title: Samantha Smith

text: Perhaps you can take some measure of comfort in the knowledge that millions of Americans, indeed millions of people, share the burdens of your grief. They also will cherish and remember Samantha, her smile, her idealism and unaffected sweetness of spirit.


title: Samantha Smith

text: The remains of Samantha and her father were cremated, and their ashes were buried at Estabrook Cemetery, Amity, Maine.


title: Samantha Smith

text: Smith's contributions have been honored with a number of tributes by Russians and by the people of her home state of Maine. A monument to her was built in Moscow; "Samantha Smith Alley" in the Artek Young Pioneer camp was named after her in 1986. The monument built to Smith was stolen by metal thieves in 2003 following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. In 2003, Voronezh retiree Valentin Vaulin built a monument to her without any support from the government. The Soviet Union issued a commemorative stamp with her likeness. In 1986 Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Chernykh discovered asteroid 3147, which she named 3147 Samantha. Danish composer Per Nørgård wrote his 1985 viola concerto "Remembering Child" in memory of Smith. A diamond found in Siberia, a mountain in the former Soviet Union, a cultivar of tulips and of dahlias, and an ocean vessel have been named in Smith's honor. In 1985, a peace garden was established in Michigan along the St. Clair River to commemorate her achievements. In Maine, the first Monday in June of each year is officially designated as Samantha Smith Day by state law. There is a bronze statue of Smith near the Maine State Museum in Augusta, which portrays Smith releasing a dove with a bear cub resting at her feet. The bear cub represents both Maine and Russia. Elementary schools in Sammamish, Washington, and in Jamaica, Queens, New York City, have been named after Samantha. In October 1985, Smith's mother founded The Samantha Smith Foundation, which fostered student exchanges between the United States and the Soviet Union (and, after December 1991, the ex-Soviet successor states) until it became dormant in the mid-1990s. The Foundation was formally dissolved in 2014 after two decades of dormancy.


title: Samantha Smith

text: A 1987 episode of the U.S. sitcom "The Golden Girls" entitled "Letter to Gorbachev" draws inspiration from Smith's story. In addition, the 1987 film "" included a scene where a boy writes Superman a letter to control the nuclear arms race; according to Christopher Reeve, this scene was also inspired by Smith's story.


title: Samantha Smith

text: In the mid-1980s, after Smith's death, a script was written for a television movie titled "The Samantha Smith Story" with Robert Wagner as producer. Columbia Pictures Television and R. J. Wagner Productions were reported to have agreed to produce the film for NBC, with Soviet company Sovin Film interested in co-producing it. Ultimately, Columbia Pictures Television decided not to film it due to lack of interest from any network.


title: Samantha Smith

text: Speculation as to what a surviving Samantha might have done in adulthood was dismissed by her mother Jane as unanswerable in 2003, given Samantha was only thirteen when she died and her ambitions had varied from a veterinarian to a ballerina. The notion, which had been put to Samantha herself in the eighties, that she could be President of the United States in adulthood, was dismissed by her in the Disney Channel special that she hosted, with the words "being President is not a job I would like to have".


title: Samantha Smith

text: In 2008, Smith posthumously received the Peace Abbey Courage of Conscience Award for "helping to bring about better understanding between the peoples of the [USA and the USSR], and as a result, reduce the tension between the superpowers that were poised to engage in nuclear war". The Peace Abbey has also proposed The Peace Literature Project in Honor of Samantha Smith "to educate students about peace and promote peace literature for school-age children in 50 selected pilot schools across the United States".


title: Samantha Smith

text: Elliott Holt's 2013 novel "You Are One of Them", uses the story of Smith as inspiration for a fictional character, Jennifer Jones.


title: Samantha Smith

text: On the 30th anniversary of the plane crash in 2015, the Maine State Museum opened a new exhibit of materials related to Smith, including photographs of her time at the Artek camp, traditional Russian clothing she was given, and an issue of "Soviet Life" magazine with her on the cover.


title: Monotonic function

text: In mathematics, a monotonic function (or monotone function) is a function between ordered sets that preserves or reverses the given order. This concept first arose in calculus, and was later generalized to the more abstract setting of order theory.


title: Monotonic function

text: In calculus, a function formula_1 defined on a subset of the real numbers with real values is called "monotonic" if and only if it is either entirely non-increasing, or entirely non-decreasing. That is, as per Fig. 1, a function that increases monotonically does not exclusively have to increase, it simply must not decrease.


title: Monotonic function

text: A function is called "monotonically increasing" (also "increasing" or "non-decreasing") if for all formula_2 and formula_3 such that formula_4 one has formula_5, so formula_1 preserves the order (see Figure 1). Likewise, a function is called "monotonically decreasing" (also "decreasing" or "non-increasing") if, whenever formula_4, then formula_8, so it "reverses" the order (see Figure 2).


title: Monotonic function

text: If the order formula_9 in the definition of monotonicity is replaced by the strict order formula_10, one obtains a stronger requirement. A function with this property is called "strictly increasing" (also "increasing"). Again, by inverting the order symbol, one finds a corresponding concept called "strictly decreasing" (also "decreasing"). A function with either property is called "strictly monotone". Functions that are strictly monotone are one-to-one (because for formula_2 not equal to formula_3, either formula_13 or formula_14 and so, by monotonicity, either formula_15 or formula_16, thus formula_17.)


title: Monotonic function

text: To avoid ambiguity, the terms "weakly monotone", "weakly increasing" and "weakly decreasing" are often used to refer to non-strict monotonicity.


title: Monotonic function

text: The terms "non-decreasing" and "non-increasing" should not be confused with the (much weaker) negative qualifications "not decreasing" and "not increasing". For example, the non-monotonic function shown in figure 3 first falls, then rises, then falls again. It is therefore not decreasing and not increasing, but it is neither non-decreasing nor non-increasing.


title: Monotonic function

text: A function formula_18 is said to be "absolutely monotonic" over an interval formula_19 if the derivatives of all orders of formula_1 are nonnegative or all nonpositive at all points on the interval.


title: Monotonic function

text: All strictly monotonic functions are invertible because they are guaranteed to have a one-to-one mapping from their range to their domain.


title: Monotonic function

text: However, functions that are only weakly monotone are not invertible because they are constant on some interval (and therefore are not one-to-one).


title: Monotonic function

text: A function may be strictly monotonic over a limited a range of values and thus have an inverse on that range even though it is not strictly monotonic everywhere. For example, if formula_21 is strictly increasing on the range formula_22, then it has an inverse formula_23 on the range formula_24.


title: Monotonic function

text: Note that the term "monotonic" is sometimes used in place of "strictly monotonic", so a source may state that all monotonic functions are invertible when they really mean that all strictly monotonic functions are invertible.


title: Monotonic function

text: The term "monotonic transformation" (or "monotone transformation") may also cause confusion because it refers to a transformation by a strictly increasing function. This is the case in economics with respect to the ordinal properties of a utility function being preserved across a monotonic transform (see also monotone preferences). In this context, the term "monotonic transformation" refers to a positive monotonic transformation and is intended to distinguish it from a “negative monotonic transformation,” which reverses the order of the numbers.


title: Monotonic function

text: These properties are the reason why monotonic functions are useful in technical work in analysis. Other important properties of these functions include:


title: Monotonic function

text: An important application of monotonic functions is in probability theory. If formula_50 is a random variable, its cumulative distribution function formula_51 is a monotonically increasing function.


title: Monotonic function

text: A function is "unimodal" if it is monotonically increasing up to some point (the "mode") and then monotonically decreasing.


title: Monotonic function

text: When formula_1 is a "strictly monotonic" function, then formula_1 is injective on its domain, and if formula_54 is the range of formula_1, then there is an inverse function on formula_54 for formula_1. In contrast, each constant function is monotonic, but not injective, and hence cannot have an inverse.


title: Monotonic function

text: A map formula_58 is said to be "monotone" if each of its fibers is connected; that is, for each element formula_59 the (possibly empty) set formula_60 is a connected subspace of formula_61


title: Monotonic function

text: In functional analysis on a topological vector space formula_50, a (possibly non-linear) operator formula_63 is said to be a "monotone operator" if


title: Monotonic function

text: Kachurovskii's theorem shows that convex functions on Banach spaces have monotonic operators as their derivatives.


title: Monotonic function

text: A subset formula_65 of formula_66 is said to be a "monotone set" if for every pair formula_67 and formula_68 in formula_65,


title: Monotonic function

text: formula_65 is said to be "maximal monotone" if it is maximal among all monotone sets in the sense of set inclusion. The graph of a monotone operator formula_72 is a monotone set. A monotone operator is said to be "maximal monotone" if its graph is a "maximal monotone set".


title: Monotonic function

text: Order theory deals with arbitrary partially ordered sets and preordered sets as a generalization of real numbers. The above definition of monotonicity is relevant in these cases as well. However, the terms "increasing" and "decreasing" are avoided, since their conventional pictorial representation does not apply to orders that are not total. Furthermore, the strict relations < and > are of little use in many non-total orders and hence no additional terminology is introduced for them.


title: Monotonic function

text: Letting ≤ denote the partial order relation of any partially ordered set, a "monotone" function, also called "isotone", or "", satisfies the property


title: Monotonic function

text: The dual notion is often called "antitone", "anti-monotone", or "order-reversing". Hence, an antitone function "f" satisfies the property


title: Monotonic function

text: A constant function is both monotone and antitone; conversely, if "f" is both monotone and antitone, and if the domain of "f" is a lattice, then "f" must be constant.


title: Monotonic function

text: Monotone functions are central in order theory. They appear in most articles on the subject and examples from special applications are found in these places. Some notable special monotone functions are order embeddings (functions for which "x" ≤ "y" if and only if "f"("x") ≤ "f"("y")) and order isomorphisms (surjective order embeddings).


