title: Moff Gideon

text: Moff Gideon has been received positively by reviewers and fans alike. Scott Snowden of Space.com said Giancarlo Esposito "plays the role to perfection". Sean Keane of CNET called the character "absolutely magnificent" and "pretty damn scary". "Screen Rant" writer Kiki Evans said Moff Gideon "makes quite a terrifying villain". Kevin Pantoja, also from "Screen Rant", said the character "immediately feels like a major threat" upon his introduction to the show. Stephanie Dube Dwilson of "Heavy.com" said the character "strikes the perfect mix of potentially crazy and very powerful". "SyFy" writer Matthew Jackson said though Gideon's appearance in the first season was brief, it was also impactful, writing: "The character quickly established himself as a force to be reckoned with." Brian Silliman, also of "SyFy", called Moff Gideon a "formidable" villain. "IGN" writer Laura Prudom said the first season ends with Moff Gideon positioned as "a worthy adversary" for the Mandalorian and his allies. Ben Pearson of /Film said the character "made a big impact" in the season finale. Caitlin Gallagher of "Bustle" noted that immediately after "Chapter 7: The Reckoning" aired, many fans expressed "outrage, sadness, and anxiety" about Moff Gideon, particularly on social media websites, due to his role in the death of the character Kuiil and the kidnapping of the Child at the end of that episode. Moff Gideon ranked second on a "Screen Rant" list of the most interesting characters from the first season of "The Mandalorian", third on a separate list of the ten best characters from the show, and his costume was ranked seventh on a list of the ten best costumes in the first season.


title: Moff Gideon

text: For his performance as Gideon in the Season One finale, Esposito was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series.


The 2022 United States Senate election in Iowa was held on November 8, 2022 to elect a member of the United States Senate to represent the State of Iowa. Incumbent Republican Senator Chuck Grassley faced Democratic nominee Michael Franken.


title: 2022 United States Senate election in Iowa

text: Grassley was first elected in 1980 and was most recently re-elected in 2016. Grassley, who turned 89 years old on September 17, 2022, ran for reelection to an eighth term. With U.S. Senator Patrick Leahy retiring the same year, he became the second-oldest person ever to be re-elected for another term (behind Strom Thurmond in 1996 at age 93), the most senior member in the Senate, the longest-serving Republican Senator in history (overtaking Orrin Hatch), as well as the most senior member of Congress. Grassley was reelected, thereby becoming the first Republican to win an eighth Senate term.


text: Former U.S. Representative Abby Finkenauer was the original frontrunner in the Democratic primary, with her campaign being backed by several prominent politicians and labor unions, as well as the influential political action committee EMILY's List. However, retired vice-admiral Michael Franken managed to slowly overtake her as the perceived frontrunner, assisted by an effective campaign that highlighted his leadership credentials.


title: Ratnik (program)

text: Ratnik (; Warrior) is a Russian future infantry combat system. Some components, including the communication systems and night vision technologies, have extremely limited military distribution. It is designed to improve the connectivity and combat effectiveness of combat personnel in the Russian Armed Forces. Improvements include modernised body armour, a helmet with a special eye monitor (thermal, night vision monocular, flashlight), communication systems, and special headphones. It includes 10 subsystems and 59 individual items.


title: Ratnik (program)

text: The Ratnik was first to be reported to be used during the Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation in 2014. There were also reports that Russian troops have tested Ratnik components in combat operations.


title: Ratnik (program)

text: In August 2019, it was reported that Ratnik has been tested by soldiers from Belarus, Vietnam, Kyrgyzstan, China, Laos, Mongolia, Pakistan and Uzbekistan.


title: Ratnik (program)

text: In July 2021, Russian troops deployed to Tajikistan to work alongside Tajik forces are equipped with at least 200 sets of Ratnik.


title: Ratnik (program)

text: The Ratnik gear is a system of modern protective and communication devices, weapons and ammunition. It consists of a helmet, body armour; a one-piece coverall; hearing protection; protective glasses; a protective set for knees and elbows; a grenade launcher, submachine gun or assault rifle; sniper rifle, ammunition; a combat knife, as well as 24/7 reconnaissance means; a day and night sighting system; a small-size binocular; optical and thermal weapon sights, etc. Ratnik gear is paired up with EMR camouflage.


title: Ratnik (program)

text: As well as these, the system comprises a universal shelter, a multifunctional knife, a signal lamp, a watch, winter and summer two-side camouflage sets; an autonomous heat source; a backpack, an individual water filter; a small entrenching tool, breath protection devices; means of radiological and chemical control; a medical kit, and filtering clothes.


title: Ratnik (program)

text: The "Strelets" ("Musketeer") system provides voice and video communication. The system includes a GLONASS navigation module so that a squad leader can see the location of each soldier on his small, book-sized, computer. With this computer, he also can give orders to his squad, and send videos and photos to headquarters. As well as this, each soldier has their own smaller telephone-sized tactical computer. The Strelets command, control, and intelligence (C2I) system was operated in the Syrian conflict to send target data to strike aircraft. The use of the Strelets in conjunction with the Su-24M frontline bomber provides almost 100% accuracy.


title: Ratnik (program)

text: Ratnik protects almost 90% of a soldier's body. The main body armor with plates, designated 6B45 '6Б45', is rated at protection class 6, according to GOST R 50744-95, and weighs 7.5 kg (with the Assault variant weighing up to 15 kg). The main body armor fully protects from 7.62×39mm rounds from assault rifles, and 7.62×54mmR from sniper rifles, including the increased penetration of hardened rounds, and can survive hits from repeated shots in these calibers conducted at close range. It is claimed that the 6B47 helmet protects a soldier's head 40 percent more than NATO analogs.


title: Ratnik (program)

text: The plates inside the vest, designated Granit 'гранит', are removable from the 6B45 (6Б45), with the inside of the vest being lined with Kevlar for additional protection. These plates are shaped similarly to the "Shooter" variant of the United States Armed Forces Small Arms Protective Insert. The 6B43 was an early iteration of the 6B45 that was initially produced as part of the Ratnik program which had removable Kevlar inserts.


title: Ratnik (program)

text: Variants of the Ratnik Program body armor were designed for different purposes including the 6B46 (6Б46) - a lighter-weight, para-droppable design aimed at replicating the popular small form factors and utility of the 6B48 (6Б48) - created for tank crews and issued in 2016. Although the 6B46 (6Б46) was issued as part of the initial Ratnik program, there is not much evidence of them being used by units in the field, with the first mass use seen in public occurring during the Slavic Brotherhood 2019 joint international exercise in Serbia.


title: Ratnik (program)

text: The weight of the full Ratnik infantry system with the special thigh and shoulder bulletproof shields is 19–20 kg. Basic Ratnik gear (for engineers and medics) weighs 15 kg (without thigh and shoulder guards). Ratnik gear is made of a special fabric that prevents troops from being detected by infrared devices.


title: Ratnik (program)

text: Russia’s TsNIITochMash (part of the Rostec defence conglomerate) has developed more powerful 7N39 ‘Igolnik’ 5.45×39mm cartridge and its 7N40 variant, with an increased density of fire and bullet penetration during its work on the Ratnik soldier gear. Russia’s holding company Shvabe has developed a new, lighter version of the thermal night vision weapon sight, which is to complement the soldier’s field combat gear Ratnik. Russia’s holding company Shvabe also created the technology increasing aiming distance.


title: Ratnik (program)

text: Prototype Ratnik kits were initially distributed to selected units in the Ground Forces in 2013 according to Oleg Martyanov, a member of Russia's Military-Industrial Commission, which acts as the government's liaison with the defense industry. Initially only elite troops will receive the AK-12 as part of the Ratnik system, while the rest of the Ground Forces will continue using the AK-74M into the 2020s.


title: Ratnik (program)

text: For the Russian Navy and Engineer Troops, the bulletproof vest is combined with a life vest, so that soldiers and sailors who are thrown into the water won't drown. All Naval Infantry units were equipped with Ratnik gear as of November 2016.


title: Ratnik (program)

text: Serial deliveries and batch production of Ratnik began in the first half of 2015. About 300,000 Ratnik sets have been delivered as of December 2020. Russia’s Ground Forces and the Navy’s coastal brigades are practically fully equipped with the Ratnik combat gear in March 2019. 18,000 sets delivered in 2019 in basic, commander, sniper, machine-gunner, gunner and tank man versions and 18,000 more in 2020. A new version for mountainous-desert terrain begun to be delivered in July 2021. Work was carried out in 2021 to include mini-and micro-UAVs, wearable robotic complexes, as well as exoskeletons. The Novosibirsk Instrument Making Plant has developed augmented reality glasses that are integrated into the Ratnik. The estimated cost of one set of glasses is over 500 thousand rubles, or $6,000 USD, $2,000 more than a second generation Microsoft Hololens. 2022 Ratnik deliveries were reportedly completed ahead of time.


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: The Mazda MX-5 (ND) is the fourth and current generation of the Mazda MX-5. Mazda officially unveiled the car on September 3, 2014, in the United States and Spain, and on September 4, 2014, in Japan. The new MX-5 was presented at the October 2014 Paris Motor Show, and at the November 2014 Los Angeles Auto Show. The car is manufactured in Mazda's Hiroshima plant since March 4, 2015. The vehicle was released in the third quarter of 2015. In the US, the release price of the MX-5 was between $24,915 and $30,065. On March 24, 2016 the MX-5 was awarded World Car of the Year (WCOTY) and the World Car Design of the Year at the New York Auto Show. It was the second Mazda to win WCOTY following the Demio/Mazda2 in 2008.


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: The fourth generation MX-5 is shorter and lighter than its predecessor, putting the vehicle's curb weight near . Incorporating Mazda's Skyactiv technology, the Miata is offered with a choice of two direct injection, naturally aspirated petrol engines. The base model has a 1.5 L engine, while the North American (United States and Canada) pre-2019 cars are rated at at 6000 rpm and at 4600 rpm of torque. Mazda also replaced the hydraulic power steering system that the previous Miatas had with their new Electric Power Assisted Steering (EPAS) system.


