title: Meniscus (anatomy)

text: In sports and orthopedics, people sometimes speak of "torn cartilage" and will actually be referring to an injury to one of the menisci. There are two general types of meniscus injuries: acute tears that are often the result of trauma or a sports injury and chronic or wear-and-tear type tears. Acute tears have many different shapes (vertical, horizontal, radial, oblique, complex) and sizes. They are often treated with surgical repair depending upon the patient's age as they rarely heal on their own. Chronic tears are treated symptomatically: physical therapy with or without the addition of injections and anti-inflammatory medications. If the tear causes continued pain, swelling, or knee dysfunction, then the tear can be removed or repaired surgically.


title: Meniscus (anatomy)

text: The unhappy triad is a set of commonly co-occurring knee injuries which includes injury to the medial meniscus.


title: Meniscus (anatomy)

text: Conservative management is often considered first for a smaller or chronic tear that does not appear to require surgical repair. It consists of activity modification or physical therapy to strengthen and increase the range of motion.


title: Meniscus (anatomy)

text: Two surgeries of the meniscus are most common. Depending on the type and location of the tear, the patient's age, and physician's preference, injured menisci are usually either repaired or removed, in part or completely (meniscectomy). Each has its advantages and disadvantages. Many studies show the meniscus serves a purpose and therefore doctors will attempt to repair when possible. However, the meniscus has poor blood supply, and, therefore, healing can be difficult. Traditionally it was thought that if there is no chance of healing, then it is best to remove the damaged and non-functional meniscus, although at least one study has shown that there is little significance if a meniscectomy is done. However, resuming high intensity activities may be impossible without surgery as the tear may flap around, causing the knee to lock.


title: Meniscus (anatomy)

text: A 2017 clinical practice guideline strongly recommends against surgery in nearly all patients with degenerative knee disease.


title: Meniscus (anatomy)

text: The term meniscus derives from Greek , meaning "crescent". The word was used for curved things in general, such as a necklace or a line of battle.


title: Neutral country

text: A neutral country is a state that is neutral towards belligerents in a specific war or holds itself as permanently neutral in all future conflicts (including avoiding entering into military alliances such as NATO, CSTO or the SCO). As a type of non-combatant status, nationals of neutral countries enjoy protection under the law of war from belligerent actions to a greater extent than other non-combatants such as enemy civilians and prisoners of war. Different countries interpret their neutrality differently: some, such as Costa Rica, have demilitarized, while Switzerland holds to "armed neutrality", to deter aggression with a sizeable military, while barring itself from foreign deployment.


title: Neutral country

text: Not all neutral countries avoid any foreign deployment or alliances, as Austria and Ireland have active UN peacekeeping forces and a political alliance within the European Union. Sweden's traditional policy was not to participate in military alliances, with the intention of staying neutral in the case of war. Immediately before World War II, the Nordic countries stated their neutrality, but Sweden changed its position to that of non-belligerent at the start of the Winter War. Sweden would uphold its policy of neutrality until the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. During the Cold War, Yugoslavia claimed military and ideological neutrality from both the Western and Eastern Bloc, becoming a co-founder of the Non-Aligned Movement.


title: Neutral country

text: There have been considerable changes to the interpretation of neutral conduct over the past centuries.


title: Neutral country

text: Belligerents may not invade neutral territory, and a neutral power's resisting any such attempt does not compromise its neutrality.


title: Neutral country

text: A neutral power must intern belligerent troops who reach its territory, but not escaped prisoners of war. Belligerent armies may not recruit neutral citizens, but they may go abroad to enlist. Belligerent armies' personnel and materiel may not be transported across neutral territory, but the wounded may be. A neutral power may supply communication facilities to belligerents, but not war materiel, although it need not prevent export of such materiel.


title: Neutral country

text: Belligerent naval vessels may use neutral ports for a maximum of 24 hours, though neutrals may impose different restrictions. Exceptions are to make repairs—only the minimum necessary to put back to sea—or if an opposing belligerent's vessel is already in port, in which case it must have a 24-hour head start. A prize ship captured by a belligerent in the territorial waters of a neutral power must be surrendered by the belligerent to the neutral, which must intern its crew.


title: Neutral country

text: Neutrality has been recognised in different ways, and sometimes involves a formal guarantor. For example, Austria has its neutrality guaranteed by its four former occupying powers, Switzerland by the signatories of the Congress of Vienna and Finland by the Soviet Union during the Cold War. The form of recognition varies, often by bilateral treaty (Finland), multilateral treaty (Austria) or a UN declaration (Turkmenistan). These treaties can in some ways be forced on a country (Austria's neutrality was insisted upon by the Soviet Union) but in other cases it is an active policy of the country concerned to respond to a geopolitical situation (Ireland in the Second World War).


title: Neutral country

text: For the country concerned, the policy is usually codified beyond the treaty itself. Austria and Japan codify their neutrality in their constitutions, but they do so with different levels of detail. Some details of neutrality are left to be interpreted by the government while others are explicitly stated, for example Austria may not host any foreign bases and Japan cannot participate in foreign wars. Yet Sweden, lacking formal codification, was more flexible during the Second World War in allowing troops to pass through its territory.


title: Neutral country

text: Armed neutrality is the posture of a state or group of states that has no alliance with either side of a war but asserts that it will defend itself against resulting incursions from any party. This may include:


title: Neutral country

text: The term derives from the historic maritime neutrality of the First League of Armed Neutrality of the Nordic countries and Russia under the leadership of Catherine the Great, which was invented in the late 18th century but has since been used only to refer to countries' neutralities. Sweden and Switzerland are independently of each other famed for their armed neutralities, which they maintained throughout both World War I and World War II. The Swiss and the Swedes each have a long history of neutrality: they have not been in a state of war internationally since 1815 and 1814, respectively. Switzerland continues to pursue, however, an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. According to Edwin Reischauer, "To be neutral you must be ready to be highly militarized, like Switzerland or Sweden."


title: Neutral country

text: In contrast, other neutral states may abandon military power (examples of states doing this include Costa Rica and Liechtenstein) or reduce it, but rather uses it for the express purpose of home defense and the maintenance of its neutrality. But the lack of a military does not result in neutrality as countries such as Iceland replaced a standing military with a military guarantee from a stronger power.


title: Neutral country

text: For many states, such as Ireland, neutrality does not mean the absence of any foreign interventionism. Peacekeeping missions for the United Nations are seen as intertwined with it. The Swiss electorate rejected a 1994 proposal to join UN peacekeeping operations. Despite this, 23 Swiss observers and police have been deployed around the world in UN projects.


title: Neutral country

text: The legitimacy of whether some states are as neutral as they claim has been questioned in some circles, although this depends largely on a state's interpretation of its form of neutrality.


title: Neutral country

text: There are three members of the European Union that still describe themselves as a neutral country in some form: Austria, Ireland, and Malta. With the development of the EU's Common Security and Defence Policy, the extent to which they are, or should be, neutral is debated. For example, former Finnish Prime Minister, Matti Vanhanen, on 5 July 2006, stated that Finland was no longer neutral, prior to Finnish NATO asscession:


title: Neutral country

text: "Mr Pflüger described Finland as neutral. I must correct him on that: Finland is a member of the EU. We were at one time a politically neutral country, during the time of the Iron Curtain. Now we are a member of the Union, part of this community of values, which has a common policy and, moreover, a common foreign policy."


title: Neutral country

text: However, Finnish Prime Minister Juha Sipilä on 5 December 2017 still described the country as "militarily non-aligned" and that it should remain so. Ireland, which sought guarantees for its neutrality in EU treaties, argues that its neutrality does not mean that Ireland should avoid engagement in international affairs such as peacekeeping operations.


title: Neutral country

text: Since the enactment of the Lisbon Treaty, EU members are bound by , which obliges states to assist a fellow member that is the victim of armed aggression. It accords


title: Neutral country

text: "an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in [other member states'] power" but would "not prejudice the specific character of the security and defense policy of certain Member States" (neutral policies), allowing members to respond with non-military aid. Ireland's constitution prohibits participating in such a common defence.


title: Neutral country

text: With the launch of Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in defense at the end of 2017, the EU's activity on military matters has increased. The policy was designed to be inclusive and allows states to opt in or out of specific forms of military cooperation. That has allowed most of the neutral states to participate, but opinions still vary. Some members of the Irish Parliament considered Ireland's joining PESCO as an abandonment of neutrality. It was passed with the government arguing that its opt-in nature allowed Ireland to "join elements of PESCO that were beneficial such as counter-terrorism, cybersecurity and peacekeeping... what we are not going to be doing is buying aircraft carriers and fighter jets". Malta, as of December 2017, is the only neutral state not to participate in PESCO. The Maltese government argued that it was going to wait and see how PESCO develops to see whether it would compromise Maltese neutrality.


title: Neutral country

text: Many countries made neutrality declarations during World War II. However, of the European states closest to the war, only Andorra, Ireland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland (with Liechtenstein), and Vatican (the Holy See) remained neutral to the end.


title: Neutral country

text: Their fulfillment to the letter of the rules of neutrality has been questioned: Ireland supplied important secret information to the Allies; for instance, the date of D-Day was decided on the basis of incoming Atlantic weather information, some of it supplied by Ireland but kept from Germany. Ireland also secretly allowed Allied aircraft to use the Donegal Corridor, making it possible for British planes to attack German U-boats in the mid-Atlantic. On the other hand, both Axis and Allied pilots who crash landed in Ireland were interned.


title: Neutral country

text: Sweden and Switzerland, surrounded by possessions and allies of Nazi Germany similarly made concessions to Nazi requests as well as to Allied requests. Sweden was also involved in intelligence operations with the Allies, including listening stations in Sweden and espionage in Germany. Spain offered to join the war on the side of Nazi Germany in 1940, allowed Axis ships and submarines to use its ports, imported war materials for Germany, and sent a Spanish volunteer combat division to aid the Nazi war effort. Portugal officially stayed neutral, but actively supported both the Allies by providing overseas naval bases, and Germany by selling tungsten.


title: Neutral country

text: The United States was initially neutral and bound by the Neutrality Acts of 1936 not to sell war materials to belligerents. Once war broke out, US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt persuaded Congress to replace the act with the Cash and carry program that allowed the US to provide military aid to the allies, despite opposition from non-interventionist members. The "Cash and carry" program was replaced in March 1941 by Lend-Lease, effectively ending the US pretense of neutrality.