title: Monotonic function

text: In the context of search algorithms monotonicity (also called consistency) is a condition applied to heuristic functions. A heuristic "h(n)" is monotonic if, for every node "n" and every successor "n"' of "n" generated by any action "a", the estimated cost of reaching the goal from "n" is no greater than the step cost of getting to " n' " plus the estimated cost of reaching the goal from " n' ",


title: Monotonic function

text: This is a form of triangle inequality, with "n", "n"', and the goal "G" closest to "n". Because every monotonic heuristic is also admissible, monotonicity is a stricter requirement than admissibility. Some heuristic algorithms such as A* can be proven optimal provided that the heuristic they use is monotonic.


title: Monotonic function

text: In Boolean algebra, a monotonic function is one such that for all "a" and "b" in {0,1}, if , , ..., (i.e. the Cartesian product {0, 1} is ordered coordinatewise), then . In other words, a Boolean function is monotonic if, for every combination of inputs, switching one of the inputs from false to true can only cause the output to switch from false to true and not from true to false. Graphically, this means that an "n"-ary Boolean function is monotonic when its representation as an "n"-cube labelled with truth values has no upward edge from "true" to "false". (This labelled Hasse diagram is the dual of the function's labelled Venn diagram, which is the more common representation for .)


title: Monotonic function

text: The monotonic Boolean functions are precisely those that can be defined by an expression combining the inputs (which may appear more than once) using only the operators "and" and "or" (in particular "not" is forbidden). For instance "at least two of "a", "b", "c" hold" is a monotonic function of "a", "b", "c", since it can be written for instance as (("a" and "b") or ("a" and "c") or ("b" and "c")).


title: Paul Cook

text: Paul Thomas Cook (born 20 July 1956) is an English drummer and member of the punk rock band the Sex Pistols. He was also called "Cookie" by his friends on the punk music scene.


title: Paul Cook

text: Cook was raised in Hammersmith and attended the Christopher Wren School, now Phoenix High School, London in White City Estate, Shepherd's Bush, where he met Steve Jones. The pair became good friends and while skipping school, in 1972–1973, Cook and Jones, along with their school friend Wally Nightingale, formed a band, The Strand. Within the next three years The Strand evolved into the Sex Pistols.


title: Paul Cook

text: Cook's early influences included Motown, ska and glam rock acts like David Bowie, T. Rex, Roxy Music and Slade, in addition to drummers Kenney Jones of the Faces, Paul Thompson of Roxy Music, Al Jackson Jr. and Mitch Mitchell of The Jimi Hendrix Experience.


title: Paul Cook

text: Cook is portrayed by Jacob Slater in the 2022 Craig Pearce – Danny Boyle FX biographical drama miniseries Pistol.


title: Paul Cook

text: After the Sex Pistols suddenly broke up after their final concert in San Francisco on 14 January 1978, Cook and Jones initially worked on the soundtrack to Julien Temple's film, "The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle." The two also recorded a few songs using the Sex Pistols name, Cook singing lead on the album version of the song "Silly Thing". The pair then started a new band, The Professionals, with Andy Allan. Allan caused some legal problems; he played bass on "Silly Thing" and the first few Professionals recordings, but had no recording contract and had been neither credited nor paid. Consequently, the Virgin Records compilation album "Cash Cows", which featured The Professionals' track "Kick Down the Doors", was withdrawn. Cook and Jones played together on Johnny Thunders' solo album, "So Alone".


title: Paul Cook

text: They released four singles, recorded a self-titled LP that was shelved until 1990, and released "I Didn't See It Coming" in November 1981. The band's American tour to promote the album was cut short when band members Cook, Paul Myers, and Ray McVeigh were injured in a car accident. While The Professionals did return to America in the Spring of 1982 after recovery, Jones and Myers' drug problems further hampered the band's prospects. They declined an opening spot offer on tour for The Clash, and broke up.


title: Paul Cook

text: In the early 1980s, Cook, along with Jones, discovered the English new wave girl-group Bananarama. Cook helped the trio record their debut single, "Aie a Mwana", and acted as a producer on their 1982 debut album "Deep Sea Skiving".


title: Paul Cook

text: In the late 1980s, Cook surfaced with the group Chiefs of Relief with former Bow Wow Wow guitarist Matthew Ashman, and, after a period out of the music industry, played with Phil Collen in the 1990s. He also played on the Edwyn Collins song A Girl Like You, beginning a longstanding association with Collins as a session musician. Cook reunited with the surviving Sex Pistols in 1996 for the "Filthy Lucre" world tour.


title: Paul Cook

text: The Sex Pistols, including Paul Cook, played a gig for the 30th anniversary of "Never Mind The Bollocks" at the Brixton Academy on 8 November 2007. To meet demand, six further gigs were added, including two on 9 and 10 November.


title: Paul Cook

text: In 2008, the Sex Pistols appeared at the Isle of Wight Festival as the headlining act on the Saturday night, the Peace and Love Festival in Sweden, the Live at Loch Lomond Festival in Scotland, and the Summercase Festival in Madrid.


title: Paul Cook

text: Cook drummed with Man-Raze, which also featured Phil Collen from Def Leppard and their friend Simon Laffy who used to play in Collen's pre-Leppard band, Girl. They released a debut album "Surreal" in 2008, and toured throughout the UK in late 2009.


title: Paul Cook

text: In 2011, Cook joined Vic Godard and Subway Sect, and renewed his collaborations with Paul Myers from The Professionals. Cook has worked with Godard, on and off, for the past two decades. They toured throughout 2012 and, in March 2012, recorded "1978 Now" with Collins.


title: Paul Cook

text: In celebration of the release of a three disc set ("The Complete Professionals") by Universal Music Group for 16 October 2015, Cook, with Tom Spencer filling in for Steve Jones, reunited with The Professionals for a concert at the 100 Club. In January 2016, the band announced a three show tour for 17 to 19 March. A joint headline show featuring Rich Kids was announced at London's O2 Shepherd's Bush Empire for 16 May, then rescheduled for 23 June due to the ongoing structural work at the venue.


title: Paul Cook

text: Cook lives in Hammersmith with his wife, Jeni Cook, formerly of Culture Club, and their daughter, Hollie Cook, a solo musician. Cook also played football for Hollywood United.


title: Jungle Fever

text: Jungle Fever is a 1991 American romantic drama film written, produced and directed by Spike Lee. The film stars Wesley Snipes, Annabella Sciorra, Lee, Ossie Davis, Ruby Dee, Samuel L. Jackson, Lonette McKee, John Turturro, Frank Vincent, Halle Berry (in her film debut), Tim Robbins, Brad Dourif, Queen Latifah, Michael Imperioli, and Anthony Quinn, and is Lee's fifth feature-length film. "Jungle Fever" explores the beginning and end of an extramarital interracial relationship against the urban backdrop of the streets of New York City in the early 1990s. The film received positive reviews, with particular praise for Samuel L. Jackson's performance.


title: Jungle Fever

text: Successful Harlem architect Flipper Purify lives with his wife Drew, a buyer at Bloomingdales, and their young daughter, Ming. At work, Flipper discovers that an Italian-American woman named Angie Tucci has been hired as his temp secretary. Initially upset at being the only black person, he relents after being told hiring is based on ability, not race.


title: Jungle Fever

text: Angie lives in Bensonhurst with her abusive father Mike and her brothers Charlie and Jimmy. Angie's quiet fiancé Paulie runs a corner grocery store and lives with his elderly widowed father Lou. Meanwhile, Angie feels suffocated at home.


title: Jungle Fever

text: After working several late nights together, Flipper and Angie have sex, beginning a tumultuous relationship. The next day, Flipper demands his superiors, Jerry and Leslie, promote him to partner, but he is denied. He resigns, having plans to start his own firm.


title: Jungle Fever

text: Eventually, Flipper admits his infidelity to his longtime friend, Cyrus, who criticizes him not for his infidelity towards his wife, but for his affair with a white woman. Cyrus refers to his situation as "jungle fever"—an attraction borne of sexualized racial myths rather than love—and Flipper asks Cyrus not to tell anyone. Angie's friends are equally disparaging when she tells them she is having a relationship with a black man.


title: Jungle Fever

text: Drew learns about Flipper's affair through Cyrus' wife Vera and throws him out of their home. Flipper moves in with his father, Southern Baptist preacher The Good Reverend Purify and mother, Lucinda Purify. Later, Mike severely beats Angie after discovering that she is dating a black man and kicks her out of their home.


title: Jungle Fever

text: At Drew's workplace, Flipper attempts to reconcile but Drew kicks him out, feeling he was only attracted to her for being half-white, and that Flipper was searching for a white woman as he was a successful black man. Flipper and Angie move into an apartment in Greenwich Village where they encounter discrimination for being a mixed-race couple, such as being insulted by a waitress named LaShawn, chastisement from The Good Reverend, and financial issues.


title: Jungle Fever

text: After some play fighting, Flipper gets restrained by two policemen (the same ones who killed Radio Raheem two years prior) who receive a call that he was attacking Angie. The couple's issues are compounded by Flipper's feelings for his family and Angie wanting to have children of her own, causing their split. Echoing what Cyrus told him earlier, Flipper tells Angie their relationship has been based on sexual racial myths and not love, but Angie denies this, telling him she loves him for who, not for what, he is.


title: Jungle Fever

text: Later, Flipper's crack-addicted brother Gator steals and sells Lucinda's TV for crack. Searching all over Harlem, Flipper eventually finds him in a crack house and exasperatedly disowns him.


title: Jungle Fever

text: Soon after, Gator returns to his parents' house to ask for money and, after Lucinda refuses, begins ransacking the home. His erratic behavior ignites an altercation that ends with The Good Reverend proclaiming angrily that his son is "evil and better off dead" before shooting him. Gator collapses and dies in Lucinda's arms as The Good Reverend watches remorsefully.


title: Jungle Fever

text: Meanwhile, Paulie's racist Italian-American friends mock him for having lost his girlfriend to a black man. He asks one of his customers, a friendly black woman named Orin Goode, out on a date. This angers his father, whom he defiantly ignores. En route to meet Orin, Paulie is assaulted viciously by his other customers for attempting an interracial relationship. Although badly beaten, Paulie still arrives for his date with Orin.