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: The car was launched with a six-speed manual shift transmission and a six-speed automatic transmission. The cockpit, steering wheel, and infotainment system are very similar to the 2014 Mazda3. The MX-5 is fitted as standard with a manually operated fabric roof that can be opened or closed within a few seconds.


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: In North America, the 2019 MX-5 has three variants: Sport, Club, and Grand Touring (GS, GS-P, GT in Canada, respectively) and all come standard with a engine rated at at 7000 rpm and at 4000 rpm of torque. All variants can be had with a MT or AT, with the MT fuel efficiency of City and Highway. The AT performs slightly better, at City and Highway.


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: In 2019, a GT-S trim was introduced bringing the Club trim's limited-slip differential, Bilstein shock absorbers, and strut tower brace to the GT trim as well as a black roof on all RF models. In 2020, these became standard features in the GT trim, and the separate GT-S designation was retired.


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: The MX-5 (ND) has been very popular with diecast manufacturers like Tomica, Hot Wheels, and Matchbox, with all three companies releasing their own versions of the car to the market.


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: In late 2016, a new MX-5 RF (Retractable Fastback) model was announced. It features a rigid roof and buttresses that give the silhouette a more coupé-like appearance than the soft top convertible. The top panel of the roof folds back while the buttresses remain in place, similar to a Targa top. Antecedents for the flying buttresses design are found in the Chevrolet Corvette (C3) T-top coupé and the Ferrari Dino 206 GT and 246 GT. The interior of the MX-5 RF model is almost the same as the soft top, with the same media screen, seats, steering wheel and switchgear, and the trunk volume is the same as the soft top. Differences include a full circle colored digital gauge in place of the soft top's semi-rectangular, half-digital, mono-colored display. The storage cubby behind the drivers seat has been eliminated, and the cubby behind the passenger seat as well as the glove box behind the center console have been made shallower to make room for the roof mechanism. The MX-5 RF uses the same engines as the soft top model and offers similar performance. The MX-5 RF also introduced a new 'Machine Grey Mica' paint.


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: A limited edition run of 500 models was introduced with the launch of the Mazda MX-5 RF. Called the 'Launch Edition' these models were priced at £28,995 and were only available with the 2.0-litre engine. These models included BBS alloy wheels, a twin-tone roof, black door mirrors and rear spoiler as well as Recaro seats. This version was only available in two colours: 'Soul Red' or 'Machine Grey'. It was the first time since the original NA series MX-5 was available with a companion body style since the Mazda MX-3 which was a hatchback sport coupe.


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: A joint venture with Alfa Romeo on a joint rear-wheel drive platform was announced in 2012, but cancelled in 2014. Fiat Chrysler announced the Fiat 124 Spider and Abarth 124 Spider, both based on the Mazda ND platform, in 2015.


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: In 2016, the "Detroit News" stated "in partnering with Mazda’s MX-5 Miata to resurrect the classic Fiat 124 Spider, Fiat Chrysler not only gained a halo sports car for its struggling Italian brand, but likely saved the most celebrated small sports car of the past 25 years (the MX-5)" — citing the markedly increased cost of developing a new car at the time and "the costliest wave of government regulation since the 1970s."


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: In late 2018, for the 2019 model year, the 2.0-liter engine was revised to generate and of torque, with the redline increased to 7,500 rpm, and a dual-mass flywheel was introduced to the powertrain. Externally, the car received a brown soft top and black 17" wheels. Interior upgrades include a telescoping steering column, a standard reverse camera, a reworked door opening mechanism, revised seat controls, and redesigned cupholders.<ref name="C/D 2019"></ref>


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: In December 2021, Mazda announced that the 2022 model year MX-5 will feature Kinematic Posture Control (KPC), a new technology that improves steering response and body roll by applying single-wheel rear braking during high-g cornering.


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: Released in the UK as the fourth MX-5 to wear the "Icon" badge (others were 2000, 2005 and 2007 models). It was based on a 1.5-l SE-L model. The interior had red stitching on the leather, special floor mats and a plaque in the centre console. It was available in Meteor Grey Mica or Crystal White Pearlescent and featured chequered decals along the sides along with Soul Red paint on the front air dam, mirror caps and spoiler, finished with 16-inch Gunmetal alloy wheels. Production was limited to 600 cars.


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: Inspired by the 1966 film "The Endless Summer", this one-off collaboration with Garage Italia Customs features a unique indigo blue fading to bright orange paint job. In addition, the interior is re-trimmed in Japanese blue denim with blue Alcantara and orange stitching.


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: The Z-Sport is characterised by their otherwise-unavailable combination of 17-inch BBS alloy wheels, metallic 'Machine' grey paint and cherry-red soft-top roof. It also came with sand-coloured leather upholstery, a numbered "Z-Sport" dashboard plaque, and "Z-Sport" logos on the door sills and floor mats.


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: This Italy-exclusive model is a tribute to Mazda MX-5 Ambassador Nobuhiro Yamamoto and is available only with the 1.5 L engine. It comes only in Jet Black with red highlights, a Mazdaspeed aero kit, a red engine bay brace and oil cap, and a special badge on the driver's side door behind the side mirror. The interior features black and red Alcantara trim with an embroidered reproduction of Yamamoto's signature. Optional upgrades include an Öhlins suspension, 16" Enkei RPF1 wheels in Toyo R888R 205/50ZR16 semi-slick tires, 280 mm brake discs with Brembo 4-piston front calipers, Nissin rear calipers, and stainless steel braided hoses. Only four examples of this model were released.


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: To celebrate the 30th anniversary of the MX-5, Mazda released a limited edition variant of the ND. The MX-5 Miata 30th Anniversary Edition debuted at the 2019 Chicago Auto Show on 7 February. The car comes in an exclusive Racing Orange color with a special numbering badge, as well as specially engraved Rays Engineering forged aluminum wheels and updated orange Brembo front and orange Nissin rear brake calipers. Each U.S. market owner was able to configure their 30th Anniversary Edition MX-5 before placing a $500 deposit. Of the 3,000 worldwide units, only 500 examples were allocated to the U.S., but after feedback from buyers, Mazda announced that an additional 143 units will be allocated for the U.S. market. 165 examples were exported to Canada, 30 went to Australia, and 30 were sold in the Philippines - including the 3,000th unit.


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: Available exclusively in France with a limited run of 110 units, the MX-5 Eunos Edition features a Jet Black Mica exterior, burgundy Napa leather interior, and black Rays Engineering wheels as an homage to the Eunos brand and the 1992 S-Limited Roadster.


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: To commemorate Mazda's 100 year past and pay homage to their R360 Coupe, Mazda released the 100th Anniversary Mazda MX-5 Miata and MX-5 Miata RF in the third quarter of 2020. Based on their 2020 Grand Touring models this edition is only offered in their Snowflake White Pearl Mica colour and paired with their Garnet Red Napa leather seats. Canada received them for the 2021 model year. This colour combination was inspired by the original R360 Coupe. There are several interior accents with the special 100th Anniversary badges and logos throughout. The "100 YEARS 1920–2020" anniversary logo is imprinted in the headrest of the seats, and have it on the key fob, and central caps of the wheels. The "1920–2020" badges are throughout the car, it being on the red accent rugs, and front fenders of the car. The convertible version of this edition has the exclusive burgundy top, while the retractable fastback (RF) version will have a black piano top color. Less than 700 of these editions over all Mazda Models (MX-30, 2, 3, 6, CX-3, CX-30, CX-5, CX-9, and MX-5) are built and distributed worldwide.


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: Available exclusively in the Philippines to commemorate the 25th anniversary of Miata Club Philippines, the MX-5 MCP 25th Anniversary Edition features a Platinum Quartz Metallic exterior with a navy blue soft top and a red stripe. Each unit will come with a commemorative book highlighting the history of the car club.


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: Four airbags are fitted as standard, including torso airbags, pelvis airbags and head airbags for driver and passenger. Headrests provide protection from whiplash. A Vehicle Stability Control+ (VSC+), an 'active' hood for pedestrian protection and a Lane Departure Warning System (LDWS) are available. Since the MX-5 is a two-seater, the front passenger airbag can be disabled for safe transportation of children and the installation of a suitable rear-facing child seat restraint to be used in that position. In the Euro NCAP safety test, the MX suffered from a malfunctioning driver's airbag, which was unable to prevent the dummy from hitting the steering wheel. Its rating was 4 out of 5 stars.


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: The fourth generation MX-5 received praise from automotive journalists. Jeremy Clarkson, in his "Driving" column of "The Sunday Times", gave the car five out of five stars, calling it an "engineering gem." He also commented that "It’s a cure for depression, this car, it really is. You just can’t be in a bad mood when you’re driving it."


title: Mazda MX-5 (ND)

text: "Top Gear" magazine gave the car a score of nine out of 10, calling it "A complete sweetie of a roadster, this is the best the MX-5 has been perhaps ever." The car also received perfect five star review ratings from "Car and Driver" and "What Car?" magazines.


title: Daniella Alonso

text: Daniella Alonso is an American actress and former fashion model. She has appeared in a number of horror films, including "The Hills Have Eyes 2" and "". Alonso was a regular cast member in the NBC post-apocalyptic series "Revolution" from 2012 to 2013, and the medical drama "The Night Shift" in 2014. Alonso also appeared in the first season of the TNT crime drama "Animal Kingdom" in 2016, and in 2019 began starring as Cristal Flores in the third season of The CW prime time soap opera, "Dynasty".


title: Daniella Alonso

text: Alonso was born in New York City and is of Puerto Rican, Peruvian and Japanese heritage. She has stated that she "grew up in a pretty much all woman household in NYC", but added that her father, grandfather and uncles had "strong influences" in her life as well. She has a brother. She has participated in karate, in which she holds a fourth level green belt. She loves animals and supports PETA, posing in a 2013 advertising campaign that asked consumers to wear synthetic leather.


title: Daniella Alonso

text: Discovered by the Ford Modeling Agency, Alonso began booking jobs for teen magazines like "Seventeen", "YM", and "Teen", which led to her booking commercials for Clairol, Cover girl, Clean and Clear, Kmart, Target, Footlocker, Volkswagen, and others. She has done over thirty national commercials and 20-plus Spanish market advertisements, as well.