title: Neutral country

text: Sweden also made concessions to the German Reich during the war to maintain its neutrality, the biggest concession was to let the 163rd German Infantry Division to be transferred from Norway to Finland by Swedish trains, to aid the Finns in the Continuation War. The decision caused a political "Midsummer Crisis" of 1941, about Sweden's neutrality.


title: Neutral country

text: Equally, Vatican City made various diplomatic concessions to the Axis and Allied powers alike, while still keeping to the rules of the law of neutrality. The Holy See has been criticized—but largely exonerated later—for its silence on moral issues of the war.


title: Neutral country

text: Some countries may occasionally claim to be "neutral" but not comply with the internationally agreed upon definition of neutrality as listed above.


title: Tracey Edmonds

text: Tracey Elaine Edmonds (née McQuarn; born February 18, 1967) is an American businesswoman, television producer and personality. She is the CEO of Edmonds Entertainment Group Inc and Alrightnow.com and is a former host of the television show "Extra". She currently sits on the national board of directors for the Producers Guild of America.


title: Tracey Edmonds

text: Tracey Edmonds has created and produced projects for television, film, music, and digital media. In 2014, Edmonds joined Extra and left the company in 2017. While at Extra, she earned an Emmy Award for co-hosting alongside Mario Lopez and Charissa Thompson. Edmonds currently serves as CEO and President of Edmonds Entertainment. In 2013, Edmonds founded Alright TV, a family- and faith-oriented Web network. Edmonds executive produced Games People Play (BET), a drama about the NBA airing in 2019.


title: Alger Hiss

text: Alger Hiss (November 11, 1904 – November 15, 1996) was an American government official accused in 1948 of having spied for the Soviet Union in the 1930s. Statutes of limitations had expired for espionage, but he was convicted of perjury in connection with this charge in 1950. Before the trial Hiss was involved in the establishment of the United Nations, both as a U.S. State Department official and as a U.N. official. In later life he worked as a lecturer and author.


title: Alger Hiss

text: On August 3, 1948, Whittaker Chambers, a former U.S. Communist Party member, testified under subpoena before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) that Hiss had secretly been a communist while in federal service. Hiss categorically denied the charge and subsequently sued Chambers for libel. During the pretrial discovery process of the libel case, Chambers produced new evidence allegedly indicating that he and Hiss had been involved in espionage. A federal grand jury indicted Hiss on two counts of perjury. After a mistrial due to a hung jury, Hiss was tried a second time, and in January 1950, he was found guilty and received two concurrent five-year sentences, of which he eventually served three and a half years.


title: Alger Hiss

text: Arguments about the case and the validity of the verdict took center stage in broader debates about the Cold War, McCarthyism, and the extent of Soviet espionage in the United States.


title: Alger Hiss

text: Since Hiss' conviction, statements by involved parties and newly exposed evidence have added to the dispute. In the 1990s, two former senior Soviet military officers responsible for the Soviet Union's military intelligence archives stated, following a search of those archives, that the "Russian intelligence service has no documents proving that Alger Hiss cooperated with our service somewhere or anywhere," and that Hiss "never had any relationship with Soviet intelligence." The 1995 Venona Papers prompted more support for the theory that he was a Soviet spy, but were not yet deemed conclusive by many sources. Author Anthony Summers argued in 2000 that since many relevant files continue to be unavailable, the Hiss controversy will continue to be debated, with political divisions marking belief in Hiss' innocence or guilt. Hiss maintained his innocence until his death.


title: Alger Hiss

text: Alger Hiss was one of five children born in Baltimore, Maryland, to Mary "Minnie" Lavinia (née Hughes) and Charles Alger Hiss. Both parents came from substantial Baltimore families who could trace their roots to the middle of the eighteenth century. Hiss's paternal great-great-grandfather had emigrated from Germany in 1729, married well, and changed his surname from "Hesse" to "Hiss". Minnie Hughes had attended teacher's college and was active in Baltimore society. Shortly after his marriage at age 24, Charles Hiss entered the business world and joined the dry goods importing firm Daniel Miller and Co. He did well, becoming an executive and stockholder. When Charles's brother John died suddenly at the age of 33, Charles assumed financial and emotional responsibility for his brother's widow and six children in addition to his own expanding family. Charles also helped his wife's favorite brother, Albert Hughes, find work at Daniel Miller. Hughes at first distinguished himself and was promoted to treasurer of the firm, but then he became involved in a complicated business deal and was unable to meet the financial obligation that was part of a joint agreement. As a matter of honor, Charles Hiss felt compelled to sell all his stocks to make good his brother-in-law's debts, as well as to resign from the firm. This was in 1907, the year of a great financial panic. After inconclusive attempts by relatives to find him a job, Charles fell into a serious depression and committed suicide, cutting his throat with a razor. Minnie, who had made the most of her former prosperity and social position, now had to rely on her inheritance and assistance from family members.


title: Alger Hiss

text: Alger Hiss was two years old at the time of his father's death, and his brother Donald was two months old. As was customary in those days, they were not told of the circumstances of Charles Hiss's death. When Alger learned of it inadvertently years later from neighbors, he angrily confronted his older brother Bosley, who then told him the truth. Shocked, Hiss resolved to devote the rest of his life to restoring the family's "good name".


title: Alger Hiss

text: Although shadowed by melancholy, Hiss's early childhood, spent in rough-and-tumble games with his siblings and cousins who lived close by, was not unhappy. Their Baltimore neighborhood was described by columnist Murray Kempton as one of "shabby gentility." Hiss, however, portrayed the economic circumstances of his childhood as "modest", but "not particularly shabby". (Two further tragedies occurred when Hiss was in his twenties: his elder brother Bosley died of Bright's disease and his sister Mary Ann committed suicide.)


title: Alger Hiss

text: Hiss learned to compartmentalize and to seek out paternal surrogates. At school, he was popular and high performing. He attended high school at Baltimore City College and college at Johns Hopkins University, where he was voted "most popular student" by his classmates and graduated Phi Beta Kappa. In 1929, he received his law degree from Harvard Law School, where he was a protégé of Felix Frankfurter, the future U.S. Supreme Court justice. During his time at Harvard, the famous murder trial of anarchists Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti took place, ending in their conviction and execution. Like Frankfurter, who wrote a book about the case, and like many prominent liberals of the day, Hiss maintained that Sacco and Vanzetti were convicted unjustly.


title: Alger Hiss

text: Hiss served for a year as clerk to Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., before joining Choate, Hall & Stewart, a Boston law firm, and later the New York law firm then known as Cotton, Franklin, Wright & Gordon.


title: Alger Hiss

text: During the era of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal, Hiss became a government attorney. In 1933, he served briefly at the Justice Department and then became a temporary assistant on the Senate's Nye Committee, investigating cost overruns and alleged profiteering by military contractors during World War I. During this period, Hiss was also a member of the liberal legal team headed by Jerome Frank that defended the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) against challenges to its legitimacy. Because of intense opposition from agribusiness in Arkansas, Frank and his left-wing assistants, who included future labor lawyer Lee Pressman, were fired in 1935 in what came to be known as "the purge of liberals". Hiss was not fired, but allegations that during this period he was connected with radicals on the Agriculture Department's legal team were to be the source of future controversy.


title: Alger Hiss

text: In the meantime, Hiss also served initially as "investigator" and then "legal assistant" (counsel) to the Nye Committee from July 1934 to August 1935. He "badgered" DuPont officials and questioned and cross-examined Bernard Baruch on March 29, 1935. In 1947, Baruch and Hiss both attended the burial of Nicholas Murray Butler. In 1988, he called Baruch a "vain and overrated Polonius much given to trite pronouncements about the nation".


title: Alger Hiss

text: In 1936, Alger Hiss and his younger brother Donald Hiss began working under Cordell Hull in the State Department. Alger was an assistant to Assistant Secretary of State Francis B. Sayre (son-in-law of Woodrow Wilson) and then special assistant to the director of the Office of Far Eastern Affairs. From 1939 to 1944, Hiss was an assistant to Stanley Hornbeck, a special adviser to Cordell Hull on Far Eastern affairs.


title: Alger Hiss

text: In 1944, Hiss was named Director of the Office of Special Political Affairs, a policy-making entity devoted to planning for post-war international organizations. Hiss served as executive secretary of the Dumbarton Oaks Conference, which drew up plans for the future United Nations. In November 1944, Hull, who had led the United Nations project, retired as Secretary of State due to poor health and was succeeded by Undersecretary of State Edward Stettinius.


title: Alger Hiss

text: In February 1945, as a member of the U.S. delegation headed by Stettinius, Hiss attended the Yalta Conference, where the Big Three, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Joseph Stalin, and Winston Churchill, met to consolidate their alliance to forestall any possibility, now that the Soviets had entered German territory, that any of them might make a separate peace with the Nazi regime. Negotiations addressed the postwar division of Europe and configuration of its borders; reparations and de-Nazification; and the still unfinished plans, carried over from Dumbarton Oaks, for the United Nations. Before the conference took place, Hiss participated in the meetings where the American draft of the "Declaration of Liberated Europe" was created. The Declaration concerned the political future of Eastern Europe and critics on the right later charged that it made damaging concessions to the Soviets.


title: Alger Hiss

text: Hiss stated that he was responsible for assembling background papers and documentation for the conference "and any general matters that might come up relating to the Far East or the Near East."


title: Alger Hiss

text: Hiss drafted a memorandum arguing against Stalin's proposal (made at Dumbarton Oaks) to give one vote to each of the sixteen Soviet republics in the United Nations General Assembly. Fearing isolation, Stalin hoped thus to counterbalance the votes of the many countries of the British Empire, who he anticipated would vote with Britain, and those of Latin America, who could be expected to vote in lockstep with the United States. In the final compromise offered by Roosevelt and Stettinius and accepted by Stalin, the Soviets obtained three votes: one each for the Soviet Union itself, the Ukrainian SSR, and the Belorussian SSR.


title: Alger Hiss

text: Hiss was Secretary-General of the United Nations Conference on International Organization (the convention that created the UN Charter), which was held in San Francisco from April 25, 1945 to June 26, 1945. Allen Weinstein wrote that Andrei Gromyko, the Soviet delegate to the conference, praised Hiss to his superior Stettinus for his "impartiality and fairness". Hiss later became full Director of the State Department's Office of Special Political Affairs. In late 1946, Hiss left government service to become president of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, where he served until May 5, 1949, the end of the presidential term to which he had been elected, when he was forced to step down.


title: Alger Hiss

text: On August 3, 1948, Whittaker Chambers, a former Communist Party member, appeared before the House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) to denounce Alger Hiss. A senior editor at "Time" magazine, Chambers had written a scathingly satirical editorial critical of the Yalta agreements. Chambers asserted that he had known Hiss as a member of "an underground organization of the United States Communist Party" in the 1930s.


