kahlúa

text: Because Kahlúa is made from coffee beans, it contains caffeine. According to the company, "Kahlúa contains about 100ppm caffeine, which means about 100mg/litre of product. So, for a standard 1.5oz [45ml] drink of Kahlúa there would be about 5mg of caffeine. Just to put it in perspective, an 8oz [240ml] brewed coffee can contain up to about 200mg of caffeine."


title: Kahlúa

text: Kahlúa and Kahlúa Especial have received accolades from international spirit ratings organizations. The San Francisco World Spirits Competition awarded the Kahlúa Especial three silver medals between 2005 and 2007 and a bronze in 2009. The Beverage Testing Institute gave the Especial a score of 85 in 2007.


title: Conservation of mass

text: In physics and chemistry, the law of conservation of mass or principle of mass conservation states that for any system closed to all transfers of matter and energy, the mass of the system must remain constant over time, as the system's mass cannot change, so quantity can neither be added nor be removed. Therefore, the quantity of mass is conserved over time.


title: Conservation of mass

text: The law implies that mass can neither be created nor destroyed, although it may be rearranged in space, or the entities associated with it may be changed in form. For example, in chemical reactions, the mass of the chemical components before the reaction is equal to the mass of the components after the reaction. Thus, during any chemical reaction and low-energy thermodynamic processes in an isolated system, the total mass of the reactants, or starting materials, must be equal to the mass of the products.


title: Conservation of mass

text: The concept of mass conservation is widely used in many fields such as chemistry, mechanics, and fluid dynamics. Historically, mass conservation in chemical reactions was primarily demonstrated by Jean Rey (in 1630) and later rediscovered by Antoine Lavoisier in the late 18th century. The formulation of this law was of crucial importance in the progress from alchemy to the modern natural science of chemistry.


title: Conservation of mass

text: In reality, the conservation of mass only holds approximately and is considered part of a series of assumptions in classical mechanics. The law has to be modified to comply with the laws of quantum mechanics and special relativity under the principle of mass-energy equivalence, which states that energy and mass form one conserved quantity. For very energetic systems the conservation of mass-only is shown not to hold, as is the case in nuclear reactions and particle-antiparticle annihilation in particle physics.


title: Conservation of mass

text: Mass is also not generally conserved in open systems. Such is the case when various forms of energy and matter are allowed into, or out of, the system. However, unless radioactivity or nuclear reactions are involved, the amount of energy escaping (or entering) such systems as heat, mechanical work, or electromagnetic radiation is usually too small to be measured as a decrease (or increase) in the mass of the system.


title: Conservation of mass

text: For systems which include large gravitational fields, general relativity has to be taken into account; thus mass-energy conservation becomes a more complex concept, subject to different definitions, and neither mass nor energy is as strictly and simply conserved as is the case in special relativity.


title: Conservation of mass

text: The law of conservation of mass can only be formulated in classical mechanics, in which the energy scales associated to an isolated system are much smaller than formula_1, where formula_2 is the mass of a typical object in the system, measured in the frame of reference where the object is at rest, and formula_3 is the speed of light.


title: Conservation of mass

text: The law can be formulated mathematically in the fields of fluid mechanics and continuum mechanics, where the conservation of mass is usually expressed using the continuity equation, given in differential form as formula_4 where formula_5 is the density (mass per unit volume), formula_6 is the time, formula_7 is the divergence, and formula_8 is the flow velocity field.


title: Conservation of mass

text: The interpretation of the continuity equation for mass is the following: For a given closed surface in the system, the change, over any time interval, of the mass enclosed by the surface is equal to the mass that traverses the surface during that time interval: positive if matter goes in and negative if matter goes out. For the whole isolated system, this condition implies that the total mass formula_9, the sum of the masses of all components in the system, does not change over time, i.e. formula_10 where formula_11 is the differential that defines the integral over the whole volume of the system.


title: Conservation of mass

text: The continuity equation for the mass is part of Euler equations of fluid dynamics. Many other convection–diffusion equations describe the conservation and flow of mass and matter in a given system.


title: Conservation of mass

text: In chemistry, the calculation of the amount of reactant and products in a chemical reaction, or stoichiometry, is founded on the principle of conservation of mass. The principle implies that during a chemical reaction the total mass of the reactants is equal to the total mass of the products. For example, in the following reaction


title: Conservation of mass

text: where one molecule of methane () and two oxygen molecules are converted into one molecule of carbon dioxide () and two of water (). The number of molecules resulting from the reaction can be derived from the principle of conservation of mass, as initially four hydrogen atoms, 4 oxygen atoms and one carbon atom are present (as well as in the final state); thus the number water molecules produced must be exactly two per molecule of carbon dioxide produced.


