title: Temperate rainforest

text: Sub-ecoregions of the Pacific temperate rain forest ecoregion as defined by the WWF include the Northern Pacific coastal forests, Haida Gwaii ecoregion, Vancouver Island ecoregion, British Columbia mainland coastal forests, Central Pacific coastal forests, Cascades forests, Klamath-Siskiyou coastal forests, and Northern California coastal forests ecoregions. They vary in their species composition, but are all predominantly coniferous, sometimes with an understory of broadleaved trees and shrubs. Most of the precipitation occurs in winter, similar to Mediterranean climates, but in summer, fog moisture is extracted by the trees and produces a fog drip keeping the forest moist. The Northern California coastal forests are home to the Coast Redwood ("Sequoia sempervirens"), the world's tallest tree. In the other ecoregions, Coast Douglas-fir ("Pseudotsuga menziesii" var. "menziesii"), Sitka Spruce ("Picea sitchensis"), Western Hemlock ("Tsuga heterophylla") and Western redcedar ("Thuja plicata") are the most important tree species. A common feature of Pacific temperate rain forests of North America is the Nurse log, a fallen tree which as it decays, provides ecological facilitation to seedlings. Trees such as the Coast Douglas-fir, Western Hemlock, Western Red Cedar, Pacific Yew, and Vine Maple are more closely related to coniferous and deciduous trees in the temperate forests of East Asia.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: Some of the largest expanses of old growth are found in Olympic National Park, Mount Rainier National Park, Tongass National Forest, Mount St. Helens National Monument, Redwood National Park, and throughout British Columbia (including British Columbia's Coastal Mountain Ranges), with the coastal Great Bear Rainforest containing the largest expanses of old growth temperate rainforest found in the world.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: British Columbia's Rocky Mountains, Cariboo Mountains, Rocky Mountain Trench (east of Prince George) and the Columbia Mountains of Southeastern British Columbia (west of the Canadian Rocky Mountains that extend into parts of Idaho and Northwestern Montana in the US), which include the Selkirk Mountains, Monashee Mountains, and the Purcell Mountains, have the largest stretch of interior temperate coniferous rain forests. These inland rainforests have more continental climate with a large proportion of the precipitation falling as snow. Being closer to the Rocky Mountains, there is more of a diverse mammalian fauna. Some of the best interior rain forests are found in Mount Revelstoke National Park and Glacier National Park (Canada) in the Columbia Mountains.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: Temperate rain forests are located in the southern Appalachian Mountains where orographic precipitation increases precipitation of weather systems coming from the west and from the Gulf of Mexico. Temperate rainforest extends through the Appalachian areas of western North Carolina, southeastern Kentucky, southwest Virginia, eastern Tennessee, northern South Carolina, and northern Georgia,


title: Temperate rainforest

text: Red spruce and Fraser fir are dominant canopy trees in high mountain areas. In higher elevation (over 1,980 metres (6,500 ft)), Fraser fir is dominant, in middle elevation (1,675 to 1,890 metres (5,495 to 6,201 ft)) red spruce and Fraser fir grow together, and in lower elevation (1,370 to 1,650 metres (4,490 to 5,410 ft)) red spruce is dominant. Yellow birch, mountain ash, and mountain maple grow in the understory. Younger spruce and fir and shrubs like raspberry, blackberry, hobblebush, southern mountain cranberries, red elderberry, minniebush, southern bush honeysuckle are understory vegetation. Below the spruce-fir forest, at around 1,200 metres (3,900 ft), are forests of American beech, yellow birch, maple birch, and oak.[9] Skunk cabbage and ground juniper are northern species that were pushed into the areas from the north.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: The mild and wet environment supports the high diversity of fungi. Over 2,000 species live in this area and scientists estimate many unidentified fungi may be there.[10]


title: Temperate rainforest

text: The temperate rain forests of South America are located on the Pacific coast of southern Chile, on the west-facing slopes of the southern Chilean coast range, and the Andes Mountains in both Chile and Western Argentina down to the southern tip of South America, and are part of the Neotropical realm. Temperate rain forests occur in the Valdivian temperate rain forests and Magellanic subpolar forests ecoregions. The Valdivian rainforests are home to a variety of broadleaf evergreen trees, like "Aextoxicon punctatum", "Eucryphia cordifolia", and southern beech ("Nothofagus"), but include many conifers as well, notably Alerce ("Fitzroya cupressoides"), one of the largest tree species of the world.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: The Valdivian and Magellanic temperate rainforests are the only temperate rain forests in South America. Together they are the second largest in the world, after the Pacific temperate rain forests of North America. The Valdivian forests are a refuge for the Antarctic flora, and share many plant families and genera with the temperate rainforests of New Zealand, Tasmania, and Australia. Fully half the species of woody plants are endemic to this ecoregion.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: In the Valdivian region the Andean Cordillera intercepts moist westerly winds along the Pacific coast during winter and summer months; these winds cool as they ascend the mountains, creating heavy rainfall on the mountains' west-facing slopes. The northward-flowing oceanic Humboldt Current creates humid and foggy conditions near the coast. The tree line is at about 2,400 m in the northern part of the ecoregion (35°S), and descends to 1,000 m in the south of the Valdivian region. In the summer the temperature can climb to , while during winter the temperature can drop below .


title: Temperate rainforest

text: The temperate rainforests of South Africa are part of the Knysna-Amatole forests that are located along South Africa's Garden Route between Cape Town and Port Elizabeth on the south-facing slopes of South Africa's Drakensberg Mountains facing the Indian Ocean. There are several coniferous podocarps that grow here. This forest receives a lot of moisture as fog from the Indian Ocean, and resembles not only other temperate rain forests worldwide, but also the montane evergreen Afromontane forests that occur at higher elevations in southern and eastern Africa. A fine example of this forest is in South Africa's Tsitsikamma National Park.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: Temperate rainforest occurs in fragments across the north and west of Europe in countries such as southern Norway (see Scandinavian coastal conifer forests) and northern Spain. Other temperate rainforest regions include areas of south eastern Europe such as mountains on the east coast of the Adriatic Sea, surrounding North Western Bulgaria along with the Black Sea.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: The woodlands are variously referred to in Britain as Upland Oakwoods, Atlantic Oakwoods, Western Oakwoods or Temperate Rainforest, Caledonian forest, and colloquially as 'Celtic Rainforests'. They are also listed in the British National Vegetation Classification as British NVC community W11 and British NVC community W17 depending on the ground flora. The majority of surviving fragments of Atlantic Oakwoods in Britain occur on steep-sided slopes above rivers and lakes which have avoided clearance and intensive grazing pressure. There are notable examples on the islands and shores of Loch Maree, Loch Sunart, Loch Lomond and one of the best preserved sites on the remote Taynish Peninsula in Argyll. There are also small areas on steep-sided riverine gorges in Snowdonia and Mid Wales, such as found at the Dolmelynllyn Estate in Gwynedd.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: In England, they occur in the Lake District (Borrowdale Woods) and steep sided riverine and estuarine valleys in Devon and Cornwall and the Microclimate disused slate & granite quarries in these counties. This includes the Fowey valley in Cornwall and the valley of the river Dart which flows off Dartmoor and has rainfall in excess of 2 metres per year.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: Derrycunnihy Wood, located in the Killarney National Park, is the best example of the ancient damp-climate oceanic forest that covered an estimated 80 percent of Ireland prior to the arrival of humans in 7,000 BCE.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: The Colchian rainforests are found around both the southeast and west corners of the Black Sea starting in Bulgaria all the way to Turkey and Georgia and are part of the Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests ecoregion, together with the drier Euxine forests further west. The Colchian rain forests are mixed, with deciduous black alder "(Alnus glutinosa)", hornbeam ("Carpinus betulus" and "C. orientalis"), Oriental beech ("Fagus orientalis"), and sweet chestnut "(Castanea sativa)" together with evergreen Nordmann fir ("Abies nordmanniana", the tallest tree in Europe at 78 m), Caucasian spruce ("Picea orientalis") and Scots pine ("Pinus sylvestris").


title: Temperate rainforest

text: The refugium is the largest throughout the Western Asian/ near Eastern region. The area has multiple representatives of disjunct relict groups of plants with the closest relatives in Eastern Asia, southern Europe, and even North America. Over 70 species of forest snails of the region are endemic. Some relict species of vertebrates are Caucasian parsley frog, Caucasian salamander, Robert's snow vole and Caucasian grouse; they are almost entirely endemic groups of animals such as lizards of genus "Darevskia". In general, species composition of this refugium is quite distinct and differs from that of the other Western Eurasian refugia.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: Genetic data suggest that the Colchis temperate rainforest, during the Ice Age, was fragmented into smaller parts; in particular, evolutionary lineages of the Caucasian Salamander from the central and south-western Colchis remained isolated from one another during the entire Ice Age.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: The is a natural park situated in Galicia, north-western Spain. is a Galician word for 'natural woodland', (old-growth forest) and the park is an example of a temperate rainforest in which oak ("Quercus robur" and "Quercus pyrenaica") is the climax vegetation. The protected area extends along the valley of the river Eume within the municipalities of , , , and . Some 500 people reside within the park. The monastery of Monastery of also lies within the park.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: The area was declared a natural park (a level of protection lower than national park) in 1997. It is one of six natural parks in Galicia. The European Union has recognised the park as a Site of Community Importance. There are a number of species of ferns. Invertebrate species include the Kerry slug and it is an important site for amphibians.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: The Vinatovača rainforest, alternatively spelled vintovača, is the only rainforest in Serbia. It has been left undisturbed for centuries due to strict conservation laws starting in the 17th century.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: Vinatovača is situated in the central Kučaj mountains in the Upper Resava region, at an altitude between and . It is isolated and hard to reach which helped its preservation. It is believed that trees have not been cut in Vinatovača since about 1650. Being under strict protection means not only that the trees that die of old age are not being cleared or removed, but even picking herbs or mushrooms is forbidden. It is considered as an example of what central and eastern Serbia's natural look is. Beech trees are up to tall and some specimens are estimated to be over 300 years old.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: The Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests ecoregion in northern Iran contains a jungle in the form of a rain forest which stretches from the east in the Khorasan province to the west in the Ardabil Province, covering the other provinces of Gilan, Mazandaran, and Golestan. The Elburz or Alborz mountain range is the highest mountain range in the Middle East which captures the moisture of the Caspian Sea to its north and forms subtropical and temperate rain forests in the northern part of Iran. The Iranians call this forest and region "Shomal" which means "north" in Persian. This forest was known for most of the history for being home to the now extinct Caspian Tiger.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: In southeast Azerbaijan, this ecoregion includes the Lankaran Lowland and the Talysh Mountains, the latter being evenly divided with Iran to the south. They are deciduous forests containing tree species such as black alder ("Alnus glutinosa" subsp. "barbata"), hornbeam ("Carpinus betulus" and "C. orientalis"), Caucasian wingnut ("Pterocarya fraxinifolia"), chestnut-leaved oak ("Quercus castaneifolia"), Caucasian oak ("Quercus macranthera"), oriental beech ("Fagus orientalis"), Persian ironwood ("Parrotia persica") and Persian silk tree ("Albizia julibrissin").


