title: Ryukyu Kingdom

text: The Chinese policy of "haijin" (, "sea bans"), limiting trade with China to tributary states and those with formal authorization, along with the accompanying preferential treatment of the Ming Court towards Ryukyu, allowed the kingdom to flourish and prosper for roughly 150 years. In the late 16th century, however, the kingdom's commercial prosperity fell into decline. The rise of the "wokou" threat among other factors led to the gradual loss of Chinese preferential treatment; the kingdom also suffered from increased maritime competition from Portuguese traders.


title: Ryukyu Kingdom

text: Around 1590, Toyotomi Hideyoshi asked the Ryukyu Kingdom to aid in his campaign to conquer Korea. If successful, Hideyoshi intended to then move against China. As the Ryukyu Kingdom was a tributary state of the Ming dynasty, the request was refused. The Tokugawa shogunate that emerged following Hideyoshi's fall authorized the Shimazu family—feudal lords of the Satsuma domain (present-day Kagoshima Prefecture)—to send an expeditionary force to conquer the Ryukyus. The subsequent invasion took place in 1609, but Satsuma still allowed the Ryukyu Kingdom to find itself in a period of "dual subordination" to Japan and China, wherein Ryukyuan tributary relations were maintained with both the Tokugawa shogunate and the Chinese court.


title: Ryukyu Kingdom

text: Occupation occurred fairly quickly, with some fierce fighting, and King Shō Nei was taken prisoner to Kagoshima and later to Edo (modern-day Tokyo). To avoid giving the Qing any reason for military action against Japan, the king was released two years later and the Ryukyu Kingdom regained a degree of autonomy. However, the Satsuma domain seized control over some territory of the Ryukyu Kingdom, notably the Amami-Ōshima island group, which was incorporated into the Satsuma domain and remains a part of Kagoshima Prefecture, not Okinawa Prefecture.


title: Ryukyu Kingdom

text: The kingdom was described by Hayashi Shihei in "Sangoku Tsūran Zusetsu", which was published in 1785.


title: Ryukyu Kingdom

text: In 1655, tribute relations between Ryukyu and Qing dynasty (the China's dynasty that followed Ming after 1644) were formally approved by the shogunate. This was seen to be justified, in part, because of the desire to avoid giving Qing any reason for military action against Japan.


title: Ryukyu Kingdom

text: Since Ming China prohibited trade with Japan, the Satsuma domain, with the blessing of the Tokugawa shogunate, used the trade relations of the kingdom to continue to maintain trade relations with China. Considering that Japan had previously severed ties with most European countries except the Dutch, such trade relations proved especially crucial to both the Tokugawa shogunate and Satsuma domain, which would use its power and influence, gained in this way, to help overthrow the shogunate in the 1860s. Ryukyuan missions to Edo for Tokugawa Shōgun.


title: Ryukyu Kingdom

text: The Ryukyuan king was a vassal of the Satsuma "daimyō", after Shimazu's Ryukyu invasion in 1609, the Satsuma Clan established a governmental office's branch known as Zaibankaiya (在番仮屋) or Ufukaiya (大仮屋) at Shuri in 1628, and became the base of Ryukyu domination for 250 years, until 1872. But the kingdom was not considered as part of any "han" (fief): up until the formal annexation of the islands and abolition of the kingdom in 1879, the Ryukyus were not truly considered "de jure" part of Edo Japan. Though technically under the control of Satsuma, Ryukyu was given a great degree of autonomy, to best serve the interests of the Satsuma "daimyō" and those of the shogunate, in trading with China. Ryukyu was a tributary state of China, and since Japan had no formal diplomatic relations with China, it was essential that China not realize that Ryukyu was controlled by Japan. Thus, Satsuma—and the shogunate—was obliged to be mostly hands-off in terms of not visibly or forcibly occupying Ryukyu or controlling the policies and laws there. The situation benefited all three parties involved—the Ryukyu royal government, the Satsuma "daimyō", and the shogunate—to make Ryukyu seem as much a distinctive and foreign country as possible. Japanese were prohibited from visiting Ryukyu without shogunal permission, and the Ryukyuans were forbidden from adopting Japanese names, clothes, or customs. They were even forbidden from divulging their knowledge of the Japanese language during their trips to Edo; the Shimazu family, "daimyōs" of Satsuma, gained great prestige by putting on a show of parading the King, officials, and other people of Ryukyu to and through Edo. As the only "han" to have a king and an entire kingdom as vassals, Satsuma gained significantly from Ryukyu's exoticness, reinforcing that it was an entirely separate kingdom.


title: Ryukyu Kingdom

text: According to statements by Qing imperial official Li Hongzhang in a meeting with Ulysses S. Grant, China had a special relationship with the island and the Ryukyu had paid tribute to China for hundreds of years, and the Chinese reserved certain trade rights for them in an amicable and beneficial relationship. Japan ordered tributary relations to end in 1875 after the tribute mission of 1874 was perceived as a show of submission to China.


title: Ryukyu Kingdom

text: In 1872, Emperor Meiji unilaterally declared that the kingdom was then Ryukyu Domain. At the same time, the appearance of independence was maintained for diplomatic reasons with Qing China until the Meiji government abolished the Ryukyu Kingdom when the islands were incorporated as Okinawa Prefecture on 27 March 1879. The Amami-Ōshima island group which had been integrated into Satsuma Domain became a part of Kagoshima Prefecture.


title: Ryukyu Kingdom

text: The last king of Ryukyu was forced to relocate to Tokyo, and was given a compensating "kazoku" rank as Marquis Shō Tai. Many royalist supporters fled to China. The king's death in 1901 diminished the historic connections with the former kingdom. With the abolition of the aristocracy after World War II, the Sho family continues to live in Tokyo.


title: Ryukyu Kingdom

text: In the video game "Europa Universalis IV" there is an achievement called "The Three Mountains", which is achieved by conquering the world as the Ryukyu Kingdom.


title: The Whale (2022 film)

text: The Whale is a 2022 American psychological drama film directed by Darren Aronofsky. It is based on a screenplay by Samuel D. Hunter adapting his 2012 play of the same name. The film stars Brendan Fraser, Sadie Sink, Hong Chau, Ty Simpkins, and Samantha Morton.


title: The Whale (2022 film)

text: "The Whale" had its world premiere at the 79th Venice International Film Festival on September 4, 2022, and was released in the United States on December 9, 2022, by A24. Fraser received nominations for Best Actor at the 80th Golden Globe Awards and the 28th Critics' Choice Awards.


title: The Whale (2022 film)

text: Charlie is an obese 600-pound reclusive English language professor who teaches online college writing courses but keeps his webcam switched off, afraid to show his appearance to the students.


title: The Whale (2022 film)

text: Charlie is cared for by his nurse and only friend, Liz, who urges him to visit a hospital as he is at severe risk of congestive heart failure. He is also visited by Thomas, a New Life Church missionary who tries to evangelize him. Charlie frequently orders pizza, to which he and his delivery driver Dan follow a usual routine: he leaves the pizza on the porch, takes the money from the mailbox, and leaves without ever interacting with Charlie.


title: The Whale (2022 film)

text: Charlie has also been attempting to reconnect with his estranged teenage daughter Ellie, whom he has not seen in eight years. Charlie offers her all the money in his bank account to persuade Ellie to spend time with him without her mother's knowledge. Ellie agrees, but only if Charlie helps her rewrite an essay for school. Charlie agrees, and in exchange for her company, Ellie must write in a notebook he provides.


title: The Whale (2022 film)

text: Liz is disgruntled by Thomas' frequent visits and tells him that Charlie does not need saving. Liz reveals that she is the adopted daughter of New Life's head pastor and that Alan, Charlie's deceased lover whose death from starvation due to religious guilt caused Charlie to uncontrollably binge-eat, was her brother. Charlie never fully recovered from the loss. Despite Liz's objections, Thomas still believes his mission is to help Charlie.


title: The Whale (2022 film)

text: Charlie's health begins to decline after almost choking on a sandwich, and Liz brings him a wheelchair to make it easier for him to move around his apartment. One day, Ellie secretly slips sleeping pills into another sandwich she makes for Charlie. After he falls asleep, Thomas arrives, and Ellie begins to question him while smoking marijuana. After initially hesitating, Thomas admits he ran away from his family and old mission in Iowa after feeling unfulfilled and stealing all the money from the youth group. Ellie secretly records his confession on her phone.


title: The Whale (2022 film)

text: Liz brings Mary, Charlie's ex-wife and Ellie's mother, to visit him, and the truth about Ellie's secret meetings with her father is revealed. A heated exchange occurs, where Charlie reveals he has $120,000 in his bank account. As Charlie had lied to her about not having money for healthcare, Liz angrily storms out, leaving Mary and Charlie alone to argue about the breakdown of their marriage and the possibility of rebuilding their relationship. When Mary leaves, Charlie tearfully admits he needed to know if there was at least one thing he did right in his life.


title: The Whale (2022 film)

text: Thomas visits Charlie one last time, informing him that he is moving back home after Ellie sent his confession to his former youth group and family. His family has dismissed the incident and is welcoming him home. He attempts to proselytize Charlie but is chastised after he blames Alan for his own death. Charlie experiences a severe binge-eating episode after Dan glimpses him for the first time and sends out an email to his students asking them to write something honest. In his next class, Charlie reveals he's being replaced as their professor and reads some of their candid responses. To reciprocate their honesty, he switches on his webcam for the first time and ends the class by throwing his laptop against the fridge.


title: The Whale (2022 film)

text: Feeling guilty for abandoning Charlie, Liz comforts him as Charlie nears death. Ellie storms into the apartment to confront him over his rewritten essay. Charlie reveals that he replaced her rewritten essay with a critical essay of Moby Dick she wrote in eighth grade, as he considered it the most honest essay he's ever read. Ellie tearfully rebukes Charlie as he attempts to reconcile one final time. He asks her to read the essay out loud to him. Ellie reads the essay as Charlie stands up and attempts to walk toward her, an attempt he had tried but failed to do since Ellie's first visit. As Ellie completes the reading, Charlie dies and ascends to Heaven, his last thought being a visit to the beach with his family.


title: The Whale (2022 film)

text: Aronofsky said he had been trying to get the film made for a decade, blocked by the casting of Charlie until he saw a trailer for "Journey to the End of the Night" on YouTube which starred Fraser, when it "clicked" for him to cast Fraser.


title: The Whale (2022 film)

text: On January 11, 2021, it was announced that A24 had global distribution rights to "The Whale", which would be directed by Aronofsky and star Fraser. In February 2021, Hong Chau, Sadie Sink and Samantha Morton joined the cast. The following month, Ty Simpkins joined the cast. Sathya Sridharan also joined the cast.