title: Jungle Fever

text: Mike reluctantly allows Angie to return home, and Flipper unsuccessfully tries to mend his relationship with Drew. As Flipper leaves from his apartment, a young crack-addicted prostitute propositions him, and in response, Flipper throws his arms around her and cries out in anguished torment.


title: Jungle Fever

text: Lee dedicated the film to Yusuf Hawkins. Hawkins was killed on August 23, 1989, in Bensonhurst, New York by Italian-Americans who said the teenager was involved with a white girl in the neighborhood, though he was actually in the neighborhood to inquire about a used car for sale. According to the "New York Daily News", "the attack had more to do with race than romance".


title: Jungle Fever

text: In the film, Flipper's brother, Gator, is a crack addict. He is constantly pestering his family members for money. His father has disowned him, but his mother and Flipper still occasionally give him money when he asks.


title: Jungle Fever

text: In an interview with "Esquire", Jackson explains that he was able to effectively play the crack addict Gator because he had just gotten out of rehab for his own crack addiction. Because of his personal experience with the drug, Jackson was able to help Lee make Gator's character seem more realistic by helping establish Gator's antics and visibility in the film.


title: Jungle Fever

text: The film's soundtrack was by Stevie Wonder and was released by Motown Records. Although the album was created for the movie, it was released before the movie's premiere in May 1991. It has 11 tracks, all of which are written by Stevie Wonder, except for one. Though some believe that Wonder's album was unappealing, others believed that it was his best work in years.


title: Jungle Fever

text: The instrumental theme for the film is "Bless the Star" by Terence Blanchard. This theme was used in "Mo Better Blues" previously but does not appear on either's soundtrack.


title: Jungle Fever

text: The film garnered mostly positive reviews from critics, with particular praise for Samuel L. Jackson's performance as crack addict Gator, which is often considered to be his breakout role. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 80% based on reviews from 49 critics. The site's consensus states: ""Jungle Fever" finds Spike Lee tackling timely sociopolitical themes in typically provocative style, even if the result is sometimes ambitious to a fault." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 78% based on reviews from 24 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Jungle Fever

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave it three-and-a-half out of four stars and wrote: "Jungle Fever contains two sequences - the girl talk and the crackhouse visit - of amazing power. It contains humor and insight and canny psychology, strong performances, and the fearless discussion of things both races would rather not face."


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: Wheeler Dealers is a British TV series originally produced by Attaboy TV for the Discovery Channel in the UK and for Motor Trend in the U.S. The programme is fronted by car enthusiast and former dealer Mike Brewer. Edd China was the show's mechanic for Series 1–13 (2003–2017). Ant Anstead took over from China for Series 14–16 (2017–2021). Former Formula One Mechanic Marc Elvis Priestley took over from Anstead ahead of Series 17 in 2021.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: The premise of the show has the presenters on a mission to save old and repairable enthusiast vehicles, by repairing or otherwise improving an example of a particular make and model to a budget then selling it to a new owner.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: The programme was created by Daniel Allum and Michael Wood, the founding directors of Attaboy TV, both long-time car enthusiasts.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: Series 1 was aired in 2003. Series 5 was renamed "Wheeler Dealers On the Road", with Brewer and China expanding their car search by heading out into Europe hoping to find classic cars to buy and restore. The second half of Series 6 was aired in autumn of 2009 on Discovery Real Time.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: Beginning with part 2 of Series 8, Brewer further expanded their horizon by touring the United States. In Series 12, Brewer and China set up a new workshop in a rented bay at Huntington Beach Bodyworks, 18108 Redondo Circle, Huntington Beach, California. This decision was made so that they could deliver more episodes of the show and meant they were able to restore and sell the cars on the spot, instead of having them shipped back to the UK. Once the American operation was established, it moved to more suitable premises at 5382 Research Drive, Huntington Beach. Series 17 (2021) saw the show filming return to the UK.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: In April 2013 a spinoff series titled "Wheeler Dealers Trading Up" was launched. This series was produced by X2 Productions Ltd and has Brewer travelling around the world to buy and sell but not repair or restore used cars in different countries on a set budget. A second spinoff series titled "Wheeler Dealers: Dream Car" premiered in January 2020, with Brewer and mechanic Marc "Elvis" Priestley lending their expertise to add value to clients' cars helping them trade up to their dream vehicle.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: In each episode, Brewer buys a vehicle, turns it over to his mechanic for repairs, then sells it on. For the first series, the budget was £1,000, for series 2, £2,000, and for series 3, £3,000. Budgets in subsequent series have varied, depending on the target vehicle. For example, a £10,000 budget was set on buying and restoring a Ferrari Dino 308 GT4 in series 6. For series 11 (2014), the budget is listed on the show's Discovery UK website as "up to £20,000".


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: The presentation for each project usually follows a similar TV format. Through series 6, the project was presented in two 30-minute episodes. Starting with series 7, the format was changed to single 60 minute (including commercials) episodes.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: The programme was created with a DIYer in mind. The costs, and thus any profit or loss for a given project, are assessed without consideration of the labour costs of the mechanic (the assumption is that a well-equipped and able enthusiast could complete all work him or herself) but if repairs require professional help, like body resprays, complicated electronics, or windscreen replacements, they are added to the final cost.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: Also addressed on each vehicle are its service history, bodywork defects (e.g. rust, dents), worn-out interiors and accessories. Vehicles that have either been inactive for long periods of time or purchased from outside the UK are restored and modified to pass the country's mandatory MOT test.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: In common with most similar programmes, Wheeler Dealers features much incidental on-screen advertising. Logos for tools, supplies and equipment are always prominently displayed. Specialist repairers of parts and sub-systems, along with upholsterers, etc. always get adequate coverage in return for favourable price deals. Sometimes, parts and equipment are supplied free of charge.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: However, in interviews, following his leaving the show, Edd China has hinted at, at least, some of the sales not having been 'real.' He stated that he, himself, had possession of both of the Cadillacs from the show.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: Mike Brewer uses his skills as a former car trader to scout and buy used cars to be restored and sold for profit. He's also responsible for procuring replacement parts and sometimes specialists to refurbish expensive parts.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: Edd China was credited as the show's co-presenter, from series 1 to 13 doing much of the restoration and mechanical/servicing work, and giving viewers tips on how to sort out and solve various car problems, as well as estimating how much a garage would charge for such repairs. There were, however, always two other mechanics credited.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: On 21 March 2017, Velocity announced that China had left the show to "pursue other projects" and that he would be replaced by Ant Anstead in series 14. China explained that he chose to leave because he was disagreeing with the channel, which wanted to cut down his fixes and degree of technical information delivered in the workshop. As he surmised, the future series', featuring Ant Anstead, were a lighter format.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: On 2 November 2020, it was announced that Marc "Elvis" Priestley would replace Anstead as the main mechanic of the show from Series 17, when it returns to the UK after six years filming in the U.S. However, Anstead will appear occasionally as a special guest.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: Since series 13, the programme has been produced by Discovery Studios (replacing Attaboy TV that had produced the 12 previous seasons), for Motor Trend.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: Paul Brackley served as the series technical advisor, making sporadic appearances to assist China in carrying heavy parts or equipment in the garage, when China needed additional assistance, and helping Brewer tow non-running or non-MOT-compliant vehicles to the workshop.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: While buying more American cars for the show, Brewer dropped in on Chip Foose during the 2 June 2013 (Lotus Europa part 2, episode #91, s06e12) of "Overhaulin", where Foose showed Brewer the 1972 Lotus Europa he was customising.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: Throughout the 16 series of the programme broadcast so far, three different theme tunes have been used; the current one being "Balaclava" by the Wideboys.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: In April 2013 a spinoff series titled "Wheeler Dealers Trading Up" was launched. This series was produced by X2 Productions Ltd and has Brewer travelling around the world to buy and sell but not repair or restore used cars in different countries on a set budget. He begins with $3,000 and trades his way through the series up to a Porsche 911. It was recommissioned by Discovery Channel International for a second series where Brewer ends up buying a Ferrari.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: A second spinoff series titled "Wheeler Dealers: Dream Car" premiered in January 2020, with Brewer and mechanic Marc "Elvis" Priestley lending their expertise to add value to clients' cars helping them trade up to their dream vehicle.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: As of 1 November 2021 238 episodes have been shown covering 198 different vehicles with 12 recap episodes.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: For series 1 to 6, each car was covered in two, half-hour episodes (including ad breaks). From series 7 onwards, each car was covered in a single 60-minute episode.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: "Wheeler Dealers Revisited" (ca. 2010) was a one-off special tracking down some of the cars that had been restored and sold a few years previously.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: Discovery U.S.'s Velocity channel commissioned a series of one-hour "Wheeler Dealers: Top 5" Specials hosted by Mike Brewer, featuring the top five vehicles of each genre Brewer and China have worked on during the first nine years of the show.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: These episodes have been shown in the UK on the Discovery Channel at the end of season 11.1 and started on 5 May 2014.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: Starting in 2020 "Wheeler Dealers: Stripped Down" is a re-issue of some of the older series, with each program cut down to fit a 30-minute broadcast slot.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: In this series made by X2 Productions Ltd, Brewer navigated his way through the culture and idiosyncrasies of the international used car trade, traveling to different countries. Starting with a budget of , he attempted to transform his first purchase into a succession of real deals working his way up to his goal: a luxury sports car. Episodes 1–3 and 5–6 directly connect with each other, with the final car of the former episode being sold in the latter episode. In the United States, airings on Velocity began on 10 July 2013.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: Brewer has used a variety of vehicles on "Wheeler Dealers" to travel to see prospective vehicles and/or tow them if they are not in running order or street legal.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: Brewer has used a Mitsubishi Shogun to travel around England since series 9 (2012). Vehicles used prior to series 9 include a dark turquoise Nissan Primera Estate (Series 1), a blue Subaru Legacy Estate (Series 4), a red Honda Accord Tourer (Series 2), a black SsangYong Rexton II, a dark blue SsangYong Kyron, a black Land Rover Discovery 4 (Series 7b), a blue Nissan X-Trail (Series 3) and a light blue Ford Kuga (Series 7a). For Series 8a, he used a black X-Trail. For Series 12b, he used a white Mercedes-Benz Sprinter to transport the Messerschmitt KR200 back to the workshop.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: When Brewer travelled to France in series 5 to purchase a Citroën DS, he rented a French-registered black Opel Zafira; he rented a newer version of the Zafira when he returned to France to buy the Renault Alpine A310 in series 9a. Brewer used a French-registered silver Toyota Corolla Verso when he returned to buy the Citroën 2CV in series 11a. When he returned to France in series 12b, he rented a French-registered grey Audi Q3 to purchase the Citroën HY.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: For "Trading Up", Brewer drove a white Toyota Fortuner owned by a used car dealer in India. In Dubai, Brewer's contact drove him around in a white Ferrari F430. In Texas, Brewer used a grey C2 Corvette. Taxicabs featured in the series included a yellow Hindustan Ambassador Grand and a green and yellow Bajaj RE in India, a black LTC TX4 in the UK, a black Toyota Crown Comfort in Japan, a yellow and red Volkswagen Sedan Type 1 in Mexico, a white Ford Falcon in Australia, a white Chevrolet Onix Sedan in Brazil, a yellow Dodge Charger in Texas, and a yellow Fiat 600 Multipla in Italy. For Hire Cars, he rented a Black Mitsubishi Shogun in the UK, a black Chrysler Grand Voyager in Brazil, a dark red GMC Yukon in Texas, a grey Land Rover Discovery 3 in Poland, and a white Fiat 500 in Italy. In Poland, when Brewer is taking the Fiat 126p to get vinyl wrapped, he borrowed a grey Opel Movano, to carry the car to the vinyl wrapping shop.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: For the "Wheeler Dealers: Top 5" US specials, Brewer stood in China's shop, in front of a red C2 Corvette.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: The opening sequences and filler segments from series 1 to 9 featured the cars that were worked on throughout their corresponding seasons:


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: Series 10 did away with using cars on the opening and commercial break sequences, instead using a title card with the series logo and the colour(s) of the episode's car on the background. The filler segments, however, used the following cars:


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: On 2 April 2012, the Swedish version of the Discovery Channel aired a special episode called "Wheeler Dealers Sverige Special" ("Wheeler Dealers Sweden Special"). In this episode, the Swedish presenters bought a Ford Mustang for 55,000 SEK. After having to refurbish the brake calipers, swap the engine and giving the car a new paint job, they were able to sell it for 135,000 SEK, giving them a total profit of 28,000 SEK.


title: Wheeler Dealers

text: The popularity of the original UK series led to a French-language spinoff titled Wheeler Dealers France, which premiered on 10 October 2016 on RMC Découverte. The series is presented by Gerry Blyenberg and Aurélien Letheux. Brewer made a special guest appearance on season 2 episode 1 of the series.


title: Africanized bee

text: The Africanized bee, also known as the Africanized honey bee and known colloquially as the "killer bee", is a hybrid of the western honey bee ("Apis mellifera"), produced originally by crossbreeding of the East African lowland honey bee ("A. m. scutellata") with various European honey bee subspecies such as the Italian honey bee ("A. m. ligustica") and the Iberian honey bee ("A. m. iberiensis").


title: Africanized bee

text: The East African lowland honey bee was first introduced to Brazil in 1956 in an effort to increase honey production, but 26 swarms escaped quarantine in 1957. Since then, the hybrid has spread throughout South America and arrived in North America in 1985. Hives were found in south Texas in the United States in 1990.


title: Africanized bee

text: Africanized honey bees are typically much more defensive than other varieties of honey bees, and react to disturbances faster than European honey bees. They can chase a person a quarter of a mile (400 m); they have killed some 1,000 humans, with victims receiving 10 times more stings than from European honey bees. They have also killed horses and other animals.


title: Africanized bee

text: There are 29 recognized subspecies of "Apis mellifera" based largely on geographic variations. All subspecies are cross-fertile. Geographic isolation led to numerous local adaptations. These adaptations include brood cycles synchronized with the bloom period of local flora, forming a winter cluster in colder climates, migratory swarming in Africa, enhanced (long-distance) foraging behavior in desert areas, and numerous other inherited traits.


title: Africanized bee

text: The Africanized honey bees in the Western Hemisphere are descended from hives operated by biologist Warwick E. Kerr, who had interbred honey bees from Europe and southern Africa. Kerr was attempting to breed a strain of bees that would produce more honey in tropical conditions than the European strain of honey bee then in use throughout North, Central and South America. The hives containing this particular African subspecies were housed at an apiary near Rio Claro, São Paulo, in the southeast of Brazil, and were noted to be especially defensive. These hives had been fitted with special excluder screens (called queen excluders) to prevent the larger queen bees and drones from getting out and mating with the local population of European bees. According to Kerr, in October 1957 a visiting beekeeper, noticing that the queen excluders were interfering with the worker bees' movement, removed them, resulting in the accidental release of 26 Tanganyikan swarms of "A. m. scutellata". Following this accidental release, the Africanized honey bee swarms spread out and crossbred with local European honey bee colonies.


title: Africanized bee

text: The descendants of these colonies have since spread throughout the Americas, moving through the Amazon basin in the 1970s, crossing into Central America in 1982, and reaching Mexico in 1985. Because their movement through these regions was rapid and largely unassisted by humans, Africanized honey bees have earned the reputation of being a notorious invasive species. The prospect of killer bees arriving in the United States caused a media sensation in the late 1970s, inspired several horror movies, and sparked debate about the wisdom of humans altering entire ecosystems.


title: Africanized bee

text: The first Africanized honey bees in the U.S. were discovered in 1985 at an oil field in the San Joaquin Valley of California. Bee experts theorized the colony had not traveled overland but instead "arrived hidden in a load of oil-drilling pipe shipped from South America." The first permanent colonies arrived in Texas from Mexico in 1990. In the Tucson region of Arizona, a study of trapped swarms in 1994 found that only 15 percent had been Africanized; this number had grown to 90 percent by 1997.


title: Africanized bee

text: Though Africanized honey bees display certain behavioral traits that make them less than desirable for commercial beekeeping, excessive defensiveness and swarming foremost, they have now become the dominant type of honey bee for beekeeping in Central and South America due to their genetic dominance as well as ability to out-compete their European counterpart, with some beekeepers asserting that they are superior honey producers and pollinators.


title: Africanized bee

text: Africanized honey bees are considered an invasive species in the Americas. As of 2002, the Africanized honey bees had spread from Brazil south to northern Argentina and north to Central America, Trinidad (the West Indies), Mexico, Texas, Arizona, Nevada, New Mexico, Florida, and southern California. In June 2005, it was discovered that the bees had spread into southwest Arkansas. Their expansion stopped for a time at eastern Texas, possibly due to the large population of European honey bee hives in the area. However, discoveries of the Africanized honey bees in southern Louisiana show that they have gotten past this barrier, or have come as a swarm aboard a ship.


title: Africanized bee

text: On 11 September 2007, Commissioner Bob Odom of the Louisiana Department of Agriculture and Forestry said that Africanized honey bees had established themselves in the New Orleans area. In February 2009, Africanized honey bees were found in southern Utah. The bees had spread into eight counties in Utah, as far north as Grand and Emery Counties by May 2017.


title: Africanized bee

text: In October 2010, a 73-year-old man was killed by a swarm of Africanized honey bees while clearing brush on his south Georgia property, as determined by Georgia's Department of Agriculture. In 2012, Tennessee state officials reported that a colony was found for the first time in a beekeeper's colony in Monroe County in the eastern part of the state. In June 2013, 62-year-old Larry Goodwin of Moody, Texas, was killed by a swarm of Africanized honey bees.


title: Africanized bee

text: In May 2014, Colorado State University confirmed that bees from a swarm which had aggressively attacked an orchardist near Palisade, in west-central Colorado, were from an Africanized honey bee hive. The hive was subsequently destroyed.


title: Africanized bee

text: In tropical climates they effectively out-compete European honey bees and, at their peak rate of expansion, they spread north at almost two kilometers (about one mile) a day. There were discussions about slowing the spread by placing large numbers of docile European-strain hives in strategic locations, particularly at the Isthmus of Panama, but various national and international agricultural departments could not prevent the bees' expansion. Current knowledge of the genetics of these bees suggests that such a strategy, had it been tried, would not have been successful.


title: Africanized bee

text: As the Africanized honey bee migrates further north, colonies continue to interbreed with European honey bees. In a study conducted in Arizona in 2004 it was observed that swarms of Africanized honey bees could take over weakened European honey bee hives by invading the hive, then killing the European queen and establishing their own queen. There are now relatively stable geographic zones in which either Africanized honey bees dominate, a mix of Africanized and European honey bees is present, or only non-Africanized honey bees are found, as in the southern portions of South America or northern North America.


title: Africanized bee

text: African honey bees abscond (abandon the hive and any food store to start over in a new location) more readily than European honeybees. This is not necessarily a severe loss in tropical climates where plants bloom all year, but in more temperate climates it can leave the colony with not enough stores to survive the winter. Thus Africanized honey bees are expected to be a hazard mostly in the southern states of the United States, reaching as far north as the Chesapeake Bay in the east. The cold-weather limits of the Africanized honey bee have driven some professional bee breeders from Southern California into the harsher wintering locales of the northern Sierra Nevada and southern Cascade Range. This is a more difficult area to prepare bees for early pollination placement in, such as is required for the production of almonds. The reduced available winter forage in northern California means that bees must be fed for early spring buildup.