title: Temperate rainforest

text: These forests are found in eastern Taiwan and Taiwan's Central Mountain Ranges, part of the Taiwan subtropical evergreen forest region covering the higher elevations. Most of the lower elevations are covered by subtropical broadleaf evergreen forests, dominated by Chinese Cryptocarya ("Cryptocarya chinensis"), "Castanopsis hystrix" and Japanese Blue Oak ("Quercus glauca"). Higher elevations give way to temperate forests with large stands of old growth Taiwan Cypress ("Chamaecyparis taiwanensis"), Camphor tree ("Cinnamomum camphora"), maple ("Acer" spp.), Chinese yew ("Taxus chinensis"), Taiwan Hemlock ("Tsuga chinensis"), and Taiwan Douglas-fir ("Pseudotsuga sinensis var. wilsoniana"). These higher elevation forests include also giant conifers Formosan Cypress ("Chamaecyparis formosensis") and Taiwania ("Taiwania cryptomerioides") Some fine examples of forests are found in Yushan (Jade Mountain) National Park and Alishan.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: The forests that cover the mountains and valleys of the Baekdu Mountain Range – from Mt. Baekdu, in the north, to Mt. Jiri, in the southwest, forming the spine of the Korean Peninsula – and the southern coast and islands of the peninsula – including Jeju Island – feature a wide variety of conifers and broadleaf trees. Much of these forests are protected in mountain and marine national forests, such as in Hallyeohaesang National Park, which encompasses of mountainous forests spread out over 69 uninhabited islands and 30 inhabited islands in Korea's South Sea that provide a home to 1,142 plant species, including major species such as red pine, black pine, common camellia, serrata oak, and cork oak, as well as rare species such as nadopungnan (sedirea japonica), daeheongnan (cymbidium nipponicum) and the Korean winter hazel. Major animals species, such as otters, small-eared cats, and badgers also call Hallyeohaesang National Park home, and overall there are 25 mammal species, 115 bird species, 16 reptile species, 1,566 insect species, and 24 freshwater fish species found among the forested, mountains islands.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: Seoraksan National Park covers of mountainous forests near the eastern coast of the Korean Peninsula, and is a UNESCO designated Biosphere Preservation District. Over 2,000 animal species live in Seoraksan, including the Korean goral, musk deer, and there are also more than 1,400 rare plant species, such as the edelweiss.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: Southwestern Japan's Taiheiyo evergreen forests region covers much of Shikoku and Kyūshū Islands, and the Southern/Pacific Ocean-facing side of Honshu ("Taiheiyo" is the Pacific Ocean, in Japanese). Here the natural forests are mainly broadleaf evergreen in lower elevations and deciduous in higher elevations. The "Hydrangea hirta" species is an endemic deciduous species that can be found in this area. The limit occurs at 500–1000 metres depending on latitude. The main tree species are members of beech family (Fagaceae). In lower altitudes these include evergreen oaks ("Quercus" spp.), Japanese Chinquapin ("Castanopsis cuspidata") and Japanese Stone Oak ("Lithocarpus edulis"), and in higher altitudes Japanese Blue Beech ("Fagus japonica") and Siebold's beech ("Fagus crenata").


title: Temperate rainforest

text: Some of the best preserved examples of forest are found in Kirishima-Yaku National Park on the Island of Yakushima off of Kyūshū in a very wet climate (the annual rainfall is 4,000 to 10,000 mm depending on altitude). Because of relatively infertile soils on granite, Yakushima's forests in higher elevations are dominated by a giant conifer species, Japanese Cedar ("Cryptomeria japonica"), rather than deciduous forests typical of the mainland. Other areas include Mount Kirishima near Kagoshima in southern Kyūshū. On Southern Honshū, there is a forest with the Nachi Falls located in Yoshino-Kumano National Park. This particular area of Honshū has been described as one of the rainiest spots in Japan.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: It is a temperate broadleaf forest ecoregion found in the middle elevations of the eastern Himalayas, including parts of Nepal, India, and Bhutan.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: In Australia rainforests occur near the mainland east coast and in Tasmania. There are warm-temperate and cool-temperate rainforests. They are broadleaf evergreen forests with the exception of montane rainforests of Tasmania. Eucalypt forests are not classified as rainforests although some eucalypt forest types receive high annual rainfall (to over 2000 mm in Tasmania), and in the absence of fire they may develop to rainforest. If these widespread wet sclerophyll forests were considered rainforests, the total area of rainforest in Australia would be much larger.


title: Temperate rainforest

text: Warm-temperate rainforest replaces subtropical rainforest on poorer soils or with increasing altitude and latitude in New South Wales and Victoria. Cool-temperate rainforests are widespread in Tasmania (Tasmanian temperate rain forests ecoregion) and they can be found scattered from the World Heritage listed Border Ranges National Park and Lamington National Park on the NSW/Queensland border to Otway Ranges, Strzelecki Ranges, Dandenong Ranges and Tarra Bulga in Victoria. In the northern NSW they are usually dominated by Antarctic Beech ("Nothofagus moorei"), in the southern NSW by Pinkwood ("Eucryphia moorei") and Coachwood ("Ceratopetalum apetalum") and in Victoria and Tasmania by Myrtle Beech ("Nothofagus cunninghamii"), Southern Sassafras ("Atherosperma moschatum") and Mountain Ash ("Eucalyptus regnans"). The montane rainforests of Tasmania are dominated by Tasmanian endemic conifers (mainly "Athrotaxis" spp.). They are dominated by Ferns such as "Cyathea cooperi", "Cyathea australis", "Dicksonia antarctica", "Cyathea cunninghamii" and "Cyathea leichhardtiana".


title: Temperate rainforest

text: The temperate rainforests of New Zealand occur on the western shore of the South Island and on the North Island. The forests are made up of coniferous podocarps and broadleaf evergreen trees. The podocarps are abundant at lower elevations, while southern beech ("Nothofagus") can be found on higher slopes and in the cooler southernmost rainforests. Ecoregions include the Fiordland temperate forests and Westland temperate rainforests.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: The M18 Hellcat (officially designated the 76 mm Gun Motor Carriage M18 or M18 GMC) is a tank destroyer that was used by the United States Army in World War II and the Korean War. A top speed of up to was attained by keeping armor to a minimum, using the innovative Torqmatic automatic transmission, and by equipping the relatively light vehicle with the same main gun used on some variants of the much larger Sherman tank.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: The M18 Hellcat was the culmination of the development of various prototypes of fast tank destroyers dating back to 1941. Entering production in summer 1943, the M18 first saw combat service in spring 1944. The M18 served primarily in Western Europe, but was also present in smaller numbers in Italy and the Pacific. Production continued until October 1944, with 2,507 built.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: The Hellcat was the most effective U.S. tank destroyer of World War II. It had a higher kill to loss ratio than any other tank or tank destroyer fielded by U.S. forces in World War II. Kills claimed were 526 in total: 498 in Europe, 17 in Italy, and 11 in the Pacific. The kills-to-losses ratio for Europe was 2.3 to 1, and the overall kill to loss ratio was 2.4 to 1. M18s were "...not primarily used for tank fighting, but were committed more often to improvised roles, usually direct fire support for infantry." Although the M18 was retired from U.S. service immediately after the end of World War II, a variant, the M39 Armored Utility Vehicle, served in the Korean War, and M18s continued in service with some countries until the 1990s.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: The M18 Hellcat was an example of the balancing act between firepower, armor, and mobility in armored fighting vehicle design. Despite its excellent mobility and reasonably powerful main gun, the M18 Hellcat also had drawbacks, including thin armor and a poor high explosive shell for its main gun. Historian Steven J. Zaloga characterized the overall design of the M18 as "poorly balanced" and stated that "the Hellcat's combat record is attributable to the training and dedication of its crews, not to its ill-conceived design."