title: The Whale (2022 film)

text: Principal photography began on March 8 and wrapped on April 7, 2021, in Newburgh, New York. The film entered post-production the same month.


title: The Whale (2022 film)

text: For the titular role, Fraser would spend four hours each day in the makeup department getting fitted with prosthetics that weighed up to 300 pounds. He also worked with a dance instructor for months prior to filming to figure out how his character would move with the excess weight and consulted with the Obesity Action Coalition.


title: The Whale (2022 film)

text: "The Whale" had its world premiere at the 79th Venice International Film Festival on September 4, 2022, where it received a six-minute standing ovation. It made its North American premiere at the 2022 Toronto International Film Festival on September 11, 2022. The film was released in the United States on December 9, 2022.


title: The Whale (2022 film)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that critics found "The Whale" an empathetic film carried by Brendan Fraser's performance. On the site, 66% of 172 critics' reviews are positive, with an average rating of 6.8/10. Metacritic sampled 46 reviews and assessed 22 as positive, 19 as mixed, and 5 as negative. It gave the film a weighted average score of 62 out of 100, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: The Whale (2022 film)

text: "The Whale" received generally positive reviews at the Toronto International Film Festival, with particular praise for Fraser and Sink's performances. When the film had a limited theatrical release, "Variety" reported, "Reviews... have been polarizing, with others [than "Variety"s review] criticizing the film's portrayal of fat people." Glenn Kenny of "RogerEbert.com" praised Aronofsky's direction and Fraser's performance, writing that the "story is one of different levels of heartbreak and human misunderstanding" and "Aronofsky and Fraser have taken substantive risks, in the name of an insistent empathy." Robbie Collin of "The Daily Telegraph", gave it a perfect five stars, stating: "Fraser seals his comeback in a sensational film of rare compassion."


title: The Whale (2022 film)

text: In his review of "The Whale" out of Venice, "Variety" chief film critic Owen Gleiberman called Fraser "slyer, subtler, more haunting than he has ever been", adding that he gives an "intensely lived-in and touching performance". Matthew Creith of "Out Front" noted "The highlight of "The Whale" comes from an outstanding turn from Hong Chau, who gives a memorable performance in a vital role that balances Charlie's outlandish behavior." Hannah Strong of "Little White Lies" praised Fraser and the "strong ensemble", highlighting Sink's "tricky role" in which she "captures the anger and sadness that comes from parental abandonment", and stating that while Aronofsky "isn't a particularly empathetic filmmaker" and "The Whale" is not without flaws, the film "reflects tenderly on shame, guilt, and the human impulse to care and be cared for."


title: The Whale (2022 film)

text: Richard Lawson of "Vanity Fair" said that the film "meant to be a poignant consideration of guilt, sexuality, religion, remorse" but "we really only know that because the movie shouts it at us." He also criticized Fraser's performance as "lost". Mark Hanson of "Slant Magazine" felt that Aronofsky reins in his "typically ostentatious style" but "considering how Libatique's camera leeringly treats Charlie as an unsightly object of pity throughout, it's difficult to deny the film's fatphobia, though its mawkishness is no less oppressive". Katie Rife of "Polygon" said of the film, "If you look at "The Whale" as a fable, its moral is that it’s the responsibility of the abused to love and forgive their abusers. The movie thinks it’s saying, 'You don’t understand; he’s fat because he’s suffering.' But it ends up saying, 'You don’t understand; we have to be cruel to fat people, because "we" are suffering.' Aronofsky and Hunter’s biblical metaphor aside, fat people didn’t volunteer to serve as repositories for society’s rage and contempt."


title: The Whale (2022 film)

text: On the "Rolling Stone" Internet culture podcast "Don't Let This Flop", EJ Dickson said the film was met with criticism for its use of a prosthetic suit instead of casting an obese actor, with accusations that it "stigmatizes and mocks fat people". On NPR's culture section, Jaclyn Diaz reported that this criticism extends to detractors calling the film's premise "inherently dehumanizing".


title: The Whale (2022 film)

text: Writing for "The New York Times", Roxane Gay argued that the film's empathy was only surface level, and that the depiction of Charlie reinforced anti-fat stereotypes and preconceptions. She writes, "Mr. Aronofsky, said proudly that Charlie's story was told with empathy. He seemed to think he was being sincere, but I was bewildered because an empathetic portrayal isn't at all what was conveyed onscreen. As I looked around the audience, I was struck by the fact that there were only four or so fat people in the audience and none on the stage."


title: Baltic Sea anomaly

text: The Baltic Sea anomaly is a feature visible on an indistinct sonar image taken by Peter Lindberg, Dennis Åberg and their Swedish Ocean X diving team while treasure hunting on the floor of the northern Baltic Sea at the center of the Gulf of Bothnia in June 2011. The team suggested their sonar image showed an object with unusual features of seemingly non-natural origin, prompting speculation published in tabloid newspapers that the object was a sunken UFO.


title: Baltic Sea anomaly

text: A consensus of experts and scientists say that the image most likely shows a natural geological formation.


title: Baltic Sea anomaly

text: The Swedish-based Ocean X describe themselves as treasure hunters and salvage operators who specialize in underwater searches for sunken "antique high-end alcoholic beverages and historic artefacts". According to the team, they returned from an expedition in the Baltic Sea between Sweden and Finland with a "blurry but interesting" sonar image while searching for an old shipwreck in the summer of 2011. They have claimed their image shows a diameter circular object with features resembling ramps, stairways, and other structures not produced by nature. The group revisited the site the following year intending to get a clearer image, but claimed mysterious electrical interference prevented them. Following a story published by the UK tabloid newspaper the "Daily Mail" in June 2012, a number of imaginative illustrations resembling underwater photos or high resolution scans circulated in the media, along with rumors that the object could be "a UFO, a portal into another world, or an underwater Stonehenge".


title: Baltic Sea anomaly

text: Samples of stone allegedly recovered at the site by Ocean X were given to Volker Brüchert, an associate professor of geology at Stockholm University. Brüchert's analysis of the samples indicated that most are granites, gneisses and sandstones. Among the samples was also a single loose piece of basaltic (volcanic) rock, which is out of place on the seafloor, but not unusual. "Because the whole northern Baltic region is so heavily influenced by glacial thawing processes, both the feature and the rock samples are likely to have formed in connection with glacial and postglacial processes. [...] Possibly these rocks were transported there by glaciers," explained Brüchert. Swedish geologists Fredrik Klingberg and Martin Jakobsson say that the chemical composition of the samples provided resembles that of nodules that are not uncommon in sea beds, and that the materials found, including limonite and goethite, can indeed be formed by nature itself.


title: Baltic Sea anomaly

text: The single sonar image provided by Ocean X has drawn criticism from a number of sources. Hanumant Singh of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution has said that it cannot be trusted because several distortions render it "virtually useless for identifying an undersea formation". According to Singh, the distortions are due to a cheap inaccurate sonar instrument that was improperly wired and calibrated. An MSNBC report speculated that interpretations of the image as a flying saucer are likely the result of graphic outlines intended to suggest the fictional spaceship "Millennium Falcon" drawn onto the sonar image by tabloid newspapers.


title: Baltic Sea anomaly

text: Scientist Charles Paull of the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute told Popular Mechanics that the indistinct sonar image was more likely of a rock outcrop, sediment dropped from a fishing trawler, or even a school of fish. Paull characterized the story as “curious and fun, but much ado about nothing."


title: Baltic Sea anomaly

text: Reacting to a photo published by Swedish newspaper "Expressen" purportedly taken by Ocean X during a dive to collect rock samples, Göran Ekberg, a marine archaeologist at Maritime Museum in Stockholm, said: "A natural, geological formation can't be ruled out. I agree the finding looks weird since it's completely circular. But nature has produced stranger things than that." Martin Jakobsson, professor of marine geology and geophysics at Stockholm University also examined the image and said, "I'm guessing it's some sort of sandstone. But to make things clear, I've only seen the media images, and I need more material before making an official statement." Other experts say the image quite possibly shows a grouping of rocks deposited by ice age glaciers, or maybe pillow basalt or a moraine.


title: Baltic Sea anomaly

text: According to Finnish planetary geomorphologist Jarmo Korteniemi, volcanic-based explanations such as a hydrothermal vent are not plausible on the Fennoscandian shield as it is a thick craton with no active volcanism after the Proterozoic, and regional bathymetry explains the "runway" formation under the anomaly as part of a larger group of similar NNW-SSE oriented mounds which occur located on the bottom of the Bothnian Sea. Korteniemi said the "runway" is most likely a natural rock formation, a drumlin formed by glacial action.


title: Baltic Sea anomaly

text: Jonathan Hill of the Mars Space Flight Facility questioned the motives involved in Ocean X announcements, which included plans to take wealthy tourists in a submarine to visit the site. He was quoted in 2012 as saying "Whenever people make extraordinary claims, it's always a good idea to consider for a moment whether they are personally benefiting from the claim or if it's a truly objective observation." He also suggested that it would have been simple to break off a piece and have it geologically tested, and said that test results showing it was simply rock would not have benefited Peter Lindberg.


title: Baltic Sea anomaly

text: Lindberg suggested in a 2019 interview that there may be a possibility for a new expedition via a television production in which they are involved.


title: Grammy Award for Record of the Year

text: The Grammy Award for Record of the Year is presented by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to "honor artistic achievement, technical proficiency and overall excellence in the recording industry, without regard to sales or chart position." The Record of the Year award is one of the four "General Field" categories at the awards (alongside Best New Artist, Song of the Year and Album of the Year) presented annually since the 1st Annual Grammy Awards in 1959.


title: Grammy Award for Record of the Year

text: Arrangers, songwriters, musicians and background singers of a winning recording can apply for a Winners Certificate. Songwriters can only apply for a certificate if it is a new song.


title: Grammy Award for Record of the Year

text: Since the 55th Annual Grammy Awards in 2013, mastering engineers are considered nominees and award recipients in this category.


title: Grammy Award for Record of the Year

text: Record of the Year is related to but is conceptually different from Song of the Year or Album of the Year:


title: Grammy Award for Record of the Year

text: The Record of the Year awards have been awarded since 1959. It is one of the four most prestigious Grammy Awards. Despite both the Song of the Year award and Record of the Year being awarded for a single or for one track from an album, this award goes to the performer and production team of the song whereas the Song of the Year award goes only to the composer(s) of the song. According to the 54th Grammy Awards description guide, the award is given for commercially released singles or tracks of new vocal or instrumental recordings. Tracks from a previous year's album may be entered provided the track was not entered the previous year and provided the album did not win a Grammy Award to the artist(s), producer(s), recording engineer(s) and/or mixer(s) if other than the artist. Associate producers and executive producers are not eligible".