title: Daniella Alonso

text: In television, Alonso began her career with guest appearances on "Law & Order" and "As the World Turns". She had her first break with a recurring role as Anna Taggaro in Season 2 of The WB drama series "One Tree Hill" (2004-05). Then she began appearing in horror movies including "Hood of Horror" (2006), "The Hills Have Eyes 2" (2007), "" (2007) and "The Collector" (2009). She has also had guest appearances in "", "Private Practice", "Rizzoli & Isles" and "Castle".


title: Daniella Alonso

text: In 2007, she began a recurring role in the NBC drama series "Friday Night Lights" (2007-08) as Carlotta Alonso. In 2010, Alonso starred in the short-lived ABC drama series "My Generation". From 2012 to 2013, she starred in the NBC post-apocalyptic series "Revolution" as Nora Clayton. Alonso later starred in the first season of another NBC series "The Night Shift" as Dr. Landry de la Cruz, that aired on the summer of 2014. In 2015, she had a recurring role in the BET drama series "Being Mary Jane".


title: Daniella Alonso

text: In 2015, Alonso starred in two films; first was "Re-Kill" a horror film, and the box office hit comedy "" opposite Kevin James. In 2016, she starred in the first season of TNT crime drama "Animal Kingdom". The following year, she went to star in the ABC drama pilot "Las Reinas", but it not was picked up to series. She later had recurring roles on "Criminal Minds" and "The Resident". In 2019, she joined the cast of The CW prime time soap opera "Dynasty" replacing Ana Brenda Contreras in the role of Cristal Jennings.


title: Daniella Alonso

text: On November 5, 2020, Alonso said on a podcast that she is pregnant with her first child. She gave birth to a girl in 2021.


title: G. W. Bailey

text: George William Bailey (born August 27, 1944) is an American actor. Although he appeared in many dramatic roles, he may be best remembered for his "crusty" comedic characters such as Staff Sergeant Luther Rizzo in "M*A*S*H" (TV series 1979–1983); Lieutenant/Captain Thaddeus Harris in the "Police Academy" films (1984–1994), and Captain Felix Maxwell in "Mannequin" (1987). He played the role of Detective Lieutenant Louie Provenza on TNT's television crime drama "The Closer", and its spinoff series "Major Crimes", from 2005 to 2018.


title: G. W. Bailey

text: Bailey was born in Port Arthur, Texas. He went to Thomas Jefferson High School in Port Arthur with Janis Joplin and Jimmy Johnson. He started college at Lamar University in nearby Beaumont and transferred to Texas Tech University in Lubbock.


title: G. W. Bailey

text: Bailey left college and spent the mid-1960s working at local theater companies before moving to California in the mid-1970s. He broke into television with a small recurring role as a crime scene police officer on the short-lived detective show "Harry O". He then landed one-shot episodic roles on television programs of the day such as "Starsky and Hutch" and "Charlie's Angels". His film debut was in "A Force of One" (1979), an early Chuck Norris film. By the late 1970s, he got his breakout role as the conniving, cigar-chomping goldbricker Sgt. Luther Rizzo in "M*A*S*H". He also appeared as Tom Berenger's sidekick in "Rustler's Rhapsody" (1985).


title: G. W. Bailey

text: He returned to college in 1993, and graduated from Southwest Texas State University, now Texas State, in San Marcos, Texas in May 1993, with a Bachelor of Fine Arts, Theatre. For the 1999–2000 school year, he was the Artist-in-Residence.


title: G. W. Bailey

text: In the late 1990s, he starred in three of the seventeen television films and miniseries in the "Bible Collection" series produced for the TNT television network, "Solomon" (1997), "Jesus" (1999), and "Paul" (2000).


title: G. W. Bailey

text: Since 2001, Bailey has served as the Executive Director of the Sunshine Kids Foundation, which provides trips and activities for hundreds of young cancer patients annually. He first volunteered with the organization after his goddaughter was diagnosed with leukemia.


title: Kim Bodnia

text: Kim Bodnia (born 12 April 1965) is a Danish actor, writer, and director. He became widely known for his role as police detective Martin Rohde in the Scandinavian crime drama series "The Bridge". He became internationally known for his lead role as drug dealer Frank in Nicolas Winding Refn's 1996 directorial debut "Pusher". Today he is best known as Konstantin in Phoebe Waller-Bridge's 2018 BBC America spy thriller TV series "Killing Eve".


title: Kim Bodnia

text: In 2009, Bodnia won the 62nd Bodil Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role, and in 2014 he won the Monte-Carlo Television Festival Award for Outstanding Actor in a Drama Series. In 2019 he earned a British Academy Television Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role in "Killing Eve".


title: Kim Bodnia

text: Bodnia was born in Copenhagen on 12 April 1965 and grew up in Espergærde. He comes from a Jewish family with Polish and Russian ancestry. In 2014, he described himself as "half-Russian, half-Polish and all Jewish". When asked in 2011 whether religion had been an important aspect of his life, he said, "No, but I believe in nature."


title: Kim Bodnia

text: Bodnia admitted that he was not a particularly good student as a child, describing himself as a "clown" who was reluctant to study. His main interest was in athletics, particularly the 100 metres and the long jump, in which he was the Zealand youth champion for several years. He aspired to become a football goalkeeper, but a foot injury prevented him from pursuing this career.


title: Kim Bodnia

text: As a student at "Espergærde Ungdomsskole", Bodnia joined the theatre group, performing mainly in comic roles. When he was 16, his mother suggested he apply for a place at the Danish National School of Theatre and Contemporary Dance. His first application failed, but he gained entry on his second attempt a year later in 1987.


title: Kim Bodnia

text: In his film debut "En Afgrund af frihed" ("An Abyss of Freedom") (1989) he played a small supporting role as a bouncer. One of his first roles after graduation in 1991 was as Patrick Bateman in a stage version of "American Psycho", and he was subsequently often typecast as violent, brutal characters. Bodnia's first leading role in a film was in "Bulldozer" (1993), directed by Maria Sødahl. His breakout role came a year later in Ole Bornedal's horror film "Nightwatch" (1994).


title: Kim Bodnia

text: Despite this success it was two years before his next film, Nicolas Winding Refn's "Pusher" (1996), and then Winding Refn's "Bleeder" (1999). He has since appeared in "Terribly Happy" (2008), and in three Lasse Spang Olsen films: "In China They Eat Dogs" (1999) and its sequel "Old Men in New Cars" (2002), and in "Den Gode Strømer" (2004), which he co-wrote with the director. Bodnia has also appeared in several Norwegian films, including "Himmelfall" (2002), "Monstertorsdag" (2004), and "Tomme Tønner" (2010). He appeared in the 2011 Indian English comedy film "Delhi Belly" playing a Russian smuggler. In 2014 he appeared as the eponymous Iranian interrogator "Rosewater", directed by Jon Stewart. As to his role, he said: "It was a tough job because I'm Jewish. I'm playing a guy who really hates me and wants to destroy my country."


title: Kim Bodnia

text: Bodnia has become internationally known for his television roles. He made his first appearance in the historical mini-series "Snapphanar" in 2006. He appeared in three episodes of the first season of the crime series "The Killing" (2007) (), and in two episodes of the comedy drama "Hvor fanden er Herning?" ("Where the hell is Herning?") (2009), before returning to crime series, appearing in episodes of the Swedish "Kommissarie Winter" (2010), "Den som dræber" ("Those Who Kill") (2011), and the German/Swedish "Der Kommissar und das Meer" ("The Inspector and the Sea") (2012).


title: Kim Bodnia

text: In 2009 he won the 62nd Bodil Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. In 2014 he won the Monte-Carlo Television Festival Award for Outstanding Actor in a Drama Series.


title: Kim Bodnia

text: Bodnia played the Danish detective Martin Rohde in the first two series of the Nordic noir crime television programme "The Bridge" ("Broen|Bron") (2011–present). Created and written by Hans Rosenfeldt, it is a joint creative and financed production between Sweden's Sveriges Television and Denmark's DR. It has been shown in over 100 countries. Although Bodnia signed for the third series, he dropped out, reportedly unhappy with the development of his character. He also voiced concerns in an interview about working in Malmö, due to the city's problems with anti-semitism, which had made his decision to leave the series easier. He said: "it’s not very nice and comfortable to be there as a Jewish person."


title: Kim Bodnia

text: In 2001 Bodnia co-wrote and directed the short film "Escape - Flugten fra ensomheden" ("Escape - Flight from loneliness"). In early 2014 he directed readings of "The Tailor's Tale", a play based on his Jewish grandfather's experience of life in Copenhagen under Nazi occupation, written by his cousin Alexander Bodin Saphir, and performed at the Scandinavia House–The Nordic Center in America in New York.


title: Kim Bodnia

text: Bodnia has been married twice. His first marriage was to actress Lotte Andersen, with whom he has a son, who is also an actor. He is currently married to actress Rikke Louise Andersson, who played his wife in Bleeder, with whom he has two sons and a daughter.


title: Michael of Russia

text: Michael I (Russian: Михаил Фёдорович Романов, "Mikhaíl Fyódorovich Románov") () became the first Russian tsar of the House of Romanov after the Zemskiy Sobor of 1613 elected him to rule the Tsardom of Russia.


title: Michael of Russia

text: He was the son of Feodor Nikitich Romanov (later known as Patriarch Filaret) and of Xenia Shestova (later known as "the "great nun"" Martha). He was also a first cousin once removed of the last Rurikid Tsar Feodor I through his great-aunt Anastasia Romanovna, who was the mother of Feodor I, and through marriage, a great-nephew in-law with Tsar Ivan IV of Russia. His accession marked the end of the Time of Troubles. During his reign, Russia conquered most of Siberia with the help of the Cossacks and the Stroganov family. Russia had extended from the vicinity of the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean by the end of Michael's reign.


title: Michael of Russia

text: Michael's grandfather, Nikita, was brother to the first Russian Tsaritsa Anastasia and a central advisor to Ivan the Terrible. As a young boy, Michael and his mother had been exiled to Beloozero in 1600. This was a result of the recently elected Tsar Boris Godunov, in 1598, falsely accusing his father, Feodor, of treason. This may have been partly because Feodor had married Ksenia Shestova against Boris's wishes.