title: Africanized bee

text: The arrival of the Africanized honey bee in Central America is threatening the ancient art of keeping "Melipona" stingless bees in log gums, although they do not interbreed or directly compete with each other. The honey production from an individual hive of Africanized honey bees can be as high as . This value exceeds the much smaller of the various "Melipona" stingless bee species. Thus economic pressures are forcing beekeepers to switch from the traditional stingless bees of their ancestors to the new reality of the Africanized honey bee. Whether this will lead to their extinction is unknown, but they are well adapted to exist in the wild, and there are a number of indigenous plants that the Africanized honey bees do not visit, so their fate remains to be seen.


title: Africanized bee

text: Africanized honey bees have a set of characteristics with respect to foraging behavior. Africanized honey bees begin foraging at young ages and harvest a greater quantity of pollen with respect to their European counterparts ("Apis mellifera ligustica"). This may be linked to the high reproductive rate of the Africanized honey bee which requires pollen to feed the greater number of larvae. Africanized honey bees are also sensitive to sucrose at lower concentrations. This adaptation causes foragers to harvest resources with low concentrations of sucrose that include water, pollen, and unconcentrated nectar. A study comparing "A. m. scutellata" and "A. m. ligustica" published by Fewell and Bertram in 2002 suggests that the differential evolution of this suite of behaviors is due to the different environmental pressures experienced by African and European subspecies.


title: Africanized bee

text: Honey bee sensitivity to different concentrations of sucrose is determined by a reflex known as the proboscis extension response or PER. Different species of honey bees that employ different foraging behaviors will vary in the concentration of sucrose that elicits their proboscis extension response.


title: Africanized bee

text: For example, European honey bees ("Apis mellifera ligustica") forage at older ages and harvest less pollen and more concentrated nectar. The differences in resources emphasized during harvesting are a result of the European honey bee's sensitivity to sucrose at higher concentrations.


title: Africanized bee

text: The differences in a variety of behaviors between different species of honey bees are the result of a directional selection that acts upon several foraging behavior traits as a common entity. Selection in natural populations of honey bees show that positive selection of sensitivity to low concentrations of sucrose are linked to foraging at younger ages and collecting resources low in sucrose. Positive selection of sensitivity to high concentrations of sucrose were linked to foraging at older ages and collecting resources higher in sucrose. Additionally of interest, “change in one component of a suite of behaviors appear[s] to direct change in the entire suite.”


title: Africanized bee

text: When resource density is low in Africanized honey bee habitats, it is necessary for the bees to harvest a greater variety of resources because they cannot afford to be selective. Honey bees that are genetically inclined towards resources high in sucrose, such as concentrated nectar, will not be able to sustain themselves in harsher environments. The noted PER to low sucrose concentration in Africanized honey bees may be a result of selective pressure in times of scarcity when their survival depends on their attraction to low quality resources.


title: Africanized bee

text: The popular term "killer bee" has only limited scientific meaning today because there is no generally accepted fraction of genetic contribution used to establish a cut-off.


title: Africanized bee

text: Although the native East African lowland honey bees ("Apis mellifera scutellata") are smaller and build smaller comb cells than the European honey bees, their hybrids are not smaller. Africanized honey bees have slightly shorter wings, which can only be recognized reliably by performing a statistical analysis on micro-measurements of a substantial sample.


title: Africanized bee

text: One of the problems with this test is that there are other subspecies, such as "Apis mellifera iberiensis", which also have shortened wings. This trait is hypothesized to derive from ancient hybrid haplotypes thought to have links to evolutionary lineages from Africa. Some belong to "Apis mellifera intermissa", but others have an indeterminate origin; the Egyptian honeybee ("Apis mellifera lamarckii"), present in small numbers in the southeastern U.S., has the same morphology.


title: Africanized bee

text: Currently testing techniques have moved away from external measurements to DNA analysis, but this means the test can only be done by a sophisticated laboratory. Molecular diagnostics using the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) cytochrome b gene can differentiate "A. m. scutellata" from other "A. mellifera" lineages, though mtDNA only allows one to detect Africanized colonies that have Africanized queens and not colonies where a European queen has mated with Africanized drones. A test based on single nucleotide polymorphisms was created in 2015 to detect Africanized bees based on the proportion of African and European ancestry.


title: Africanized bee

text: The western honey bee is native to the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. As of the early 1600s, it was introduced to North America, with subsequent introductions of other European subspecies 200 years later. Since then, they have spread throughout the Americas. The 29 subspecies can be assigned to one of four major branches based on work by Ruttner and subsequently confirmed by analysis of mitochondrial DNA. African subspecies are assigned to branch A, northwestern European subspecies to branch M, southwestern European subspecies to branch C, and Mideast subspecies to branch O. The subspecies are grouped and listed. There are still regions with localized variations that may become identified subspecies in the near future, such as "A. m. pomonella" from the Tian Shan Mountains, which would be included in the Mideast subspecies branch.


title: Africanized bee

text: The western honey bee is the third insect whose genome has been mapped, and is unusual in having very few transposons. According to the scientists who analyzed its genetic code, the western honey bee originated in Africa and spread to Eurasia in two ancient migrations. They have also discovered that the number of genes in the honey bee related to smell outnumber those for taste. The genome sequence revealed several groups of genes, particularly the genes related to circadian rhythms, were closer to vertebrates than other insects. Genes related to enzymes that control other genes were also vertebrate-like.


title: Africanized bee

text: There are two lineages of the East African lowland subspecies ("Apis mellifera scutellata") in the Americas: actual matrilineal descendants of the original escaped queens and a much smaller number that are Africanized through hybridization. The matrilineal descendants carry African mtDNA, but partially European nuclear DNA, while the honey bees that are Africanized through hybridization carry European mtDNA, and partially African nuclear DNA. The matrilineal descendants are in the vast majority. This is supported by DNA analyses performed on the bees as they spread northwards; those that were at the "vanguard" were over 90% African mtDNA, indicating an unbroken matriline, but after several years in residence in an area interbreeding with the local European strains, as in Brazil, the overall representation of African mtDNA drops to some degree. However, these latter hybrid lines (with European mtDNA) do not appear to propagate themselves well or persist. Population genetics analysis of Africanized honey bees in the United States, using a maternally inherited genetic marker, found 12 distinct mitotypes, and the amount of genetic variation observed supports the idea that there have been multiple introductions of AHB into the United States.


title: Africanized bee

text: A newer publication shows the genetic admixture of the Africanized honey bees in Brazil. The small number of honey bees with African ancestry that were introduced to Brazil in 1956, which dispersed and hybridized with existing managed populations of European origin and quickly spread across much of the Americas, is an example of a massive biological invasion as earlier told in this article. Here, they analysed whole‐genome sequences of 32 Africanized honey bees sampled from throughout Brazil to study the effect of this process on genome diversity. By comparison with ancestral populations from Europe and Africa, they infer that these samples had 84% African ancestry, with the remainder from western European populations. However, this proportion varied across the genome and they identified signals of positive selection in regions with high European ancestry proportions. These observations are largely driven by one large gene‐rich 1.4 Mbp segment on chromosome 11 where European haplotypes are present at a significantly elevated frequency and likely confer an adaptive advantage in the Africanized honey bee population.


title: Africanized bee

text: The chief difference between the European subspecies of honey bees kept by beekeepers and the African ones is attributable to both selective breeding and natural selection. By selecting only the most gentle, non-defensive subspecies, beekeepers have, over centuries, eliminated the more defensive ones and created a number of subspecies suitable for apiculture. The most common subspecies used in Europe and the United States today is the Italian honey bee ("Apis mellifera ligustica"), which has been used for over 1,000 years in some parts of the world and in the Americas since the arrival of the European colonists.


title: Africanized bee

text: In Central and southern Africa there was formerly no tradition of beekeeping, and the hive was destroyed in order to harvest the honey, pollen and larvae. The bees adapted to the climate of Sub-Saharan Africa, including prolonged droughts. Having to defend themselves against aggressive insects such as ants and wasps, as well as voracious animals like the honey badger, African honey bees evolved as a subspecies group of highly defensive bees unsuitable by a number of metrics for domestic use.


title: Africanized bee

text: As Africanized honey bees migrate into regions, hives with an old or absent queen can become hybridized by crossbreeding. The aggressive Africanized drones out-compete European drones for a newly developed queen of such a hive, ultimately resulting in hybridization of the existing colony. Requeening, a term for swapping out the old queen with a new, already fertilized one, can reduce hybridization in apiaries. As a prophylactic measure, the majority of beekeepers in North America tend to requeen their hives annually, maintaining strong colonies and avoiding hybridization.


title: Africanized bee

text: Africanized honey bees exhibit far greater defensiveness than European honey bees and are more likely to deal with a perceived threat by attacking in large swarms. These hybrids have been known to pursue a perceived threat for a distance of well over 500 meters (1,640 ft).


title: Africanized bee

text: The venom of an Africanized honey bee is the same as that of a European honey bee, but since the former tends to sting in far greater numbers, deaths from them are naturally more numerous than from European honey bees. While allergies to the European honey bee may cause death, complications from Africanized honey bee stings are usually not caused from allergies to their venom. Humans stung many times by the Africanized honey bees can exhibit serious side effects such as inflammation of the skin, dizziness, headaches, weakness, edema, nausea, diarrhea, and vomiting. Some cases even progress to affecting different body systems by causing increased heart rates, respiratory distress, and even renal failure. Africanized honey bee sting cases can become very serious, but they remain relatively rare and are often limited to accidental discovery in highly populated areas.


title: Africanized bee

text: The Africanized honey bee is widely feared by the public, a reaction that has been amplified by sensationalist movies (such as "The Swarm") and some of the media reports. Stings from Africanized honey bees kill on average one or two people per year.


title: Africanized bee

text: As the Africanized honey bee spreads through Florida, a densely populated state, officials worry that public fear may force misguided efforts to combat them.


title: Africanized bee

text: "Killer bee" is a term frequently used in media such as movies that portray aggressive behavior or actively seeking to attack humans. "Africanized honey bee" is considered a more descriptive term in part because their behavior is increased defensiveness compared to European honey bees that can exhibit similar defensive behaviors when disturbed.