title: Grammy Award for Record of the Year

text: Tom Coyne holds the record for most wins in this category as a mastering engineer at four times (2015, 2016, 2017 and 2018) and was the only person to win the award four consecutive years. Only two artists have won three times: Paul Simon ("Mrs. Robinson" in 1969, "Bridge over Troubled Water" in 1971, both as part of Simon & Garfunkel; and "Graceland" in 1988) and Bruno Mars ("Uptown Funk" in 2016, with Mark Ronson; "24K Magic" in 2018; and "Leave the Door Open" in 2022, as part of Silk Sonic). Four engineers/mixers have won the award three times Tom Elmhirst has won three times as an engineer/mixer (2008, 2012 and 2017), Serban Ghenea (2016, 2018 and 2022), John Hanes (2016, 2018 and 2022), and Charles Moniz (2016, 2018 and 2022)


title: Grammy Award for Record of the Year

text: Roberta Flack was the first artist to win Record of the Year in two consecutive years: in 1973 ("The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face") and 1974 ("Killing Me Softly with His Song") from two different studio albums. This happened again when U2 won in 2001 ("Beautiful Day") and 2002 ("Walk On"), the only occurrence of an artist winning the award in two consecutive years with records from the same album. Billie Eilish became the first musician ever to complete the feat with recordings from a studio album, as well as a non-album single: in 2020 ("Bad Guy") and 2021 ("Everything I Wanted").


title: Grammy Award for Record of the Year

text: Other artists to receive multiple Grammys for Record of the Year are Henry Mancini ("Moon River" and "Days of Wine and Roses"); Simon & Garfunkel ("Mrs. Robinson" and "Bridge over Troubled Water"); The 5th Dimension ("Up, Up and Away" and "Aquarius/Let the Sunshine In"); Eric Clapton ("Tears in Heaven" and "Change the World"); Norah Jones ("Don't Know Why" and "Here We Go Again"); Adele ("Rolling in the Deep" and "Hello").


title: Grammy Award for Record of the Year

text: Mark Ronson is the only performer to win the award both as the main credit artist and as a record producer, winning as lead artist for his respective song, "Uptown Funk" (featuring Bruno Mars); and as a producer for "Rehab" by Amy Winehouse.


title: Grammy Award for Record of the Year

text: Beyoncé is the most nominated artist for Record of the Year with eight nominations. Beyoncé also has the most Record of the Year nominations among female artists with nods for "Say My Name" as part of Destiny's Child and seven times as a solo act with "Crazy in Love" (featuring Jay-Z), "Irreplaceable", "Halo", "Formation", "Black Parade", "Savage" (with Megan Thee Stallion), and "Break My Soul"; although she has not won it yet. Frank Sinatra holds the record for most nominations as a male artist with nominations for "Witchcraft", "High Hopes", "Nice 'n' Easy", "The Second Time Around", "Somethin' Stupid" (with Nancy Sinatra), and "Theme from "New York, New York""; he received this accolade once in 1967, with "Strangers in the Night". The Beatles have the most Record of the Year nominations as a group, with four nominations: "I Want to Hold Your Hand", "Yesterday", "Hey Jude", and "Let It Be"; but never won the award.


title: Grammy Award for Record of the Year

text: The first woman to win the award was Astrud Gilberto in 1965, for "The Girl from Ipanema" (with Stan Getz). Roberta Flack was the first female artist to win the award twice. Flack, Norah Jones, Adele, and Billie Eilish are the only women to win the award more than once for their recordings, winning for "The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face" and "Killing Me Softly with His Song"; and "Don't Know Why" and "Here We Go Again" (with Ray Charles); and "Rolling in the Deep" and "Hello"; and "Bad Guy" and "Everything I Wanted", respectively (Flack was also nominated for "Feel Like Makin' Love"; Adele nominated for "Chasing Pavements"; and Eilish nominated for "Happier Than Ever"). Additionally, both Florence LaRue and Marilyn McCoo also receive this accolade twice as part of The 5th Dimension, for "Up, Up and Away" and "Aquarius/Let the Sunshine In".


title: Grammy Award for Record of the Year

text: At 17 years old, Lorde became the youngest main artist to be nominated for "Royals" in 2014, with Billie Eilish becoming the youngest winner at 18 years old for "Bad Guy" in 2020.


title: Grammy Award for Record of the Year

text: Christopher Cross and Billie Eilish are the only artists to receive Grammys for Record of the Year as well as Album of the Year, Song of the Year, and Best New Artist in a single ceremony. Adele was the first artist to win the award for Record of the Year, Album of the Year, Song of the Year, and Best New Artist from separate occasions, and first woman to accomplish this feat. Only seven artists took the Record of the Year and Best New Artist awards during the same ceremony: Bobby Darin ("Mack the Knife" in 1960), Christopher Cross ("Sailing" in 1981), Sheryl Crow ("All I Wanna Do" in 1995), Norah Jones ("Don't Know Why" in 2003), Amy Winehouse ("Rehab" in 2008), Sam Smith ("Stay with Me (Darkchild Version)" in 2015) and Billie Eilish ("Bad Guy" in 2020).


title: Grammy Award for Record of the Year

text: Frank Sinatra, Roberta Flack, Steve Winwood, Post Malone, Billie Eilish, and Doja Cat are the only artists to receive three consecutive nominations for Record of the Year. Additionally, Sinatra holds the record for most consecutive years being nominated for Record of the Year, with four.


title: Grammy Award for Record of the Year

text: The person to appear on the most consecutive Records of the Year was Hal Blaine, the prolific studio drummer who played on six consecutive winners from 1966 to 1971: "A Taste of Honey", "Strangers in the Night", "Up, Up and Away", "Mrs. Robinson", "Aquarius/Let the Sunshine In", and "Bridge Over Troubled Water".


title: Grammy Award for Record of the Year

text: From 1995 to 2021, members of the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences nominated their choices for record of the year. A list of the top twenty records was given to the Nominations Review Committee, a specially selected group of anonymous members, who then selected the top five records to gain a nomination in the category in a special ballot. The rest of the members then voted on a winner from the five nominees. In 2018, it was announced the number of nominated tracks will be increased to eight. In 2021, it was announced that the Nomination Review Committees would be disbanded, and the final nominees for record of the year would be decided by votes from members. Starting in 2022, the number of nominees in the category increased to 10.


title: Richard Marcinko

text: Richard Marcinko (November 21, 1940 – December 25, 2021) was a U.S. Navy SEAL commander and Vietnam War veteran. He was the first commanding officer of SEAL Team Six. After retiring from the United States Navy, he became an author, radio talk show host, military consultant, and motivational speaker.


title: Richard Marcinko

text: Marcinko was born November 21, 1940, in Lansford, Pennsylvania and was of Croatian and Slovak descent. His father was a Croat from Herzegovina, and his mother from Slovakia. At a young age, his family moved to New Brunswick, New Jersey.


title: Richard Marcinko

text: After dropping out of high school, Marcinko tried to enlist in the United States Marines, who rejected him due to a lack of a high school diploma. Marcinko successfully enlisted in the United States Navy in September 1958 as a radioman. He was accepted into the Underwater Demolition Team/ Replacement (UDTR) training in June 1961, and graduated in class 26 in October 1961. Marcinko served with UDT-21 until he was selected for an officer commission in 1965. After graduating from Officer Candidate School in December 1965, he was commissioned an ensign. He was later reassigned to SEAL Team TWO in June 1966.


title: Richard Marcinko

text: He also received a Bachelor of Arts degree in international relations from the U.S. Naval Postgraduate School and a Master of Arts degree in political science from Auburn University at Montgomery.


title: Richard Marcinko

text: In January 1967, Marcinko deployed to Vietnam with 2nd Platoon, SEAL Team Two for a six month tour of duty. On May 18, 1967, Marcinko led his men in an assault on Ilo Ilo Hon (Ilo Ilo Island), where they killed a large number of Viet Cong and destroyed six of their sampans (wooden boat). This action would come to be called the "most successful SEAL operation in the Mekong Delta" by the U.S. Navy. For leading this mission, Marcinko was awarded the Silver Star, the first of his four Bronze Stars, as well as a Vietnamese Cross of Gallantry.


title: Richard Marcinko

text: Marcinko returned to Vietnam with SEAL Team Two after a few months stateside as Officer-in-Charge of 8th Platoon from Dec 1967 to June 1968. During the Tet Offensive, Marcinko ordered his platoon to assist U.S. Army Special Forces at Châu Đốc. What began as an urban street battle turned into a rescue mission of American nurses and a schoolteacher trapped in the city's church and hospital.


title: Richard Marcinko

text: After completing his second tour in Vietnam and a two-year stateside staff assignment, Marcinko was promoted to Lieutenant Commander and assigned as the Naval Attache to Cambodia in 1973. After serving in Cambodia for 18 months, Marcinko returned stateside and assumed command of SEAL Team Two from 1974 to 1976.


title: Richard Marcinko

text: During the Iran hostage crisis in 1979, Marcinko was one of two Navy representatives for a Joint Chiefs of Staff task force known as the TAT (Terrorist Action Team). The purpose of the TAT was to develop a plan to free the American hostages held in Iran which culminated in Operation Eagle Claw. In the wake of the debacle, the Navy saw the need for a full-time dedicated counter-terrorist team and tasked Marcinko with its design and development.


title: Richard Marcinko

text: Marcinko was selected by Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Thomas B. Hayward as the first commanding officer of this new unit. At the time, the Navy had only two SEAL teams. Marcinko purportedly named the unit SEAL Team Six in order to confuse other nations, specifically the Soviet Union, into believing that the United States had at least three other SEAL teams that they were unaware of. He personally selected the unit's members from across the existing SEAL and Underwater Demolition Teams, including a special counter-terrorist tactics section of SEAL Team Two, codenamed MOB-6. SEAL Team Six would be the Navy's premier counter-terrorist and hostage rescue unit, like its Army counterpart Delta Force. While typically a two-year command, Marcinko commanded SEAL Team Six for three years, from August 1980 to July 1983.


title: Richard Marcinko

text: After relinquishing command of SEAL Team SIX to CDR Robert Gormly, Marcinko was tasked by Vice Admiral James "Ace" Lyons, Deputy Chief of Naval Operations, with the design of a unit to test the Navy's vulnerability to terrorism. This unit was the Naval Security Coordination Team OP-06D, unofficially named Red Cell.