title: Michael of Russia

text: Michael was eventually chosen for the throne of Muscovy due to his father's martyr-like captivity in Polish detention, as the patriotic mood swept the Russian elite since the expulsion of the Poles during the Time of Troubles. Michael's youth also contributed to his election as he was seen easy to be manipulated. On 21 February 1613, 700 delegates reached a consensus for Michael to be chosen as a compromise candidate as Tsar of Russia by the Zemsky Sobor of 1613.


title: Michael of Russia

text: The delegates of the council did not discover the young Tsar and his mother at the Ipatiev Monastery near Kostroma until 24 March. He had been chosen after several other options had been removed, including Polish prince Vladislav, Austrian Archduke Maximilian III and the Swedish prince Carl Philip. Initially, Martha protested, believing and stating that her son was too young and tender for so difficult an office, and in such a troublesome time.


title: Michael of Russia

text: According to Dunning, "The sixteen-year-old boy did not impress the boyars at all; he was poorly educated and not particularly intelligent. Nonetheless, those great lords consoled themselves with the knowledge that Trubetskoi would not become tsar and that Mikhail's ambitious and highly intelligent father, Filaret, was still in Polish captivity. One of the boyars allegedly said at the time, 'Let us have Misha Romanov for he is young and not yet wise; he will suit our purposes.' In fact, under the strong influence of reactionary boyars, even in preparation for his coronation, the deeply conservative new tsar revealed his true feelings about his subjects by snubbing many patriots simply because they were commoners." The tsar's family relationship with False Dmitry I, False Dmitry II, and Prince Wladyslaw was covered up, even the two years Mikhail spent in the Polish-occupied Kremlin with his collaborator uncle Ivan Romanov.


title: Michael of Russia

text: Michael's election and accession to the throne form the basis of the Ivan Susanin legend, which Russian composer Mikhail Glinka dramatized in his opera "A Life for the Tsar".


title: Michael of Russia

text: In so dilapidated a condition was the capital at this time that Michael had to wait for several weeks at the Troitsa monastery, off, before decent accommodation could be provided for him at Moscow. He was crowned on 21 July 1613, on his seventeenth birthday. The first task of the new tsar was to clear the land of the countries occupying it. Sweden and Poland were then dealt with respectively by the peace of Stolbovo (17 February 1617) and the Truce of Deulino (1 December 1618).


title: Michael of Russia

text: The most important result of the Truce of Deulino was the return from Polish captivity of the Tsar's father, Patriarch Filaret. Filaret became the effective ruler of Russia until his death in 1633.


title: Michael of Russia

text: Michael's reign saw the greatest territorial expansion in Russian history. During his reign, the conquest of Siberia continued, largely accomplished by the Cossacks and financed by the Stroganov merchant family.


title: Michael of Russia

text: Tsar Michael suffered from a progressive leg injury (a consequence of a horse accident early in his life), which resulted in his not being able to walk towards the end of his life. He was a gentle and pious prince who gave little trouble to anyone and effaced himself behind his counsellors. Sometimes they were relatively honest and capable men like his father; sometimes they were corrupted and bigoted, like the Saltykov relatives of his mother. He was married twice. He was married off to Princess Maria Vladimirovna Dolgorukova in 1624, but she became ill, and died in early 1625, only four months after the marriage. In 1626, he married Eudoxia Streshneva (1608–1645), who bore him 10 children, of whom four reached adulthood: the future Tsar Alexis and the Tsarevnas Irina, Anna, and Tatyana. Michael's failure to wed his eldest daughter, Irina, with Count Valdemar Christian of Schleswig-Holstein, a morganatic son of King Christian IV of Denmark, in consequence of the refusal of the latter to accept Orthodoxy, so deeply afflicted him as to contribute to bringing about his death. Tsar Michael fell ill in April 1645, with scurvy, dropsy, and probably depression. His doctors prescribed purgatives which did not improve his condition; and after fainting in church on 12 July, he died on 23 July 1645.


title: Michael of Russia

text: The two government offices (prikazes) that were most important politically were the Posolsky Prikaz ("Foreign Office") and the Razryadny Prikaz (a Duma chancellery and a personnel department for both central and provincial administration including military command). Those offices could be pivotal in struggles between boyar factions, so they were traditionally headed not by boyars but by dyaki (professional clerks).


title: Michael of Russia

text: The first head of the Posolsky Prikaz under Michael was Pyotr Tretyakov until his death in 1618; he conducted a policy of allying with Sweden against Poland. The next, Ivan Gramotin had a reputation for being a Polonophile; this appointment was necessary to bring forth Filaret's release from captivity. In the mid-1620s Filaret began preparations for war with Poland; Gramotin fell into disfavour and was dismissed and exiled in 1626. The same fate was shared by Efim Telepnev in 1630 and Fedor Likhachov in 1631 – they too tried to mitigate Filaret's belligerent approach. Ivan Gryazev, appointed in 1632, was promoted from the second rank of the bureaucracy to carry out Filaret's orders. After the deaths of Filaret and Gryazev, the post was once again assumed by Gramotin in 1634, and after his retirement in 1635, by Likhachov, who undertook a general course of pacification.


title: Michael of Russia

text: The Razryadny Prikaz was first headed by Sydavny Vasilyev; Filaret replaced him with his fellow in captivity Tomilo Lugovskoy, but the latter somehow provoked Filaret's anger and was sent into exile. In 1623, Fedor Likhachov was appointed head of the prikaz until his move to the Posolsky Prikaz, and, in 1630, the Razryad was given to Ivan Gavrenev, an outstanding administrator who held this post for 30 years.


title: Michael of Russia

text: Three other key offices were the "Streletsky Prikaz" (in charge of the streltsy, regiments who served as Moscow's garrison), the "Prikaz bolshoy kazny", minister of the treasury, and the "Aptekarsky Prikaz" ("Pharmacy Office", a de facto ministry of health, most particularly the tsar's health). After Filaret's arrival, their former heads were sent away from Moscow, and all three given to Ivan Cherkassky (Filaret's nephew), who proved to be an able and competent administrator and was a de facto prime minister until his death in 1642. Fedor Sheremetev, who had succeeded to all of Cherkassky's posts was a rather weak figure; real power lay in the hands of a court marshal, Alexey Lvov.


title: Lord Haw-Haw

text: Lord Haw-Haw was a nickname applied to William Joyce, who broadcast Nazi propaganda to the UK from Germany during the Second World War. The broadcasts opened with "Germany calling, Germany calling", spoken in an affected upper-class English accent.


title: Lord Haw-Haw

text: The same nickname was also applied to some other broadcasters of English-language propaganda from Germany, but it is Joyce with whom the name is now overwhelmingly identified.


title: Lord Haw-Haw

text: The English-language propaganda radio programme "Germany Calling" was broadcast to audiences in the United Kingdom on the medium wave station Reichssender Hamburg and by shortwave to the United States. The programme began on 18 September 1939 and continued until 30 April 1945, when the British Army overran Hamburg. The next scheduled broadcast was made by Horst Pinschewer (also known as Geoffrey Perry), a German-Jewish refugee serving in the British Army who announced the British takeover. Pinschewer was later responsible for the capture of William Joyce.


title: Lord Haw-Haw

text: Through such broadcasts, the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda attempted to discourage and demoralise American, Australian, British, and Canadian troops, and the British population, to suppress the effectiveness of the Allied war effort through propaganda, and to motivate the Allies to agree to peace terms leaving the Nazi regime intact and in power. Among many techniques used, the Nazi broadcasts reported on the shooting down of Allied aircraft and the sinking of Allied ships, presenting discouraging reports of high losses and casualties among Allied forces. Although the broadcasts were well known to be Nazi propaganda, they frequently offered the only details available from behind enemy lines concerning the fate of friends and relatives who did not return from bombing raids over Germany. As a result, Allied troops and civilians frequently listened to Lord Haw-Haw's broadcasts despite the often inflammatory content and frequent inaccuracies and exaggerations, in the hope of hearing clues as to the fate of Allied troops and air crews. Mass-Observation interviews warned the Ministry of Information of this; consequently, more attention was given to the official reports of British military casualties.


title: Lord Haw-Haw

text: In a newspaper article of 14 September 1939, the radio critic Jonah Barrington of the "Daily Express" wrote of hearing a gent "moaning periodically from Zeesen" who "speaks English of the haw-haw, damit-get-out-of-my-way variety". Four days later, he gave him the nickname 'Lord Haw-Haw'. He wrote scathingly:


title: Lord Haw-Haw

text: I imagine him having a receding chin, a questing nose, thin yellow hair brushed back, a monocle, a vacant eye, a gardenia in his buttonhole. Rather like PG Wodehouse's Bertie Wooster…


title: Lord Haw-Haw

text: The voice Barrington heard is widely believed to be that of Wolf Mittler, a German journalist whose near-flawless English sounded like a caricature of an upper-crust Englishman. However, Mittler only made five or six broadcasts and was quickly replaced by other broadcasters, leading to uncertainty over whom Barrington had been referring to. Some British media and listeners used "Lord Haw-Haw" as a generic term to describe all English-language German broadcasters, although other nicknames, like "Sinister Sam", were occasionally used by the BBC to distinguish among obviously different speakers. Poor reception may have contributed to some listeners' difficulties in distinguishing between broadcasters. By the end of 1939, when Joyce had become the most prominent and regular broadcaster of English-language Nazi propaganda, the name was applied exclusively to him. Indeed, the Germans soon capitalised on the publicity generated in Britain and began announcing Joyce's talks as by "William Joyce, otherwise known as Lord Haw-Haw".


title: Lord Haw-Haw

text: In reference to the nickname, American pro-Nazi broadcaster Fred W. Kaltenbach was given the moniker "Lord Hee-Haw" by the British media. The "Lord Hee-Haw" name, however, was used for a time by "The Daily Telegraph" to refer to Lord Haw-Haw, generating some confusion between nicknames and broadcasters.


title: Lord Haw-Haw

text: William Joyce replaced Mittler in 1939. Joyce was American-born and raised in Ireland and as a teenager he was an informant to the British forces about the IRA members during the Irish War of Independence. He was also a senior member of the British Union of Fascists and fled England when tipped off about his planned internment on 26 August 1939. In October 1939, the Fascist newspaper "Action" identified "one of the subsidiary announcers" on German radio, "with a marked nasal intonation", as one of its former members and distanced itself from him as a "renegade", whose broadcasts were "likely only to rouse the fighting ire of the average Briton".