title: Conservation of mass

text: Many engineering problems are solved by following the mass distribution of a given system over time; this methodology is known as mass balance.


title: Conservation of mass

text: As early as 520 BCE, Jain philosophy, a non-creationist philosophy based on the teachings of Mahavira, stated that the universe and its constituents such as matter cannot be destroyed or created. The Jain text Tattvarthasutra (2nd century CE) states that a substance is permanent, but its modes are characterised by creation and destruction.


title: Conservation of mass

text: An important idea in ancient Greek philosophy was that "Nothing comes from nothing", so that what exists now has always existed: no new matter can come into existence where there was none before. An explicit statement of this, along with the further principle that nothing can pass away into nothing, is found in Empedocles (c.4th century BCE): "For it is impossible for anything to come to be from what is not, and it cannot be brought about or heard of that what is should be utterly destroyed."


title: Conservation of mass

text: A further principle of conservation was stated by Epicurus around the 3rd century BCE, who wrote in describing the nature of the Universe that "the totality of things was always such as it is now, and always will be".


title: Conservation of mass

text: By the 18th century the principle of conservation of mass during chemical reactions was widely used and was an important assumption during experiments, even before a definition was formally established, as can be seen in the works of Joseph Black, Henry Cavendish, and Jean Rey. The first to outline the principle was Mikhail Lomonosov in 1756. He may have demonstrated it by experiments and certainly had discussed the principle in 1748 in correspondence with Leonhard Euler, though his claim on the subject is sometimes challenged. According to the Soviet physicist Yakov Dorfman:The universal law was formulated by Lomonosov on the basis of general philosophical materialistic considerations, it was never questioned or tested by him, but on the contrary, served him as a solid starting position in all research throughout his life. A more refined series of experiments were later carried out by Antoine Lavoisier who expressed his conclusion in 1773 and popularized the principle of conservation of mass. The demonstrations of the principle disproved the then popular phlogiston theory that said that mass could be gained or lost in combustion and heat processes.


title: Conservation of mass

text: The conservation of mass was obscure for millennia because of the buoyancy effect of the Earth's atmosphere on the weight of gases. For example, a piece of wood weighs less after burning; this seemed to suggest that some of its mass disappears, or is transformed or lost. This was not disproved until careful experiments were performed in which chemical reactions such as rusting were allowed to take place in sealed glass ampoules; it was found that the chemical reaction did not change the weight of the sealed container and its contents. Weighing of gases using scales was not possible until the invention of the vacuum pump in the 17th century.


title: Conservation of mass

text: Once understood, the conservation of mass was of great importance in progressing from alchemy to modern chemistry. Once early chemists realized that chemical substances never disappeared but were only transformed into other substances with the same weight, these scientists could for the first time embark on quantitative studies of the transformations of substances. The idea of mass conservation plus a surmise that certain "elemental substances" also could not be transformed into others by chemical reactions, in turn led to an understanding of chemical elements, as well as the idea that all chemical processes and transformations (such as burning and metabolic reactions) are reactions between invariant amounts or weights of these chemical elements.


title: Conservation of mass

text: Following the pioneering work of Lavoisier, the exhaustive experiments of Jean Stas supported the consistency of this law in chemical reactions, even though they were carried out with other intentions. His research indicated that in certain reactions the loss or gain could not have been more than 2 to 4 parts in 100,000. The difference in the accuracy aimed at and attained by Lavoisier on the one hand, and by Morley and Stas on the other, is enormous.


title: Conservation of mass

text: The law of conservation of mass was challenged with the advent of special relativity. In one of the Annus Mirabilis papers of Albert Einstein in 1905, he suggested an equivalence between mass and energy. This theory implied several assertions, like the idea that internal energy of a system could contribute to the mass of the whole system, or that mass could be converted into electromagnetic radiation. However, as Max Planck pointed out, a change in mass as a result of extraction or addition of chemical energy, as predicted by Einstein's theory, is so small that it could not be measured with the available instruments and could not be presented as a test of special relativity. Einstein speculated that the energies associated with newly discovered radioactivity were significant enough, compared with the mass of systems producing them, to enable their change of mass to be measured, once the energy of the reaction had been removed from the system. This later indeed proved to be possible, although it was eventually to be the first artificial nuclear transmutation reaction in 1932, demonstrated by Cockcroft and Walton, that proved the first successful test of Einstein's theory regarding mass loss with energy gain.