title: Richard Marcinko

text: Marcinko was indicted for conspiracy, conflict of interest and lying to the government on July 13, 1989, in connection with a kickback of $113,000 paid to Ramco International, a company set up by Marcinko and former SEAL John B. Mason, by Accuracy Systems, a Phoenix, Arizona-based arms manufacturer owned by Charles M. Byers. Byers was convicted of conspiracy and conflict of interest on October 20, 1989, but Marcinko was acquitted of conflict of interest.


title: Richard Marcinko

text: He was convicted of conspiracy to defraud the government on January 24, 1990. The jury in that trial also acquitted Marcinko of a separate count of bribery.


title: Richard Marcinko

text: On March 9, 1990, Marcinko was sentenced to 21 months in federal prison and fined $10,000 under charges of defrauding the government over the price of contractor acquisitions for hand grenades. Marcinko maintained that he was the subject of a witch-hunt for his work with Red Cell and that the fraud committed revealed the weaknesses of military security. Marcinko detailed his arrest and confinement in the last chapters of his autobiography.


title: Richard Marcinko

text: His experiences led him to write his autobiography, "The New York Times" best-selling "Rogue Warrior", and subsequent fictional sequels, most of which are co-written with ghostwriter John Weisman. With Weisman he co-authored a three-book series on leadership, management and team-building for business executives.


title: Richard Marcinko

text: At the time of his death, he was CEO of Red Cell International and formerly of SOS Temps, Inc., a private security consulting firm based in Washington, D.C. He had a politically conservative talk radio show "America on Watch with Dick Marcinko" which was broadcast live. He was a spokesman for the Zodiac boat company's Zodiac Maritime Training Academy, and served as a consultant on FOX's television series "24". He briefly collaborated with Strider Knives on a series of knife designs referred to as the "RW" signifying "Rogue Warrior" from 2008 to 2010.


title: Richard Marcinko

text: Marcinko died from a heart attack at his home in Fauquier County, Virginia, on December 25, 2021, at the age of 81.


title: Richard Marcinko

text: Marcinko's fiction adventure novels depict himself as recounting the events of the story as they happen, in a timeline with his autobiography as the starting point. John Weisman co-wrote with him from "Red Cell" to "Detachment Bravo" in 2001. Jim deFelice became his writing partner from "Vengeance" to "Blood Lies".


title: Richard Marcinko

text: Marcinko partnered with Bethesda Softworks to publish "" for the Xbox 360, PS3 and PC. Marcinko himself is the protagonist and is voiced by actor Mickey Rourke. In the game, Marcinko is sent on a classified mission into North Korea to disrupt an anti-ballistic missile program. Released in December 2009, the game was critically panned, with critics citing poor AI, excessive use of expletives, numerous bugs, poor graphics, a short single-player mode and limited multiplayer mode. Since its release, "Rogue Warrior" has been listed as one of the worst video games of all time.


title: Tim McInnerny

text: Tim McInnerny ( ; born 18 September 1956) is an English actor. He is known for his many roles on stage and television, including as Lord Percy Percy and Captain Darling in the 1980s British sitcom "Blackadder".


title: Tim McInnerny

text: McInnerny was born on 18 September 1956 in Cheadle Hulme, Cheshire, the son of Mary Joan (née Gibbings) and William Ronald McInnerny. He was brought up in Cheadle Hulme, and Stroud, Gloucestershire, and educated at Marling School, a grammar school in Stroud, and read English at Wadham College, Oxford, matriculating in 1976 after taking a gap year backpacking around the world.


title: Tim McInnerny

text: McInnerny's first role was in "Blackadder" during the 1980s. He played the two bumbling related aristocrats with the same name of Lord Percy Percy in the first series ("The Black Adder") and the second series ("Blackadder II"); he declined to appear in the third series for fear of being typecast, though he did make a guest appearance in one episode and returned to play Captain Kevin Darling in the fourth series ("Blackadder Goes Forth"), a character significantly different from the Lords Percy.


title: Tim McInnerny

text: He had a minor but significant role in the highly acclaimed 1985 BBC TV serial "Edge of Darkness" as Emma Craven's boyfriend Terry Shields. Recent TV appearances include "Law & Order: UK" (2011) as a man wrongly convicted of murdering his daughter, and "New Tricks" (2012). In 2016, McInnerny joined the cast of the HBO series "Game of Thrones" in Season 6 as Lord Robett Glover.


title: Tim McInnerny

text: In 2007 McInnerny spoke candidly about his love of ITV sitcoms, after receiving criticism for his views expressed on the BBC cult show "I Love the '70s": "I think shows like "Mind Your Language" and "Love Thy Neighbour" need to be remembered for what they were; truly fantastic examples of sitcom writing that hasn't been seen since. The content is unfortunate in the cold light of modern society, but that's no reason to stop praising the sheer brilliance of the writers that ITV had in its ranks during that decade."


title: Tim McInnerny

text: He played Dr. Frank-N-Furter in the 1990 West End production of "The Rocky Horror Show". His performance can be heard on the soundtrack album of this production.


title: Tim McInnerny

text: In 1989, he co-starred with Kate Bush in the music video for her song "This Woman's Work". He also appeared in the Westlife video for "Uptown Girl", along with Claudia Schiffer, Robert Bathurst, Crispin Bonham-Carter, Ioan Gruffudd and James Wilby. Since 2012, McInnerny has also been a patron of the Norwich Film Festival.


title: Transformers: War for Cybertron Trilogy

text: Transformers: War for Cybertron Trilogy is a toyline and transmedia series that is part of the "Transformers" franchise by Hasbro announced in February 2018.


title: Transformers: War for Cybertron Trilogy

text: The toy-line is split into three subline imprints titled “Siege”, “Earthrise”, and “Kingdom” respectively. All of the designs are based on the and "Beast Wars" series. Mass retail figures are sold in prices ranging from $5USD to $160USD.


title: Transformers: War for Cybertron Trilogy

text: In 2019, Hasbro's production studio, Allspark and Netflix announced a new animated series titled the "War for Cybertron Trilogy" The series was produced by Rooster Teeth, alongside Allspark Animation and Polygon Pictures. F. J. DeSanto would return as showrunner while George Krstic, Gavin Hignight and Brandon M. Easton joined as writers. The first season was originally set to be released in June 2020, but was rescheduled to July 30, 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The second season was released on December 30, 2020. The third and final season was released on July 29, 2021.


title: Transformers: War for Cybertron Trilogy

text: Polygon Pictures President and CEO Shuzo John Shiota said "We're thrilled to be working with Rooster Teeth, Netflix and Hasbro to bring this fan-oriented More than Meets the Eye story to life. The "Transformers" universe has so many rich characters and engaging stories. Getting the opportunity to be part of the team bringing the robots in disguise to life in this new trilogy is unbelievable."


title: Transformers: War for Cybertron Trilogy

text: Tom Warner, Senior Vice President for the "Transformers" franchise for Hasbro, said "The "Transformers" brand is a global phenomenon with toys, consumer products, films, television shows, and literature, resonating with millions of passionate fans around the world. This brand new Netflix series will add to the incredible slate of "Transformers" offerings with a truly unique story that will delight both existing fans and those being introduced to the wonder of robots in disguise."


title: Transformers: War for Cybertron Trilogy

text: Rooster Teeth co-founder and Chief Content Officer Matt Hullum said ""Transformers: War for Cybertron Trilogy" marks the inaugural production for our Rooster Teeth Studios division and we’re proud to be partnering with and entrusted by Hasbro and Netflix. As fans of these characters, it's been a joy bringing our storytelling and animation expertise to this project. This teaser trailer is just a taste of what’s to come in this series, and we can’t wait to see what the fans think, especially our Rooster Teeth community!"


title: Transformers: War for Cybertron Trilogy

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season, "Siege", has an approval rating of 95% based on reviews from 20 critics. The site's consensus is: "Visually stunning, surprisingly deep, and still a lot of fun, "War for Cybertron: Siege" breathes new life into the "Transformers" franchise." The second season, "Earthrise", has an approval rating of 86% based on reviews from 7 critics. The third season, "Kingdom", has an approval rating of 90% based on reviews from 10 critics. The site's consensus is: "Transporting the Autobots into a strange new world, "Kingdom" brings the "War for Cybertron" to a satisfying close with great morphing action and a delightful nod to the Beast Wars."


title: Transformers: War for Cybertron Trilogy

text: Fans criticized Rooster Teeth for not having the likes of Peter Cullen, Frank Welker or voice actors that were involved with the franchise previously and instead hired "non-union voice talent". Garry Chalk (who previously voiced ) was critical of the voice acting, which he described as "low energy".


title: John C. Frémont

text: John Charles Frémont or Fremont (January 21, 1813July 13, 1890) was an American explorer, military officer, and politician. He was a U.S. Senator from California and was the first Republican nominee for president of the United States in 1856 and founder of the California Republican Party when he was nominated. He lost the election to Democrat James Buchanan when Know Nothings split the vote.


title: John C. Frémont

text: He was a native of Georgia but an opponent of slavery. In the 1840s, Frémont led five expeditions into the Western United States. During the Mexican–American War, he was a major in the U.S. Army and took control of California from the California Republic in 1846. Frémont was court-martialed and convicted of mutiny and insubordination after a conflict over who was the rightful military governor of California. His sentence was commuted and he was reinstated by President Polk, but Frémont resigned from the Army. Afterwards, he settled in California at Monterey while buying cheap land in the Sierra foothills. Gold was found on his Mariposa ranch, and Frémont became a wealthy man during the California Gold Rush. He became one of the first two U.S. senators elected from the new state of California in 1850.


title: John C. Frémont

text: At the beginning of the American Civil War in 1861, he was given command of the Department of the West by President Abraham Lincoln. Frémont had successes during his brief tenure there, though he ran his department autocratically and made hasty decisions without consulting President Lincoln or Army headquarters. He issued an unauthorized emancipation edict and was relieved of his command for insubordination by Lincoln. After a brief service tenure in the Mountain Department in 1862, Frémont resided in New York, retiring from the army in 1864. He was nominated for president in 1864 by the Radical Democracy Party, a breakaway faction of abolitionist Republicans, but he withdrew before the election. After the Civil War, he lost much of his wealth in the unsuccessful Pacific Railroad in 1866, and he lost more in the Panic of 1873. Frémont served as Governor of Arizona from 1878 to 1881. After his resignation as governor, he retired from politics and died destitute in New York City in 1890.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Historians portray Frémont as controversial, impetuous, and contradictory. Some scholars regard him as a military hero of significant accomplishment, while others view him as a failure who repeatedly defeated his own best interests. The keys to Frémont's character and personality, several historians argue, lie in his having been born illegitimate and in his drive for success, need for self-justification, and passive–aggressive behavior. His biographer Allan Nevins wrote that Frémont lived a dramatic life of remarkable successes and dismal failures.