title: Lord Haw-Haw

text: In February 1940, the BBC noted that the Lord Haw-Haw of the early war days (possibly Mittler) was now rarely heard on the air and had been replaced by a new spokesman. Joyce was the main German broadcaster in English for most of the war, and became a naturalised German citizen; he is usually regarded as Lord Haw-Haw, even though he was probably not the person to whom the term originally referred. He had a peculiar hybrid accent that was not of the conventional upper-class variety. His distinctive nasal pronunciation of "Germany calling, Germany calling" may have been the result of a fight as a schoolboy that left him with a broken nose.


title: Lord Haw-Haw

text: Joyce, initially an anonymous broadcaster like the others, eventually revealed his real name to his listeners. The Germans actually capitalised on the fame of the Lord Haw-Haw nickname and came to announce him as "William Joyce, otherwise known as Lord Haw-Haw".


title: Lord Haw-Haw

text: After Joyce took over, Mittler was paired with the American-born announcer Mildred Gillars in the Axis Sally programme and also broadcast to ANZAC forces in North Africa. Mittler survived the war and appeared on postwar German radio, and occasionally television, until his death. Baillie-Stewart was sentenced to five years' imprisonment. Joyce was captured by British forces in northern Germany just as the war ended, tried, and eventually hanged for treason on 3 January 1946. Joyce's defence team, appointed by the court, argued that, as an American citizen and naturalised German, Joyce could not be convicted of treason against the British Crown. However, the prosecution successfully argued that, since he had lied about his nationality to obtain a British passport and voted in Britain, Joyce owed allegiance to the king.


title: Lord Haw-Haw

text: In "Haw-Haw: The Tragedy of William and Margaret Joyce", the author Nigel Farndale presents evidence that shows that, during his trial, Joyce may have agreed not to reveal his pre-war links with Maxwell Knight, the head of the MI5 section B5(b), as part of a deal to spare his wife Margaret, a “Germany Calling” broadcaster known as Lady Haw-Haw, from prosecution for treason.


title: Lord Haw-Haw

text: As J. A. Cole has written, "the British public would not have been surprised if, in that Flensburg wood [where he was captured], Haw-Haw had carried in his pocket a secret weapon capable of annihilating an armoured brigade". This mood was reflected in the wartime film "Sherlock Holmes and the Voice of Terror" (1942), starring Basil Rathbone and Nigel Bruce, in which Joyce's broadcasts are shown to predict actual disasters and defeats, thus, according to the storyline, seriously undermining British morale.


title: Lord Haw-Haw

text: Other British subjects willingly made propaganda broadcasts, including Raymond Davies Hughes, who broadcast on the German Radio Metropole, and John Amery. P. G. Wodehouse was tricked into broadcasting, not propaganda, but rather his own satiric accounts of his capture by the Germans and civil internment as an enemy alien, by a German friend who assured him that the talks would be broadcast only to the neutral United States. They were, however, relayed to the UK on a little-known channel. An MI5 investigation, conducted shortly after Wodehouse's release from Germany, but published only after his death, found no evidence of treachery.


title: Aperture

text: In optics, an aperture is a hole or an opening through which light travels. More specifically, the aperture and focal length of an optical system determine the cone angle of a bundle of rays that come to a focus in the image plane.


title: Aperture

text: An optical system typically has many openings or structures that limit the ray bundles (ray bundles are also known as "pencils" of light). These structures may be the edge of a lens or mirror, or a ring or other fixture that holds an optical element in place, or may be a special element such as a diaphragm placed in the optical path to limit the light admitted by the system. In general, these structures are called stops, and the aperture stop is the stop that primarily determines the ray cone angle and brightness at the image point.


title: Aperture

text: In some contexts, especially in photography and astronomy, "aperture" refers to the diameter of the aperture stop rather than the physical stop or the opening itself. For example, in a telescope, the aperture stop is typically the edges of the objective lens or mirror (or of the mount that holds it). One then speaks of a telescope as having, for example, a 100-centimeter "aperture". Note that the aperture stop is not necessarily the smallest stop in the system. Magnification and demagnification by lenses and other elements can cause a relatively large stop to be the aperture stop for the system. In astrophotography, the aperture may be given as a linear measure (for example in inches or mm) or as the dimensionless ratio between that measure and the focal length. In other photography, it is usually given as a ratio.


title: Aperture

text: Sometimes stops and diaphragms are called apertures, even when they are not the aperture stop of the system.


title: Aperture

text: The word "aperture" is also used in other contexts to indicate a system which blocks off light outside a certain region. In astronomy, for example, a photometric aperture around a star usually corresponds to a circular window around the image of a star within which the light intensity is assumed.


title: Aperture

text: The word "aperture" is also used as a small hole, similar to a peek-hole. For example, in military terms, a bunker's aperture means a small peeking hole made artificially or by natural means. A bunker's aperture can be used for preserving the body from enemy fire while achieving a clear line of sight. (Infantry Combat/The Rifle Platoon/John F. Antal p.91)


title: Aperture

text: The aperture stop is an important element in most optical designs. Its most obvious feature is that it limits the amount of light that can reach the image/film plane. This can be either unavoidable, as in a telescope where one wants to collect as much light as possible; or deliberate, to prevent saturation of a detector or overexposure of film. In both cases, the size of the aperture stop is constrained by things other than the amount of light admitted; however:


title: Aperture

text: In addition to an aperture stop, a photographic lens may have one or more "field stops", which limit the system's field of view. When the field of view is limited by a field stop in the lens (rather than at the film or sensor) vignetting results; this is only a problem if the resulting field of view is less than was desired.


title: Aperture

text: The biological pupil of the eye is its aperture in optics nomenclature; the iris is the diaphragm that serves as the aperture stop. Refraction in the cornea causes the effective aperture (the entrance pupil in optics parlance) to differ slightly from the physical pupil diameter. The entrance pupil is typically about 4 mm in diameter, although it can range from 2 mm () in a brightly lit place to 8 mm () in the dark.


title: Aperture

text: In astronomy, the diameter of the aperture stop (called the "aperture") is a critical parameter in the design of a telescope. Generally, one would want the "aperture" to be as large as possible, to collect the maximum amount of light from the distant objects being imaged. The size of the aperture is limited, however, in practice by considerations of cost and weight, as well as prevention of aberrations (as mentioned above).


title: Aperture

text: Apertures are also used in laser energy control, close aperture z-scan technique, diffractions/patterns, and beam cleaning. Laser applications include spatial filters, Q-switching, high intensity x-ray control.


title: Aperture

text: In light microscopy, the word aperture may be used with reference to either the condenser (changes angle of light onto specimen field), field iris (changes area of illumination) or possibly objective lens (forms primary image). "See" Optical microscope.


title: Aperture

text: The aperture stop of a photographic lens can be adjusted to control the amount of light reaching the film or image sensor. In combination with variation of shutter speed, the aperture size will regulate the film's or image sensor's degree of exposure to light. Typically, a fast shutter will require a larger aperture to ensure sufficient light exposure, and a slow shutter will require a smaller aperture to avoid excessive exposure.


title: Aperture

text: A device called a diaphragm usually serves as the aperture stop, and controls the aperture. The diaphragm functions much like the iris of the eye – it controls the effective diameter of the lens opening. Reducing the aperture size (increasing the f-number) provides less light to sensor and also increases the depth of field, which describes the extent to which subject matter lying closer than or farther from the actual plane of focus appears to be in focus. In general, the smaller the aperture (the larger the f-number), the greater the distance from the plane of focus the subject matter may be while still appearing in focus.


title: Aperture

text: The lens aperture is usually specified as an f-number, the ratio of focal length to effective aperture diameter. A lens typically has a set of marked "f-stops" that the f-number can be set to. A lower f-number denotes a greater aperture opening which allows more light to reach the film or image sensor. The photography term "one f-stop" refers to a factor of (approx. 1.41) change in f-number, which in turn corresponds to a factor of 2 change in light intensity.


title: Aperture

text: Aperture priority is a semi-automatic shooting mode used in cameras. It permits the photographer to select an aperture setting and let the camera decide the shutter speed and sometimes also ISO sensitivity for the correct exposure. This is also referred to as Aperture Priority Auto Exposure, A mode, AV mode (aperture-value mode), or semi-auto mode.


title: Aperture

text: Typical ranges of apertures used in photography are about – or –, covering six stops, which may be divided into wide, middle, and narrow of two stops each, roughly (using round numbers) –, –, and – or (for a slower lens) –, –, and –. These are not sharp divisions, and ranges for specific lenses vary.


title: Aperture

text: The specifications for a given lens typically include the maximum and minimum aperture sizes, for example, –. In this case, is currently the maximum aperture (the widest opening on a full-frame format for practical use), and is the minimum aperture (the smallest opening). The maximum aperture opening tends to be of most interest and is always included when describing a lens. This value is also known as the lens "speed", as it affects the exposure time. The aperture is proportional to the square root of the light admitted, and thus inversely proportional to the square root of required exposure time, such that an aperture of allows for exposure times one quarter that of .


title: Aperture

text: Lenses with apertures opening or wider are referred to as "fast" lenses, although the specific point has changed over time (for example, in the early 20th century aperture openings wider than were considered fast. The fastest lenses for the common 35 mm film format in general production have apertures of or , with more at and , and many at or slower; is unusual, though sees some use. When comparing "fast" lenses, the image format used must be considered. Lenses designed for a small format such as half frame or APS-C need to project a much smaller image circle than a lens used for large format photography. Thus the optical elements built into the lens can be far smaller and cheaper.


title: Aperture

text: In exceptional circumstances lenses can have even wider apertures with f-numbers smaller than 1.0; see lens speed: fast lenses for a detailed list. For instance, both the current Leica Noctilux-M 50mm ASPH and a 1960s-era Canon 50mm rangefinder lens have a maximum aperture of . Cheaper alternatives have appeared in recent years, such as the Cosina Voigtländer 17.5mm , 25mm and 42.5mm manual focus lenses for the Micro Four-Thirds System. For a long time, the f/0.95 fast f-number for full-frame stopped around 50mm or longer focal length. Until 2021, the lens manufacturer Venus Optics (Laowa) announced the Argus 35mm f/0.95 FF. This is currently the fastest lens with a focal length of 35mm and the widest lens for f/0.95.