title: Alger Hiss

text: The group, which Chambers called the "Ware Group", had been organized by agriculturalist Harold Ware, an American communist intent on organizing black and white tenant farmers in the American South against exploitation and debt peonage by the cotton industry (Ware had died in 1935). According to Chambers, "the purpose of this group at that time was not primarily espionage. Its original purpose was the communist infiltration of the American government. But espionage was certainly one of its eventual objectives." As journalist and author Tim Weiner points out, "This was a crucial point. Infiltration and invisible political influence were immoral, but arguably not illegal. Espionage was treason, traditionally punishable by death. The distinction was not lost on the cleverest member of HUAC, Congressman Richard Nixon... He had been studying the FBI's files for five months, courtesy of J. Edgar Hoover. Nixon launched his political career in hot pursuit of Hiss and the alleged secret Communists of the New Deal."


title: Alger Hiss

text: Rumors had circulated about Hiss since 1939, when Chambers, at the urging of anti-Stalinist Isaac Don Levine, had gone to Assistant Secretary of State Adolf A. Berle, Jr. and accused Hiss of having belonged to an underground communist cell at the Department of Agriculture. In 1942, Chambers repeated this allegation to the FBI. In 1945 two other sources appeared to implicate Hiss. In September 1945, Igor Gouzenko, a 26-year-old Ukrainian whose three-year tour as a cipher clerk stationed at the Soviet Embassy in Ottawa was coming to an end, defected from the Soviet Union and remained in Canada. In exchange for asylum, Gouzenko offered to Canadian authorities evidence about a Soviet espionage network actively working to acquire information about nuclear weapons, along with information that an unnamed assistant (or more precisely an "assistant to an assistant") to U.S. Secretary of State Stettinius was a Soviet agent. When informed of this, Hoover assumed Gouzenko was referring to Alger Hiss. Three months later (in December 1945), Elizabeth Bentley, an American spy for the Soviet Union, who served also as a courier between communist groups, told the FBI, as documented in the FBI Silvermaster File that "At this time Kramer told me that the person who had originally taken Glasser away from Perlo's group was named Hiss and that he was in the U.S. State Department." Bentley also said that the man in question, whom she called "Eugene Hiss" worked in the State Department and was an adviser to Dean Acheson. In both cases (Gouzenko and Bentley), the FBI decided that Alger Hiss was the likely match. Hoover put a wiretap on Hiss's home phone and had him and his wife investigated and tailed for the next two years.


title: Alger Hiss

text: In response to Chambers's accusations, Hiss protested his innocence and insisted on appearing before HUAC to clear himself. Testifying on August 5, 1948, he denied having ever been a communist or having personally met Chambers. Under fire from President Truman and the press, the Committee was reluctant to proceed with its investigation against so eminent a man. Congressman Richard Nixon, however, who later described Hiss's demeanor that day as, "insolent", "condescending", and "insulting in the extreme", wanted to press on.


title: Alger Hiss

text: Nixon had received secret information about the FBI's suspicions from John Francis Cronin, a Roman Catholic priest who had infiltrated labor unions in Baltimore during World War II to report on communist activities and had been given access to FBI files. Writing in a paper titled "The Problem of American Communism In 1945", Cronin wrote, "In the State Department, the most influential Communist has been Alger Hiss."


title: Alger Hiss

text: With some reluctance, the Committee voted to make Nixon chair of a subcommittee that would seek to determine who was lying, Hiss or Chambers, at least on the question of whether they knew one another.


title: Alger Hiss

text: Shown a photograph of Chambers, Hiss conceded that the face "might look familiar" and asked to see Chambers in person. Confronted with him in person in a New York hotel where HUAC was holding session, Hiss admitted that he had indeed known Chambers, but under the name "George Crosley", a man who represented himself as a freelance writer. Hiss said that in the mid-1930s he had sublet his apartment to this "Crosley" and had given him an old car.


title: Alger Hiss

text: Chambers, for his part, denied on the stand ever having used the alias Crosley, though he admitted to Hiss's lawyers in private testimony that it could have been one of his pen names. When Hiss and Chambers both appeared before a HUAC subcommittee on August 17, 1948, they had the following exchange:


title: Alger Hiss

text: Chambers's statements, because they were made in a Congressional hearing, were privileged against defamation suits; Hiss challenged Chambers to repeat them without benefit of such protection. When, on the national radio program "Meet the Press", Chambers publicly called Hiss a communist, Hiss had attorney William L. Marbury Jr. file a libel lawsuit against him.


title: Alger Hiss

text: Chambers retaliated by claiming Hiss was not merely a communist, but also a spy, a charge he had not made earlier; and, on November 17, 1948, to support his explosive allegations he produced physical evidence consisting of sixty-five pages of re-typed State Department documents, the last of which was dated April 1, 1938, plus four notes in Hiss's handwriting summarizing the contents of State Department cables. These became known as the "Baltimore documents". Chambers claimed Hiss had given them to him in 1938 and that Priscilla had retyped them (Hiss could not type) on the Hisses' Woodstock typewriter for Chambers to pass along to the Soviets. One of the handwritten notes copied the contents of a telegram (received January 28, 1938) related to the November and December 1937 arrest and disappearance in Moscow of a Latvian-born man and his wife, an American citizen. Under questioning, neither Hiss nor his superior, Francis Sayre, recollected the incident. Hiss initially denied writing the note, but experts confirmed it was his handwriting. Interrogated in 1949, Sayre stated that the telegram was unrelated to Hiss's duties, which concerned trade matters and told his questioners, "He could not understand why he was on the distribution list for this cable nor why the note would be made on it or especially why an exact copy should be made."


title: Alger Hiss

text: In their previous testimony, both Chambers and Hiss had denied having committed espionage. By introducing the Baltimore documents, Chambers admitted he had previously lied, opening both Hiss and himself to perjury charges. Chambers also gave a new date for his own break with the Communist Party, an important point in his accusations against Hiss. For over nine years, beginning September 1, 1939, he had claimed to have quit the Party in 1937. Chambers now began to claim the actual date was sometime in early March 1938, the year of the "Baltimore documents", before finally settling during the trial, on April 15, 1938.


title: Alger Hiss

text: On December 2, Chambers led HUAC investigators to a pumpkin patch on his Maryland farm; from a hollowed-out pumpkin in which he had hidden them the previous day, he produced five rolls of 35 mm film that he said came from Hiss in 1938, as well. While some of the film was undeveloped and some contained images of trivial content such as publicly available Navy documents concerning the painting of fire extinguishers, there were also images of State Department documents that were classified at the time. As a consequence of the revelation's dramatic staging, both the film and the Baltimore documents soon became known collectively as the "Pumpkin Papers".


title: Alger Hiss

text: The grand jury charged Hiss with two counts of perjury—it did not indict him for espionage since the period of limitations had run out. Chambers was never charged with a crime. Hiss went to trial twice. The first trial, presided over by Judge Samuel Kaufman, started on May 31, 1949, and ended in a hung jury on July 7. Chambers admitted on the witness stand that he had previously committed perjury several times while he was under oath, including deliberately falsifying key dates in his story. Hiss's character witnesses at his first trial included such notables as future Democratic presidential candidate Adlai Stevenson, Supreme Court Justices Felix Frankfurter, and Stanley Reed, and former Democratic presidential candidate John W. Davis. President Truman famously called the investigation "a red herring". The second trial, presided over by Judge Henry W. Goddard, lasted from November 17, 1949, to January 21, 1950.


title: Alger Hiss

text: At both trials, a key to the prosecution's case was testimony from expert witnesses, stating that identifying characteristics of the typed Baltimore documents matched samples typed on a typewriter owned by the Hisses at the time of his alleged espionage work with Chambers. The prosecution also presented as evidence the typewriter itself. Given away years earlier, it had been located by defense investigators. This trial resulted in an eight-to-four deadlocked jury. "That, according to one of Hiss's friends and lawyers, Helen Buttenweiser, was the only time that she had ever seen Alger shocked—stunned by the fact that eight of his fellow citizens did not believe him."


title: Alger Hiss

text: In the second trial, Hede Massing, an Austrian-born confessed Soviet spy who was being threatened with deportation, and whom the first judge had not permitted to testify, provided some slight corroboration of Chambers's story. She recounted meeting Hiss at a party in 1935. Massing also described how Hiss had tried to recruit Noel Field, another Soviet spy at State, to switch from Massing's ring to his own.


title: Alger Hiss

text: This time the jury found Hiss guilty. According to Anthony Summers, "Hiss spoke only two sentences in court after he had been found guilty. The first was to thank the judge. The second was to assert that one day in the future it would be disclosed how forgery by typewriter had been committed."


title: Alger Hiss

text: On January 25, 1950, Judge Goddard sentenced Hiss to five years' imprisonment on each of the two counts, to run concurrently.


title: Alger Hiss

text: At a subsequent press conference, Secretary of State Dean Acheson reacted emotionally, affirming, "I do not intend to turn my back on Alger Hiss." Acheson quoted Jesus in the Bible: "I was a Stranger and ye took me in; Naked, and ye clothed me; I was sick and ye visited me; I was in prison and ye came unto me." Acheson's remarks enraged Nixon, who called Acheson's words sacrilege. The verdict was upheld by the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, and the Supreme Court of the United States denied a writ of certiorari.


title: Alger Hiss

text: The case heightened public concern about Soviet espionage penetration of the U.S. government in the 1930s and 1940s. As a well-educated and highly connected government official from an old American family, Alger Hiss did not fit the profile of a typical spy.


title: Alger Hiss

text: Publicity surrounding the case thrust Richard M. Nixon into the public spotlight, helping him move from the U.S. House of Representatives to the U.S. Senate in 1950, to the vice-presidency of the United States in 1952, and finally to the presidency in 1968.


title: Alger Hiss

text: Senator Joseph McCarthy made his famous speech at Wheeling, West Virginia, two weeks after the Hiss verdict, launching his career as the nation's most visible anti-communist.


title: Alger Hiss

text: On 22 March 1951, Alger Hiss was sent to a maximum security federal facility. Although he had been sentenced to five years' imprisonment, Hiss served only three years and eight months in Lewisburg Federal Prison. He was released from prison on November 27, 1954.


title: Alger Hiss

text: While in prison, Hiss acted as a volunteer attorney, adviser, and tutor for many of his fellow inmates.