title: Africanized bee

text: The sting of the Africanized honey bee is no more potent than any other variety of honey bee, and although they are similar in appearance to European honey bees, they tend to be slightly smaller and darker in color. Although Africanized honey bees do not actively search for humans to attack, they are more dangerous because they are more easily provoked, quicker to attack in greater numbers, and then pursue the perceived threat farther, for as much as a quarter of a mile (400 m).


title: Africanized bee

text: While studies have shown that Africanized honey bees can infiltrate European honey bee colonies and then kill and replace their queen (thus usurping the hive), this is less common than other methods. Wild and managed colonies will sometimes be seen to fight over honey stores during the dearth (periods when plants are not flowering), but this behavior should not be confused with the aforementioned activity. The most common way that a European honey bee hive will become Africanized is through crossbreeding during a new queen's mating flight. Studies have consistently shown that Africanized drones are more numerous, stronger and faster than their European cousins and are therefore able to out-compete them during these mating flights. The result of mating between Africanized drones and European queens is almost always Africanized offspring.


title: Africanized bee

text: In areas of suitable temperate climate, the survival traits of Africanized honey bee colonies help them outperform European honey bee colonies. They also return later and basically work under conditions that often keep European honey bees hive-bound. This is the reason why they have gained a well-deserved reputation as superior honey producers, and those beekeepers who have learned to adapt their management techniques now seem to prefer them to their European counterparts. Studies show that in areas of Florida that contain Africanized honey bees, the honey production is higher than in areas in which they do not live. It is also becoming apparent that Africanized honey bees have another advantage over European honey bees in that they seem to show a higher resistance to several health issues, including parasites such as "Varroa destructor", some fungal diseases like chalkbrood and even the mysterious colony collapse disorder which is currently plaguing beekeepers. So despite all its negative factors, it is possible that the Africanized honey bee might actually end up being a boon to apiculture.


title: Africanized bee

text: In areas where Africanized honey bees are well established, bought and pre-fertilized (i.e. mated) European queens can be used to maintain a hive's European genetics and behavior. However, this practice can be expensive, since these queens must be bought and shipped from breeder apiaries in areas completely free of Africanized honey bees, such as the northern U.S. states or Hawaii. As such, this is generally not practical for most commercial beekeepers outside the U.S., and it is one of the main reasons why Central and South American beekeepers have had to learn to manage and work with the existing Africanized honey bee. Any effort to crossbreed virgin European queens with Africanized drones will result in the offspring exhibiting Africanized traits; only 26 swarms escaped in 1957, and nearly 60 years later there does not appear to be a noticeable lessening of the typical Africanized characteristics.


title: Africanized bee

text: Not all Africanized honey bee hives display the typical hyper-defensive behavior, which may provide bee breeders a point to begin breeding a gentler stock (gAHBs). Work has been done in Brazil towards this end, but in order to maintain these traits, it is necessary to develop a queen breeding and mating facility in order to requeen colonies and to prevent reintroduction of unwanted genes or characteristics through unintended crossbreeding with feral colonies. In Puerto Rico, some bee colonies are already beginning to show more gentle behavior. This is believed to be because the more gentle bees contain genetic material that is more similar to the European honey bee, although they also contain Africanized honey bee material. This degree of aggressiveness is surprisingly almost unrelated to individual genetics – instead being almost entirely determined by the entire hive's proportion of aggression genetics. Also while bee incidents are much less common than they were during the first wave of Africanized honey bee colonization, this can be largely attributed to modified and improved bee management techniques. Prominent among these are locating bee-yards much farther away from human habitation, creating barriers to keep livestock at enough of a distance to prevent interaction, and education of the general public to teach them how to properly react when feral colonies are encountered and what resources to contact. The Africanized honey bee is considered the honey bee of choice for beekeeping in Brazil.


title: Africanized bee

text: AHBs are a threat to outdoor pets, especially mammals. The most detailed information available pertains to dogs.