title: Aperture

text: Professional lenses for some movie cameras have f-numbers as small as . Stanley Kubrick's film "Barry Lyndon" has scenes shot by candlelight with a NASA/Zeiss 50mm f/0.7, the fastest lens in film history. Beyond the expense, these lenses have limited application due to the correspondingly shallower depth of field – the scene must either be shallow, shot from a distance, or will be significantly defocused, though this may be the desired effect.


title: Aperture

text: Zoom lenses typically have a maximum relative aperture (minimum f-number) of to through their range. High-end lenses will have a constant aperture, such as or , which means that the relative aperture will stay the same throughout the zoom range. A more typical consumer zoom will have a variable maximum relative aperture since it is harder and more expensive to keep the maximum relative aperture proportional to the focal length at long focal lengths; to is an example of a common variable aperture range in a consumer zoom lens.


title: Aperture

text: By contrast, the minimum aperture does not depend on the focal length – it is limited by how narrowly the aperture closes, not the lens design – and is instead generally chosen based on practicality: very small apertures have lower sharpness due to diffraction, while the added depth of field is not generally useful, and thus there is generally little benefit in using such apertures. Accordingly, DSLR lens typically have minimum aperture of , , or , while large format may go down to , as reflected in the name of Group f/64. Depth of field is a significant concern in macro photography, however, and there one sees smaller apertures. For example, the Canon MP-E 65mm can have effective aperture (due to magnification) as small as . The pinhole optic for Lensbaby creative lenses has an aperture of just .


title: Aperture

text: Where the two equivalent forms are related via the f-number "N = f / D", with focal length "f" and aperture diameter "D".


title: Aperture

text: The focal length value is not required when comparing two lenses of the same focal length; a value of 1 can be used instead, and the other factors can be dropped as well, leaving area proportion to the reciprocal square of the f-number "N".


title: Aperture

text: If two cameras of different format sizes and focal lengths have the same angle of view, and the same aperture area, they gather the same amount of light from the scene. In that case, the relative focal-plane illuminance, however, would depend only on the f-number "N", so it is less in the camera with the larger format, longer focal length, and higher f-number. This assumes both lenses have identical transmissivity.


title: Aperture

text: Though as early as 1933 Torkel Korling had invented and patented for the Graflex large format reflex camera an automatic aperture control, not all early 35mm single lens reflex cameras had the feature. With a small aperture, this darkened the viewfinder, making viewing, focusing, and composition difficult. Korling's design enabled full-aperture viewing for accurate focus, closing to the pre-selected aperture opening when the shutter was fired and simultaneously synchronising the firing of a flash unit. From 1956 SLR camera manufacturers separately developed "automatic aperture control" (the Miranda T 'Pressure Automatic Diaphragm', and other solutions on the Exakta Varex IIa and Praktica FX2) allowing viewing at the lens's maximum aperture, stopping the lens down to the working aperture at the moment of exposure, and returning the lens to maximum aperture afterward. The first SLR cameras with internal ("through-the-lens" or "TTL") meters (e.g., the Pentax Spotmatic) required that the lens be stopped down to the working aperture when taking a meter reading. Subsequent models soon incorporated mechanical coupling between the lens and the camera body, indicating the working aperture to the camera for exposure while allowing the lens to be at its maximum aperture for composition and focusing; this feature became known as open-aperture metering.


title: Aperture

text: For some lenses, including a few long telephotos, lenses mounted on bellows, and perspective-control and tilt/shift lenses, the mechanical linkage was impractical, and automatic aperture control was not provided. Many such lenses incorporated a feature known as a "preset" aperture, which allows the lens to be set to working aperture and then quickly switched between working aperture and full aperture without looking at the aperture control. A typical operation might be to establish rough composition, set the working aperture for metering, return to full aperture for a final check of focus and composition, and focusing, and finally, return to working aperture just before exposure. Although slightly easier than stopped-down metering, operation is less convenient than automatic operation. Preset aperture controls have taken several forms; the most common has been the use of essentially two lens aperture rings, with one ring setting the aperture and the other serving as a limit stop when switching to working aperture. Examples of lenses with this type of preset aperture control are the Nikon PC Nikkor 28 mm and the SMC Pentax Shift 6×7 75 mm . The Nikon PC Micro-Nikkor 85 mm lens incorporates a mechanical pushbutton that sets working aperture when pressed and restores full aperture when pressed a second time.


title: Aperture

text: Canon EF lenses, introduced in 1987, have electromagnetic diaphragms, eliminating the need for a mechanical linkage between the camera and the lens, and allowing automatic aperture control with the Canon TS-E tilt/shift lenses. Nikon PC-E perspective-control lenses, introduced in 2008, also have electromagnetic diaphragms, a feature extended to their E-type range in 2013.


title: Aperture

text: Optimal aperture depends both on optics (the depth of the scene versus diffraction), and on the performance of the lens.


title: Aperture

text: Optically, as a lens is stopped down, the defocus blur at the Depth of Field (DOF) limits decreases but diffraction blur increases. The presence of these two opposing factors implies a point at which the combined blur spot is minimized (Gibson 1975, 64); at that point, the f-number is optimal for image sharpness, for this given depth of field – a wider aperture (lower "f"-number) causes more defocus, while a narrower aperture (higher "f"-number) causes more diffraction.


title: Aperture

text: As a matter of performance, lenses often do not perform optimally when fully opened, and thus generally have better sharpness when stopped down some – note that this is sharpness in the plane of critical focus, setting aside issues of depth of field. Beyond a certain point, there is no further sharpness benefit to stopping down, and the diffraction begins to become significant. There is accordingly a sweet spot, generally in the – range, depending on lens, where sharpness is optimal, though some lenses are designed to perform optimally when wide open. How significant this varies between lenses, and opinions differ on how much practical impact this has.


title: Aperture

text: While optimal aperture can be determined mechanically, how much sharpness is "required" depends on how the image will be used – if the final image is viewed under normal conditions (e.g., an 8″×10″ image viewed at 10″), it may suffice to determine the f-number using criteria for minimum required sharpness, and there may be no practical benefit from further reducing the size of the blur spot. But this may not be true if the final image is viewed under more demanding conditions, e.g., a very large final image viewed at normal distance, or a portion of an image enlarged to normal size (Hansma 1996). Hansma also suggests that the final-image size may not be known when a photograph is taken, and obtaining the maximum practicable sharpness allows the decision to make a large final image to be made at a later time; see also critical sharpness.


title: Aperture

text: In digital photography, the 35mm-equivalent aperture range is sometimes considered to be more important than the actual f-number. Equivalent aperture is the f-number adjusted to correspond to the f-number of the same size absolute aperture diameter on a lens with a 35mm equivalent focal length. Smaller equivalent f-numbers are expected to lead to higher image quality based on more total light from the subject, as well as lead to reduced depth of field. For example, a Sony Cyber-shot DSC-RX10 uses a 1" sensor, 24–200 mm with maximum aperture constant along the zoom range; has equivalent aperture range , which is a lower equivalent f-number than some other cameras with smaller sensors.


title: Aperture

text: The terms "scanning aperture" and "sampling aperture" are often used to refer to the opening through which an image is sampled, or scanned, for example in a Drum scanner, an image sensor, or a television pickup apparatus. The sampling aperture can be a literal optical aperture, that is, a small opening in space, or it can be a time-domain aperture for sampling a signal waveform.


title: Aperture

text: For example, film grain is quantified as "graininess" via a measurement of film density fluctuations as seen through a 0.048 mm sampling aperture.


title: David Ellefson

text: David Warren Ellefson (born November 12, 1964) is an American musician, best known for his long tenure as the bassist for thrash metal band Megadeth.


title: David Ellefson

text: Ellefson initially became an accomplished bassist and honed his songwriting skills while leading several of his own bands through the club scene of North America's Midwest region before relocating to Los Angeles. He was then the bassist of Megadeth from 1983 to their breakup in 2002, and again from 2010 to 2021.


title: David Ellefson

text: Ellefson co-founded the hard rock band the Lucid in 2021 alongside vocalist Vinnie Dombroski (Sponge), guitarist Drew Fortier (formerly of Bang Tango), and drummer Mike Heller (Fear Factory, Malignancy, Raven). In addition to playing bass guitar in Megadeth and The Lucid, Ellefson had various side projects, which include Temple of Brutality, F5, Killing Machine, and Metal Allegiance.


title: David Ellefson

text: Other than guitarist, vocalist, and primary lyricist Dave Mustaine, Ellefson was the only constant member of Megadeth from the time of their establishment in 1983 to the group's dissolution in 2002 (Mustaine subsequently reformed Megadeth without Ellefson in 2004). Mustaine referred to Ellefson as "Dave Junior", which was often shortened to "Junior" after former vocalist Lawrence Renna started calling him it to differentiate between the two Dave's. He appeared on every album and tour from 1985's record "Killing Is My Business... And Business Is Good!" up until 2002's "Rude Awakening." In the early days of Megadeth, Ellefson played using his fingers, but as Megadeth progressed and the music became more complex, he tended to prefer playing with a pick, or plectrum. Ellefson was credited with some Megadeth songs, including "Family Tree" from 1994's "Youthanasia" (in the 2004 remastered collection of the CD, however, the track is credited to Mustaine, Ellefson, Friedman, Menza, but Mustaine credited the "Rust in Peace"-era line-up with the entire "Youthanasia" album as a tribute to the band's success at the time of the record's initial release).