title: Alger Hiss

text: After his release in 1954 at age 50, Hiss, who had been disbarred, worked as a salesman for the stationery company S. Novick & Sons located in the Puck Building, 295 Lafayette St. in New York City. From 1958-1960 he worked as an administrative assistant to R. Andrew Smith, a comb manufacturer, earning $20,000/year. In 1957, he published "In the Court of Public Opinion", a book challenging in detail the prosecution's case against him, and maintaining the typewritten documents traced to his typewriter had been forged. Hiss separated from his first wife, Priscilla, in 1959, though they remained married until her death in 1984. In 1985 he married Isabel Johnson, who had been living with him since soon after they met in 1960.


title: Alger Hiss

text: On November 11, 1962, following Richard Nixon's failed 1962 bid for governor of California, Hiss appeared in a segment titled "The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon" on the "Howard K. Smith: News and Comment" show on ABC television. (The "Chicago Tribune" reported targets of Hiss's "invective" and whom he "denounced as conspirators in a monstrous plot to convict him on concocted evidence" included: the presiding judge at his second trial, the three appellate court judges who rejected his appeal, J. Edgar Hoover and the FBI, assistant attorney general Alexander M. Campbell, federal prosecutor Thomas F. Murphy, members of the New York grand jury who indicted him, jury members in his two trials who convicted him, and HUAC members and particularly Richard Nixon and Karl Mundt".) His appearance led sponsors to withdraw from Smith's program when viewers bombarded ABC with complaints about letting a convicted perjurer appear on the air. Smith's show was cancelled in June 1963.


title: Alger Hiss

text: The five rolls of 35 mm film known as the "pumpkin papers" had been characterized as highly classified and too sensitive to reveal and were thought until late 1974 to be locked in HUAC files. In 1975, independent researcher Stephen W. Salant, an economist at the University of Michigan, sued the U.S. Justice Department when it denied his request for access to them under the Freedom of Information Act. On July 31, 1975, as a result of this lawsuit and follow-on suits filed by Peter Irons and by Alger Hiss and William A. Reuben, the Justice Department released copies of the "pumpkin papers" that had been used to implicate Hiss. One roll of film turned out to be totally blank due to overexposure,


title: Alger Hiss

text: two others are faintly legible copies of non-classified Navy Department documents relating to such subjects as life rafts and fire extinguishers, and the remaining two are photographs of the State Department documents that had been introduced at the two Hiss trials.


title: Alger Hiss

text: A few days after the release of the Pumpkin Papers, on August 5, 1975, Hiss was readmitted to the Massachusetts bar. The state's Supreme Judicial Court overruled its Committee of Bar Overseers


title: Alger Hiss

text: and stated in a unanimous decision that, despite his conviction, Hiss had demonstrated the "moral and intellectual fitness" required to be an attorney. Hiss was the first lawyer ever readmitted to the Massachusetts bar after a major criminal conviction.


title: Alger Hiss

text: In 1988 Hiss wrote an autobiography, "Recollections of a Life", in which he maintained his innocence. He fought his perjury conviction until his death from emphysema on November 15, 1996, at Lenox Hill Hospital in New York City, four days after his 92nd birthday. His friends and family continue to insist on his innocence.


title: Alger Hiss

text: In 1929, Hiss married Priscilla Fansler Hobson, a Bryn Mawr graduate and grade school teacher. Priscilla, previously married to Thayer Hobson, had a three-year-old son, Timothy Hobson (September 19, 1926 – January 8, 2018). Hiss and Priscilla had a son, Tony Hiss. The couple separated in 1959 after 30 years of marriage, five years after his incarceration.


title: Alger Hiss

text: In the 1960's Hiss was introduced to Isabel (Dowden) Johnson, a model, freelance writer and editor. Though Hiss asked Priscilla for a divorce so they could marry, she did not grant him one. Johnson had a previous relationship with Communist writer Howard Fast, recipient of the Stalin Peace Prize, and had briefly married Communist screenwriter Lester Cole, of the Hollywood Ten. After Priscilla’s death in 1984, Hiss and Johnson married in 1986. Hiss was an Episcopalian.


title: Alger Hiss

text: In 1952, former US Ambassador to France William C. Bullitt testified before the McCarran Committee (the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee) that in 1939, Premier Édouard Daladier had advised him of French intelligence reports that two State Department officials named Hiss were Soviet agents. When asked about it the next day, Daladier, then 68 years old, told reporters that he did not recall this conversation from 13 years previously. Also called to testify before the McCarran committee was economist Nathaniel Weyl, a former Communist Party member "at large" who had worked for the Department of Agriculture during the early days of the New Deal and had become disillusioned with what he considered the underhanded methods of the Communist Party. In 1950 Weyl had been interviewed by the FBI and had told them that in 1933 he had belonged to a secret Communist Party unit along with Harold Ware and Lee Pressman and confirmed that Alger Hiss had been present at some meetings held at Ware's sister's violin studio. In 1950 Weyl, however, had published an anti-communist book, "Treason: The Story of Disloyalty and Betrayal in American History" (1950) that made no mention of the so-called "Ware Group". Moreover, in this book, which came out shortly after Hiss's conviction, Weyl expressed doubt that Alger Hiss had been guilty of espionage.


title: Alger Hiss

text: At both trials, FBI typewriter experts testified that the Baltimore documents in Chambers's possession matched samples of typing done in the 1930s by Priscilla Hiss on the Hisses' home typewriter, a Woodstock brand. At both trials, the testimony was directed to comparing two sets of typed documents and not to the typewriter eventually submitted into evidence. As early as December 1948 the chief investigator for the Hiss defense, Horace W. Schmahl, set off a race to find Hiss's typewriter. The FBI, with superior resources, was also searching for the typewriter, which the Hiss family had discarded some years earlier. Nevertheless, Schmahl was able to track it down first, and the Hiss defense introduced it with the intention of showing that its typeface would not be a match for that on the FBI's documents. Surprisingly, however, the typefaces proved to be an excellent match and confirmed the FBI's evidence. Schmahl subsequently changed sides and went to work for the prosecution.


title: Alger Hiss

text: After Hiss had gone to prison, his lawyer, Chester T. Lane, acting on a tip he had received from someone who had worked with Schmahl that Hiss might have been framed, filed a motion in January 1952 for a new trial. Lane sought to show that (1) forgery by typewriter was feasible and (2) such forgery had occurred in the Hiss case and the forgery was responsible for the spy papers. Unaware that the feasibility of such forgeries had already been established throughout the War by the military intelligence services that engaged in such practices, the Hiss defense sought to establish feasibility directly by hiring a civilian typewriter expert, Martin Tytell, to create a typewriter that would be indistinguishable from the one the Hisses owned. Tytell spent two years creating a facsimile Woodstock typewriter whose print characteristics would match the peculiarities of the Hiss typewriter.


title: Alger Hiss

text: To demonstrate that forgery by typewriter was not merely a theoretical possibility but had actually occurred in the Hiss case, the defense sought to show that Exhibit #UUU was not Hiss's old machine but a newer one altered to type like it. According to former Woodstock executives, the production date of a machine could be inferred from the machine's serial number. The serial number on the Exhibit #UUU typewriter indicated that it would have been "manufactured" after the man who sold the Hiss machine had retired from the company and the salesman insisted that he did not sell any typewriters after his retirement. Decades later, when FBI files were disclosed under the Freedom of Information Act, it turned out that the FBI had also doubted that the trial exhibit was Hiss's machine and for exactly the same reasons; although the FBI expressed these concerns internally as the first trial was about to begin, the public did not learn about the FBI's doubts until the mid-1970s.


title: Alger Hiss

text: To explain why typing from Exhibit #UUU seemed indistinguishable from the typing on Hiss's old machine, Lane assembled experts prepared to testify that Exhibit #UUU had been tampered with in a way inconsistent with professional repair work to make it type like Hiss's old typewriter. In addition, experts were prepared to testify that Priscilla Hiss was not the typist of the Baltimore documents.


title: Alger Hiss

text: In summarizing the conclusions of the forensic experts he had assembled in his motion for a new trial, Lane told the court, "I no longer just question the authenticity of Woodstock N230099. I now say to the Court that Woodstock N230099—the typewriter in evidence at the trials—is a fake machine. I present in affidavit form, and will be able to produce at the hearing, expert testimony that this machine is a deliberately fabricated job, a new type face on an old body. This being so, it can only have been planted on the defense by or on behalf of Whittaker Chambers as part of his plot for the false incrimination of Alger Hiss."


title: Alger Hiss

text: In July 1952 Judge Goddard denied Hiss's motion for a new trial, expressing great skepticism that Chambers had the resources, knew how to commit forgery by typewriter, and would have known where to plant such a fake machine so it would be found. In his decision, Goddard did not address the possibility, raised by Hiss's defenders, that someone other than Chambers, namely Horace Schmahl and/or his associates on the prosecution side, might have been involved in faking the typewriter.


title: Alger Hiss

text: In 1976, Hiss called ex-FBI official William C. Sullivan, who recounted in his 1979 memoir:In 1976, five years after I left the FBI, I got a telephone call at my home in New Hampshire from Alger Hiss. Still working on his case, he wanted me to tell him whether the typewriter that helped convict him of a perjury charge was a fake which had been put together at the FBI Laboratory.<br> Although I never worked on the Hiss case myself, I knew that we were giving Richard Nixon, who was in charge of the investigation, every possible assistance. Had Nixon asked the FBI to manufacture evidence to provide his case against Hiss, Hoover would have been only too glad to oblige. I told Hiss that the typewriter was not made in the FBI Lab. What I didn't tell him was that even if we had wanted to, we simply wouldn't have been capable of it.Based on Justice Department documents released in 1976, the Hiss defense filed a petition in federal court in July 1978 for a writ of "coram nobis", asking that the guilty verdict be overturned due to prosecutorial misconduct. In 1982, the Federal Court denied the petition, and in 1983 the U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear the appeal. In the writ, Hiss's attorneys argued the following:


title: Alger Hiss

text: Federal Judge Owen, in denying Hiss's "coram nobis" petition, quoted verbatim two points made by Judge Goddard in denying Hiss's appeal for a new trial 30 years earlier, namely, that "there is not a trace of any evidence that Chambers had the mechanical skills, tools, equipment or material for such a difficult task [as typewriter forgery]," and that "If Chambers had constructed a duplicate machine, how would he have known where to plant it so that it would be found by Hiss?"