title: Conservation of mass

text: The law of conservation of mass and the analogous law of conservation of energy were finally generalized and unified into the principle of mass–energy equivalence, described by Albert Einstein's famous formula  formula_12. Special relativity also redefines the concept of mass and energy, which can be used interchangeably and are defined relative to the frame of reference. Several quantities had to be defined for consistency, such as the "rest mass" of a particle (mass in the rest frame of the particle) and the "relativistic mass" (in another frame). The latter term is usually less frequently used.


title: Conservation of mass

text: In special relativity, the conservation of mass does not apply if the system is open and energy escapes. However, it does continue to apply to totally closed (isolated) systems. If energy cannot escape a system, its mass cannot decrease. In relativity theory, so long as any type of energy is retained within a system, this energy exhibits mass.


title: Conservation of mass

text: Also, mass must be differentiated from matter, since matter may "not" be perfectly conserved in isolated systems, even though mass is always conserved in such systems. However, matter is so nearly conserved in chemistry that violations of matter conservation were not measured until the nuclear age, and the assumption of matter conservation remains an important practical concept in most systems in chemistry and other studies that do not involve the high energies typical of radioactivity and nuclear reactions.


title: Conservation of mass

text: The change in mass of certain kinds of open systems where atoms or massive particles are not allowed to escape, but other types of energy (such as light or heat) are allowed to enter, escape or be merged, went unnoticed during the 19th century, because the change in mass associated with addition or loss of small quantities of thermal or radiant energy in chemical reactions is very small. (In theory, mass would not change at all for experiments conducted in isolated systems where heat and work were not allowed in or out.)


title: Conservation of mass

text: The conservation of relativistic mass implies the viewpoint of a single observer (or the view from a single inertial frame) since changing inertial frames may result in a change of the total energy (relativistic energy) for systems, and this quantity determines the relativistic mass.


title: Conservation of mass

text: The principle that the mass of a system of particles must be equal to the sum of their rest masses, even though true in classical physics, may be false in special relativity. The reason that rest masses cannot be simply added is that this does not take into account other forms of energy, such as kinetic and potential energy, and massless particles such as photons, all of which may (or may not) affect the total mass of systems.


title: Conservation of mass

text: For moving massive particles in a system, examining the rest masses of the various particles also amounts to introducing many different inertial observation frames (which is prohibited if total system energy and momentum are to be conserved), and also when in the rest frame of one particle, this procedure ignores the momenta of other particles, which affect the system mass if the other particles are in motion in this frame.


title: Conservation of mass

text: For the special type of mass called invariant mass, changing the inertial frame of observation for a whole closed system has no effect on the measure of invariant mass of the system, which remains both conserved and invariant (unchanging), even for different observers who view the entire system. Invariant mass is a system combination of energy and momentum, which is invariant for any observer, because in any inertial frame, the energies and momenta of the various particles always add to the same quantity (the momentum may be negative, so the addition amounts to a subtraction). The invariant mass is the relativistic mass of the system when viewed in the center of momentum frame. It is the minimum mass which a system may exhibit, as viewed from all possible inertial frames.


title: Conservation of mass

text: The conservation of both relativistic and invariant mass applies even to systems of particles created by pair production, where energy for new particles may come from kinetic energy of other particles, or from one or more photons as part of a system that includes other particles besides a photon. Again, neither the relativistic nor the invariant mass of totally closed (that is, isolated) systems changes when new particles are created. However, different inertial observers will disagree on the value of this conserved mass, if it is the relativistic mass (i.e., relativistic mass is conserved but not invariant). However, all observers agree on the value of the conserved mass if the mass being measured is the invariant mass (i.e., invariant mass is both conserved and invariant).


title: Conservation of mass

text: The mass-energy equivalence formula gives a different prediction in non-isolated systems, since if energy is allowed to escape a system, both relativistic mass and invariant mass will escape also. In this case, the mass-energy equivalence formula predicts that the "change" in mass of a system is associated with the "change" in its energy due to energy being added or subtracted: formula_13 This form involving changes was the form in which this famous equation was originally presented by Einstein. In this sense, mass changes in any system are explained simply if the mass of the energy added or removed from the system, are taken into account.