title: John C. Frémont

text: John Charles Frémont was born on January 21, 1813, the son of Charles Frémon, a French-Canadian immigrant school-teacher, and Anne Beverley Whiting, the youngest daughter of socially prominent Virginia planter Col. Thomas Whiting. At age 17, Anne married Major John Pryor, a wealthy Richmond resident in his early 60s. In 1810, Pryor hired Frémon to tutor his young wife Anne. Pryor confronted Anne when he found out she was having an affair with Frémon. Anne and Frémon fled to Williamsburg on July 10, 1811, later settling in Norfolk, Virginia, taking with them household slaves Anne had inherited. The couple later settled in Savannah, Georgia, where she gave birth to their son Frémont out of wedlock. Pryor published a divorce petition in the "Virginia Patriot", and charged that his wife had "for some time past indulged in criminal intercourse". When the Virginia House of Delegates refused Anne's divorce petition, it was impossible for the couple to marry. In Savannah, Anne took in boarders while Frémon taught French and dancing. Their domestic slave, Black Hannah, helped raise young John.


title: John C. Frémont

text: On December 8, 1818, Frémont's father died in Norfolk, Virginia, leaving Anne a widow to take care of John and several young children alone on a limited inherited income. Anne and her family moved to Charleston, South Carolina. Frémont, knowing his origins and coming from relatively modest means, grew up a proud, reserved, restless loner who although self-disciplined, was ready to prove himself and unwilling to play by the rules. The young Frémont was considered to be "precious, handsome, and daring," having the ability of obtaining protectors. A lawyer, John W. Mitchell, provided for Frémont's early education whereupon Frémont in May 1829 entered Charleston College, teaching at intervals in the countryside, but was expelled for irregular attendance in 1831. Frémont, however, had been grounded in mathematics and natural sciences.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Frémont attracted the attention of eminent South Carolina politician Joel R. Poinsett, an Andrew Jackson supporter, who secured Frémont an appointment as a teacher of mathematics aboard the sloop USS "Natchez", sailing the South American seas in 1833. Frémont resigned from the navy and was appointed second lieutenant in the United States Topographical Corps, surveying a route for the Charleston, Louisville, and Cincinnati railroad. Working in the Carolina mountains, Frémont desired to become an explorer. Between 1837 and 1838, Frémont's desire for exploration increased while in Georgia on reconnaissance to prepare for the removal of Cherokee Indians. When Poinsett became Secretary of War, he arranged for Frémont to assist notable French explorer and scientist Joseph Nicollet in exploring the lands between the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. Frémont became a first rate topographer, trained in astronomy, and geology, describing fauna, flora, soil, and water resources. Gaining valuable western frontier experience Frémont came in contact with notable men including Henry Sibley, Joseph Renville, J.B. Faribault, Étienne Provost, and the Sioux nation.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Frémont's exploration work with Nicollet brought him in contact with Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri, powerful chairman of the Senate Committee on Military Affairs. Benton invited Frémont to his Washington home where he met Benton's 16-year-old daughter Jessie Benton. A romance blossomed between the two; however, Benton was initially against it because Frémont was not considered upper society. In 1841, Frémont (age 28) and Jessie eloped and were married by a Catholic priest. Initially Benton was furious at their marriage, but in time, because he loved his daughter, he accepted their marriage and became Frémont's patron. Benton, Democratic Party leader for more than 30 years in the Senate, championed the expansionist movement, a political cause that became known as Manifest Destiny. The expansionists believed that the North American continent, from one end to the other, north and south, east and west, should belong to the citizens of the U.S. They believed it was the nation's destiny to control the continent. This movement became a crusade for politicians such as Benton and his new son-in-law. Benton pushed appropriations through Congress for national surveys of the Oregon Trail, the Oregon Country, the Great Basin, and Sierra Nevada Mountains to California. Through his power and influence, Senator Benton obtained for Frémont the leadership, funding, and patronage of three expeditions.


title: John C. Frémont

text: The opening of the American West began in 1804, when the Lewis and Clark Expedition (led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark) started exploration of the new Louisiana Purchase territory to find a northwest passage up the Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean. President Thomas Jefferson had envisioned a Western empire, and also sent the Pike Expedition under Zebulon Pike to explore the southwest. American and European fur trappers, including Peter Skene Ogden and Jedediah Smith, explored much of the American West in the 1820s. Frémont, who would later be known as "The Pathfinder", carried on this tradition of Western overland exploration, building on and adding to the work of earlier pathfinders to expand knowledge of the American West. Frémont's talent lay in his scientific documentation, publications, and maps made based on his expeditions, making the American West accessible for many Americans. Beginning in 1842, Frémont led five western expeditions, however, between the third and fourth expeditions, Frémont's career took a fateful turn because of the Mexican–American War. Frémont's initial explorations, his timely scientific reports, co-authored by his wife Jessie, and their romantic writing style, encouraged Americans to travel West. A series of seven maps produced from his findings, published by the Senate in 1846, served as a guide for thousands of American emigrants, depicting the entire length of the Oregon Trail.


title: John C. Frémont

text: When Nicollet was too ill to continue any further explorations, Frémont was chosen to be his successor. His first important expedition was planned by Benton, Senator Lewis Linn, and other Westerners interested in acquiring the Oregon Territory. The scientific expedition started in the summer of 1842 and was to explore the Wind River of the Rocky Mountains, examine the Oregon Trail through the South Pass, and report on the rivers and the fertility of the lands, find optimal sites for forts, and describe the mountains beyond in Wyoming. By chance meeting, Frémont was able to gain the valuable assistance of mountain man and guide Kit Carson. Frémont and his party of 25 men, including Carson, embarked from the Kansas River on June 15, 1842, following the Platte River to the South Pass, and starting from Green River he explored the Wind River Range. Frémont climbed a 13,745-foot mountain, "Frémont's Peak", planted an American flag, claiming the Rocky Mountains and the West for the United States. On Frémont's return trip he and his party carelessly rafted the swollen Platte River losing much of his equipment. His five-month exploration, however, was a success, returning to Washington in October. Frémont and his wife Jessie wrote a "Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains" (1843), which was printed in newspapers across the country; the public embraced his vision of the west not as a place of danger but wide open and inviting lands to be settled.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Frémont's successful first expedition led quickly to a second; it began in the summer of 1843. The more ambitious goal this time was to map and describe the second half of the Oregon Trail, find an alternate route to the South Pass, and push westward toward the Pacific Ocean on the Columbia River in Oregon Country. Frémont and his almost 40 well-equipped men left the Missouri River in May after he controversially obtained a 12-pound howitzer cannon in St. Louis. Frémont invited Carson on the second expedition, due to his proven skills, and he joined Frémont's party on the Arkansas River. Unable to find a new route through Colorado to the South Pass, Frémont took to the regular Oregon Trail, passing the main body of the great immigration of 1843. His party stopped to explore the northern part of the Great Salt Lake, then traveling by way Fort Hall and Fort Boise to Marcus Whitman's mission, along the Snake River to the Columbia River and in to Oregon. Frémont's endurance, energy, and resourcefulness over the long journey was remarkable. Traveling west along the Columbia, they came within sight of the Cascade Range peaks and mapped Mount St. Helens and Mount Hood. Reaching the Dalles on November 5, Frémont left his party and traveled to the British-held Fort Vancouver for supplies.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Rather than turning around and heading back to St. Louis, Frémont resolved to explore the Great Basin between the Rockies and the Sierras and fulfill Benton's dream of acquiring the West for the United States. Frémont and his party turned south along the eastern flank of the Cascades through the Oregon territory to Pyramid Lake, which he named. Looping back to the east to stay on the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada mountain range, they turned south again as far as present-day Minden, Nevada, reaching the Carson River on January 18, 1844. From an area near what later became Virginia City, Frémont turned west into the cold and snowy Sierra Nevada, becoming one of the first Americans to see Lake Tahoe. Carson successfully led Frémont's party through a new pass over the high Sierras, which Frémont named Carson Pass in his honor. Frémont and his party then descended the American River valley to Sutter's Fort (Spanish: Nueva Helvetia) at present-day Sacramento, California, in early March. Captain John Sutter, a German-Mexican (and later American by treaty) immigrant and founder of the fort, received Frémont gladly and refitted his expedition party. While at Sutter's Fort, Frémont talked to American settlers, who were growing numerous, and found that Mexican authority over California was very weak.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Leaving Sutter's Fort, Frémont and his men headed south following Smith's trail on the eastern edge of the San Joaquin Valley until he struck the "Spanish Trail" between Los Angeles and Santa Fe, and headed east through Tehachapi Pass and present-day Las Vegas before regaining Smith's trail north through Utah and back to South Pass. Exploring the Great Basin, Frémont verified that all the land (centered on modern-day Nevada between Reno and Salt Lake City) was endorheic, without any outlet rivers flowing towards the sea. The finding contributed greatly to a better understanding of North American geography, and disproved a longstanding legend of a 'Buenaventura River' that flowed out the Great Basin across the Sierra Nevada. After exploring Utah Lake, Frémont traveled by way of the Pueblo until he reached Bent's Fort on the Arkansas River. In August 1844, Frémont and his party finally arrived back in St. Louis, enthusiastically received by the people, ending the journey that lasted over one year. His wife Jessie and Frémont returned to Washington, where the two wrote a second report, scientific in detail, showing the Oregon Trail was not difficult to travel and that the Northwest had fertile land. Senator Buchanan ordered the printing of 10,000 copies to be used by settlers and fervor the popular movement of national expansion.


title: John C. Frémont

text: With the backdrop of an impending war with Mexico, after James K. Polk had been elected president, Benton quickly organized a third expedition for Frémont. The plan for Frémont under the War Department was to survey the central Rockies, the Great Salt Lake region, and part of the Sierra Nevada. Back in St. Louis, Frémont organized an armed surveying expedition of 60 men, with Carson as a guide, and two distinguished scouts, Joseph Walker and Alexis Godey. Working with Benton and Secretary of Navy George Bancroft, Frémont was secretly told that if war started with Mexico he was to turn his scientific expedition into a military force. President Polk, who had met with Frémont at a cabinet meeting, was set on taking California. Frémont desired to conquer California for its beauty and wealth, and would later explain his very controversial conduct there.