title: Alger Hiss

text: Stephen Salant, whose FOIA requests had revealed to the public the contents of the "pumpkin papers", has documented that Schmahl was a trained Army "spy-catcher" (as they called themselves), a special agent in the Counter Intelligence Corps (CIC). While on the payroll of the Hiss defense and searching for Hiss's typewriter, Schmahl confided to the FBI that his "present employment" in December 1948 was with Military Intelligence; his claim has not yet been independently verified.


title: Alger Hiss

text: At the Military Intelligence Training Center, CIC agents learned the rudiments of forgery and how to detect it through matching of typed samples with the typewriter that produced them. During the 1940s the CIC's domestic surveillance of civilians was extensive but so covert that it usually escaped notice. When detected, undercover CIC agents were often mistaken for FBI agents, since only the Bureau was authorized to investigate civilians.


title: Alger Hiss

text: During the 1930s Army counterintelligence monitored another suspected communist connected to Chambers, Franklin Vincent Reno, a civilian employed at the Aberdeen Proving Ground, who shortly afterwards passed information about U.S. Army weapons to Chambers.


title: Alger Hiss

text: It is not known if U.S. Army counterintelligence monitored Chambers' other associates, but when Hiss presided over the UN Charter Conference, more than a hundred undercover CIC agents were in attendance.


title: Alger Hiss

text: In his 1976 memoir, former White House counsel John Dean states that President Nixon's chief counsel Charles Colson told him that Nixon had admitted in a conversation that HUAC had fabricated a typewriter, saying, "We built one on the Hiss case."


title: Alger Hiss

text: According to Anthony Summers, "When Dean's book was published, Colson protested that he had 'no recollection of Nixon's having said the typewriter was 'phonied,'" and Nixon himself characterized the claim as 'totally false.' Dean, however, insisted that his contemporaneous notes confirmed that Colson had quoted the President as he indicated and seemed serious when he did so."


title: Alger Hiss

text: Summers and others suggest that Dean's version of events is plausible: "'Had Nixon asked the FBI to manufacture evidence to prove his case against Hiss,' opined former FBI Assistant Director Sullivan, 'Hoover would actually been only too glad to oblige.'" As to whether Nixon would actually have gone as far as to frame Hiss, Summers notes, "the later record includes disquieting instances of forgery or planting false information."


title: Alger Hiss

text: Cold War historian John V. Fleming disagrees, arguing that on the White House tapes Nixon never says anything that would have corroborated Colson's statement to John Dean about forging a typewriter in the Hiss case. Fleming and others maintain that the indistinct phrase during a conversation with John Dean that sounded to certain transcribers like "we made a typewriter" is actually a reference to Hiss's legal team. Throughout the tapes Nixon stresses how he had tried Hiss in the press, not the law courts, because that's how these things were done:We won the Hiss case in the papers. We did. I had to leak stuff all over the place. Because the Justice Department would not prosecute it. Hoover didn't even cooperate... It was won in the papers. I leaked out the papers... I leaked out the testimony. I had Hiss convicted before he ever got to the grand jury... Go back and read the chapter on the Hiss case in "Six Crises" and you'll see how it was done. It wasn't done waiting for the goddamn courts or the attorney general or the FBI.


title: Alger Hiss

text: According to Anthony Summers: The one substantive piece of information indicating typewriter forgery features the OSS and its chief, William Donovan. In late 1948, when the Hiss defense and the FBI began hunting for the Woodstock typewriter, a man named Horace Schmahl joined the defense team as an investigator. Schmahl had worked for either the OSS or army intelligence during the war, then joined the Central Intelligence Group, which operated between the closedown of the OSS and the inception of the CIA. After his stint for the Hiss side, Schmahl defected to the prosecution team.


title: Alger Hiss

text: Against the forged typewriter theory Allen Weinstein writes: [I]f there existed any persons with the means, motive, and opportunity to "substitute" a different Woodstock for the Hiss machine in the months after Hiss's indictment, the evidence ... indicates the possible conspirators, Mike Catlett and Donald Hiss, who for two months withheld knowledge from Alger's lawyers that the typewriter had been traced to Ira Lockey.


title: Alger Hiss

text: In 1992, records were found in Hungarian Interior Ministry archives in which self-confessed Soviet spy Noel Field named Alger Hiss as a fellow agent. An American citizen from a Quaker family who had grown up in Switzerland, Field attended Harvard and worked in the US Foreign Service from 1929 until 1936, when he left the State Department for a job at the League of Nations in Geneva, helping refugees from the Spanish Civil War. During World War II, Field, who never concealed he was a communist, headed a Unitarian Services organization to aid displaced persons in Marseilles, before fleeing to Geneva, where he collaborated with Allen Dulles of the OSS (who was based in Bern). In 1948, when the Hiss trials started, Field and his German wife were still living in Switzerland. By 1949 Field was broke, having been fired from the U.S.-based Unitarian Service Committee for his communist associations. Wishing to avoid returning to the United States and possibly having to testify before Congress, Field traveled to Prague, hoping to be hired as a lecturer at the Charles University. Instead, he was seized by Stalinist security services from Poland and Czechoslovakia and secretly imprisoned in Hungary. Field was accused of having organized an anti-communist resistance network in Eastern Europe for the OSS during the war and later for the new CIA and was held for five years in solitary confinement. Repeatedly interrogated under rigorous torture, Field broke down and confessed to being "head of the U.S. Secret Service", under his controller, Allen Dulles, "the famous pro-Nazi OSS spymaster".


title: Alger Hiss

text: While being "rehabilitated" after the torture had ceased, Field referred four times to Hiss as a Soviet agent, for example: "Around the summer of 1935 Alger Hiss tried to induce me to do service for the Soviets. I was indiscreet enough to tell him he had come too late." This agreed with Hede Massing's assertion to US authorities in 1947 that when she attempted to recruit Noel Field for one Soviet spy network (the OGPU), Field had replied that he already worked for another (the GRU). (Massing repeated this story at Hiss's second trial when she testified that at a party at Noel Field's house in 1935 she had obliquely joked with Hiss about recruiting Noel Field.)


title: Alger Hiss

text: In 1954, the Hungarian secret police released Field, exonerating him. He then formally wrote to the Communist Party's Central Committee in Moscow stating for the record that the tortures he had undergone in captivity had made him "confess more and more lies as truth". Hiss's defenders argue that Field's implications of Hiss may well have been among those lies. Field remained in communist Hungary until his death in 1970. In public, Field continued to maintain Hiss was innocent and, in 1957, wrote Hiss a letter calling Hede Massing's dinner party story "the false testimony of a perjured witness" and an "outrageous lie".


title: Alger Hiss

text: In 1995, the CIA and the NSA for the first time made public the existence of the World War II Venona project, which, beginning in 1943, had decrypted or partially decrypted thousands of telegrams sent from 1940 to 1948 to the primary Soviet foreign intelligence agency—for most of that period, the NKVD—by its U.S. operatives. Although known to the FBI, Venona had been kept secret even from President Truman. One cable, Venona #1822, mentioned a Soviet spy codenamed "ALES" who worked with a group of "Neighbors"—members of another Soviet intelligence organization, such as the military's GRU. FBI Special Agent Robert J. Lamphere, who supervised the FBI's spy chasing squad, concluded that the codename "ALES" was "probably Alger Hiss".


title: Alger Hiss

text: In 1997, Allen Weinstein, in the second edition of his 1978 book "", calls the Venona evidence "persuasive but not conclusive". The bipartisan Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy, chaired by Democratic Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan, however, stated in its findings that year: "The complicity of Alger Hiss of the State Department seems settled. As does that of Harry Dexter White of the Treasury Department." In his 1998 book "Secrecy: The American Experience", Moynihan wrote, "Belief in the guilt or innocence of Alger Hiss became a defining issue in American intellectual life. Parts of the American government had conclusive evidence of his guilt, but they never told." In their numerous books, Harvey Klehr, professor of political science at Emory University, and John Earl Haynes, historian of twentieth-century politics at the Library of Congress, have mounted an energetic defense of Lamphere's conclusion that ALES indeed referred to Alger Hiss. National Security Agency analysts have also gone on record asserting that ALES could only have been Alger Hiss. The Venona transcript # 1822, sent March 30, 1945, from the Soviets' Washington station chief to Moscow, appears to indicate that ALES attended the February 4–11, 1945, Yalta conference and then went to Moscow. Hiss did attend Yalta and then traveled to Moscow with Secretary of State Stettinius.


title: Alger Hiss

text: Some, however, question whether Venona #1822 constitutes definitive proof that ALES was Hiss. Hiss's lawyer, John Lowenthal argued:


title: Alger Hiss

text: Eduard Mark of the Center for Air Force History hotly disputed this analysis. In 2005, NSA released the original Russian of the Venona texts. At a symposium held at the Center for Cryptologic History that year, intelligence historian John R. Schindler concluded that the Russian text of Venona #1822 made clear that ALES was indeed at Yalta: "the identification of ALES as Alger Hiss, made by the U.S. Government more than a half-century ago, seems exceptionally solid, based on the evidence now available; message 1822 is only one piece of that evidence, yet a compelling one."


title: Alger Hiss

text: An earlier Venona document, #1579, had actually mentioned "HISS" by name. This partially decrypted cable consists of fragments of a 1943 message from the GRU chief in New York to headquarters in Moscow and reads: "from the State Department by name of HISS" (with "HISS" "spelled out in the Latin alphabet", according to a footnote by the cryptanalysts). "HISS" could refer either to Alger or Donald Hiss, both State Department officials at that time. Lowenthal argued that had Alger Hiss really been a spy, the GRU would not have mentioned his real name in a coded transmission, since this was contrary to their usual practice.


title: Alger Hiss

text: At an April 2007 symposium, authors Kai Bird and Svetlana Chervonnaya postulated that, based on the movements of officials present at Yalta, Wilder Foote, a U.S. diplomat, not Hiss, was the best match for ALES. They note Foote was in Mexico City when a Soviet cable placed ALES there, whereas Hiss had left several days earlier for Washington (see above). In response, Haynes and Klehr point out that Foote doesn't fit other aspects of the description of ALES (Foote was publishing newspapers in Vermont at the time when ALES was said to have been working for Soviet military intelligence) and suggest that the cable came from someone who managed KGB assets (rather than GRU assets like ALES) and may have been mistaken when he stated that ALES was still in Mexico City. Mark also disputes that Foote was ALES, arguing that Foote was never shown to be associated with the communists or any foreign intelligence services; Hiss was the "one possible candidate" who could have been ALES, Mark contends.