title: M18 Hellcat

text: When the Tank Destroyer Force was organized in 1941, their commander, Lieutenant Colonel (later General) Andrew Davis Bruce envisioned the units being equipped with something faster than a tank, with a better gun but less armor to allow for speed; a cruiser rather than a battleship. He objected to the 3 inch M10 Gun Motor Carriage because it was too heavy and slow for his needs, and later on to the 90 mm M36 Gun Motor Carriage because it was essentially an M10 with a bigger gun. The United States Ordnance Department made several failed attempts to provide said vehicle using the weapons (the 37 mm, 57 mm, 3 inch, 75 mm and finally the lightweight 76 mm of 1942–1943) and technology available, including mounting the 3-inch gun on the fast M3 Light Tank chassis. The M18 was the end product of a long line of research vehicles aimed at providing the desired machine.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: In December 1941, the Ordnance Department issued a requirement for the design of a fast tank destroyer using a Christie suspension, a Wright-Continental R-975 radial aircraft engine, and a 37 mm gun on the chassis of the Light Airborne Tank T9 as the 37 mm Gun Motor Carriage T42. In April 1942, the Army requested that the 37 mm gun be replaced with a 57 mm and a coil spring suspension be substituted for the Christie suspension as the 57 mm Gun Motor Carriage T49, and authorized the construction of two pilot models. The Tank Destroyer Force, meanwhile, concluded that the same 75 mm gun M3 as used on the M4 Sherman medium tank would be better for a tank destroyer. The second pilot T49 was built with the 75 mm gun in an open-topped turret as the 75 mm Gun Motor Carriage T67 and was delivered in November 1942. After testing, it was revealed that a more powerful engine was necessary, and the 76 mm gun M1A1 being developed for the M4 Sherman had also impressed the Tank Destroyer Force. The T67 project was closed in January 1943, and the Ordnance Department directed that six pilot models of the 76 mm Gun Motor Carriage T70 be built with torsion bar suspensions, more powerful engines, new turrets and minor changes to the hull front. What became the M18 originated in Harley Earl's design studio, part of the Buick Motor Division of General Motors. Previously, basic designs for other kinds of vehicles had mostly originated from within the Ordnance Department. Buick's engineers used a torsion bar suspension that provided a steady ride.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: The first pilot was delivered in April 1943, and all six were completed by July. Once developed, the Hellcat was tested in the same manner as passenger cars before and after it, at the General Motors Milford Proving Ground. Although the Hellcat was "relatively mature" when it came to automotive performance, problems had to be rectified that included issues with the engine and new automatic transmission, weak front shock absorbers, and the position of the gun to provide more working space for the gunner.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: Top speed testing was done on a paved, banked oval and ride quality tests were done over specially developed stretches of bumps. The M18 also required tests of its ability to ford six feet of water, climb small walls, and ram through structures. Though it weighed about 20 tons, the Hellcat was capable of traveling at . Its power came from Wright R-975, a nine-cylinder, radial aircraft engine, the same as that used on the M4 Sherman tank, paired to a 900T Torqmatic automatic transmission.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: The first models of the tank destroyer were tested by the US Army's 704th Tank Destroyer Battalion. The unit had originally been trained on the M3 Gun Motor Carriage (a 75 mm gun installed in the bed of an M3 half-track). Despite its T70 prototypes requiring several improvements, the 704th had a "superlative" testing record, and the unit was later issued production Hellcats after many of their suggestions were integrated into the vehicle. The testing phase of the Hellcat proved that teamwork was an essential element of the new light tank destroyer units, and replaced the fixed, rigid structure of other units with a much more flexible command structure that allowed adapting to more complicated tasks.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: The M18's new design incorporated several innovative labor-saving maintenance features. Drivetrain maintenance was performed by removing a large access plate on the front of the hull, disconnecting the drivetrain from the driveshaft, attaching extension rails to the drivetrain mounting, and sliding the entire assembly out of the hull on the rails. For access to the bottom of the engine without having to remove it completely from the hull, it was possible to slide the engine out onto a rail system integrated with the rear hull access door.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: The 900T Torqmatic transmission had three forward gears, with ranges of up to 16 mph, 12 to 34 mph, and 30 to 60 mph (corresponding to cruising speeds of 12 mph, 25 mph, and 45 mph, respectively), and one reverse gear with a cruising speed of . The engine speed was governed such that the vehicle normally could not exceed in third gear. The M18 carried a five-man crew, consisting of a commander, gunner, loader, driver, and assistant driver. The driver and assistant driver were seated in the front left and right of the hull, respectively. Uniquely, the driver and assistant driver were provided with identical sets of controls and either could be used to operate the vehicle, but only the driver's set of steering levers could be used as parking brakes. The commander, gunner, and loader were positioned in the turret; the commander at the left rear, the gunner at the left front, and the loader on the right. The commander, gunner, and loader were all provided with seats, and the commander could stand on his seat to operate the .50 caliber M2 Browning machine gun on a flexible ring mount on the left rear of the turret. An SCR-610 radio was placed in the rear of the turret. An escape hatch was provided in the hull floor directly underneath the turret.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: In contrast to the M10 and M36 tank destroyers, which used the heavy chassis of the M4 Sherman, the M18 Hellcat was designed from the start to be a fast tank destroyer. As a result, it was smaller, lighter, more comfortable, and significantly faster, while carrying the same gun as the Sherman 76 mm models. The turret could rotate through 360 degrees in 24 seconds using an electro-hydraulic traverse mechanism, and the 76 mm gun could depress 10 degrees, and elevate 20 degrees. The maximum firing rate was 20 rounds per minute. The breech block of the gun was tilted 45 degrees to the right to aid the gunner in manipulating and inserting ammunition in the confined space of the turret. 45 rounds of main gun ammunition were carried, 9 in the turret to the right of the gun, and 18 in each sponson. A .50 caliber M2 Browning machine gun with 800 rounds of ammunition was mounted on the left rear of the turret in a flexible ring mount. Each crew member was provided with an M1 carbine with 90 rounds for self-defense, and six Mk 2 grenades, six M50 white phosphorus smoke grenades, and six smoke pots were also carried in the vehicle.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: One disadvantage of the M18 was the inconsistent performance of its 76 mm gun against the thick and steeply sloped frontal armor of later German designs such as the Tiger and Panther. The problem of the main gun performance was somewhat remedied with High Velocity Armor Piercing (HVAP) ammunition beginning in fall 1944, which allowed the 76 mm gun to achieve greater armor penetration, but this was never available in quantity. The 76 mm gun with standard ammunition could penetrate the frontal turret armor of Panther tanks only at very close ranges, whereas the HVAP ammunition gave it a possibility of effectively engaging some of the heavier German tanks and theoretically penetrating the front of the Panther turret at ranges of about .


title: M18 Hellcat

text: The armor of the M18 Hellcat was quite light to facilitate its high speed, and only provided protection from small arms fire. The lower hull armor was thick all around, vertical on the sides, but sloped at 35 degrees from the vertical at the lower rear and angled twice at the lower front to form a nearly rounded shape; 53 degrees from the vertical and then 24 degrees from the vertical. The hull floor was only thick.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: The upper front hull also had an angled construction to form the Hellcat's sloping glacis; two plates were angled at 38 and 64 degrees from the vertical, respectively. The upper hull armor was also thick, being angled at 23 degrees from the vertical on the sides and 13 degrees from the vertical at the rear. The hull roof was The cast turret of the Hellcat was thick on the front (at a 23 degree angle from the vertical) and thick on the sides (also at a 23 degree angle from the vertical) and rear (angled at 9 degrees from the vertical) The front of the turret was further protected by a rounded cast gun mantlet which was thick.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: Another disadvantage of the M18 was its very light armor protection and open-topped turret. In testing of the T70 for possible use as a light tank, 9 out of 30 armor-piercing .30 caliber bullets penetrated the side of the turret at a range of . The open-topped turret—a characteristic which it shared with all American tank destroyers—left the crew exposed to snipers, grenades, and shell fragments, however it gave the crew excellent visibility, which was of importance in the killing of tanks, the intent of tank destroyers being primarily ambush weapons. The doctrinal priority of high speed at the cost of armor protection thus led to a relatively unbalanced design.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: While the M18 was capable of high road speeds, this attribute was difficult to use successfully in combat.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: Although sustained travel at high speeds was hardly ever used outside of the Allied response during the Battle of the Bulge, most Hellcat crews found the higher speeds especially useful in a sprint to flank German tanks, which had relatively slow turret traverse speeds, and such maneuvering allowed the tank destroyer crew to direct a shot into the enemy's thinner side or rear armor. The open top proved an advantage in terms of allowing the TD crews significantly better visibility than their opponents, many of which were German tank destroyers that did not have revolving turrets and were handicapped by poor lateral visibility.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: In general, Hellcat crews were complimentary of their vehicle's performance and capabilities but did complain that the open top created a cold interior in the Northern European winter of 1944–45. This problem was exacerbated because the air-cooled engine pulled some of its cooling air through the crew compartment, creating, in effect, a large armor-plated refrigerator; it proved impossible to seal off the crew compartment entirely from engine-induced drafts.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: Original plans called for a total of 8,986 M18s to be supplied: 1,600 for Lend-Lease to other countries and 7,386 for the U.S. Army. The production plans of the M18 were curtailed to 2,507 vehicles, including the six pilot models. The reasons behind the reduction (in no particular order) were:


title: M18 Hellcat

text: Production of M18 Hellcats ran from July 1943 until October 1944, with 2,507 built. In March 1944, the T70 was standardized by the Ordnance Department as the 76 mm Gun Motor Carriage M18. There were three production contracts for the Hellcat: RAD-563 covered the six pilot models. T-6641 was for the first 1,000 vehicles, and T-9167 was for the final 1,507 vehicles.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: The M18 experienced various changes throughout its production, both to refine the design from a mechanical standpoint and incorporate features that would enhance its combat effectiveness.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: M18s with serial numbers 1–1000 and 1007–1096 (registration numbers 40108110–40109109 and 40144883–40144972) experienced problems with their transmission gear ratios. The same action that standardized the M18 directed that vehicles below serial number 685 be returned to the Buick factory for modification, and vehicles with serial numbers 685 through 1096 be modified before overseas shipment. The rest of the M18s built featured an improved transmission. 640 of the vehicles returned to Buick were eventually converted to M39 Armored Utility Vehicles, and ten into T41E1 command and reconnaissance vehicles (see ).