title: David Ellefson

text: Ellefson formed F5 following Megadeth's 2002 disbandment. The band featured Ellefson on bass, Dale Steele on vocals, Steve Conley on lead guitar, John Davis on rhythm guitar, and former Megadeth bandmate Jimmy DeGrasso on drums. Their first album, "A Drug for all Seasons", was released in 2005. F5 appeared in support for Disturbed in February 2006 and toured the American Mid-West in the summer of 2006. Ellefson also appeared on the new Killing Machine record "Metalmorphosis" in 2006 alongside DeGrasso; he has also been working with Temple of Brutality. Ellefson is currently a member of the melodic power metal band Avian, which features singer Lance King. He commented in an interview with Alternative-Zine.com that "Megadeth was really just a starting point for me, creatively". Ellefson played five tracks for the Soulfly album "Prophecy" and also played on one track on "Dark Ages". He also worked with underground emcee/Record producer Necro for his album entitled "Death Rap".


title: David Ellefson

text: Ellefson is also a member of a cover band called Hail!. Ellefson, DeGrasso (Mike Portnoy for 2010), Tim "Ripper" Owens and Andreas Kisser formed the band in late 2008. The band was, as of April 2009, touring Europe. Ellefson participated in the Christmas Rock project Northern Light Orchestra, he performed bass on many of the 17 tracks produced by rock drummer Ken Mary and also at the live show Christmas in April Orpheum Theatre, Phoenix, Arizona.


title: David Ellefson

text: In February 2010, Ellefson received a text message from Megadeth drummer Shawn Drover, saying "if ever there was a time for you and Dave [Mustaine] to talk, now is it". Ellefson was invited to rehearse with the band. After the phone call, the news was released that Ellefson would return to the Megadeth lineup. Ellefson was quoted saying "it felt like I never left" after their first rehearsal together.


title: David Ellefson

text: In 2013, Ellefson announced that his autobiography, entitled "My Life with Deth", would be issued by American publisher Howard Books. The memoir was co-written with author Joel McIver, and features a foreword by Alice Cooper.


title: David Ellefson

text: In 2018, it was announced that Ellefson had begun work on "More Life with Deth", the follow-up to his 2013 memoir "My Life with Deth", to be co-written with Ellefson's business partner, and frequent collaborator, Thom Hazaert. The book was released on July 16, 2019, by UK based Jawbone Press, and features contributions from Alice Cooper, K.K. Downing of Judas Priest, Dan Donegan of Disturbed, Brian Welch of Korn, Mark Slaughter, Ron Keel, Jason McMaster of Dangerous Toys, Frank Bello of Anthrax, Chris Adler (Lamb of God, ex-Megadeth), Mark Tremonti of Creed and Alter Bridge, Kiko Loureiro and Dirk Verbeuren of Megadeth, actor Kristian Nairn ("Game of Thrones"), and more, plus a foreword by "My Life with Deth" co-author, and "Bass Player Magazine" editor Joel McIver.


title: David Ellefson

text: In late 2018, he confirmed he was considered to be a Metallica bassist twice: in 1986, after Cliff Burton was killed in a bus accident, and again in 2002 when bassist Jason Newsted left the band a year earlier. He was not included in the documentary "" showing musicians auditioning for the band, however, and after Newsted's departure the position was ultimately filled by Robert Trujillo (former Suicidal Tendencies, Infectious Grooves and Ozzy Osbourne). In 2019, Ellefson said since he rejoined Megadeth, he is a salaried member as opposed to being an "equal owner" with Mustaine in order to retain their friendship.


title: David Ellefson

text: On May 24, 2021, Dave Mustaine released a statement on behalf of the band that David Ellefson had once again parted ways with Megadeth, following allegations of sexual misconduct with an underage fan. Ellefson denied any wrongdoing, and the other party denied being underage and said explicit videos were released without her consent. On June 17, 2021, Dave Mustaine announced in his weekly Gimme Radio show that he intends to hire a new bassist to rerecord Ellefson's bass tracks for Megadeth's upcoming album.


title: David Ellefson

text: Following his departure from Megadeth, Ellefson formed a new band named The Lucid. With Ellefson on bass, the band also consisted of drummer Mike Heller (Fear Factory, Malignancy), guitarist Drew Fortier (ex Bang Tango, Chuck Mosley), and vocalist Vinnie Dombroski (Sponge, Spys4Darwin). Between September and October 2021, the band release three singles; "Maggot Wind", "Damned", and "Hair". Their self-titled debut was released on October 15, 2021.


title: David Ellefson

text: In October 2015 it was announced that Ellefson had launched a record label and production company, Ellefson Music Productions, also known as EMP Label Group, and would release "In Your Face", the debut EP from Phoenix-based all-girl pop punk group Doll Skin (which Ellefson also produced), in conjunction with Megaforce Records in North America, and Cargo Records in Europe. The EP was released October 30 in North America, and December 18 in Europe, and re-released as an LP titled in Your Face (Again) in March 2016 via eOne Distribution. The singles from the LP received airplay on many prominent stations in the US and Europe, including Rodney Bingenheimer's weekly show on influential LA Rock station KROQ.


title: David Ellefson

text: Since forming in 2015, EMP Label Group has secured distribution from eOne Distribution in North America, and SPV GMBH in Europe, with the roster spread among several imprints including EMP Label Group (Ellefson Music Productions in Europe), and EMP Underground. Ellefson also appears on a recurring segment "Mandatory Megadeth" on Hazaert's Dash Radio show. In January 2017, Ellefson opened Ellefson Coffee Co. in his hometown, Jackson, Minn.


title: David Ellefson

text: In May 2019 Ellefson along with business partner Thom Hazaert formed Ellefson Films and are producing the upcoming found footage horror film Dwellers; written, directed by, and starring Drew Fortier with James L. Edwards and Douglas Esper co-starring. On top of producing the project, Ellefson and Hazaert will also be appearing in the film as featured cameos.


title: David Ellefson

text: Ellefson Films held a Q&A panel at Rue Morgue's annual Frightmare in the Falls horror convention to speak about Dwellers, which is intended to be released in 2020 through film festival showings eventually leading to digital and physical distribution. During the panel Ellefson along with Drew Fortier revealed that Dwellers is a gritty found footage horror film with the story being told as a documentary gone severely wrong drawing influences from such films as The Blair Witch Project and C.H.U.D.


title: David Ellefson

text: In November 2020 Ellefson announced that he had completed a fiction thriller novel titled "Rock Star Hitman" co-written with Drew Fortier to be released via his book imprint The Ellefson Book Co in December 2020. It was revealed on the Decibel Geek Podcast in an interview with Ellefson and Fortier that an album very loosely tying into "Rock Star Hitman" recorded with Vinnie Dombroski from Sponge on vocals, Mike Heller from Fear Factory on drums, Drew Fortier on guitar, and Ellefson on bass would be released in 2021 under the name Lucid.


title: David Ellefson

text: Mustaine intended to release a solo album in 2004, which would ultimately become "The System Has Failed", although due to contractual obligations, Mustaine ultimately released it under the Megadeth name. Subsequently, Ellefson and Mustaine had a severe legal disagreement over royalties and rights to Megadeth's name and back catalog resulting in Ellefson filing an unsuccessful lawsuit. Though the two once enjoyed a close friendship, considerable animosity developed between Ellefson and Mustaine to the point that on Ellefson's website, Megadeth was not mentioned in his biography, only in the discography.


title: David Ellefson

text: In a mid-2005 podcast, Ellefson did not mention his past with Megadeth at all, instead concentrating on discussing his current projects. Mustaine felt Ellefson was unfairly using the Megadeth name when advertising an amplifier for Peavey. Mustaine claims to have had dinner with Ellefson around Christmas in 2005 to talk things through; this got them on good terms, as Mustaine has stated that they spoke on the phone numerous times afterward. In 2010 Mustaine and Ellefson agreed to keep any unresolved issues in the past and were working on building and maintaining their friendship again. Since this time Ellefson has gone on to say that he feels "that having that time away created a realization for both of us that, while we are both productive individually, Megadeth is definitely stronger with both of us in it together."


title: David Ellefson

text: Ellefson, like his ex-bandmate Dave Mustaine, is a committed Christian. "Well, I was actually brought up in a Christian household, so I have, you know, a pretty broad knowledge of it; and strayed from it for quite a while. And, now that I have children, I actually do go to church, so I've kinda sorta returned to it, you know?" Ellefson further discussed his Christianity in a 2010 interview on The Full Armor of God Broadcast explaining "I've found that when you just suit up and show up and walk your talk instead of talking your talk all the time, that is often the best testimony!"


title: David Ellefson

text: In an article titled CODA – Ready for a MEGA Life, Ellefson indicated that in the fall of 2007 he began the new MEGA Life Ministries worship service in Scottsdale, AZ. "Oddly, the service has become one of my most rewarding and musically invigorating gigs I've ever had... a gig that literally landed in my lap and not something I had to chase down either. Not only are the parishioners respectful (no bar fights, spilled drinks and foul mouthed hecklers in the crowd like many secular gigs) but it's a musical event my whole family participates in. Plus, I was finally given the venue to put into practical application the very words I'd been trying to live by for many years which is 'Play music for God, not us'." Ellefson has recently begun studying for the ministry in the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod through an extension program of Concordia Seminary in St. Louis.


title: David Ellefson

text: On May 10, 2021, sexually explicit videos of Ellefson masturbating were posted on Twitter. The videos, recorded in 2020 by a fan that Ellefson was in correspondence with, initially led to accusations of child grooming. However, Ellefson and the other party both denied the accusations and claimed that it was consensual adult conduct. An official statement released the next day from Megadeth stated that the situation was being "watched closely". On May 24, 2021, Dave Mustaine released a statement stating that, in light of the recent allegations and an already strained relationship, Megadeth had officially parted ways with Ellefson again.


title: David Ellefson

text: After rejoining Megadeth in early 2010, Ellefson started using his old Jackson Custom and Concert bass guitars and Hartke amps again.


title: David Ellefson

text: He used an LH1000 with two HX810s on the Rust in Peace 20th Anniversary Tour. He has since moved onto using the Kilo amplifier. In early 2011, Jackson released a Dave Ellefson Concert and Kellybird signature model, both in 4-string and 5-string variants. According to providence website, Ellefson has used or is still using the Dual Bass Station. Ellefson formerly used Peavey amps and his Peavey Zodiac DE Scorpio 4-string signature bass. In the early days of Megadeth, Ellefson, along with Dave Mustaine, primarily used B.C. Rich instruments, most notably Ironbird and Mockingbird basses, the latter of which he has still been known to periodically bring out on occasion.