title: Alger Hiss

text: In 1985, a high-ranking KGB agent, Oleg Gordievsky (b. 1938), who was recruited in 1974 as a British double agent, defected and wrote a series of memoirs, in one of which, "The KGB" (1990), he recalled attending a lecture given before a KGB audience by Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov, who identified Hiss as a World War II Soviet agent.


title: Alger Hiss

text: Gordievsky went further and claimed that Hiss had the codename identity of "ALES". Appearing before the Venona cables were made public, this at first appeared to be independent corroboration of the codename, but it was later revealed that Gordievsky's source for the ALES identity was an article by journalist Thomas Powell, who had seen National Security Agency documents on Venona years before their release. Gordievsky's status as a reliable source was challenged in sections of the British media.


title: Alger Hiss

text: According to Serguei Kostine in the introduction to Alexandr Feklisov's book "The Man Behind the Rosenbergs" (2001), Hiss was guilty: "Like Alger Hiss, who went to his death pretending innocence, Morton Sobell has spent his entire life honoring the lie..."


title: Alger Hiss

text: After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Alger Hiss petitioned General Dmitry Antonovich Volkogonov, who had become President Yeltsin's military advisor and the overseer of all the Soviet intelligence archives, to request the release of any Soviet files on the Hiss case. Both former President Nixon and the director of his presidential library, John H. Taylor, wrote similar letters, though their full contents are not yet publicly available.


title: Alger Hiss

text: Russian archivists responded by reviewing their files, and in late 1992 reported back that they had found no evidence Hiss ever engaged in espionage for the Soviet Union nor that he was a member of the Communist Party. However, Volkogonov subsequently stated he spent only two days on the search and had mainly relied on the word of KGB archivists. "What I saw gave me no basis to claim a full clarification", he said. Referring to Hiss's lawyer, he added, "John Lowenthal pushed me to say things of which I was not fully convinced." General-Lieutenant Vitaly Pavlov, who ran Soviet intelligence work in North America in the late 1930s and early 1940s for the NKVD said that Hiss never worked for the USSR as one of his agents.


title: Alger Hiss

text: In 2003, retired Russian intelligence official General Julius Kobyakov disclosed that it was he who had actually searched the files for Volkogonov. Kobyakov stated that Hiss did not have a relationship with SVR predecessor organizations, although Hiss was accused of being with the GRU, a military intelligence organization separate from SVR predecessors. In 2007, Svetlana Chervonnaya, a Russian researcher who had been studying Soviet archives since the early 1990s, argued that based on documents she reviewed, Hiss was not implicated in spying. In May 2009, at a conference hosted by the Wilson Center, Mark Kramer, director of Cold War Studies at Harvard University at the John F. Kennedy School of Government, stated that he did not "trust a word [Kobyakov] says", At the same conference, historian Ronald Radosh reported that while researching the papers of Marshal Voroshilov in Moscow, he and Mary Habeck had encountered two GRU (Soviet military intelligence) files referring to Alger Hiss as "our agent".


title: Alger Hiss

text: In 2009, Haynes, Klehr, and Alexander Vassiliev published "Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America", based on KGB documents reportedly hand-copied by Vassiliev, a former KGB agent, during the 1990s. The authors attempted to show definitively that Alger Hiss had indeed been a Soviet spy and argue that KGB documents prove not only that Hiss was the elusive ALES, but that he also went by the codenames "Jurist" and "Leonard" while working for the GRU. Some documentation brought back by Vassiliev also refers to Hiss by his actual name, leaving no room, in the authors' opinion, for doubt about his guilt. Calling this the "massive weight of accumulated evidence", Haynes and Klehr conclude, "to serious students of history continued claims for Hiss's innocence are akin to a terminal case of ideological blindness." In a review published in the "Journal of Cold War Studies", military historian Eduard Mark heartily concurred, stating that the documents "conclusively show that Hiss was, as Whittaker Chambers charged more than six decades ago, an agent of Soviet military intelligence (GRU) in the 1930s". "Newsweek" magazine reported that Civil Rights Movement historian David Garrow also concluded that, in his opinion, "Spies" "provides irrefutable confirmation of [Hiss's] guilt".


title: Alger Hiss

text: Other historians, such as D. D. Guttenplan, Jeff Kisseloff, and Amy Knight, however, assert that "Spies" conclusions were not borne out by the evidence and accused its authors of engaging in "shoddy" research. Guttenplan stresses that Haynes and Klehr never saw and cannot even prove the existence of the documents that supposedly convict Hiss and others of espionage, but rather relied exclusively on handwritten notebooks authored by Vassiliev during the time he was given access to the Soviet archives in the 1990s while he collaborated with Weinstein. According to Guttenplan, Vassiliev could never explain how he managed, despite being required to leave his files and notebooks in a safe at the KGB press office at the end of each day, to smuggle out the notebooks with his extensive transcriptions of documents. Haynes and Klehr respond that the material was examined by historians, archivists, and intelligence professionals who unanimously agreed that the material was genuine.


title: Alger Hiss

text: Guttenplan also suggested, moreover, that Vassiliev might have omitted relevant facts and selectively replaced cover names with his own notion of the real names of various persons. According to Guttenplan, Boris Labusov, a press officer of the SVR, the successor to the KGB, has stated that Vassiliev could not in the course of his research have possibly "met the name of Alger Hiss in the context of some cooperation with some special services of the Soviet Union". Guttenplan also points out that Vasiliev admitted under oath in 2003 that he'd never seen a single document linking Hiss with the cover name "Ales". However, Haynes and Klehr also cite a 1950 memo indicating that a GRU agent, described as a senior State Department official, had recently been convicted in an American court. "The only senior American diplomat convicted of an espionage-related crime in 1950 was Alger Hiss."


title: Alger Hiss

text: Historian Jeff Kisseloff questions Haynes and Klehr's conclusion that Vassiliev's notes support Hede Massing's story about talking to Hiss at a party in 1935 about recruiting their mutual friend and host Noel Field into the communist underground. According to Kisseloff, "all that the files Vassiliev saw really indicate is that she was telling yet another version of her story in the 1930s. Haynes and Klehr never consider that, as an agent in Washington, D.C., who was having little success in the tasks assigned to her, she may have felt pressure back then to make up a few triumphs to reassure her superiors." Kisseloff also disputes Haynes and Klehr's linking of Hiss with former Treasury Department official Harold Glasser, who they allege was a Soviet agent. Finally, Kisseloff states that some of the evidence compiled by Haynes and Klehr actually tends to exonerate rather than convict Hiss. For example, their book cites a KGB report from 1938 in which Iskhak Akhmerov, New York station chief, writes, "I don't know for sure who Hiss is connected with." Haynes and Klehr also claim that Hiss was the agent who used the cover name "Doctor". According to Soviet sources, however, "Doctor" was a middle-aged Bessarabian Jew who was educated in Vienna.


title: Alger Hiss

text: Other historians felt that Haynes and Klehr's information was suspect because their publisher, Crown (a division of Random House), obtained temporary and limited access to KGB files through a payment of money (amount unspecified) to a pension fund for retired KGB agents, of whom Vassiliev was one, as was KGB archivist Volkogonov. Other historians had not been permitted to verify Vassiliev's data. In 2002, Vassiliev sued John Lowenthal for libel in a British court of law for publishing a journal article questioning his conclusions. Vassiliev lost the case before a jury and was further reprimanded by "The Times" for trying to exert a "chilling effect" on scholarship by resorting to the law courts. Vassiliev has since also unsuccessfully sued Amazon.com for publishing a customer review critical of his work.


title: Alger Hiss

text: In 1978, Victor Navasky interviewed six people Weinstein had quoted in his book "Perjury", who all claimed to have been misquoted by Weinstein. One, Sam Krieger, won a cash payment from Weinstein, who issued an apology and promised to correct future editions of his book and to release his interview transcripts, which he subsequently failed to do.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Marin Čilić (; born 28 September 1988) is a Croatian professional tennis player. Čilić has won 20 ATP Tour singles titles, including a major at the 2014 US Open. He was also runner-up at the 2017 Wimbledon Championships and the 2018 Australian Open, and won a silver medal at the 2020 Tokyo Olympics in the men's doubles tournament partnering Ivan Dodig. His career-high singles ranking is world No. 3, achieved on 28 January 2018.Čilić has reached the semifinal stage or better at all four majors, and the quarterfinal stage or better at all nine ATP Masters 1000 tournaments. He is one of six active players with at least 20 ATP Tour titles and one of the five active players to reach at least the semifinal stage at all four majors. Alongside compatriot Goran Ivanišević, Čilić is widely considered to be one of the greatest Croatian tennis players in history.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Marin Čilić was born in Medjugorje, SR Bosnia and Herzegovina, a town in the Herzegovina region of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Bosnian Croat parents. He was raised as a Catholic. His father Zdenko Čilić was determined that his sons – Marin and older brothers Vinko and Goran – would have the opportunities he lacked in playing sports. When the first tennis courts in the town were built in 1991, Marin and his friends were among the first to play on them. At the recommendation of Goran Ivanišević, in 2004, at the age of 15, Čilić moved to San Remo, Italy to work with Ivanišević's former coach, Bob Brett. He has a younger brother, Mile, who also plays tennis. On 28 April 2018, he married his long time girlfriend Kristina Milković. They have a son named Baldo.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić began playing on the junior ITF circuit in spring 2004. At the start he played on clay courts, winning the "La Vie Junior Cup Villach" in singles and the Dutch Junior Open in doubles. He then qualified for the 2004 US Open, where he lost in the second round to Sam Querrey. In 2005, he won the French Open title in Boys' singles, beating Andy Murray in the semifinal and Antal van der Duim in the final. He finished 2005 ranked number two behind American Donald Young. While on the junior circuit, he won six tournaments in singles and four in doubles with his Canadian partner, Greg Kates.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Before representing Croatia, he played for Bosnia and Herzegovina as a junior with partner Zachary Rosen.


title: Marin Čilić

text: In 2004, Čilić played one Futures event (Croatia F1), at which he reached the second round; he finished the year tied at No. 1463 on the rankings of the ATP Tour. He played seven Futures tournaments in 2005, winning one, the Croatia F3 event; two Challenger tournaments, in Zagreb and Geneva; and one ATP International Series tournament, the Croatia Open, where he lost in the opening round. He finished the year ranked No. 587.


title: Marin Čilić

text: In 2006, he played three Futures, winning the Croatia F1 and Croatia F2 events. He also played in nine Challengers, nine International Series events (reaching the semifinals at Gstaad), and two Davis Cup ties, against Austria and Argentina. By the end of the year, he was ranked No. 170.