title: M18 Hellcat

text: Hellcats with serial numbers 1350 and below (registration numbers 40108110–40109109 and 40144883–40145226) had the naturally-aspirated R975-C1 engine, which produced 350 horsepower. The rectangular ventilation grate for the transmission and differential oil coolers located behind the driver's hatch initially had an angled cylinder-like shape, protruding above the line of the upper hull. Beginning in March 1944, M18s with serial numbers 1351 and above (registration numbers 40145227–40146389) had the internally-modified supercharged R975-C4 engine, which produced 400 horsepower; at roughly the same time as the change in engine type, the shape of the ventilation grate was changed to be flush with the upper hull.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: The model of 76 mm gun fitted to most Hellcats kicked up large amounts of dust when fired. This was enough to impede the vision of the crew, who had to wait until the muzzle blast cleared to fire accurately again. To solve this problem, a muzzle brake that directed the blast to the sides was standardized in February 1944, but a sufficient number were not produced to allow them to be incorporated onto production lines until the summer. In the interim, M18s produced in the spring of 1944 received the M1A1C gun, which was threaded to accept a muzzle brake, but was not so equipped; in October 1944, a maintenance work order was issued by the Ordnance Department to retrofit M1A1C guns with muzzle brakes, but "in the event, few...appear to have been retrofitted with the muzzle brake during the war." Beginning in June 1944, roughly the last 700 Hellcats received the M1A2 gun equipped with a muzzle brake, which also incorporated a faster rifling twist.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: M18s prior to serial number 1701 (registration number 40155577) did not have any winterization equipment installed at the factory. Beginning with M18 serial number 1701, an engine oil dilution valve and provisions for a battery-powered heating unit that drew fuel from the left fuel tank in order to produce hot air for heating the back of the engine, transmission and differential and their oil coolers, the vehicle battery, and the auxiliary generator in extreme cold conditions was installed. The network of hot air tubes was installed in the factory, but the heater power (blower) and burner units, their fuel pipe and connecting air tube, and the air intake shutter to close off the engine compartment were to be installed when necessary in the field.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: Beginning with M18 serial number 1858 (registration number 40145734), the original gun travel lock on the turret roof which had a swinging arm held by a fastening pin was replaced by one that had a rotating ball stud with a retaining clamp operated by a handle. In October 1944, heavier shock absorbers were introduced. Later vehicles also featured an M20 azimuth indicator next to the gunner's controls, allowing for easier performance of indirect fire missions. On late production vehicles, the towing pintle mounting was redesigned to allow it to swivel when towing a trailer over uneven ground.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: In July 1943, the AGF directed the Armored Board to consider the T70 for use as a light tank by comparing it with the existing requirements for a light tank. In January 1944, the proposal was rejected because it was felt that the T70 had insufficient armor and secondary armament.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: Five T70 prototypes were sent to Italy in the spring of 1944 for testing and saw combat during the breakout from the Anzio beachhead with the 601st (two) and 894th Tank Destroyer Battalions (three). The 894th employed them in the battalion's Reconnaissance Company because of their high speed. In addition to the vehicle's speed, battalion members were also impressed with the power of the 76 mm gun, but were less complimentary of the T70's thin armor and small internal volume, which they felt affected crew confidence in battle, and made living inside the vehicle and handling main gun ammunition awkward, respectively. The 805th Tank Destroyer Battalion, originally a towed gun unit, re-equipped with the M18 during the summer of 1944; it was the only battalion in the Italian campaign to be fully equipped with the M18.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: In January 1944, General Omar Bradley, commander of the First U.S. Army, refused the new M18s when he was first offered them; his older tank destroyer battalions in England had been equipped with the M10 tank destroyer for some time, and he was more interested in the development of the M36 tank destroyer than he was in the M18. As a result, the three M18 battalions initially shipped to England (the 603rd, 704th, and 705th) were assigned to General George S. Patton's Third U.S. Army.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: On 19 September 1944, near Arracourt, France, across the Moselle from Nancy, the 704th Tank Destroyer Battalion was attached to the 4th Armored Division. Lieutenant Edwin Leiper led an M18 platoon of Company C to Réchicourt-la-Petite, on the way to Moncourt. He saw a German tank gun muzzle appearing out of the fog 30 feet away, and deployed his platoon. In a five-minute period, five German tanks of the 113th Panzer Brigade were knocked out for the loss of one M18. The platoon continued to fire and destroyed ten more German tanks while losing another two M18s. One of the platoon's M18s commanded by Sgt. Henry R. Hartman knocked out six of the German tanks, most of which were the much-feared Panther. By the time the Battle of Arracourt ended three days later, the 704th Tank Destroyer Battalion had knocked out 39 German tanks, for the loss of four M18s destroyed and three more damaged.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: The M18 Hellcat was a key element during the Battle of the Bulge. On December 19–20, Team Desobry, a battalion-sized tank-infantry task force of the 10th Armored Division was assigned to defend Noville located north-northeast of both Foy and of Bastogne, just away. With just four M18 tank destroyers of the 705th Tank Destroyer Battalion to assist, the paratroopers of 1st Battalion of the 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment attacked units of the 2nd Panzer Division, whose mission was to proceed by secondary roads via Monaville (just northwest of Bastogne) to seize a key highway and capture, among other objectives, fuel dumps—for the lack of which the overall German counter-offensive faltered and failed. Worried about the threat to their left flank in Bastogne, the Americans organized a major joint arms attack to seize Noville. Team Desobry's high-speed highway journey to reach the blocking position is one of the few documented cases in which the top speed of the M18 Hellcat, , was actually used to get ahead of an enemy force.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: The attack of 1st Battalion and the M18 Hellcat tank destroyers of the 705th TD Battalion near Noville together destroyed at least 30 German tanks and inflicted 500 to 1,000 casualties on the attacking forces, in what amounted to a spoiling attack. A Military Channel historian credited the M18 tank destroyers with 24 kills, including several Tiger tanks, and believes that in part, their ability to "shoot and scoot" at high speed and then reappear elsewhere on the battlefield, confused and slowed the German attack, which finally stalled, leaving the Americans in control of the town overnight.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: After the Battle of the Bulge, since numbers of the M36 tank destroyer were slow in arriving to the European Theater and towed tank destroyer battalions equipped with the 3-inch Gun M5 had uniformly performed very poorly in the battle when compared to self-propelled units, it was decided to re-equip many of them with the "surplus" of M18s that were then in the theater, with the new M36s mostly re-equipping former M10 units.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: M18 strength in the European Theatre of Operations varied from 146 in June 1944 to a high of 540 in March 1945. Losses totaled 216.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: The M18 was generally well-received by its crews. They gave high praise to its mobility when compared to the heavier M10, such as speed and flotation in mud and snow. The speed of the turret traverse was also far faster when compared to the M10, which had a manually-rotated turret. Ease of maintenance of the engine and transmission was also noted. One M18 commander said that his vehicle "operating under combat conditions and averaging a day during the Third Army drive from St. Lô to the German border near Strasbourg...was driven . No repairs were necessary either to the vehicle or engine; only minimal attention was paid to moving parts...M18 engine performance was excellent under the most trying conditions and was highly thought of by all men in my and other M18 tank destroyer outfits."


title: M18 Hellcat

text: Conversely, the main gun was considered inadequate against the frontal armor of later German tanks like the Tiger and Panther, especially before the introduction of HVAP ammunition. In addition, even though it could pierce more armor than the 75 mm gun M3 mounted on the M4 Sherman tank, it did not have the high explosive firepower of the former when used for infantry support missions. Muzzle blast from 76 mm guns not equipped with muzzle brakes was also a complaint. There was also a desire for an armored roof over the turret, and it was concluded that additional armor up to one ton in weight would not impair the automotive performance of the M18.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: Many battalions considered the assistant driver redundant, and removed him, or stated that the vehicle should be equipped with a bow machine gun. Many crews also added additional machine guns to the turret roofs of their M18s.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: M18s served in tank destroyer battalions and other units supporting US Army infantry divisions in the latter stages of the Pacific war, notably in the Philippines and Okinawa. Tank destroyer battalions equipped with the M18 that served in the Pacific Theater of Operations included the 637th, 670th, and 671st, although only the 637th saw combat, most notably participating in the Battle of Manila where it earned a Distinguished Unit Citation. During the Battle of Okinawa, General Andrew Bruce, who was by then the commander of the 77th Infantry Division, located eight M18s to re-equip the Antitank Company of the 306th Infantry Regiment. M18s were not issued to U.S. Marine Corps units.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: The M39 Armored Utility Vehicle, which was converted from the M18, was used as a prime mover, infantry carrier, and ammunition carrier.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: After World War II, many M18s were sold to other countries. Many intended for European countries under the Mutual Defense Assistance Act were rebuilt and refurbished by Brown & Root in northern Italy in the late 1940s and early 1950s, and bear data plates that indicate those rebuilds. One of the users was Yugoslavia, which received 260 Hellcats during the Informbiro period and kept some of them in reserve until the early 1990s. A number of these vehicles were later used by the Military of Serbian Krajina and Army of Republika Srpska during the Yugoslav Wars. One example was used on an armored train named the "Krajina express" ("Krajina Ekspres").


title: M18 Hellcat

text: The Military of the Republic of China received 214 M18s, and operated them until their chassis and hulls were worn out, at which point the turrets were salvaged and installed onto surplus hulls of M42 Duster anti-aircraft vehicles to produce Type 64 light tanks.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: The Greek Army received 127 M18s from 1952–1954. Initially, these were organized in three Tank Destroyer Regiments numbered 397, 398 and 399. In 1959 the Tank Destroyer Regiments were reorganized in three Tank Destroyer Battalions with the same numbers. Most of the M18s were retired by the end of the 1960s, but a few remained in service until the mid-1970s for training. The hulls of the M18s were dismantled and the turrets were used as gun emplacements on the northern borders of Greece and the Aegean islands. One M18 is preserved in the Greek Army Tank Museum.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: The Venezuelan military operated M18s beginning in 1954, when they purchased 40. They were refurbished in 1983–1984, and at least one was heavily modernized by a Yugoslavian firm in the 1990s, but it is unclear if more conversions took place.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: M18 Hellcat "Amaz N Grace" is on loan to the Museum of American Armor in Old Bethpage, New York, from the US Military Museum. An M18 is on display at the Army Heritage and Education Center in Carlisle, Pennsylvania.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: The only M18 variant produced in significant numbers was the Armored Utility Vehicle M39, a turretless variation used as a gun tractor or command and reconnaissance vehicle. In March 1944, the Ordnance Department authorized the construction of two prototypes; the T41 was a prime mover for the 3-inch Gun M5, while the T41E1 was a command and reconnaissance vehicle that could also be easily converted into a prime mover. The T41E1 configuration was found superior and development of the T41 version was cancelled, although subsequently, the prime mover version of the T41E1 was referred to as the T41, and the command and reconnaissance vehicle as its original designation of T41E1.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: 640 of the early production M18s that had been returned to the Buick factory for modification were converted into the T41 prime mover configuration between October 1944 and March 1945 by removing the turret and fitting seats for up to eight men in the open fighting space. This version was armed with a single M2 machine gun on a flexible mount. In November 1944, it was standardized as the M39. At the request of the European Theater in early 1945, ten more of the Hellcats were modified into the T41E1 configuration for testing, although they were never standardized. M39s saw combat during the last days of World War II in Europe and during the Korean War, primarily as armored personnel and munitions carriers and were finally declared obsolete on February 14, 1957. About 100 M39s were transferred to the West German Bundeswehr in 1956, where they were used to train the reestablished "Panzergrenadier" armored infantry units.