title: John C. Frémont

text: On June 1, 1845, Frémont and his armed expedition party left St. Louis having the immediate goal to locate the source of the Arkansas River, on the east side of the Rocky Mountains. Frémont and his party struck west by way of Bent's Fort, The Great Salt Lake, and the "Hastings Cut-Off". When Frémont reached the Ogden River, which he renamed the Humboldt, he divided his party in two to double his geographic information. Upon reaching the Arkansas River, Frémont suddenly made a blazing trail through Nevada straight to California, having a rendezvous with his men from the split party at Walker Lake in west-central Nevada.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Taking 16 men, Frémont split his party again, arriving at Sutter's Fort in the Sacramento Valley on December 9. Frémont promptly sought to stir up patriotic enthusiasm among the American settlers there. He promised that if war with Mexico started, his military force would protect the settlers. Frémont went to Monterey, California, to talk with the American consul, Thomas O. Larkin, and Mexican "commandant" Jose Castro, under the pretext of gaining fuller supplies. In February 1846, Frémont reunited with 45 men of his expedition party near Mission San José, giving the United States a formidable military army in California. Castro and Mexican officials were suspicious of Frémont and he was ordered to leave the country. Frémont and his men withdrew and camped near the summit of what is now named Fremont Peak. Headstrong and with much audacity, Frémont raised the United States Flag in defiance of Mexican authority.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Playing for time, after a four-day standoff and Castro having a superior number of Mexican troops, Frémont and his men went north to Oregon, executing the Sacramento River massacre along the way. Estimates of the casualties vary. Expedition members Thomas E. Breckenridge and Thomas S. Martin claim the number of Native Americans killed as "120–150" and "over 175" respectively, but the eyewitness Tustin claimed that at least 600–700 Native Americans were killed on land, with another 200 or more dying in the water. There are no records of any expedition members being killed or even wounded in the massacre. Kit Carson, one of the mounted attackers, later stated, "It was a perfect butchery."


title: John C. Frémont

text: Fremont and his men eventually made their way to camp at Klamath Lake, killing Native Americans on sight as they went. On May 8, Frémont was overtaken by Lieutenant Archibald Gillespie from Washington, who gave him copies of dispatches he had previously given to Larkin. Gillespie told Frémont secret instructions from Benton and Buchanan justifying aggressive action and that a declaration of war with Mexico was imminent. On May 9, 1846, Native Americans ambushed his expedition party in retaliation for numerous killings of Native Americans that Frémont's men had engaged in along the trail, killing three members of Frémont's party in their sleep, including a Native American who was traveling with Frémont. Frémont retaliated by attacking a Klamath fishing village named "Dokdokwas" the following day in the Klamath Lake massacre, although the people living there might not have been involved in the first action. The village was at the junction of the Williamson River and Klamath Lake. On May 12, 1846, the Frémont group completely destroyed it, killing at least fourteen people. Frémont believed that the British were responsible for arming and encouraging the Native Americans to attack his party. Afterward, Carson was nearly killed by a Klamath warrior. As Carson's gun misfired, the warrior drew to shoot a poison arrow; however, Frémont, seeing that Carson was in danger, trampled the warrior with his horse. Carson felt that he owed Frémont his life. A few weeks later, Frémont and his armed militia returned to California.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Having reentered Mexican California headed south, Frémont and his army expedition stopped off at Peter Lassen's Ranch on May 24, 1846. Frémont learned from Lassen that the USS "Portsmouth", commanded by John B. Montgomery, was anchored at Sausalito. Frémont sent Lt. Gillespie to Montgomery and requested supplies including 8000 percussion caps, 300 pounds of rifle lead, one keg of powder, and food provisions, intending to head back to St. Louis. On May 31, Frémont made his camp on the Bear and Feather rivers 60 miles north of Sutter's Fort, where American immigrants ready for revolt against Mexican authority joined his party. From there he made another attack on local Native Americans in a rancheria (see Sutter Buttes massacre). In early June, believing war with Mexico to be a virtual certainty, Frémont joined the Sacramento Valley insurgents in a "silent partnership", rather than head back to St. Louis, as originally planned. On June 10, instigated by Frémont, four men from Frémont's party and 10 rebel volunteers seized 170 horses intended for Castro's Army and returned them to Frémont's camp. According to historian H. H. Bancroft, Frémont incited the American settlers indirectly and "guardedly" to revolt. On June 14, 34 armed rebels independently captured Sonoma, the largest settlement in northern California, and forced the surrender of Colonel Mariano Vallejo, taking him and three others prisoner. The following day, the rebelling Americans, who were called "Osos" (Spanish for "bears") by the residents of Sonoma, amidst a brandy-filled party, hoisted a roughly sewn flag and formed the Bear Flag Republic, electing William Ide as their leader. The four prisoners were then taken to Frémont's camp 80 miles away. On June 15, the prisoners and escorts arrived at Frémont's new camp on the American River, but Frémont publicly denied responsibility for the raid. The escorts then removed the prisoners south to Sutter's Fort, where they were imprisoned by Sutter under Frémont's orders. It was at this time Frémont began signing letters as "Military Commander of U.S. Forces in California".


title: John C. Frémont

text: On June 24, Frémont and his men, upon hearing that Californio (people of Spanish or Mexican descent) Juan N. Padilla had captured, tortured, killed, and mutilated the bodies of two Osos and held others prisoner, rode to Sonoma, arriving on June 25. On June 26, Frémont, his own men, Lieutenant Henry Ford and a detachment of Osos, totalling 125 men, rode south to San Rafael, searching for Captain Joaquin de la Torre and his lancers, rumored to have been ordered by Castro to attack Sonoma, but was unable to find them. On June 28, General Castro, on the other side of San Francisco Bay, sent a row boat across to Point San Pablo on the shores of San Rafael with a message for de la Torre. Kit Carson, Granville Swift and Sam Neal rode to the beach to intercept the three unarmed men who came ashore, including Don José Berreyesa and the 20-year-old Haro twin brothers Ramon and Francisco, sons of Don Francisco de Haro. The three were murdered in cold blood. Exactly who committed the murders is a point of controversy, but later accounts point to Carson acting at the behest, if not the order, of Frémont.


title: John C. Frémont

text: On July 1, Commodore John D. Sloat, commanding the U.S. Navy's Pacific Squadron, sailed into Monterey harbor with orders to seize San Francisco Bay and blockade the other California ports upon learning "without a doubt" that war had been declared. On July 5, Sloat received a message from Montgomery reporting the events in Sonoma and Frémont's involvement. Believing Frémont to be acting on orders from Washington, Sloat began to carry out his orders. Early on July 7, 225 sailors and marines on the United States Navy frigate USS "Savannah" and the two sloops, USS "Cyane" and USS "Levant" landed and captured Monterey with no shots being fired and raised the flag of the United States. Commodore Sloat had his proclamation read and posted in English and Spanish: "... henceforth California would be a portion of the United States." On July 10, Frémont received a message from Montgomery that the U.S. Navy had occupied Monterey and Yerba Buena. Two days later, Frémont received a letter from Sloat, describing the capture of Monterey and ordering Frémont to bring at least 100 armed men to Monterey. Frémont would bring 160 men. On July 15, Commodore Robert F. Stockton arrived in Monterey to replace the 65-year-old Sloat in command of the Pacific Squadron. Sloat named Stockton commander-in-chief of all land forces in California. On July 19, Frémont's party entered Monterey, where he met with Sloat on board the "Savannah". When Sloat learned that Frémont had acted on his own authority (thus raising doubt about a war declaration), he retired to his cabin. On July 23, Stockton mustered Frémont's party and the former Bear Flaggers into military service as the "Naval Battalion of Mounted Volunteer Riflemen" with Frémont appointed major in command of the California Battalion, which he had helped form with his survey crew and volunteers from the Bear Flag Republic, now totaling 428 men. Stockton incorporated the California Battalion into the U.S. military giving them soldiers pay. Frémont and about 160 of his troops went by ship to San Diego, and with Stockton's marines took Los Angeles on August 13. Frémont afterwards went north to recruit more Californians into his battalion. In late 1846, under orders from Stockton, Frémont led a military expedition of 300 men to capture Santa Barbara. In September, Mexican Californians unwilling to be ruled by the United States, under José María Flores, fought back and retook Los Angeles, driving out Americans.


title: John C. Frémont

text: In December 1846, U.S. Brigadier General Stephen W. Kearny arrived in California under "orders from President Polk" after taking New Mexico, then to march onto "California where, ""Should you conquer and take possession of California, you will establish a civil government."" Kearny, who had earlier trimmed his forces from 300 to 100 dragoons, based upon Kit Carson's dispatches he was carrying to Washington, stating that Stockton and Fremont had successfully taken control of California. Unknown to Carson at this time, the Californians had revolted, which would lead Kearny to a disastrous attack on waiting Mexican lancers at the Battle of San Pasqual, losing 19 men killed and being himself seriously lanced. He was later reinforced when Stockton sent troops to drive off Pio Pico and his forces. It was at this time a dispute began between Stockton and Kearny over who had control of the military, but the two managed to work together to stop the Los Angeles uprising. Frémont led his unit over the Santa Ynez Mountains at San Marcos Pass in a rainstorm on the night of December 24, 1846. Despite losing many of his horses, mules and cannons, which slid down the muddy slopes during the rainy night, his men regrouped in the foothills (behind what is today Rancho Del Ciervo) the next morning, and captured the Presidio of Santa Barbara and the town without bloodshed. A few days later, Frémont led his men southeast towards Los Angeles. Fremont accepted Andres Pico's surrender upon signing the Treaty of Cahuenga on January 13, 1847, which terminated the war in upper California. It was at this time Kearny ordered Frémont to join his military dragoons, but Frémont refused, believing he was under authority of Stockton.