title: Africanized bee

text: Less is known about livestock as victims. There is a widespread consensus that cattle suffer occasional AHB attacks in Brazil, but there is little documentation about this. It appears that cows sustain hundreds of stings if they are attacked, but can survive with injury.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: Grand Teton National Park is an American national park in northwestern Wyoming. At approximately , the park includes the major peaks of the Teton Range as well as most of the northern sections of the valley known as Jackson Hole. Grand Teton National Park is only south of Yellowstone National Park, to which it is connected by the National Park Service–managed John D. Rockefeller Jr. Memorial Parkway. Along with surrounding national forests, these three protected areas constitute the almost Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, one of the world's largest intact mid-latitude temperate ecosystems.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: The human history of the Grand Teton region dates back at least 11,000 years when the first nomadic hunter-gatherer Paleo-Indians began migrating into the region during warmer months to pursue food and supplies. In the early 19th century, the first white explorers encountered the eastern Shoshone natives. Between 1810 and 1840, the region attracted fur trading companies that vied for control of the lucrative beaver pelt trade. U.S. Government expeditions to the region commenced in the mid-19th century as an offshoot of exploration in Yellowstone, with the first permanent white settlers in Jackson Hole arriving in the 1880s.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: Efforts to preserve the region as a national park began in the late 19th century, and in 1929 Grand Teton National Park was established, protecting the Teton Range's major peaks. The valley of Jackson Hole remained in private ownership until the 1930s when conservationists led by John D. Rockefeller Jr. began purchasing land in Jackson Hole to be added to the existing national park. Against public opinion and with repeated Congressional efforts to repeal the measures, much of Jackson Hole was set aside for protection as Jackson Hole National Monument in 1943. The monument was abolished in 1950 and most of the monument land was added to Grand Teton National Park.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: Grand Teton National Park is named for Grand Teton, the tallest mountain in the Teton Range. The naming of the mountains is attributed to early 19th-century French-speaking trappers—"les trois tétons" (the three teats) was later anglicized and shortened to "Tetons". At , Grand Teton abruptly rises more than above Jackson Hole, almost higher than Mount Owen, the second-highest summit in the range. The park has numerous lakes, including Jackson Lake as well as streams of varying length and the upper main stem of the Snake River. Though in a state of recession, a dozen small glaciers persist at the higher elevations near the highest peaks in the range. Some of the rocks in the park are the oldest found in any American national park and have been dated at nearly 2.7 billion years.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: Grand Teton National Park is an almost pristine ecosystem and the same species of flora and fauna that have existed since prehistoric times can still be found there. More than 1,000 species of vascular plants, dozens of species of mammals, 300 species of birds, more than a dozen fish species, and a few species of reptiles and amphibians inhabit the park. Due to various changes in the ecosystem, some of them human-induced, efforts have been made to provide enhanced protection to some species of native fish and the increasingly threatened whitebark pine.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: Grand Teton National Park is a popular destination for mountaineering, hiking, fishing, and other forms of recreation. There are more than 1,000 drive-in campsites and over of hiking trails that provide access to backcountry camping areas. Noted for world-renowned trout fishing, the park is one of the few places to catch Snake River fine-spotted cutthroat trout. Grand Teton has several National Park Service–run visitor centers and privately operated concessions for motels, lodges, gas stations, and marinas.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: Paleo-Indian presence in what is now Grand Teton National Park dates back more than 11,000 years. Jackson Hole valley climate at that time was colder and more alpine than the semi-arid climate found today, and the first humans were migratory hunter-gatherers spending summer months in Jackson Hole and wintering in the valleys west of the Teton Range. Along the shores of Jackson Lake, fire pits, tools, and what are thought to have been fishing weights have been discovered. One of the tools found is of a type associated with the Clovis culture, and tools from this cultural period date back at least 11,500 years. Some of the tools are made of obsidian which chemical analysis indicates came from sources near present-day Teton Pass, south of Grand Teton National Park. Though obsidian was also available north of Jackson Hole, virtually all the obsidian spear points found are from a source to the south, indicating that the main seasonal migratory route for the Paleo-Indian was from this direction. Elk, which winter on the National Elk Refuge at the southern end of Jackson Hole and northwest into higher altitudes during spring and summer, follow a similar migratory pattern to this day. From 11,000 to about 500 years ago, there is little evidence of change in the migratory patterns amongst the Native American groups in the region and no evidence that indicates any permanent human settlement.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: When white American colonists first entered the region in the first decade of the 19th century, they encountered the eastern tribes of the Shoshone people. Most of the Shoshone that lived in the mountain vastness of the greater Yellowstone region continued to be pedestrian while other groups of Shoshone that resided in lower elevations had limited use of horses. The mountain-dwelling Shoshone were known as "Sheep-eaters" or ""Tukudika"" as they referred to themselves, since a staple of their diet was the Bighorn Sheep. The Shoshones continued to follow the same migratory pattern as their predecessors and have been documented as having a close spiritual relationship with the Teton Range. Several stone enclosures on some of the peaks, including on the upper slopes of Grand Teton (known simply as "The Enclosure") are thought to have been used by Shoshone during vision quests. The Teton and Yellowstone region Shoshone relocated to the Wind River Indian Reservation after it was established in 1868. The reservation is situated southeast of Jackson Hole on land that was selected by Chief Washakie.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806) passed well north of the Grand Teton region. During their return trip from the Pacific Ocean, expedition member John Colter was given an early discharge so he could join two fur trappers who were heading west in search of beaver pelts. Colter was later hired by Manuel Lisa to lead fur trappers and explore the region around the Yellowstone River. During the winter of 1807/08, Colter passed through Jackson Hole and was the first Caucasian to see the Teton Range. Lewis and Clark expedition co-leader William Clark produced a map based on the previous expedition and included the explorations of John Colter in 1807, apparently based on discussions between Clark and Colter when the two met in St. Louis, Missouri in 1810. Another map attributed to William Clark indicates John Colter entered Jackson Hole from the northeast, crossing the Continental Divide at either Togwotee Pass or Union Pass and left the region after crossing Teton Pass, following the well established Native American trails. In 1931, the Colter Stone, a rock carved in the shape of a head with the inscription "John Colter" on one side and the year "1808" on the other, was discovered in a field in Tetonia, Idaho, which is west of Teton Pass. The Colter Stone has not been authenticated to have been created by John Colter and may have been the work of later expeditions to the region.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: John Colter is widely considered the first mountain man and, like those that came to the Jackson Hole region over the next 30 years, he was there primarily for the profitable fur trapping; the region was rich with the highly sought after pelts of beaver and other fur-bearing animals. Between 1810 and 1812, the Astorians traveled through Jackson Hole and crossed Teton Pass as they headed east in 1812. After 1810, American and British fur trading companies were in competition for control of the North American fur trade, and American sovereignty over the region was not secured until the signing of the Oregon Treaty in 1846. One party employed by the British North West Company and led by explorer Donald Mackenzie entered Jackson Hole from the west in 1818 or 1819. The Tetons, as well as the valley west of the Teton Range known today as Pierre's Hole, may have been named by French-speaking Iroquois or French Canadian trappers that were part of Mackenzie's party. Earlier parties had referred to the most prominent peaks of the Teton Range as the Pilot Knobs. The French trappers' "les trois tétons" (the three breasts) was later shortened to the Tetons.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: Formed in the mid-1820s, the Rocky Mountain Fur Company partnership included Jedediah Smith, William Sublette, and David Edward Jackson or "Davey Jackson". Jackson oversaw the trapping operations in the Teton region between 1826 and 1830. Sublette named the valley east of the Teton Range "Jackson's Hole" (later simply Jackson Hole) for Davey Jackson. As the demand for beaver fur declined and the various regions of the American West became depleted of beaver due to over trapping, American fur trading companies folded; however, individual mountain men continued to trap beaver in the region until about 1840. From the mid-1840s until 1860, Jackson Hole and the Teton Range were generally devoid of all but the small populations of Native American tribes that had already been there. Most overland human migration routes such as the Oregon and Mormon Trails crossed over South Pass, well to the south of the Teton Range, and Caucasian influence in the Teton region was minimal until the U.S. Government commenced organized explorations.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: The first U.S. Government-sponsored expedition to enter Jackson Hole was the 1859–60 Raynolds Expedition. Led by U.S. Army Captain William F. Raynolds and guided by mountain man Jim Bridger, it included naturalist F. V. Hayden, who later led other expeditions to the region. The expedition had been charged with exploring the Yellowstone region, but encountered difficulties crossing mountain passes due to snow. Bridger ended up guiding the expedition south over Union Pass then following the Gros Ventre River drainage to the Snake River and leaving the region over Teton Pass. Organized exploration of the region was halted during the American Civil War but resumed when F. V. Hayden led the well-funded Hayden Geological Survey of 1871. In 1872, Hayden oversaw explorations in Yellowstone, while a branch of his expedition known as the Snake River Division was led by James Stevenson and explored the Teton region. Along with Stevenson was photographer William Henry Jackson who took the first photographs of the Teton Range. The Hayden Geological Survey named many of the mountains and lakes in the region. The explorations by early mountain men and subsequent expeditions failed to identify any sources of economically viable mineral wealth. Nevertheless, small groups of prospectors set up claims and mining operations on several of the creeks and rivers. By 1900 all organized efforts to retrieve minerals had been abandoned.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: Though the Teton Range was never permanently inhabited, pioneers began settling in the Jackson Hole valley to the east of the range in 1884. These earliest homesteaders were mostly single men who endured long winters, short growing seasons and rocky soils that were hard to cultivate. The region was most suited for the cultivation of hay and cattle ranching. By 1890, Jackson Hole had an estimated permanent population of 60. Menor's Ferry was built in 1892 near present-day Moose, Wyoming to provide access for wagons to the west side of the Snake River. Ranching increased significantly from 1900 to 1920, but a series of agricultural related economic downturns in the early 1920s left many ranchers destitute. Beginning in the 1920s, the automobile provided faster and easier access to areas of natural beauty and old military roads into Jackson Hole over Teton and Togwotee Passes were improved to accommodate the increased vehicle traffic. In response to the increased tourism, dude ranches were established, some new and some from existing cattle ranches, so urbanized travelers could experience the life of a cattleman.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: To the north of Jackson Hole, Yellowstone National Park had been established in 1872, and by the close of the 19th century, conservationists wanted to expand the boundaries of that park to include at least the Teton Range. By 1907, in an effort to regulate water flow for irrigation purposes, the United States Bureau of Reclamation had constructed a log crib dam at the Snake River outlet of Jackson Lake. This dam failed in 1910 and a new concrete Jackson Lake Dam replaced it by 1911. The dam was further enlarged in 1916, raising lake waters as part of the Minidoka Project, designed to provide irrigation for agriculture in the state of Idaho. Further dam construction plans for other lakes in the Teton Range alarmed Yellowstone National Park superintendent Horace Albright, who sought to block such efforts. Jackson Hole residents were opposed to an expansion of Yellowstone, but were more in favor of the establishment of a separate national park which would include the Teton Range and six lakes at the base of the mountains. After congressional approval, President Calvin Coolidge signed the executive order establishing the Grand Teton National Park on February 26, 1929.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: The valley of Jackson Hole remained primarily in private ownership when John D. Rockefeller Jr. and his wife visited the region in the late 1920s. Horace Albright and Rockefeller discussed ways to preserve Jackson Hole from commercial exploitation, and in consequence, Rockefeller started buying Jackson Hole properties through the Snake River Land Company to later turn them over to the National Park Service. In 1930, this plan was revealed to the residents of the region and was met with strong disapproval. Congressional efforts to prevent the expansion of Grand Teton National Park ended up putting the Snake River Land Company's holdings in limbo. By 1942 Rockefeller had become increasingly impatient that his purchased property might never be added to the park, and wrote to the Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes that he was considering selling the land to another party. Secretary Ickes recommended to President Franklin Roosevelt that the Antiquities Act, which permitted presidents to set aside land for protection without the approval of Congress, be used to establish a national monument in Jackson Hole. Roosevelt created the Jackson Hole National Monument in 1943, using the land donated from the Snake River Land Company and adding additional property from Teton National Forest. The monument and park were adjacent to each other and both were administered by the National Park Service, but the monument designation ensured no funding allotment, nor provided a level of resource protection equal to the park. Members of Congress repeatedly attempted to have the new national monument abolished.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: After the end of World War II, national public sentiment was in favor of adding the monument to the park, and though there was still much local opposition, the monument and park were combined in 1950. In recognition of John D. Rockefeller, Jr.'s efforts to establish and then expand Grand Teton National Park, a parcel of land between Grand Teton and Yellowstone National Parks was added to the National Park Service in 1972. This land and the road from the southern boundary of the park to West Thumb in Yellowstone National Park was named the John D. Rockefeller Jr. Memorial Parkway. The Rockefeller family owned the JY Ranch, which bordered Grand Teton National Park to the southwest. In November 2007, the Rockefeller family transferred ownership of the ranch to the park for the establishment of the Laurance S. Rockefeller Preserve, which was dedicated on June 21, 2008.