title: M18 Hellcat

text: A number of other variants were proposed, including a mobile command post, howitzer carrier, and flamethrower carrier. Known variants include:


title: Feeding the multitude

text: In Christianity, the feeding the multitude is two separate miracles of Jesus reported in the Gospels.


title: Feeding the multitude

text: The first miracle, the "Feeding of the 5,000", is the only miracle—aside from the resurrection—recorded in all four gospels (Matthew 14:13–21; Mark 6:31–44; Luke 9:12–17; John 6:1–14).


title: Feeding the multitude

text: The second miracle, the "Feeding of the 4,000", with 7 loaves of bread and a few small fish, is reported by Matthew 15:32–39 and Mark 8:1–9, but not by Luke or John.


title: Feeding the multitude

text: The Feeding of the 5,000 is also known as the "miracle of the five loaves and two fish"; the Gospel of John reports that Jesus used five loaves and two fish supplied by a boy to feed a multitude. According to Matthew's gospel, when Jesus heard that John the Baptist had been killed, he withdrew by boat privately to a solitary place. Luke specifies that the place was near Bethsaida. The crowds followed Jesus on foot from the towns. When Jesus landed and saw a large crowd, he had compassion on them and healed their sick. As evening approached, the disciples came to him and said, "This is a remote place, it's already getting late. Send the crowds away, so they can go to the villages and buy themselves some food."


title: Feeding the multitude

text: Jesus said that they did not need to go away, and therefore the disciples were to give them something to eat. They said that they only had five loaves and two fish, which Jesus asked to be brought to him. Jesus directed the people to sit down in groups on the grass. In Mark's Gospel, the crowds sat in groups of 50 and 100, and in Luke's Gospel, Jesus' instructions were to seat the crowd in groups of 50, implying that there were 100 such groups.


title: Feeding the multitude

text: Taking the five loaves and the two fish and looking up to Heaven, he gave thanks and broke them. Then he gave them to the disciples, and the disciples gave them to the people. They all ate and were satisfied, and the disciples picked up twelve baskets full of broken pieces that were leftover. The number of those who ate was about five thousand men, beside women and children.


title: Feeding the multitude

text: In John's Gospel, the multitude has been attracted around Jesus because of the healing works he has performed, and the feeding of the multitude is taken as a further sign that Jesus is the Messiah.


title: Feeding the multitude

text: This story, which appears only in Mark and Matthew, is also known as the miracle of the seven loaves of bread and few little fishes, as the Gospel of Matthew refers to five loaves and a few small fish used by Jesus to feed a multitude. According to the Gospels, a large crowd had gathered and was following Jesus. Jesus called his disciples to him and said:


title: Feeding the multitude

text: "I have compassion for these people; they have already been with me three days and have nothing to eat. I do not want to send them away hungry, or they may collapse on the way."


title: Feeding the multitude

text: Jesus told the crowd to sit down on the ground. Then he took the seven loaves and the fish, and when he had given thanks, he broke them and gave them to the disciples, and they in turn give to the people. They all ate and were satisfied. Afterward, the disciples picked up seven basketfuls of broken pieces that were leftover. The number of those who ate was four thousand men, besides women and children. After Jesus had sent the crowd away, he got into the boat and went to the vicinity of Magadan (or Magdala).


title: Feeding the multitude

text: Heinrich August Wilhelm Meyer notes the differences between some of the details of the accounts as a means of emphasizing that there were two distinct miracles: for example, the baskets used for collecting the food that remained were twelve (hand baskets) in but seven (large baskets) in . Cornelius a Lapide stated that a or 'large basket' was double the size of a . An indication of the size of a is that the apostle Paul was let out of a building through a gap in the Damascus city wall in one in order to avert a plot to kill him ().


title: Feeding the multitude

text: Meyer also comments that in John's Gospel, the feeding of the multitude is taken as a further sign ( ) that Jesus is the Messiah, the prophet who (according to the promise in the Book of Deuteronomy () is to come into the world" ().


title: Feeding the multitude

text: Justus Knecht gives some moral lessons from this miracle stating, that it shows 1. The importance of saying "grace at meals," because before Jesus multiplied and distributed the bread, He "raised His eyes to heaven and prayed." 2. The importance of "not being wasteful" with food, because Jesus tells them, "Gather up the fragments, lest they be lost." 3. "The Goodness of Jesus," because he feeds those who seek Him, “Seek first the kingdom of God and His righteousness, and all these things (which are necessary for the life of the body) will be added unto you." 4. "The annual multiplication of food," since the multiplication of loaves shows how every year God increases the seed sown by farmers, i.e for every 10 grains of wheat sown in the ground, 300-400 grains are harvested. Lastly Knecht, like many commentators, draws parallels between this miracle and the Eucharist.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Ronald William George Barker (25 September 1929 – 3 October 2005) was an English actor, comedian and writer. He was known for roles in British comedy television series such as "Porridge", "The Two Ronnies", and "Open All Hours".


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker began acting in Oxford amateur dramatics whilst working as a bank clerk, having dropped out of higher education. He moved into repertory theatre with the Manchester Repertory Company at Aylesbury and decided he was best suited to comic roles. He had his first success at the Oxford Playhouse and in roles in the West End including Tom Stoppard's "The Real Inspector Hound". During this period, he was in the cast of BBC radio and television comedies such as "The Navy Lark". He got his television break with the satirical sketch series "The Frost Report" in 1966, where he met future collaborator, Ronnie Corbett. He joined David Frost's production company and starred in ITV shows.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: After rejoining the BBC, Barker achieved significant success with the sketch show "The Two Ronnies" (1971–87), with Ronnie Corbett. The duo maintained their careers as solo performers; Barker notably starred as inmate Norman Stanley Fletcher in the sitcom "Porridge" (1974–77) and its sequel "Going Straight" (1978) and as shopkeeper Arkwright in "Open All Hours" (1976–85). He wrote comedy under his own name, though for much of his written material after 1968 he adopted pseudonyms (including "Gerald Wiley") to avoid pre-judgments of his writing talent. He won a BAFTA for best light entertainment performance four times, among other awards, and received an OBE in 1978.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Later television sitcoms such as "The Magnificent Evans" and "Clarence" were less successful and he retired in December 1987. The following year, he opened an antiques shop with his wife, Joy. After 1999, he appeared in smaller, non-comic roles in films. He died of heart failure on 3 October 2005, aged 76.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker was born on 25 September 1929 at 70 Garfield Street, Bedford, Bedfordshire, the only son of Leonard William Barker (always known inexplicably as "Tim") and Edith Eleanor (née Carter; known as "Cis", by virtue of being the youngest sister amongst her siblings).


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker's elder sister Vera was born in 1926 and his younger sister Eileen was born in 1933. His father was a clerk for Shell-Mex, and this job saw the family move to Church Cowley Road in Cowley, Oxfordshire when Barker was four.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker's biographer Bob McCabe described Barker's childhood as "a happy time, marred by no ructions or family tensions, apart from the occasional wet sock." As a child, Barker enjoyed dressing up, particularly in his father's pierrot outfit, as well as films, comics and animals. He developed a love of the theatre, often attending plays with his family. The first play he saw was "Cottage to Let" and he once skipped school to see Laurence Olivier in "Henry V". He frequently stood outside stage doors to collect autographs, his first being the actress Celia Johnson.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker grew up in the Florence Park area of Oxford, and went to Donnington Junior School, and then the City of Oxford High School for Boys. His chemistry textbook at Oxford had previously been used by T. E. Lawrence. He found his talent for humour at school and developed his musical ability by singing in the choir at St James's, his local church. He got into the sixth form a year early after gaining the School Certificate but he felt what he was learning would be of no use to him in later life and so left as soon as he could.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: After leaving school he trained as an architect but gave it up after six months, feeling he was not skilled enough. Barker took his sister Vera's job as a bank clerk at the Westminster Bank after she had left to become a nurse. He harboured dreams of becoming an actor, and took up amateur dramatics, although initially he just saw the pastime as a chance to meet girls.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: For 18 months, while at the bank, he worked as an actor and stage manager, making his first appearance in "A Murder Has Been Arranged" as the musical director of the play-within-a-play. Eventually he gave up his job to become a professional actor. His father did not support his acting ambition.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker failed to get into the Young Vic School, but joined the Manchester Repertory Company, which was based in Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire, often taking comic roles in their weekly shows. Initially he was employed as the assistant to the assistant stage manager, earning £2.10s. 0d (£2.50) a week. He made his debut as a professional actor on 15 November 1948 as Lieutenant Spicer in a performance of J. M. Barrie's "Quality Street". He went on to play the organist in "When We Are Married" and by his third role, the chauffeur Charles in "Miranda", Barker realised he wanted to be a comic actor. He was described as "ha[ving] the talent to be a great straight actor", but noted: "I want to make people laugh. Never mind about "Hamlet". Forget "Richard the Second". Give me "Charley's Aunt". My mission in life was now crystal clear." He appeared in stage adaptations of "Treasure Island" and "Red Riding Hood" before getting his first leading role in "The Guinea Pig" as a working-class boy at a public school. When the production moved to Rhyl, Barker followed. The Manchester Repertory Company closed, as did the Rhyl company shortly after.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker, aged 20, then spent some time as a porter at Wingfield Hospital; he became distressed through his contact with polio patients and so opted to take on the persona of "Charlie" so as not to be himself. He and a male nurse often entertained the patients with comedy routines. He found work at the Mime Theatre Company, performing mimed folk music and dance, which soon folded in Penzance. He made his way back to Oxford and then worked in Bramhall for the Famous Players. There he met actor Glenn Melvyn; the two became firm friends and Barker stated Melvyn taught him everything he "ever learned about comedy."