title: Marin Čilić

text: In 2007, he won the first and second professional tournaments of his career: the Casablanca Challenger (in April) and the Rijeka Challenger (in May). In June, at the Queen's Club Championships, he beat Tim Henman in the first round after trailing 2–4 in the final set, and reached the quarterfinals, where he fell to Andy Roddick. After that performance, he reached a new career-high ranking of No. 101 on 18 June 2007.


title: Marin Čilić

text: In the World Group playoffs in the first round of the 2007 Davis Cup, Čilić beat Benjamin Becker of Germany; however, Croatia went on to lose the tie, three matches to two.


title: Marin Čilić

text: In 2008, Čilić reached the semifinals at the Chennai Open, in both singles and doubles. In the singles, he was defeated by Mikhail Youzhny, who went on to win the tournament. Čilić made it to the fourth round of the 2008 Australian Open, taking out two seeds on his way, including 2007 Australian Open finalist Fernando González. James Blake beat him in the fourth round. He had achieved his goal for the year of reaching the top 40. His fourth-round result at the Australian Open put him at no. 39 in the ATP rankings.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić also made it to the fourth round of Wimbledon, beating Jarkko Nieminen in five sets in the second round and knocking-out 14th seed Paul-Henri Mathieu. At the 2008 Olympics, he reached the second round of the men's singles, beating Juan Mónaco before losing to Fernando González. He lost in straight sets to Arnaud Clément. At the Canada Masters, he defeated Andy Roddick in reaching the quarterfinal stage, giving his best performance in a Masters Series tournament to date. He lost in three sets to Gilles Simon in the quarterfinals.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić played the Pilot Pen Tennis tournament in New Haven, Connecticut, where he won his first ATP title. He defeated Viktor Troicki, Jürgen Melzer, and Igor Andreev in early rounds, then 2007 finalist Mardy Fish in the final. Čilić, seeded for the first time at a Grand Slam tournament, reached the third round of the US Open, but lost to Novak Djokovic in a match that lasted almost four hours. Čilić came back from a break down in each of the second, third, and fourth sets. In the first round, he had defeated Julien Benneteau in five sets in a match that lasted more than four hours, winning the deciding set.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić won his first title of 2009 and second career ATP title at the Chennai Open, defeating first-time finalist Somdev Devvarman.


title: Marin Čilić

text: He reached the fourth round of the Australian Open after beating David Ferrer in straight sets, equalling his 2008 record. In the fourth round, he was defeated by Juan Martín del Potro in four sets.


title: Marin Čilić

text: He helped his country defeat Chilean opponents in the Davis Cup first-round tie by winning the opening singles match and joining forces with Mario Ančić to win the doubles rubber.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić reached a career best at the French Open when he beat 18th seed Radek Štěpánek in the third round in straight sets. After two competitive sets against the third-seeded Andy Murray, Čilić lost the match.


title: Marin Čilić

text: He reached the second round of the Queen's Club Championships, an ATP World Tour 250 series event, where he was defeated by Nicolas Mahut of France. He beat Alberto Martín to make it into the second round at Wimbledon and won a five-set match (spread over two days) against Sam Querrey. He played another five-set match in the third round against Tommy Haas. He recovered from two sets down, but lost 10–8 in the deciding set, having held a match point.


title: Marin Čilić

text: During the hard-court season, Čilić was defeated in back-to-back events in the first round. At Washington, he was defeated in straight sets by Somdev Devvarman. He then failed to duplicate his quarterfinal appearance in Canada, losing to Mikhail Youzhny. In the US Open, as the 16th seed, he reached the fourth round, after defeating Ryan Sweeting, Jesse Levine, and Denis Istomin. He defeated Levine after being down two sets to love, coming back to win. He then scored the biggest upset of the 2009 US Open with a straight-sets victory over second-seeded Andy Murray in the fourth round. Čilić outclassed Murray by saving all the break points he faced and took advantage of Murray's unforced errors. After the match, he said it was the biggest win of his career to date. However, in the quarterfinals, he lost to the eventual champion Juan Martín del Potro, despite leading by one set and an opening break in the second set.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Following his impressive US Open run, Čilić participated in the China Open in Beijing as the eighth seed. He won his opening match against Russian Igor Andreev, followed by a three-set victory over Frenchman Julien Benneteau. In the quarterfinals, he defeated fourth seed Nikolay Davydenko, before stunning world No. 2 and top seed (in the tournament) Rafael Nadal in a straightforward win. In the final, Čilić went down to second seed Novak Djoković in straight sets.


title: Marin Čilić

text: He reached the fifth final of his career at the Bank Austria Tennis Trophy as top seed; however, he lost. He received a wild card for the Davidoff Swiss Indoors, where he finished in the quarterfinals, losing to Radek Štěpánek. His final tournament of the year was the BNP Paribas Masters. Entered as 12th seed, he came from a set down to defeat Łukasz Kubot in the second round, and then from a set down again to defeat seventh seed Fernando Verdasco, before coming to a halt in the quarterfinals against eventual finalist Gaël Monfils.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Seeded 14th at the Australian Open, he defeated Fabrice Santoro, Bernard Tomic, and Stan Wawrinka in the first three rounds. In the fourth round, he faced fourth seed and reigning US Open champion del Potro; it was their third meeting in the past five Grand Slams. In a match that lasted more than four and a half hours, Čilić defeated Del Potro to reach his second Grand Slam quarterfinal appearance. In the quarterfinals, he defeated seventh seed Andy Roddick in another five-set victory. In doing so, he became the first Croatian to reach the semifinals at the Australian Open. However, Čilić eventually lost in four sets to Andy Murray, despite winning the first set. Čilić followed up his Australian campaign by defending his title in Zagreb, defeating Michael Berrer in the final. Čilić achieved a new career-high ranking of No. 9 as a result. Čilić was selected to play singles and doubles partnering with Karlović for the Croatia Davis Cup team against Ecuador in March 2010. Čilić, seeded eighth, lost in the second round to Guillermo García-López at the BNP Paribas Open.


title: Marin Čilić

text: At the French Open, Čilić lost to Robin Söderling in the fourth round. Čilić was defeated in the first round of Wimbledon by Florian Mayer.


title: Marin Čilić

text: He reached the semifinals of the Legg Mason Tennis Classic in Washington D.C., ending Mardy Fish's 11-match winning-streak in the third round. Čilić was defeated by eventual champion David Nalbandian.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić began the season with a first-round loss to Kei Nishikori in Chennai, failing to defend his title. At the Australian Open he progressed to the fourth round, defeating Donald Young, Santiago Giraldo, and then John Isner in a five-set. In the fourth round, he lost to world No. 1, Rafael Nadal. Next, he went to Zagreb to defend another title. Again, he was unable to do so, falling to Florian Mayer in the quarterfinals.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić played next in Rotterdam and lost to Viktor Troicki in the quarterfinals. He then played in Marseille, where he was unseeded. He defeated Tomáš Berdych in the quarterfinals and saved one match point in a comeback win against Mikhail Youzhny. He lost to Robin Söderling in the final. Čilić played for Croatia in the World Group playoffs in the first round of the 2011 Davis Cup, defeating Florian Mayer in the opening singles rubber. He levelled the tie at 2–2 by defeating Philipp Kohlschreiber in the first reverse singles rubber. However, Germany ultimately won the tie.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić lost in the first round of the French Open to Rubén Ramírez Hidalgo and at Wimbledon to his compatriot Ivan Ljubičić.


title: Marin Čilić

text: At Umag, Čilić became the first Croatian man to reach the finals in over 20 years, losing to Alexandr Dolgopolov. He upset Juan Martín del Potro in the second round of the Rogers Cup and reached the third round of the US Open, losing to Roger Federer. In ATP 500 in Beijing, he lost the final against world No. 6, Tomáš Berdych, in three sets. The next week he was upset by Albert Ramos in the Shanghai Rolex Masters. He won his sixth career title in Saint Petersburg by defeating world No. 10 Janko Tipsarević in the final. En route to the final, he defeated Sergei Bubka, Somdev Devvarman, Andreas Seppi, and Mikhail Youzhny.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić did not play at the 2012 Australian Open, but did play at Indian Wells, where he lost in the second round to David Nalbandian. He was defeated by Juan Martín del Potro in the third round of Miami and the French Open. In June, Čilić won the Queen's Club Championships in London after his opponent in the final, David Nalbandian, was disqualified in the second set for aggravated behaviour, having kicked the hoarding around a linesman's chair, injuring the linesman.


title: Marin Čilić

text: In the third round of Wimbledon, he beat Sam Querrey 7–6, 6–4, 6–7, 6–7, 17–15 in the second-longest match ever played at Wimbledon in 5 hours and 31 minutes. He subsequently lost to Andy Murray in the following round. In July 2012, Čilić became the first home player to win the Croatia Open after 22 years by defeating Marcel Granollers of Spain in the final.


title: Marin Čilić

text: At the Summer Olympics, he reached the second round in the men's singles, beating Jürgen Melzer before losing to Lleyton Hewitt. In the men's doubles, he reached the quarterfinals with Ivan Dodig.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić was seeded 12th at the US Open, where he matched his 2009 effort in reaching the quarterfinals. He was defeated by the eventual champion Andy Murray despite winning the first set and leading 5–1 in the second set.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić started his year at the Chennai Open, where he lost to Benoît Paire in the quarterfinals. At the Australian Open, he was seeded 12th but was upset in the third round by Andreas Seppi in a five-set match. In February, Čilić played for Croatia in the Davis Cup World Group playoffs against Italy; he defeated Paolo Lorenzi in the opening singles rubber, and in the first reverse singles, he avenged his earlier loss to Seppi at the Australian Open, prevailing in a straight-sets win. Italy, however, won the tie eventually with a final score of 3–2.


title: Marin Čilić

text: At Zagreb, where he had won twice in 2009 and 2010, Čilić won for a third time to earn his ninth career title, defeating Jürgen Melzer in the final. Čilić was top-seeded in the Memphis Indoor event but lost to Kei Nishikori, the eventual champion, in the quarterfinals. Čilić next played at Indian Wells, where he lost in the third round to Milos Raonic in three sets. In the following tournament at Miami, he defeated world No. 8, Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, in the fourth round but lost to Andy Murray in the quarterfinals.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić started his clay-court season in Monte Carlo, but lost to Richard Gasquet in the fourth round. In May, it was announced Čilić had left his longtime coach Bob Brett and would be coachless at tournaments before hiring a new one. At the French Open, he lost in the third round to Viktor Troicki in straight sets. In June, Čilić returned to Queen's Club to defend his title. He defeated world No. 6, Tomas Berdych, in the quarterfinals, his second top 10 win of the year, and Lleyton Hewitt in the semifinal. In the final, Čilić lost to Andy Murray in three sets.