title: John C. Frémont

text: On January 16, 1847, Commodore Stockton appointed Frémont military governor of California following the Treaty of Cahuenga, and then left Los Angeles. Frémont functioned for a few weeks without controversy, but he had little money to administer his duties as governor. Previously, unknown to Stockton and Frémont, the Navy Department had sent orders for Sloat and his successors to establish military rule over California. These orders, however, postdated Kearny's orders to establish military control over California. Kearny did not have the troop strength to enforce those orders, and was forced to rely on Stockton's Marines and Frémont's California Battalion until army reinforcements arrived. On February 13, specific orders were sent from Washington through Commanding General Winfield Scott giving Kearny the authority to be military governor of California. Kearny, however, did not directly inform Frémont of these orders from Scott. Kearny ordered that Frémont's California Battalion be enlisted into the U.S. Army and Frémont bring his battalion archives to Kearny's headquarters in Monterey.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Frémont delayed obeying these orders, hoping Washington would send instructions for Frémont to be military governor. Also, the California Battalion refused to join the U.S. Army. Frémont gave orders for the California Battalion not to surrender arms, rode to Monterey to talk to Kearny, and told Kearny he would obey orders. Kearny sent Col. Richard B. Mason, who was to succeed Kearny as military governor of California, to Los Angeles, both to inspect troops and to give Frémont further orders. Frémont and Mason, however, were at odds with each other and Frémont challenged Mason to a duel. After an arrangement to postpone the duel, Kearny rode to Los Angeles and refused Frémont's request to join troops in Mexico. Ordered to march with Kearny's army back east, Frémont was arrested on August 22, 1847, when they arrived at Fort Leavenworth. He was charged with mutiny, disobedience of orders, assumption of powers, and several other military offenses. Ordered by Kearny to report to the adjutant general in Washington to stand for court-martial, Frémont was found innocent of mutiny, but was convicted on January 31, 1848, of disobedience toward a superior officer and military misconduct.


title: John C. Frémont

text: While approving the court's decision, President James K. Polk quickly commuted Frémont's sentence of dishonorable discharge and reinstated him into the Army, due to his war services. Polk felt that Frémont was guilty of disobeying orders and misconduct, but he did not believe Frémont was guilty of mutiny. Additionally, Polk wished to placate Thomas Hart Benton, a powerful senator and Frémont's father-in-law, who felt that Frémont was innocent. Frémont, only gaining a partial pardon from Polk, resigned his commission in protest and settled in California. Despite the court-martial, Frémont remained popular among the American public.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Historians are divided in their opinions on this period of Frémont's career. Mary Lee Spence and Donald Jackson, editors of a large collection of letters by Fremont and others dating from this period, concluded that "...in the California episode, Frémont was as often right as wrong. And even a cursory investigation of the court-martial record produces one undeniable conclusion: neither side in the controversy acquitted itself with distinction." Allan Nevins states that Kearny:


title: John C. Frémont

text: Theodore Grivas wrote that "It does not seem quite clear how Frémont, an army officer, could have imagined that a naval officer [Stockton] could have protected him from a charge of insubordination toward his superior officer [Kearny]". Grivas goes on to say, however, that "This conflict between Kearny, Stockton, and Frémont perhaps could have been averted had methods of communication been what they are today."


title: John C. Frémont

text: Intent on restoring his honor and explorer reputation after his court martial, in 1848, Frémont and his father-in-law Sen. Benton developed a plan to advance their vision of Manifest Destiny. With a keen interest in the potential of railroads, Sen. Benton had sought support from the Senate for a railroad connecting St. Louis to San Francisco along the 38th parallel, the latitude which both cities approximately share. After Benton failed to secure federal funding, Frémont secured private funding. In October 1848 he embarked with 35 men up the Missouri, Kansas and Arkansas rivers to explore the terrain. The artists and brothers Edward Kern and Richard Kern, and their brother Benjamin Kern, were part of the expedition, but Frémont was unable to obtain the valued service of Kit Carson as guide as in his previous expeditions.


title: John C. Frémont

text: On his party's reaching Bent's Fort, he was strongly advised by most of the trappers against continuing the journey. Already a foot of snow was on the ground at Bent's Fort, and the winter in the mountains promised to be especially snowy. Part of Frémont's purpose was to demonstrate that a 38th parallel railroad would be practical year-round. At Bent's Fort, he engaged "Uncle Dick" Wootton as guide, and at what is now Pueblo, Colorado, he hired the eccentric Old Bill Williams and moved on.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Had Frémont continued up the Arkansas, he might have succeeded. On November 25 at what is now Florence, Colorado, he turned sharply south. By the time his party crossed the Sangre de Cristo Range via Mosca Pass, they had already experienced days of bitter cold, blinding snow and difficult travel. Some of the party, including the guide Wootton, had already turned back, concluding that further travel would be impossible. Benjamin Kern and "Old Bill" Williams were killed while retracing the expedition trail to look for gear and survivors.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Although the passes through the Sangre de Cristo had proven too steep for a railroad, Frémont pressed on. From this point the party might still have succeeded had they gone up the Rio Grande to its source, or gone by a more northerly route, but the route they took brought them to the very top of Mesa Mountain. By December 12, on Boot Mountain, it took ninety minutes to progress three hundred yards. Mules began dying and by December 20, only 59 animals remained alive.


title: John C. Frémont

text: It was not until December 22 that Frémont acknowledged that the party needed to regroup and be resupplied. They began to make their way to Taos in the New Mexico Territory. By the time the last surviving member of the expedition made it to Taos on February 12, 1849, 10 of the party had died. Except for the efforts of member Alexis Godey, another 15 would have been lost. After recuperating in Taos, Frémont and only a few of the men left for California via an established southern trade route.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Edward and Richard Kern joined J.H. Simpson's military reconnaissance expedition to the Navajos in 1849, and gave the American public some of its earliest authentic graphic images of the people and landscape of Arizona, New Mexico, and southern Colorado; with views of Canyon de Chelly, Chaco Canyon, and El Morro (Inscription Rock).


title: John C. Frémont

text: In 1850, Frémont was awarded the Patron's Medal by the Royal Geographical Society for his various exploratory efforts.


title: John C. Frémont

text: On February 10, 1847, Frémont purchased seventy square miles of land in the Sierra foothills, called "Las Mariposas", through land speculator Thomas Larkin, for $3,000. "Las Mariposas" had previously been owned by Juan Bautista Alvarado, former California governor, and his wife Martina Caston de Alvarado. Frémont had hoped "Las Mariposas" was near San Francisco or Monterey, but was disappointed when he found out it was farther inland by Yosemite, on the Miwok Indian's hunting and gathering grounds. After his court martial in 1848, Frémont moved to "Las Mariposas" and became a rancher, borrowing money from his father-in-law Benton and Senator John Dix to construct a house, corral, and barn. Frémont ordered a sawmill and had it shipped by the Aspinwall steamer "Fredonia" to "Las Mariposas". Frémont was informed by Sonora Mexicans that gold had been discovered on his property. Frémont was instantly a wealthy man, a five-mile quartz vein produced hundreds of pounds of placer gold each month. In 1851 Hiland Hall, a former Governor of Vermont, was appointed chairman of the federal commission created to settle Mexican land titles in California; he traveled to San Francisco to begin his work, and his son-in-law Trenor W. Park traveled with him. Frémont hired Park as a managing partner to oversee the day-to-day activities of the estate, and Mexican laborers to wash out the gold on his property in exchange for a percentage of the profits. Frémont acquired large landholdings in San Francisco, and while developing his "Las Mariposas" gold ranch, he lived a wealthy lifestyle in Monterey.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Legal issues, however, soon mounted over property and mineral rights. Disputes erupted as squatters moved on Frémont's "Las Mariposas" land mining for gold. There was question whether the three mining districts on the land were public domain, while the Merced Mining Company was actively mining on Frémont's property. Since Alvarado had purchased "Las Mariposas" on a "floating grant", the property borders were not precisely defined by the Mexican government. Alvarado's ownership of the land was legally contested since Alvarado never actually settled on the property as required by Mexican law. All of these matters lingered and were argued in court for many years until the Supreme Court finally ruled in Frémont's favor in 1856. Although Frémont's legal victory allowed him to keep his wealth, it created lingering animosity among his neighbors.


title: John C. Frémont

text: During the late 1850s, Frederick H. Billings, a partner in the Halleck, Peachy & Billings law firm that employed Park, partnered with Frémont in several successful business ventures. Billings later embarked on several trips to Europe in an unsuccessful effort to sell Frémont's Mariposa mine shares. At the start of the American Civil War, Billings acted as Frémont's agent when Frémont took the initiative to purchase arms in England for use by Union troops.


title: John C. Frémont

text: On November 13, 1849, General Bennet C. Riley, without Washington approval, called for a state election to ratify the new California State constitution. On December 20, the California legislature voted to seat two senators to represent the state in the Senate. The front-runner was Frémont, a Free Soil Democrat, known for being a western hero, and regarded by many as an innocent victim of an unjustified court-martial. The other candidates were T. Butler King, a Whig, and William Gwin, a Democrat. Frémont won the first Senate seat, easily having 29 out of 41 votes and Gwin, having Southern backing, was elected to the second Senate seat, having won 24 out of 41 votes. By random draw of straws, Gwin won the longer Senate term while Frémont won the shorter Senate term.


title: John C. Frémont

text: In Washington, Frémont, whose California ranch had been purchased from a Mexican land grantee, supported an unsuccessful law that would have rubber-stamped Mexican land grants, and another law that prevented foreign workers from owning gold claims (Fremont's ranch was in gold country), derisively called "Frémont's Gold Bill". Frémont voted against harsh penalties for those who assisted runaway slaves and he was in favor of abolishing the slave trade in the District of Columbia.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Democratic pro-slavery opponents of Frémont, called the Chivs, strongly opposed Frémont's re-election, and endorsed Solomon Heydenfeldt. Rushing back to California hoping to thwart the Chivs, Frémont started his own election newspaper, the "San Jose Daily Argus", however, to no avail, he was unable to get enough votes for re-election to the Senate. Neither Heydenfeldt, nor Frémont's other second-time competitor King, were able to obtain a majority of votes, allowing Gwin to be California's lone senator. Frémont's term lasted 175 days from September 10, 1850, to March 3, 1851, and he only served 21 working days in Washington in the Senate. Pro-slavery John B. Weller, supported by the Chivs, was elected one year later to the empty Senate seat previously held by Frémont.


title: John C. Frémont

text: In the fall of 1853, Frémont embarked on another expedition to identify a viable route for a transcontinental railroad along the 38th parallel. The party journeyed between Missouri and San Francisco, California, over a combination of known trails and unexplored terrain. A primary objective was to pass through the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada Mountains during winter to document the amount of snow and the feasibility of winter rail passage along the route. His photographer (daguerreotypist) was Solomon Nunes Carvalho.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Frémont followed the Santa Fe Trail, passing Bent's Fort before heading west and entering the San Luis Valley of Colorado in December. The party then followed the North Branch of the Old Spanish Trail, crossing the Continental Divide at Cochetopa Pass and continuing west into central Utah. But following the trail was made difficult by snow cover. On occasion, they were able to detect evidence of Captain John Gunnison's expedition, which had followed the North Branch just months before.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Weeks of snow and bitter cold took its toll and slowed progress. Nonessential equipment was abandoned and one man died before the struggling party reached the Mormon settlement of Parowan in southwestern Utah on February 8, 1854. After spending two weeks in Parowan to regain strength, the party continued across the Great Basin and entered the Owens Valley near present-day Big Pine, California. Frémont then journeyed south and crossed the Sierra Nevada Mountains and entered the Kern River drainage, which was followed west to the San Joaquin Valley.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Frémont arrived in San Francisco on April 16, 1854. Having completed a winter passage across the mountainous west, Frémont was optimistic that a railroad along the 38th Parallel was viable and that winter travel along the line would be possible through the Rocky Mountains.