title: Ronnie Barker

text: He joined the Oxford Playhouse in 1951 and worked there for three years, appearing in plays such as "He Who Gets Slapped" as Polly. Peter Hall worked with Barker at Oxford and gave him his break, casting him as the Chantyman and Joe Silva in his production of "Mourning Becomes Electra" at the Arts Theatre in London's West End in 1955. By the time he had made it to the West End, Barker had appeared in an estimated 350 plays.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker remained a West End actor for several years, appearing in numerous plays between 1955 and 1968. These included, in 1955, two performances each night as he played a gypsy in "Listen to the Wind" at the Arts Theatre and then a peasant in "Summertime" later in the evening. Other roles included Mr. Thwaites in "Double Image" in 1956 (with Olivier), "Camino Real" (directed by Hall) in 1957, French gangster Robertoles-Diams in "Irma La Douce" for two years from 1958, Lord Slingsby-Craddock in "Mr. Whatnot" in 1964 and Birdboot in "The Real Inspector Hound" in 1968. He also appeared in several Royal Court Theatre productions, including "A Midsummer Night's Dream" as Quince.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker's theatrical success enabled him to move into radio work. Barker, who had previously been known by his birth name "Ronald", was now referred to as the less formal form "Ronnie", after a director changed it in the credits, although he did not tell Barker. His first radio appearance was in 1956, playing Lord Russett in "Floggit's". He went on to play multiple characters, but primarily the put-upon Able Seaman 'Fatso' Johnson and Lieutenant-Commander Stanton in "The Navy Lark", a navy based sitcom on the BBC Light Programme, which ran from 1959 to 1977, with Barker featuring in some 300 episodes.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: He also featured in the show's radio spin-off "The TV Lark", in which his character, Fatso, was now a camera operator after the main characters were drummed out of the service, and as a trainee chef in "Crowther's Crowd" in 1963, and had roles on "Variety Playhouse". Barker soon began working in film and television. His first acting job on television was in Melvyn's show "I'm Not Bothered". He appeared in various roles in the comedy series "The Seven Faces of Jim" from 1962, alongside Jimmy Edwards and June Whitfield, as well as parts in "Bold as Brass" and "Foreign Affairs" (as Russian embassy worker Grischa Petrovitch). This was followed with dramatic parts in "A Tale of Two Cities" as Jerry Cruncher in 1965 as well as single episode roles in "The Saint" and "The Avengers", in which he played Cheshire, a cat lover.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: He had an uncredited role in the 1956 film "Hell Drivers". In 1964 he appeared in Galton & Simpson's gentle comedy, "The Bargee," as 'Ronnie', the illiterate cousin of Harry H Corbett's rascally 'Hemmel Pike'. He did his first bit of on-screen 'porridge' as fellow convict to Charlie Drake in "The Cracksman" (1963). Other film work at that time included: "Doctor in Distress" (1963), "Father Came Too!" (1963) and "A Home of Your Own" (1965).


title: Ronnie Barker

text: In 1966, Barker got his break with the satirical sketch series "The Frost Report", having been recommended for the show by producer James Gilbert. The show starred David Frost, John Cleese and Barker's future comedy partner Ronnie Corbett, whom he had met in 1963 when Corbett was the barman at the Buckstone Club near the Haymarket Theatre, and the two became friends.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Corbett stated in his autobiography that the two had gravitated towards each other because of their similar backgrounds; neither had attended university, while many of the other cast and writers on "The Frost Report" had. Each episode of the show, which was performed and broadcast live, was focused on a single topic and principally revolved around a continuous monologue from Frost, with sketches from Barker, Corbett and Cleese as the show went on. Barker starred alongside Cleese and Corbett in "The Frost Report"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s best known sketch, which satirised the British class system, with Barker representing the middle class.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: After the first series, the special "Frost Over England" was produced, winning the Golden Rose at the Montreux Television Festival. With a second series of the show announced, Frost, recognising their potential, signed both Barker and Corbett up to his production company David Paradine Productions. As part of the deal Barker was given his own show in 1968, "The Ronnie Barker Playhouse", which comprised six separate, thirty-minute plays. Barker starred in each piece as a different character.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: After two series of "The Frost Report" on the BBC, totalling 26 half-hour episodes, Frost moved to ITV after helping to set up London Weekend Television. There, Frost hosted "Frost on Sunday", with Barker and Corbett following and again performing sketches on the program. Barker began writing sketches for the programme under the pseudonym Gerald Wiley. Barker and Corbett had a greater role on the show than on "The Frost Report" and Corbett felt "more aware of what [they] were doing."


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker began using the pseudonym Gerald Wiley when writing sketches because he wished the pieces to be accepted on merit and not just because he, as a star of the programme, had written them; he continued this tradition with the material he wrote later in his career. Barker brought his sketches in, claiming they had come from Wiley through Barker's agent Peter Eade, and they were very well received. To maintain the deception, Barker had criticised material he himself had submitted under the pseudonym; when a Wiley-credited sketch about a ventriloquist had been poorly received by the audience Barker told Corbett "Well, Gerald Wiley let us down there", and on another occasion, when looking at a script, "I don't understand this line. What's he getting at?" One of the first sketches he wrote was called "Doctor's Waiting Room", with the main part written for Corbett. Barker encouraged Corbett to buy the rights to the sketch and, further maintaining the myth, told him to reject Wiley's 'request' for £3,000 as too expensive, before giving Corbett the sketch for free.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Speculation began about Wiley's identity, with Tom Stoppard, Frank Muir, Alan Bennett and Noël Coward all rumoured. After the second series of "Frost on Sunday", the cast and crew were invited to a Chinese restaurant, while Wiley said that he would reveal himself. Barker, who had told Corbett earlier in the day, stood up and announced he was Wiley, although initially nobody believed him.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: In 1969, Barker was able to write, produce and star as Sir Giles Futtock in the film "Futtock's End" which featured little dialogue and only "grumble[s] and grunt[s]". "The Ronnie Barker Playhouse" had been designed to find a successful idea for a sitcom, and the episode "Ah, There You Are" by Alun Owen, which introduced the bumbling aristocratic character Lord Rustless, was chosen. The character returned for the 1969–1970 series "Hark at Barker" as the main character; Barker wrote for the show under the name Jonathan Cobbald. As Wiley he wrote the 1971 series "Six Dates with Barker". Despite Barker's success on ITV, LWT's programme controller Stella Richman opted to fire Frost's company Paradine (Frost was sacked from the LWT board) and as Barker was contracted to the company rather than the network, he lost his job, as did Corbett.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Soon after, Barker, Corbett and Josephine Tewson performed a sketch about Henry VIII at the 1971 BAFTAs, with Barker playing Henry. The three also had to keep the audience entertained for eight or so minutes as the show was stopped because of technical difficulties. Their performance at the award show impressed the BBC's Head of Light Entertainment Bill Cotton and Controller of BBC1, Paul Fox, who were sitting in the audience. Not knowing they were both essentially unemployed, although still contracted to Paradine, Cotton signed the duo up for their own show together, and a series each on their own; he later joked he "must have offered them too much money." Barker and Corbett wished to avoid being remembered primarily as a duo, and felt they could not work in the same way as a conventional double act like Morecambe and Wise, and so each maintained their solo careers as well. They each were given a one-off variety special; Barker's, called "The Ronnie Barker Yearbook", featured a sketch for each month of the year although, because of time constraints, the first two had to be cut. Barker also reprised his character Lord Rustless in the sitcom "His Lordship Entertains" in 1972. Barker wrote all seven episodes, again with the pseudonym Jonathan Cobbald.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Their show together was "The Two Ronnies", a sketch show which aired for twelve series and eight specials between 1971 and 1987, to immediate success. The show, as described by Anthony Hayward of "The Independent", was "a cocktail of comedy sketches, playlets, songs and parodies, a long-winded Corbett monologue and a singing star, sandwiched between the opening and closing news summaries." The usual format consisted of many sketches between the two, an ongoing filmed serial, a solo character sketch from Barker, Corbett's monologue, a musical number, a special guest, bookended by joke news items, delivered from a desk by the two in the style of newsreaders, before ending with the catchphrase "It's good night from me – and it's good night from him."


title: Ronnie Barker

text: This was a set format which was used for almost the entirety of the show's run. The end catchphrase and newsreader characters were devised because Barker found it difficult to appear as himself: Corbett explained that Barker "was a very private man, a quiet man ... He found it almost impossible to talk directly, as himself, to an audience." Each also had their own solo segments to help ensure they were not totally associated as a double act. Filming took place over four months of each year. After outdoor and serial sketches were filmed on location, the studio material was filmed on Sunday evenings at BBC Television Centre in front of a live audience; the musical finalé was filmed the day before without the audience.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker wrote much of the show's material, roughly three-quarters, again under the name Gerald Wiley. He was heavily involved with the show's production, especially the serial. Corbett explained that Barker was a "perfectionist" and "as he wrote it Ronnie knew how he wanted every shot to look." After filming the show all day, he spent the evenings helping technician Jim Franklin to edit it. While filming on location Barker and Corbett would look through all of the potential material for the studio recording of the rest of the show's content and decide on the running order. He and Corbett always got on, with Barker noting "People refuse to believe that we don't have rows, tensions, private wars. It's a strange thing after so many years but we never have. Actually, it's even more amicable than a marriage – wedlock without the bad patches. Our sense of humour and perception of what's good and what's rubbish are uncommonly in tune." They took turns to play the parts which had the "good lines". One of the show's other writers, Barry Cryer, said: "You could write almost anything knowing these two would do it brilliantly. Because they weren't a double act; they were two men who worked together and had their own careers."