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: During the last 25 years of the 19th century, the mountains of the Teton Range became a focal point for explorers wanting to claim the first ascents of the peaks. However, white explorers may not have been the first to climb many of the peaks and the earliest first ascent of even the formidable Grand Teton itself might have been achieved long before written history documented it. Native American relics remain including "The Enclosure", an obviously man-made structure that is located about below the summit of Grand Teton at a point near the Upper Saddle (). Nathaniel P. Langford and James Stevenson, both members of the Hayden Geological Survey of 1872, found The Enclosure during their early attempt to summit Grand Teton. Langford claimed that he and Stevenson climbed Grand Teton, but were vague as to whether they had made it to the summit. Their reported obstacles and sightings were never corroborated by later parties. Langford and Stevenson likely did not get much further than The Enclosure. The first ascent of Grand Teton that is substantiated was made by William O. Owen, Frank Petersen, John Shive and Franklin Spencer Spalding on August 11, 1898. Owen had made two previous attempts on the peak and after publishing several accounts of this first ascent, discredited any claim that Langford and Stevenson had ever reached beyond The Enclosure in 1872. The disagreement over which party first reached the top of Grand Teton may be the greatest controversy in the history of American mountaineering. After 1898 no other ascents of Grand Teton were recorded until 1923.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: By the mid-1930s, more than a dozen different climbing routes had been established on Grand Teton including the northeast ridge in 1931 by Glenn Exum. Glenn Exum teamed up with another noted climber named Paul Petzoldt to found the Exum Mountain Guides in 1931. Of the other major peaks on the Teton Range, all were climbed by the late 1930s including Mount Moran in 1922 and Mount Owen in 1930 by Fritiof Fryxell and others after numerous previous attempts had failed. Both Middle and South Teton were first climbed on the same day, August 29, 1923, by a group of climbers led by Albert R. Ellingwood. New routes on the peaks were explored as safety equipment and skills improved and eventually climbs rated at above 5.9 on the Yosemite Decimal System difficulty scale were established on Grand Teton. The classic climb following the route first pioneered by Owen, known as the Owen-Spalding route, is rated at 5.4 due to a combination of concerns beyond the gradient alone. Rock climbing and bouldering had become popular in the park by the mid 20th century. In the late 1950s, gymnast John Gill came to the park and started climbing large boulders near Jenny Lake. Gill approached climbing from a gymnastics perspective and while in the Tetons became the first known climber in history to use gymnastic chalk to improve handholds and to keep hands dry while climbing. During the latter decades of the 20th century, extremely difficult cliffs were explored including some in Death Canyon, and by the mid-1990s, 800 different climbing routes had been documented for the various peaks and canyon cliffs.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: Grand Teton National Park is one of the ten most visited national parks in the U.S., with an annual average of 2.75 million visitors in the period from 2007 to 2016, with 3.27 million visiting in 2016. The National Park Service is a federal agency of the United States Department of the Interior and manages both Grand Teton National Park and the John D. Rockefeller Jr. Memorial Parkway. Grand Teton National Park has an average of 100 permanent and 180 seasonal employees. The park also manages 27 concession contracts that provide services such as lodging, restaurants, mountaineering guides, dude ranching, fishing and a boat shuttle on Jenny Lake. The National Park Service works closely with other federal agencies such as the U.S. Forest Service, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Bureau of Reclamation, and also, in consequence of Jackson Hole Airport's presence in the park, the Federal Aviation Administration. Initial construction of the airstrip north of the town of Jackson was completed in the 1930s. When Jackson Hole National Monument was designated, the airport was inside it. After the monument and park were combined, the Jackson Hole Airport became the only commercial airport within an American national park. Jackson Hole Airport has some of the strictest noise abatement regulations of any airport in the U.S. The airport has night flight curfews and overflight restrictions, with pilots being expected to approach and depart the airport along the east, south or southwest flight corridors. As of 2010, 110 privately owned property inholdings, many belonging to the state of Wyoming, are located within Grand Teton National Park. Efforts to purchase or trade these inholdings for other federal lands are ongoing and through partnerships with other entities, 10 million dollars is hoped to be raised to acquire private inholdings by 2016.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: In December 2016 the Antelope Flats Parcel consisting of (owned by the State of Wyoming as part of state school trust lands) was purchased and transferred to Grand Teton National Park. The purchase price amounted to 46 million dollars ($23 million allocated from the Land and Water Conservation Fund and the last $23 million was raised in private funds from 5,421 donors). The proceeds of the sale will benefit Wyoming Public Schools. Grand Teton National Park is still in negotiations for the purchase of the Kelly Parcel which totals an additional 640 acres from Wyoming. Moulton Ranch Cabins, a inholding along the historic Mormon Row was sold to the Grand Teton National Park Foundation in 2018. In 2020 the National Park Service in partnership with the Conservation Fund acquired a parcel located within Grand Teton National Park. This parcel is located near the Granite Canyon Entrance Station.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: Grand Teton National Park is located in the northwestern region of the U.S. state of Wyoming. To the north the park is bordered by the John D. Rockefeller Jr. Memorial Parkway, which is administered by Grand Teton National Park. The scenic highway with the same name passes from the southern boundary of Grand Teton National Park to West Thumb in Yellowstone National Park. Grand Teton National Park covers approximately , while the John D. Rockefeller Jr. Memorial Parkway includes . Most of the Jackson Hole valley and virtually all the major mountain peaks of the Teton Range are within the park. The Jedediah Smith Wilderness of Caribou-Targhee National Forest lies along the western boundary and includes the western slopes of the Teton Range. To the northeast and east lie the Teton Wilderness and Gros Ventre Wilderness of Bridger-Teton National Forest. The National Elk Refuge is to the southeast, and migrating herds of elk winter there. Privately owned land borders the park to the south and southwest. Grand Teton National Park, along with Yellowstone National Park, surrounding National Forests and related protected areas constitute the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem spans portions of three states and is one of the largest intact mid-latitude ecosystems remaining on Earth. By road, Grand Teton National Park is from Salt Lake City, Utah and from Denver, Colorado.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: The youngest mountain range in the Rocky Mountains, the Teton Range began forming between 6 and 9 million years ago. It runs roughly north to south and rises from the floor of Jackson Hole without any foothills along a by wide active fault-block mountain front. The range tilts westward, rising abruptly above Jackson Hole valley which lies to the east but more gradually into Teton Valley to the west. A series of earthquakes along the Teton Fault slowly displaced the western side of the fault upward and the eastern side of the fault downward at an average of of displacement every 300–400 years. Most of the displacement of the fault occurred in the last 2 million years. While the fault has experienced up to 7.5-earthquake magnitude events since it formed, it has been relatively quiescent during historical periods, with only a few 5.0-magnitude or greater earthquakes known to have occurred since 1850.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: In addition to Grand Teton, another nine peaks are over above sea level. Eight of these peaks between Avalanche and Cascade Canyons make up the often-photographed Cathedral Group. The most prominent peak north of Cascade Canyon is the monolithic Mount Moran () which rises above Jackson Lake. To the north of Mount Moran, the range eventually merges into the high altitude Yellowstone Plateau. South of the central Cathedral Group the Teton Range tapers off near Teton Pass and blends into the Snake River Range.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: West to east trending canyons provides easier access by foot into the heart of the range as no vehicular roads traverse the range except at Teton Pass, which is south of the park. Carved by a combination of glacier activity as well as numerous streams, the canyons are at their lowest point along the eastern margin of the range at Jackson Hole. Flowing from higher to lower elevations, the glaciers created more than a dozen U-shaped valleys throughout the range. Cascade Canyon is sandwiched between Mount Owen and Teewinot Mountain to the south and Symmetry Spire to the north and is situated immediately west of Jenny Lake. North to south, Webb, Moran, Paintbrush, Cascade, Death and Granite Canyons slice through Teton Range.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: Jackson Hole is a by wide graben valley with an average elevation of , its lowest point is near the southern park boundary at . The valley sits east of the Teton Range and is vertically displaced downward , making the Teton Fault and its parallel twin on the east side of the valley normal faults with the Jackson Hole block being the hanging wall and the Teton Mountain block being the footwall. Grand Teton National Park contains the major part of both blocks. Erosion of the range provided sediment in the valley so the topographic relief is only . Jackson Hole is comparatively flat, with only a modest increase in altitude south to north; however, a few isolated buttes such as Blacktail Butte and hills including Signal Mountain dot the valley floor. In addition to a few outcroppings, the Snake River has eroded terraces into Jackson Hole. Southeast of Jackson Lake, glacial depressions known as kettles are numerous. The kettles were formed when ice situated under gravel outwash from ice sheets melted as the glaciers retreated.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: Most of the lakes in the park were formed by glaciers and the largest of these lakes are located at the base of the Teton Range. In the northern section of the park lies Jackson Lake, the largest lake in the park at in length, wide and deep. Though Jackson Lake is natural, the Jackson Lake Dam was constructed at its outlet before the creation of the park, and the lake level was raised almost consequently. East of the Jackson Lake Lodge lies Emma Matilda and Two Ocean Lakes. South of Jackson Lake, Leigh, Jenny, Bradley, Taggart and Phelps Lakes rest at the outlets of the canyons which lead into the Teton Range. Within the Teton Range, small alpine lakes in cirques are common, and there are more than 100 scattered throughout the high country. Lake Solitude, located at an elevation of , is in a cirque at the head of the North Fork of Cascade Canyon. Other high-altitude lakes can be found at over in elevation and a few, such as Icefloe Lake, remain ice-clogged for much of the year. The park is not noted for large waterfalls; however, Hidden Falls just west of Jenny Lake is easy to reach after a short hike.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: From its headwaters on Two Ocean Plateau in Yellowstone National Park, the Snake River flows north to south through the park, entering Jackson Lake near the boundary of Grand Teton National Park and John D. Rockefeller Jr. Memorial Parkway. The Snake River then flows through the spillways of the Jackson Lake Dam and from there southward through Jackson Hole, exiting the park just west of the Jackson Hole Airport. The largest lakes in the park all drain either directly or by tributary streams into the Snake River. Major tributaries which flow into the Snake River include Pacific Creek and Buffalo Fork near Moran and the Gros Ventre River at the southern border of the park. Through the comparatively level Jackson Hole valley, the Snake River descends an average of , while other streams descending from the mountains to the east and west have higher gradients due to increased slope. The Snake River creates braids and channels in sections where the gradients are lower and in steeper sections, erodes and undercuts the cobblestone terraces once deposited by glaciers.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: The major peaks of the Teton Range were carved into their current shapes by long-vanished glaciers. Commencing 250,000–150,000 years ago, the Tetons went through several periods of glaciation with some areas of Jackson Hole covered by glaciers thick. This heavy glaciation is unrelated to the uplift of the range itself and is instead part of a period of global cooling known as the Quaternary glaciation. Beginning with the Buffalo Glaciation and followed by the Bull Lake and then the Pinedale glaciation, which ended roughly 15,000 years ago, the landscape was greatly impacted by glacial activity. During the Pinedale glaciation, the landscape visible today was created as glaciers from the Yellowstone Plateau flowed south and formed Jackson Lake, while smaller glaciers descending from the Teton Range pushed rock moraines out from the canyons and left behind lakes near the base of the mountains. The peaks themselves were carved into horns and arêtes and the canyons were transformed from water-eroded V-shapes to glacier-carved U-shaped valleys. Approximately a dozen glaciers currently exist in the park, but they are not ancient as they were all reestablished sometime between 1400 and 1850 AD during the Little Ice Age. Of these more recent glaciers, the largest is Teton Glacier, which sits below the northeast face of Grand Teton. Teton Glacier is long and wide, and nearly surrounded by the tallest summits in the range. Teton Glacier is also the best-studied glacier in the range, and researchers concluded in 2005 that the glacier could disappear in 30 to 75 years. West of the Cathedral Group near Hurricane Pass, Schoolroom Glacier is tiny but has well-defined terminal and lateral moraines, a small proglacial lake, and other typical glacier features near each other.


title: Grand Teton National Park

text: Grand Teton National Park has some of the most ancient rocks found in any American national park. The oldest rocks dated so far are 2,680 ± 12 million years old, though even older rocks are believed to exist in the park. Formed during the Archean Eon (4 to 2.5 billion years ago), these metamorphic rocks include gneiss, schist and amphibolites. Metamorphic rocks are the most common types found in the northern and southern sections of the Teton Range. 2,545 million years ago, the metamorphic rocks were intruded by igneous granitic rocks, which are now visible in the central Tetons including Grand Teton and the nearby peaks. The light-colored granites of the central Teton Range contrast with the darker metamorphic gneiss found on the flanks of Mount Moran to the north. Magma intrusions of diabase rocks 765 million years ago left dikes that can be seen on the east face of Mount Moran and Middle Teton. Granite and pegmatite intrusions also worked their way into fissures in the older gneiss. Precambrian rocks in Jackson Hole are buried deep under comparatively recent Tertiary volcanic and sedimentary deposits, as well as Pleistocene glacial deposits.