title: Marin Čilić

text: At Wimbledon Čilić pulled out before his second-round match claiming he had a left knee injury where he was scheduled to play Kenny de Schepper of France. However, a month later it was revealed that Čilić had pulled out due to failing a drugs test in Munich for, according to Jutarnji list daily, "incautious use of glucose." On 16 September 2013, he received a backdated nine-month ban due to testing positive for the banned substance nikethamide. Čilić claimed that the banned substance was ingested via Coramine glucose tablets bought at a pharmacy by a member of his team, and as a result, the independent tribunal believed that he did not intend to enhance his performance. The suspension ran until 1 February 2014 and all prize money and points since the positive test including the Munich tournament were null and forfeited. Čilić appealed against this ban to the Court of Arbitration for Sport, who reduced the ban from nine months to four months on 25 October. They stated that "the degree of fault committed by the athlete was inferior to that established in the (tribunal) decision and the sanction imposed was too severe in view of the degree of fault". Čilić, whose ranking had dropped to number 47, received an immediate boost as results at the French Open, Queen's and Wimbledon were reinstated.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić returned to the tour at Brisbane. He defeated Denis Istomin and Grigor Dimitrov to reach the quarterfinal, where he lost to Kei Nishikori. In Sydney, he lost to Denis Istomin in the second round. At the Australian Open second round, Čilić lost to Gilles Simon in five sets.


title: Marin Čilić

text: In February, Čilić successfully defended his title at Zagreb without dropping a set, winning his 10th career title. Čilić extended his winning streak at the Rotterdam Open. He defeated Lukas Rosol, world No. 10, Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, world No. 6, Andy Murray and Igor Sijsling, reaching the second final of the season, where he lost to Tomas Berdych. Čilić continued his excellent form in Delray Beach, reaching his third consecutive final of the season, where he defeated Kevin Anderson and won his 11th singles title.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić reached the fourth round of the Indian Wells Masters. He defeated Paolo Lorenzi and Tommy Robredo to set up a clash with Novak Djokovic. However, he lost the match in three sets. His good form came to an end in the Miami Masters where he lost to Édouard Roger-Vasselin in the second round.


title: Marin Čilić

text: During the clay season, Čilić reached the quarterfinals in Barcelona. He lost in early rounds in both Madrid Open and Rome Masters. At the French Open, Čilić reached the third round before losing to Djokovic in four sets.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić returned to Queen's Club in June, where he was last year's runner-up on the grass court, however, he was knocked out by Marinko Matosevic in the first round. Čilić successfully rebounded at Wimbledon, reached the quarterfinals for the first time, beating Paul-Henri Mathieu, Andreas Haider-Maurer, Tomas Berdych and Jérémy Chardy before losing to eventual champion Novak Djokovic in five sets.


title: Marin Čilić

text: In July, Čilić played Croatia Open on home soil, where he was defeated in the semifinals by Tommy Robredo. In the warmup US Open Series, Čilić advanced to the third round at Rogers Cup, where he lost to Roger Federer in a close three-set match. In the following Cincinnati Masters, Čilić also reached the third round before losing to Stan Wawrinka.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Seeded 14th at the US Open, Čilić defeated Marcos Baghdatis, Illya Marchenko and Kevin Anderson to set up a fourth-round fixture against Gilles Simon, beating the Frenchman for the first time in five matches. He then went on to defeat both world No. 7, Tomas Berdych, and world No. 3, Roger Federer, in straight sets to reach his maiden Grand Slam final. This was also his first-ever victory against Federer in all competitions. Čilić defeated 10th seed Kei Nishikori in straight sets in the final, claiming his first Grand Slam title and becoming the first Croatian to win a men's Grand Slam event since his coach Goran Ivanišević won the 2001 Wimbledon Championships. His triumph in the final was also his 300th professional victory.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Following his US Open victory, Čilić played for Croatia in Davis Cup World Group playoffs against Netherlands. Initially signed up for doubles rubber only, Čilić and teammate Marin Draganja beat Robin Haase and Jean-Julien Rojer. After a 2:2 tie between two countries, however, Čilić stepped up and played the deciding fifth singles rubber in place of young compatriot Borna Ćorić, where he defeated Thiemo de Bakker. The victory earned Croatia the World Group status for 2015.


title: Marin Čilić

text: At China Open, Čilić advanced to the quarterfinal before losing to Andy Murray. In Shanghai Masters, Čilić was upset in the first round by fellow countryman Ivo Karlović after losing the tiebreak in the third set. Čilić, however, rebounded at Kremlin Cup, where he defeated Roberto Bautista Agut in the final and won his fourth title of the season. On 18 October, it was announced Čilić, as the then reigning US Open champion, had become the fifth player (after Djokovic, Nadal, Federer and Wawrinka) to qualify for the ATP World Tour Finals in London from 9–16 November. Čilić subsequently withdrew from the Valencia Open and Paris Masters in order to allow time for an arm injury to heal before the tour finals. He ultimately lost all three matches in the round robin.


title: Marin Čilić

text: After being sidelined for more than two months, Čilić made his season debut at the Indian Wells Masters. After receiving a bye in the first round, he lost in the second round to Juan Mónaco in straight sets. Čilić subsequently withdrew from the Miami Open due to the shoulder problem. Čilić returned to tour at Monte-Carlo Masters, where he advanced to quarterfinals, before losing to eventual champion Novak Djokovic.


title: Marin Čilić

text: At the 2015 French Open, Čilić lost to David Ferrer in the fourth round in straight sets. At Queen's Club, Čilić was beaten in the second round by Victor Troicki in three sets. Čilić matched his 2014 Wimbledon performance, reaching the quarterfinals again after eliminating Moriya, Berankis, Isner (12–10 in the fifth set), and Kudla.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić returned to Flushing Meadows for the US Open to defend his title, reaching the semi finals where he was beaten in straight sets by Novak Djokovic who also went on to win in the final. Čilić managed to defend his title at the Kremlin Cup, winning the final in almost identical fashion to the previous year. In the final, he defeated the same player as the previous year, Roberto Bautista Agut, by the same scoreline, 6–4, 6–4.


title: Marin Čilić

text: In the first major of the year, Marin Čilić was seeded 12th, but he was upset by Bautista Agut in the third round of the Australian Open.


title: Marin Čilić

text: At Indian Wells, he reached the quarterfinals before losing to No. 15 seed David Goffin. At the Miami Masters, he was defeated by Gilles Simon in third round.


title: Marin Čilić

text: At the Wimbledon Championships, Čilić repeated his efforts of the previous two years making the quarterfinals, after eliminating rival Kei Nishikori in the fourth round. In the quarterfinals, he met third seed Roger Federer; Čilić won the first two sets and had match points in the fourth set but was unable to convert eventually being eliminated in five sets.


title: Marin Čilić

text: At the 2016 Olympics, he competed in the men's singles and the men's doubles with Marin Draganja. He reached the last 16 in the singles and the second round in the doubles.


title: Marin Čilić

text: In August 2016, Čilić announced his new coach as Jonas Björkman in a video posted to MyATP. In Cincinnati, Čilić claimed his maiden Masters title, defeating Andy Murray in the final in straight sets. This win ended Murray's 22-match winning streak, dating back to 2016 Queen's Club. The Croat beat Viktor Troicki, Fernando Verdasco, Tomáš Berdych, Borna Ćorić and Grigor Dimitrov in the route to the final. Čilić returned to the top 10 in the following week.


title: Marin Čilić

text: In October, he captured his maiden ATP 500 level title at the Swiss Indoors, beating Nishikori in straight sets in the final. At the Paris Masters, Čilić defeated Djokovic for the first time in his career to reach the semifinals, where he subsequently lost to John Isner. His run guaranteed that he would qualify for the ATP World Tour Finals for the second time in three years. There, in the round robin, he lost to Murray and Wawrinka, but defeated Nishikori for his first-ever win at the Finals. With this victory, he rose to No. 6 in the ATP rankings.


title: Marin Čilić

text: In the final of the Davis Cup, with Croatia leading Argentina by 2–1 in matches, Čilić led Juan Martín del Potro by two sets to love needing one more set to win the title for his country. However, del Potro went on to win the match in five sets and Argentina won the deciding match to win the tournament.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić started his 2017 season as first seed at the Chennai Open but lost to Jozef Kovalík in the second round. In the first major of the year, the Australian Open, Čilić lost in the second round to Dan Evans.


title: Marin Čilić

text: In February, he lost in his opening match in Montpellier, reached the quarterfinals of the Rotterdam, and the semifinals of Acapulco.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić was eliminated in the second rounds of Indian Wells, Miami Open, and Madrid Open, but reached the quarterfinals in Rome, and Monte Carlo. In May, Čilić won the title at the Istanbul Open, defeating Milos Raonic in the final, in straight sets. This was his 14th ATP 250 title, second clay title, and 17th title overall. Additionally, Čilić's victory in Istanbul meant that 2017 was his tenth consecutive year winning at least one ATP title.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić reached the quarterfinal of the French Open for the first time in his career and thus became one of the few tennis players who reached the quarterfinal stage of every Grand Slam championship.


title: Marin Čilić

text: In June, at the Queen's Club Championships, Marin made the final for the third time in his career. There he faced Feliciano López, losing in three sets, after having a championship point in the final-set tiebreaker. At Wimbledon, Čilić reached the quarterfinals without dropping a set. There, he defeated Gilles Müller in five sets to reach his first Wimbledon semifinal. In the semifinal he recovered from a one set deficit to defeat Sam Querrey in four sets. In the final he was defeated by Roger Federer in straight sets, he struggled with a blister.


title: Marin Čilić

text: An adductor injury forced Čilić to miss the Montreal and Cincinnati Masters events. Čilić returned to play at the US Open where he lost to Diego Schwartzman in the third round. Despite this, following the tournament's conclusion Čilić broke into the top five for the first time in his career.


title: Marin Čilić

text: In October, Čilić reached the semifinals of the Tokyo, Shanghai, Basel, and the quarterfinals of the Paris Masters. Čilić failed to win a match in the ATP Finals despite going to three sets against Federer, Alexander Zverev, and Jack Sock. Čilić finished the season as world No. 6 for the second consecutive year.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić started his 2018 season as first seed in Pune, India. He lost in semifinals to eventual champion Gilles Simon.