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker's material included the sketch which came to be known as "Four Candles", airing in 1976, although in the original script it was titled "Annie Finkhouse". It sees a customer (Barker) ask for a series of items in a hardware store. The sketch's humour derives from similarities in word pronunciation, leading to confusion on the part of the store owner (Corbett). These misunderstandings include the confusion between "four candles" and "fork handles". The idea for the sketch came from the owners of a hardware shop in Hayes, Hillingdon who wrote in to "The Two Ronnies" to describe some of the amusing events and misunderstandings in their store. Barker was never happy with the sketch's final line (a male assistant asking "What sort of billhooks did you want?") and changed it (to a female assistant asking "What sort of knockers were you looking for?") for the stage version of "The Two Ronnies", although he was still not totally satisfied with it. Nevertheless, the sketch is considered the show's most famous one and was voted as the show's best in a TV special, while also placing fifth on Channel 4's "50 Greatest Comedy Sketches". The original script, hand-written by Barker, was sold for £48,500 at auction in 2007 after having been featured in an episode of "Antiques Roadshow" the previous year.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: The show was considered a "national institution" with audiences of between 15 and 20 million regularly tuning in to its 93 episodes. Barker won the BAFTA for Best Light Entertainment Performance in 1971 and 1977 for the show. "The Two Ronnies" ended with the 1987 Christmas special. In 1978 the two performed a stage version of the show at the London Palladium; lasting for three months, it followed the same format as the show, with old sketches and some new material, supported by variety acts. Barker's unease with appearing as himself in the stage show led him to create a fictionalised version of himself to play instead. A second stage series took place in 1983. Barker was reportedly offended by a sketch called 'The Two Ninnies' on the BBC's "Not the Nine O'Clock News", which mocked their act as being based on dated innuendo-based humour.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: After a tip-off from Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais, Barker and Corbett opted to move with their families to Sydney, Australia in 1979 for the year to exploit a tax loophole and avoid paying the year's income tax. They performed their stage show for four weeks in Sydney and a further four in Melbourne; because of their existing popularity in Australia and what Corbett termed the Australian audiences' "[comedic] soul that still related to the UK," they made no changes to the routine. Barker made no other appearances that year and spent his time writing and engaging in recreational activities. Following the show's success, Kerry Packer commissioned a six episode TV series of "The Two Ronnies in Australia" for Nine Network. The show comprised material not yet shown in Australia from "The Two Ronnies" and new content targeted more towards an Australian audience. They returned for a second series in 1986.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker and Corbett also starred in the short, mostly silent, films "The Picnic" (1976) and "By the Sea" (1982). "By the Sea" was Barker's tribute to the seaside postcard humour of Donald McGill and his most "personal" work. The show was also widely syndicated in North America by PBS and CBC, and in 1980 they appeared in the short-lived NBC variety show "The Big Show"; the two were glad the show did not last as they objected to the use of canned laughter by the American networks.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Following the success of "The Two Ronnies", the BBC let Barker decide what he wanted to do. "The Two Ronnies" took up one third of a year to produce, allowing time for Barker and Corbett to do a solo project each. Barker opted to produce some sitcom pilots shown as part of 1973's "Seven of One". Two of these pilots, "Open All Hours" (written by Roy Clarke) and "Prisoner and Escort" (written by Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais) became series. "Prisoner and Escort" became "Porridge", airing from 1974 to 1977, with Barker starring as the cynical and cunning prisoner Norman Stanley Fletcher. "Porridge" was the first sitcom to take place in a prison; "The Times" said the show "was about what it took to survive in prison, the little day-to-day triumphs over the system that kept the prisoners sane."


title: Ronnie Barker

text: The opening sequence of the programme showed Fletcher being directed to his cell, as prison doors are locked behind him, all the while the judge can be heard pronouncing judgement and sentence. The judge's voice was performed by Barker. The show became a huge success, attracting 15 million viewers and earning what the BBC described as "a chorus of critical acclaim and public adoration for what remains one of the most classic British sitcoms ever produced." "The Times" called Fletcher his "finest creation". Barker privately regarded the series as the finest work of his career. He won the BAFTA for Best Light Entertainment Performance in 1975 for his performance.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: In 1976, Barker played Friar Tuck in the film "Robin and Marian", directed by Richard Lester. The same year, determined not to be remembered only as Fletcher, Barker opted to end "Porridge" after three series and instead focused on the second pilot "Open All Hours", alongside David Jason. Barker starred as Arkwright, a money-grabbing, stuttering shopkeeper. Arkwright's stutter was not in the script; Barker was inspired to use it by Melvyn's performance and use of a stutter in a 1955 play the two performed at the Palace Theatre called "Hot Water". "Open All Hours" aired one series in 1976 on BBC2 but was not renewed due to low ratings. As a result, Barker backtracked on his earlier decision and produced a third series of "Porridge", as well as a film adaptation. It was followed by the spin-off sitcom "Going Straight" which focused on Fletcher after his release from prison. While not as popular as "Porridge", Barker again won the BAFTA for Best Light Entertainment Performance.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Plans to further the show were ended when Barker's co-star Richard Beckinsale died of a heart attack in 1979 aged 31. With repeats of "Open All Hours" earning high ratings on BBC1, the BBC commissioned a further series of the show in 1981, with another two made as well as the show continued its ratings success. Both shows placed in the top ten of the 2004 poll to determine Britain's Best Sitcom; "Porridge" finished seventh and "Open All Hours" eighth.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker was the first actor originally considered for the role of Frank Spencer in "Some Mothers Do 'Ave 'Em". However, he turned the role down and it went to Michael Crawford.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker's next sitcom, "The Magnificent Evans", which was about a Welsh photographer and aired in 1984, was not successful. His final sitcom, "Clarence" in which he played Clarence Sale, a removal man with failing sight, aired in 1988. Barker wrote the show himself, again using a pseudonym, this time as "Bob Ferris".


title: Ronnie Barker

text: In 1987, before "Clarence" aired and after rejecting Hall's offer of the part of Falstaff in a Royal National Theatre production of "Henry IV, Part 1 & 2", Barker retired from show business, aged 58, "at the height of his fame", citing a decline in his own writing quality, lack of ambition and ideas, and a desire to go out on top so as not to damage his legacy, as well as concerns about the state of his heart. He had decided to retire in 1985 but his decision was kept secret for two years, Corbett being the only one knowing about it. He made his decision public on an appearance on the chat show "Wogan".


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Retired, Barker opened and ran an antiques shop called The Emporium in Chipping Norton in Oxfordshire and resisted all calls to come out of retirement from then onwards. He joked: "I lose money every week, but it's a hobby. It's cheaper than skiing and safer at my age." Because of its unprofitability, the shop was sold after ten years. He wrote his autobiography, "Dancing in the Moonlight: My Early Years on Stage" in 1993 and released "All I Ever Wrote", his complete scripts, in 1999. He wrote the play "Mum" for his daughter Charlotte Barker in 1998, which was performed at The King's Head Theatre, but garnered a negative response, with Barker stating it got "the worst notices of any play in the history of the theatre."


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Just over a decade after retiring, Barker was persuaded to make occasional appearances on television again. In 1997 he appeared with Corbett at the Royal Command Performance, driving on stage on a motorcycle combination as the Two Fat Ladies, and in 1999 he was reunited with Corbett for "Two Ronnies Night" on BBC One, and the following year for "A Tribute to the Two Ronnies". In 2002, director Richard Loncraine persuaded Barker to appear as Winston Churchill's butler David Inches in the BBC-HBO drama "The Gathering Storm" and then cast him in the larger role of the General in the TV film "My House in Umbria" in 2003, alongside Maggie Smith (whom Barker had advised, early in their careers, to give up acting as he felt she would not be a success). In the same year, he briefly reprised his role as Norman Stanley Fletcher in the spoof documentary "".


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker received several lifetime achievement awards. He won the Royal Television Society's award for Outstanding Creative Achievement in 1975. Sir Alec Guinness presented him with a lifetime achievement honour at the inaugural British Comedy Awards in 1990, while he received another such honour at the BBC Centenary Programme in 1996. In 2004 he was given a special BAFTA lifetime achievement award at "Ronnie Barker: A BAFTA Tribute", a televised celebratory tribute evening. In 2005, he and Corbett were part of the first 100 people given stars on London's Avenue of Stars. Previous awards included the Variety Club of Great Britain Award in 1969, 1974 and 1980, the Radio Industry Club Award in 1973, 1974, 1977 and 1981.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Following the success of "Ronnie Barker: A BAFTA Tribute", Barker wanted to return "The Two Ronnies" to television and the BBC commissioned "The Two Ronnies Sketchbook", a clip show of their best sketches along with newly recorded introductions. These were recorded in one day due to Barker's declining health and aired in 2005. The project, when announced, met with "some derision among the professional critics", but after the first episode drew eight million viewers, they had to "eat their words". The final special, and Barker's final appearance on television – "The Two Ronnies Christmas Sketchbook" – was recorded in July 2005 as a result of Barker's failing health and aired posthumously in December.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker became a comic actor in his theatre days, noting "I think it's better to make people laugh than cry." He has been described by "The Times" as "not a comedian, [but] an actor with a talent for comedy," who "slipped into characters with apparent ease." Barker felt he was funny only in character. The BBC wrote of him: "Able to deliver the great tongue-twisting speeches required of his characters, Barker pronounced himself 'completely boring' without a script." Peter Hall spoke of Barker's skills as a dramatic actor, calling him "the great actor we lost" and lamented that Barker was unable to take a role in one of his Shakespearean productions. Barker, though, preferred comedy, and felt it was "as good and as important as serious work" and he was not "dumbing down" by doing it. Actor Gene Wilder compared him to Charlie Chaplin in saying "no matter how farcical [his performance] was ... there was always an element of reality to what he did." Corbett praised Barker's skill at playing serious authority figures saying absurd things, using Barker's verbal dexterity and energetic performances.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker's writing style was, for "The Times", "based on precise scripts and perfect timing." It often involved playing with language, including humour involving such linguistic items as spoonerisms and double entendres. Dennis Baker of "The Guardian" wrote that Barker "preferred innuendo over the crudely explicit, a restraint that demanded some imagination from the audience and was the essence of his comedy." Corbett said he had "a mastery of the English language".


title: Ronnie Barker

text: In private, he annotated a copy of "A Book of Nonsense" by Edward Lear, penning punch lines of his own for each limerick. On the title page he wrote, "There was an old fossil named Lear, Whose verses were boring and drear. His last lines were worst – just the same as the first! So I've tried to improve on them here." The annotated copy of Lear's book, signed and dated November 2001, was auctioned in 2012.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker met Joy Tubb in Cambridge while she was a stage manager for two plays he was in. They married nine months later in July 1957 and had three children: two sons, Larry (born 1959) and Adam (born 1968), and one daughter, Charlotte (born 1962), who became an actress. Larry, a leading advertising creative director, was named after Barker's idol Laurence Olivier. Adam Barker became an actor, but was jailed for twelve months in 2012 on twenty counts of making indecent images of children, having evaded police for eight years; he was not present at his father's funeral.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: The family lived in Pinner for many years, and subsequently in a converted mill in Dean, Oxfordshire. According to Corbett, Barker was "first and foremost a family man". Joy died in January 2011, aged 78.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker received an OBE in 1978. He was an avid collector of antiques, books and posters and amassed a collection of over 53,000 postcards. He produced several compilation books of them, including "Ronnie Barker's Book of Bathing Beauties", "A Pennyworth of Art", and "Sauce". Barker rarely appeared in public, and when he did, it was almost always in character. He once said, "I've always known I haven't a personality of my own, I have to be someone else to be happy. That's why I became an actor, I suppose."