title: John C. Frémont

text: In 1856, Frémont (age 43) was the first presidential candidate of the new Republican Party. The Republicans, whose party had formed in 1854, were united in their opposition to the Pierce Administration and the spread of slavery into the West. Initially, Frémont was asked to be the Democratic candidate by former Virginia Governor John B. Floyd and the powerful Preston family. Frémont announced that he was for Free Soil Kansas and was against the enforcement of the 1850 Fugitive Slave Law. Republican leaders Nathaniel P. Banks, Henry Wilson, and John Bigelow were able to get Frémont to join their political party. Seeking a united front and a fresh face for the party, the Republicans nominated Frémont for president over other candidates, and conservative William L. Dayton of New Jersey, for vice president, at their June 1856 convention held in Philadelphia. The Republican campaign used the slogan "Free Soil, Free Men, and Frémont" to crusade for free farms (homesteads) and against the Slave Power. Frémont, popularly known as "The Pathfinder", however, had voter appeal and remained the symbol of the Republican Party. The Democratic Party nominated James Buchanan.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Frémont's wife Jessie, Bigelow, and Issac Sherman ran Frémont's campaign. As the daughter of a senator, Jessie had been raised in Washington, and she understood politics more than Frémont. Many treated Jessie as an equal political professional, while Frémont was treated as an amateur. She received popular attention much more than potential First Ladies, and Republicans celebrated her participation in the campaign calling her "Our Jessie". Jessie and the Republican propaganda machine ran a strong campaign, but she was unable to get her powerful father, Senator Benton, to support Frémont. While praising Frémont, Benton announced his support for Buchanan.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Frémont, along with the other presidential candidates, did not actively participate in the campaign, and he mostly stayed home at 56 West Street, in New York City. This practice was typical in presidential campaigns of the 19th century. To win the presidency, the Republicans concentrated on four swing states, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Indiana, and Illinois. Republican luminaries were sent out decrying the Democratic Party's attachment to slavery and its support of the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. The experienced Democrats, knowing the Republican strategy, also targeted these states, running a rough media campaign, while illegally naturalizing thousands of alien immigrants in Pennsylvania. The campaign was particularly abusive, as the Democrats attacked Frémont's illegitimate birth and alleged Frémont was Catholic. In a counter-crusade against the Republicans, the Democrats ridiculed Frémont's military record and warned that his victory would bring civil war. Much of the private rhetoric of the campaign focused on unfounded rumors regarding Frémont – talk of him as president taking charge of a large army that would support slave insurrections, the likelihood of widespread lynchings of slaves, and whispered hope among slaves for freedom and political equality.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Frémont's campaign was headquartered near his home (St. George) next to the Clifton ferry landing. Many campaign rallies were held on the lawn, now the corner of Greenfield and Bay Street. Frémont was defeated, having placed second to James Buchanan in a three-way election; he did not carry the state of California. Frémont received 114 electoral votes to 174 votes received by Buchanan. Millard Fillmore ran as a third-party candidate representing the American (Know Nothing) Party. The popular vote went to Buchanan who received 1,836,072 votes to 1,342,345 votes received by Frémont on November 4, 1856. Fremont carried 11 states, and Buchanan carried 19. The Democrats were better organized while the Republicans had to operate on limited funding. After the campaign, Frémont returned to California and devoted himself to his mining business on the Mariposa gold estate, estimated by some to be valued at ten million dollars. Frémont's title to Mariposa land had been confirmed by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1856.


title: John C. Frémont

text: At the start of the Civil War, Frémont was touring Europe in an attempt to find financial backers in his California "Las Mariposas" estate ranch. President Abraham Lincoln wanted to appoint Frémont as the American minister to France, thereby taking advantage of his French ancestry and the popularity in Europe of his anti-slavery positions. However Secretary of State William Henry Seward objected to Frémont's radicalism, and the appointment was not made. Instead, Lincoln appointed Frémont Union Army Major General on May 15, 1861. He arrived in Boston from England on June 27, 1861, and Lincoln promoted him commander of the Department of the West on July 1, 1861. The Western department included the area west of the Appalachian Mountains to the Mississippi River. After Frémont arrived in Washington, D.C., he conferred with Lincoln and Commanding General Winfield Scott, himself making a plan to clear all Confederates out of Missouri and to make a general campaign down the Mississippi and advance on Memphis. According to Frémont, Lincoln had given him "carte blanche" authority on how to conduct his campaign and to use his own judgement, while talking on the steps of the White House portico. Frémont's main goal as commander of the Western Armies was to protect Cairo, Illinois, at all costs in order for the Union Army to move southward on the Mississippi River. Both Frémont and his subordinate, General John Pope, believed that Ulysses S. Grant was the fighting general needed to secure Missouri from the Confederates. Frémont had to contend with a hard-driving Union General Nathaniel Lyon, whose irregular war policy disturbed the complex loyalties of Missouri.


title: John C. Frémont

text: On July 25, 1861, Frémont arrived in St. Louis and formally took command of a Department of the West that was in crisis. Frémont was forty-eight years old, grey-haired and considered handsome. He brought with him the great reputation as "the Pathfinder of the West", for his eleven years of topographical service, and he was focused on driving the Confederate forces from Missouri. Frémont had to organize an army in a slave state that was largely disloyal, having a limited number of Union soldiers, supplies, and arms. Guerilla warfare was breaking out and two Confederate armies were planning on capturing Springfield and invading Illinois to capture Cairo. Frémont's duties upon taking command of the Western Department were broad, his resources were limited, and the secession crisis in Missouri appeared to be uncontrollable. Frémont was responsible for safeguarding Missouri and all of the Northwest. Frémont's mission was to organize, equip, and lead the Union Army down the Mississippi River, reopen commerce, and break off the Western part of the Confederacy. Frémont was given only 23,000 men, whose volunteer 3-month enlistments were about to expire. Western Governors sent more troops to Frémont, but he did not have any weapons with which to arm them. There were no uniforms or military equipment either, and the soldiers were subject to food rationing, poor transportation, and lack of pay. Fremont's intelligence was also faulty, leading him to believe the Missouri state militia and the Confederate forces were twice as numerous as they actually were.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Frémont's arrival brought an aristocratic air that raised eyebrows and general disapproval among the people of St. Louis. Soon after he came into command, Frémont became involved in a political feud with Frank Blair, who was a member of the powerful Blair family and brother of Lincoln's cabinet member. To gain control of Missouri politics, Blair complained to Washington that Frémont was "extravagant" and that his command was brimming with a "horde of pirates", who were defrauding the army. This caused Lincoln to send Adjutant General Lorenzo Thomas to check in on Frémont, who reported that Frémont was incompetent and had made questionable army purchases.


title: John C. Frémont

text: The imbroglio became a national scandal, and Frémont was unable to keep a handle on supply affairs. A Congressional subcommittee investigation headed by Elihu B. Washburne and a later Commission on War Claims investigation into the entire Western Department confirmed that many of Blair's charges were true.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Frémont ran his headquarters in St. Louis "like a European autocrat". Perhaps this was due to a sojourn through France before his appointment by President Lincoln. There, Frémont had rented a lavish mansion for $6,000 a year, paid for by the government, and surrounded himself with Hungarian and Italian guards in brassy uniforms. Frémont additionally set up a headquarters bodyguard of 300 Kentucky men, chosen for their uniform physical attributes. Frémont had surrounded himself with California associates, who made huge profits by securing army contracts without the competitive bidding required by federal law. One Californian contracted for the construction of 38 mortar boats for $8,250 apiece, almost double what they were worth. Another Californian, who was a personal friend of Frémont's, but had no construction experience, received a contract worth $191,000 to build a series of forts, which should have cost one third less. Frémont's favorite sellers received "the most stupendous contracts" for railroad cars, horses, Army mules, tents, and other equipment, most of them of shoddy quality. A rumor spread in Washington that Frémont was planning to start his own republic or empire in the West. Frémont's supply line, headed by Major Justus McKinstry, also came under scrutiny for graft and profiteering. Frémont's biographer Nevins stresses that much of Frémont's trouble stemmed from the fact that the newly created Western Department was without organization, war materials, and trained recruits, while waste and corruption were endemic in the War Department under Lincoln's first appointed secretary, Simon Cameron.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Earlier in May, a tough, impetuous Regular Army captain, Nathaniel Lyon, exercising irregular authority, led troops who captured a legal contingent of Missouri state militia camped in a Saint Louis suburb; during the capture, civilians were killed. Missouri had not officially seceded from the Union when Lyon was promoted to brigadier general by President Abraham Lincoln and appointed temporary commander of the Department of the West. Lyon, who believed a show of force would keep Missouri in the Union, effectively declared war on secession-minded Missouri governor Claiborne Jackson, who was driven by Lyon to the Ozarks. Lyon occupied Jefferson City, the state capital, and installed a pro-Union state government. However, Lyon became trapped at Springfield with only 6,000 men (including Union Colonel Franz Sigel and his German corps). A primary concern for Frémont, after he assumed command, was the protection of Cairo, a Union-occupied city on the Mississippi River, vital to the security of the Union Army's western war effort. It contained too few troops to defend against a Confederate attack. Compared to the Confederates, Frémont's forces were dispersed and disorganized. Frémont ordered Lyon to retreat from Springfield and fall back to Rolla, while Frémont sent reinforcement troops to Cairo rather than to Lyon, who had requested more troops. Frémont believed with some accuracy that the Confederates were planning to attack Cairo. Lyon, however, hastily chose to attack Confederate General Sterling Price at the Battle of Wilson's Creek, rather than retreat. During the battle Lyon was shot through the heart and died instantly. As the Union line broke, similar to the first Battle of Bull Run in the east, the Confederates won the battle and captured Springfield, thus opening Western Missouri for Confederate advancement. Frémont was severely criticized for the defeat and for Lyon's death, having sent troops to reinforce Cairo, rather than to help Lyon's depleted forces 10 miles south of Springfield.