title: Conservation of mass

text: The formula implies that bound systems have an invariant mass (rest mass for the system) less than the sum of their parts, if the binding energy has been allowed to escape the system after the system has been bound. This may happen by converting system potential energy into some other kind of active energy, such as kinetic energy or photons, which easily escape a bound system. The difference in system masses, called a mass defect, is a measure of the binding energy in bound systems – in other words, the energy needed to break the system apart. The greater the mass defect, the larger the binding energy. The binding energy (which itself has mass) must be released (as light or heat) when the parts combine to form the bound system, and this is the reason the mass of the bound system decreases when the energy leaves the system. The total invariant mass is actually conserved, when the mass of the binding energy that has escaped, is taken into account.


title: Conservation of mass

text: In general relativity, the total invariant mass of photons in an expanding volume of space will decrease, due to the red shift of such an expansion. The conservation of both mass and energy therefore depends on various corrections made to energy in the theory, due to the changing gravitational potential energy of such systems.


title: Kaththi

text: Kaththi (; ) is a 2014 Indian Tamil-language action social drama film written and directed by A. R. Murugadoss, and produced by Allirajah Subaskaran under the banner Lyca Productions, along with Ayngaran International, as the co-producer and Eros International, who distributed the film. The film stars Vijay in a dual role as lookalikes Kathiresan and Jeevanantham, with Samantha Ruth Prabhu, Neil Nitin Mukesh, Tota Roy Chowdhury and Sathish appear in other prominent roles. It focuses on Kathiresan, a petty thief and lookalike of Jeevanantham, who attempts to lead a rebellion by farmers from the latter's village, Thanoothu, and helps them fight against an entrepreneur who exploited Thanoothu's water resources.


title: Kaththi

text: This film marks the second collaboration of Vijay and Murugadoss, after "Thuppakki" (2012). Following an official announcement in November 2013, the principal photography for the film commenced from February—September 2014. Primarily shot across Chennai, it was also filmed in Kolkata, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Rajahmundry, Begumpet, Nellore and Kadapa. The cinematography for the film was handled by George C. Williams and the film was edited by A. Sreekar Prasad. The soundtrack and film score is composed by Anirudh Ravichander.


title: Kaththi

text: "Kaththi" was released worldwide on 22 October 2014, coinciding with the Diwali festival, and received critical acclaim with critics praising Vijay and Neil's performance, technical aspects, background score, soundtrack, cinematography, editing, action sequences, social message, direction and the writing. Before the film's release, it faced controversies for plagiarism allegations, and the business link of Subaskaran, the film's producer, with Sri Lankan president Mahinda Rajapaksa, which resulted Tamil fringe groups to protest against the film. "Kaththi" was a box-office success and emerged as one of the highest-grossing Tamil films, grossing . It was one of the highest-grossing Tamil films in U.S at that time. The film was remade into Telugu as "Khaidi No. 150", starring Chiranjeevi.


title: Kaththi

text: A recipient of various accolades, the film won three out of seven nominations at the Filmfare Awards South, including Filmfare Award for Best Film – Tamil. It won four SIIMA (including Best Film) and two Vijay Awards (Favourite Film and Favourite Director for Murugadoss). Additionally, the film won an IIFA Utsavam and Ananda Vikatan Cinema Awards each, three Edison Awards and a nomination for Best Social Awareness at the Norway Tamil Film Festival Awards, before losing eventually to "Sigaram Thodu" (2014).


title: Kaththi

text: In Kolkata, Kathiresan is a prisoner, who helps the police capture an escaping prisoner Vivek Banerjee but escapes afterwards.


title: Kaththi

text: Kathiresan goes to Chennai to escape to Bangkok with his friend Ravi. However, he drops this plan after meeting and falling in love with Ankitha, who dupes him into believing that she wants to marry him after realising that he is having a crush on her and gives him a false phone number. Later, Kathir and Ravi notice Jeevanandham, who resembles Kathir, being shot by a group of thugs. They admit him to a hospital, and Kathir decides to impersonate the injured Jeeva to escape from the police. Under Jeeva's name, Kathir and Ravi enter an old-age home run by Jeeva with the intention of stealing from there for their Bangkok trip, until Kathir learns about Jeeva's mission.