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker was a heavy smoker until 1972, when he gave up the habit after having a pre-cancerous growth removed from his throat; he took to drinking wine and using placebo cigarettes to maintain his concentration and help him sleep. He underwent a heart bypass in 1996 and survived a pulmonary embolism the following year.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker opted not to have heart valve replacement surgery, and his health rapidly declined after the recording of "The Two Ronnies Christmas Sketchbook". He died of heart failure at the Katherine House hospice in Adderbury, Oxfordshire, on 3 October 2005, aged 76, with his wife by his side. News of his death made top billing on television news bulletins.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Barker's body was cremated at a private humanist funeral at Banbury Crematorium, which was attended only by family and close friends. A public memorial service for Barker was held on 3 March 2006 at Westminster Abbey, with some 2,000 people in attendance. Ronnie Corbett, Richard Briers, Josephine Tewson, Michael Grade, and Peter Kay all read at the service, while others in attendance included David Jason, Stephen Fry, Michael Palin, Leslie Phillips, Lenny Henry, Dawn French, June Whitfield and David Frost. A recording of Barker's rhyming slang sermon from "The Two Ronnies" was played, and while the cross was in procession in the aisle of the abbey, it was accompanied by four candles instead of the usual two, in reference to the Four Candles sketch. Barker was the third comedy professional to be given a memorial at Westminster Abbey, after Joyce Grenfell and Les Dawson.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: Following his death, the Writer of the Year Award at the British Comedy Awards was renamed in his honour. In 2005, he was voted as the 16th greatest comedy act ever by fellow comedians and comedy insiders, in a poll to find "The Comedians' Comedian".


title: Ronnie Barker

text: The BBC described him as "one of the leading figures of British television comedy", and "much loved and admired". "The Independent" called him "a master of television sitcom". The "Guardian" said he was "much loved ... both as an actor and a writer he was recognised as a master of pyrotechnic puns, surreal behaviour in public and private places, and crackling cross-chat". It concluded that "it says much about the decline of the British television industry that Ronnie Barker, one of its most creative comic talents, should have turned his back on it long before he died at the age of 76." In a eulogy for Barker, the Reverend Robert Wright stated that he was "undoubtedly one of the very greatest television comedy actors" and that "as a performer he made comedy look effortlessly funny".


title: Ronnie Barker

text: In 2006 Barker's stage play "Mum" was adapted and directed by Neil Cargill for BBC Radio 4, and broadcast as an "Afternoon Play", starring Maxine Peake and Sam Kelly.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: In Barker's home town of Oxford, a Wetherspoons pub beside his former school on George Street is named after his Four Candles sketch.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: A bronze statue of Barker, sculpted by Martin Jennings and showing him in character as Norman Stanley Fletcher, was unveiled at the entrance of the Aylesbury Waterside Theatre in September 2010 by his widow Joy, David Jason and Ronnie Corbett.


title: Ronnie Barker

text: In 2015, the Ronnie Barker Comedy Lecture (also referred to as The Ronnie Barker Talk) was commissioned by the BBC at the instigation of the head of comedy commissioning, Shane Allen. The first lecture was given in August 2017 by Ben Elton. Elton's lecture focused on the future of the British sitcom.


title: Rod Stewart discography

text: The following is the complete discography of British singer Rod Stewart. Throughout his career, Stewart has sold 120 million records worldwide, making him one of the world's best-selling music artists in history. According to Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), he has sold 46.6 million albums & singles in the US. "Billboard" ranked him as the 15th Greatest Artist of all time (6th among male soloist). He is also the 20th Greatest Hot 100 artist of all time and the 13th Greatest Billboard 200 Artist of all time.


title: Can You Ever Forgive Me?

text: Can You Ever Forgive Me? is a 2018 American biographical film directed by Marielle Heller and with a screenplay by Nicole Holofcener and Jeff Whitty, based on the 2008 confessional memoir of the same name by Lee Israel. Melissa McCarthy stars as Israel, and the story follows her attempts to revitalize her failing writing career by forging letters from deceased authors and playwrights. The film also features Richard E. Grant, Dolly Wells, Jane Curtin, Anna Deavere Smith, Stephen Spinella, and Ben Falcone in supporting roles. Israel took the title from an apologetic line in a letter in which she posed as Dorothy Parker.


title: Can You Ever Forgive Me?

text: The film had its world premiere at the Telluride Film Festival on September 1, 2018, and was released in the United States on October 19, 2018, by Fox Searchlight Pictures. The film grossed $12 million on a $10 million budget and was praised for McCarthy and Grant's performances. It was named by the National Board of Review as one of their . For their performances, McCarthy and Grant earned nominations for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actor, respectively, at the 91st Academy Awards, the 76th Golden Globe Awards, and the 72nd British Academy Film Awards, among other ceremonies. Holofcener and Whitty were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay and won the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Adapted Screenplay.


title: Can You Ever Forgive Me?

text: In 1991, following the critical and commercial failure of her biography of Estée Lauder, author Lee Israel struggles with financial troubles, writer's block, and alcoholism. Although she hopes to write a biography of comedienne Fanny Brice, her agent, Marjorie, sharply rejects the idea and explains that Lee, with her difficult personality, is responsible for her own career slump.


title: Can You Ever Forgive Me?

text: With Marjorie unable to secure her an advance for a new book, regardless of subject matter, Lee resorts to selling her possessions to cover living expenses. She sells a personal letter she received long ago from Katharine Hepburn to a used bookstore merchant and autograph dealer named Anna. Meanwhile, Lee begins spending time with old acquaintance Jack Hock.


title: Can You Ever Forgive Me?

text: Visiting a Manhattan library's special collections department to research Fanny Brice, Lee discovers two letters typewritten by Brice. She removes one of them from the building and shows it to Anna. Anna makes Lee an offer that is lower than what she was expecting due to the letter's bland content. Lee returns home and uses a typewriter to add a postscript to the second letter. Lee returns to Anna’s store, where Anna, amused by what “Fanny Brice” wrote “several decades ago,” offers Lee $350.


title: Can You Ever Forgive Me?

text: Lee then starts forging and selling letters "by" deceased celebrities, incorporating intimate details to command high prices. Anna, a fan of Lee’s biographies, tries to initiate a romantic relationship, but may have another motive as on their dinner date she produces a short story she has written hoping for a critique. At the end of the dinner the socially phobic Lee appears to rebuff her.


title: Can You Ever Forgive Me?

text: In some of Lee's letters, she has Noël Coward make unguarded references to his sexuality. A used book dealer named Paul buys one of them from Lee and then sends it to a friend of his who knew Coward, who died less than 20 years ago. Coward’s friend becomes suspicious and raises an alarm that leads to Lee’s customers blacklisting her. Unable to sell the forgeries, she has Jack sell the letters on her behalf. She also starts stealing authentic letters from libraries and archives for Jack to sell, replacing them with forged duplicates. While Lee is out of town committing one such theft, her cat dies under Jack's care. She ends their friendship but continues their partnership out of necessity.


title: Can You Ever Forgive Me?

text: The FBI arrests Jack while he is attempting a sale. He cooperates with them, resulting in Lee being served with a court summons. She retains a lawyer, who advises her to show contrition by getting a job, doing community service, and joining Alcoholics Anonymous. In court, Lee admits she enjoyed creating the forgeries and does not regret her actions, but realizes that her crimes were not worth it because they did not show her true self as a writer. The judge sentences Lee to five years' probation and six months' house arrest.


title: Can You Ever Forgive Me?

text: Sometime later, Lee arranges an encounter in a small restaurant with Jack and reconciles with him. Jack, dying of AIDS, grants her permission to write a memoir about their escapades. Later, while Lee is passing a bookstore, she sees a Dorothy Parker letter she forged that is now on sale for $1,900. Disgusted, she writes the store owner a sarcastic note in Parker's voice. Upon receiving the note and realizing that the letter in the storefront window is a fake, the owner removes it from the window but changes his mind and decides to keep it on display.


title: Can You Ever Forgive Me?

text: In 2011, when the project was first conceived, Sam Rockwell was set to play the character of Jack Hock. In April 2015, it was announced that Julianne Moore would play Israel, with Nicole Holofcener set to direct. On May 14, 2015, Chris O'Dowd joined the cast. In July 2015, Moore and Holofcener dropped out of the project due to "creative conflicts." In May 2016, Melissa McCarthy—whose husband, Ben Falcone, had been cast in a supporting role in Holofcener's film—was confirmed to have been cast as Israel, with Marielle Heller directing from Holofcener's script. In January 2017, Richard E. Grant, Jane Curtin, Dolly Wells, Anna Deavere Smith, and Jennifer Westfeldt joined the cast. Westfeldt does not appear in the finished film.


title: Can You Ever Forgive Me?

text: "Can You Ever Forgive Me?" had its world premiere at the Telluride Film Festival on September 1, 2018. It also screened at the Toronto International Film Festival that same month. The film was released in the United States on October 19, 2018.


title: Can You Ever Forgive Me?

text: The film was dedicated to the author and movie subject Leonore Carol Israel December 3, 1939 - December 24, 2014.


title: Can You Ever Forgive Me?

text: "Can You Ever Forgive Me?" grossed $8.8 million in the United States and Canada, and $3.7 million in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $12.5 million, against a production budget of $10 million.


title: Can You Ever Forgive Me?

text: "Can You Ever Forgive Me?" grossed $150,000 from five theaters in its opening weekend. During its second weekend, it earned $380,000 from 25 theaters. It expanded to 180 theaters in its third week, making $1.08 million. The film grossed $1.5 million from 391 theaters in its fourth weekend. During its fifth weekend, it earned $880,000 from 555 theaters, bringing the total box office gross to over $5 million. During its 11th weekend in release the film crossed $7.5 million stateside.


title: Can You Ever Forgive Me?

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, "Deftly directed and laced with dark wit, "Can You Ever Forgive Me?" proves a compelling showcase for deeply affecting work from Richard E. Grant and Melissa McCarthy." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 87 out of 100, based on 53 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".