title: David Ellefson

text: Ellefson plays exclusively with a guitar pick, as he is unable to perform in fingerstyle the fast tempos in many Megadeth songs. Ellefson shifted exclusively to pick playing since "Peace Sells... but Who's Buying?", after recording their debut effort with a mix of fingerstyle and playing with a pick.


title: Münster

text: Münster (; ) is an independent city ("Kreisfreie Stadt") in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is in the northern part of the state and is considered to be the cultural centre of the Westphalia region. It is also a state district capital. Münster was the location of the Anabaptist rebellion during the Protestant Reformation and the site of the signing of the Treaty of Westphalia ending the Thirty Years' War in 1648. Today it is known as the bicycle capital of Germany.


title: Münster

text: Münster gained the status of a "Großstadt" (major city) with more than 100,000 inhabitants in 1915. , there are 300,000 people living in the city, with about 61,500 students, only some of whom are recorded in the official population statistics as having their primary residence in Münster. Münster is a part of the international Euregio region with more than 1,000,000 inhabitants (Enschede, Hengelo, Gronau, Osnabrück).


title: Münster

text: In 793, Charlemagne sent out Ludger as a missionary to evangelise the Münsterland. In 797, Ludger founded a school that later became the Cathedral School. Gymnasium Paulinum traces its history back to this school. Ludger was ordained as the first bishop of Münster. The first cathedral was completed by 850. The combination of ford and crossroad, market place, episcopal administrative centre, library and school, established Münster as an important centre. In 1040, Heinrich III became the first king of Germany to visit Münster.


title: Münster

text: In 1534, an apocalyptic Anabaptist sect, led by John of Leiden, took power in the Münster rebellion and founded a democratic proto-socialistic state. They claimed all property, burned all books except the Bible, and called it the "New Jerusalem". John of Leiden believed he would lead the elect from Münster to capture the entire world and purify it of evil with the sword in preparation for the Second Coming of Christ and the beginning of the Millennium. They went so far as to require all citizens to be naked as preparation for the Second Coming. However, the town was recaptured in 1535; the Anabaptists were tortured to death and their corpses were exhibited in metal baskets, which can still be seen hanging from the tower of St. Lambert's Church.


title: Münster

text: Part of the signing of the Peace of Westphalia of 1648 was held in Münster. This ended the Thirty Years' War and the Eighty Years' War. It also guaranteed the future of the prince-bishop and the diocese; the area was to be exclusively Roman Catholic.


title: Münster

text: The last outstanding palace of the German baroque period, the Schloss Münster, was created according to plans by Johann Conrad Schlaun. The University of Münster (today called "Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster", WWU) was established in 1780. It is now a major European centre for excellence in education and research with large faculties in the arts, humanities, theology, sciences, business and law. Currently there are about 40,000 undergraduate and postgraduate students enrolled. In 1802 Münster was conquered by Prussia during the Napoleonic Wars. It was also part of the Grand Duchy of Berg between 1806 and 1811 and the Lippe department of the First French Empire between 1811 and 1813, before returning to Prussian rule. It became the capital of the Prussian province of Westphalia. In 1899 the city's harbour started operations when the city was linked to the Dortmund-Ems Canal.


title: Münster

text: In the 1940s the Bishop of Münster, Cardinal Clemens August Graf von Galen, was one of the most prominent critics of the Nazi government. In retaliation for his success ("The New York Times" described Bishop von Galen as "the most obstinate opponent of the National Socialist anti-Christian program"), Münster was heavily garrisoned during World War II, and five large complexes of barracks are still a feature of the city. Münster was the headquarters (Hauptsitz) for the 6th Military District (Wehrkreis) of the German Wehrmacht, under the command of Infantry General (General der Infanterie) Gerhard Glokke. Originally made up of Westphalia and the Rhineland, after the Battle of France it was expanded to include the Eupen – Malmedy district of Belgium. The headquarters controlled military operations in Münster, Essen, Düsseldorf, Wuppertal, Bielefeld, Coesfeld, Paderborn, Herford, Minden, Detmold, Lingen, Osnabrück, Recklinghausen, Gelsenkirchen, and Cologne.


title: Münster

text: Münster was the home station for the VI and XXIII Infantry Corps (Armeekorps), as well as the XXXIII and LVI Panzerkorps. Münster was also the home of the 6th, 16th and 25th Panzer Division; the 16th Panzergrenadier Division; and the 6th, 26th, 69th, 86th, 106th, 126th, 196th, 199th, 211th, 227th, 253rd, 254th, 264th, 306th, 326th, 329th, 336th, 371st, 385th, and 716th Infantry Divisions (Infanterie-division).


title: Münster

text: A secondary target of the Oil Campaign of World War II, Münster was bombed on 25 October 1944 by 34 diverted B-24 Liberator bombers, during a mission to a nearby primary target, the Scholven/Buer synthetic oil plant at Gelsenkirchen. About 91% of the Old City and 63% of the entire city was destroyed by Allied air raids. The US 17th Airborne Division, employed in a standard infantry role and not in a parachute capacity, attacked Münster with the British 6th Guards Tank Brigade on 2 April 1945 in a ground assault and fought its way into the contested city centre, which was cleared in urban combat on the following day.


title: Münster

text: From 1946 to 1998, there was a Latvian secondary school in Münster, and in 1947, one of the largest of about 93 Latvian libraries in the West was established in Münster.


title: Münster

text: In the 1950s the Old City was rebuilt to match its pre-war state, though many of the surrounding buildings were replaced with cheaper modern structures. It was also for several decades a garrison town for the British forces stationed in West Germany.


title: Münster

text: In 2004, Münster won an honourable distinction: the LivCom-Award for the most livable city in the world with a population between 200,000 and 750,000. Münster is famous and liked for its bicycle friendliness and for the student character of the city that is due to the influence of its university, the Westfälische Wilhelms Universität Münster.


title: Münster

text: Münster is situated on the river Aa, approximately south of its confluence with the Ems in the so-called Westphalian Bight, a landscape studded with dispersed settlements and farms – the "Münsterland". The Wolstonian sediments of the mountain ridge called "Münsterländer Kiessandzug" cross the city from north to south. The highest elevation is the Mühlenberg in the northwest of Münster, 97 metres above sea level. The lowest elevation is at the Ems, 44 m above sea level. The city centre is 60 m above sea level, measured at the Prinzipalmarkt in front of the historic city hall.


title: Münster

text: The Dutch city of Enschede lies about northwest of Münster. Other major cities nearby include Osnabrück, about to the north, Dortmund, about to the south, and Bielefeld, about to the east.


title: Münster

text: Münster is one of the 42 agglomeration areas and one of Germany's biggest cities in terms of area. But it includes substantial sparsely-populated rural districts which were formerly separate local government authorities until they were amalgamated in 1975. Thus nearly half the city's area is agricultural, resulting in a low population-density of approximately 900 inhabitants per km.


title: Münster

text: The city's built-up area is quite extensive. There are no skyscrapers and few high-rise buildings but very many detached houses and mansions. Still the population density reaches about 15,000 inhabitants per km in the city centre. Calculating the population density based on the actual populated area results in approximately 2890 inhabitants per km.


title: Münster

text: Münster's urban area of is distributed into covered with buildings while are used for maintenance and for traffic areas, for agriculture and recreation, are covered by water, is forested and is used otherwise. The perimeter has a length of , the largest extend of the urban area in north–south direction is , in east–west direction .


title: Münster

text: A well-known saying in Münster is ""Entweder es regnet oder es läuten die Glocken. Und wenn beides zusammen fällt, dann ist Sonntag"" ("Either it rains or the church bells ring. And if both occur at the same time, it's Sunday."), but in reality the rainfall with approximately per year is close to the average rainfall in Germany. The perception of Münster as a rain-laden city isn't caused by the absolute amount of rainfall but by the above-average number of rainy days with relatively small amounts of rainfall. The average temperature is with approximately 1500 sun hours per year. Consequently, Münster is in the bottom fifth in comparison with other German cities. The winter in Münster is fairly mild and snowfall is unusual. The temperature during summertime meets the average in Germany. The highest daily rainfall was registered on 28 July 2014: One weather station of the MeteoGroup reported a rainfall of the State Environment Agency registered at one of its stations during seven hours. The record rainfall led to severe flooding throughout the city and the nearby Greven.


title: Münster

text: Münster borders on the following cities and municipalities, named clockwise and beginning in the northwest: Altenberge and Greven (District of Steinfurt), Telgte, Everswinkel, Sendenhorst and Drensteinfurt (District of Warendorf), as well as Ascheberg, Senden and Havixbeck (District of Coesfeld).


title: Münster

text: The city is divided into six administrative districts or Stadtbezirke: "Mitte" (Middle), "Nord" (North), "Ost" (East), "West", "Süd-Ost" (South-East) and "Hiltrup". Each district is represented by a council of 19 representatives elected in local elections. Heading each council is the district mayor, or "Bezirksvorsteher". Every district is subdivided into residential quarters ("Wohnbereiche"). This official term, however, is not used in common speech, as there are no discrete definitions of the individual quarters. The term "Stadtteil" is used instead, mainly referring to the incorporated communities. The districts are also divided into 45 statistical districts.


title: Münster

text: The following list names each district with its residential and additional quarters. These are the official names, which partly differ from the usage in common speech.


title: Münster

text: The centre can be subdivided into historically evolved city districts whose borders are not always strictly defined, such as


title: Münster

text: Münster has approximately 300,000 inhabitants, and more than 10,000 others who have their secondary residence in the city. The city has about 50,000 resident foreigners. The life-expectancy in Münster is 76.3 years for men and 83.1 years for women. The average age of Münster's residents was 40 in 2006.


title: Münster

text: The current Mayor of Münster is Markus Lewe of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), who was elected in 2009 and re-elected in 2015 and 2020. The most recent mayoral election was held on 13 September 2020, with a runoff held on 27 September, and the results were as follows:


title: Münster

text: The Münster city council governs the city alongside the Mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:


title: Münster

text: Münster forms its own Electoral district (No. 129) for elections on a national level. Due to Germany's mixture of a direct and a proportional electoral system Münster sends a directly elected member into the Bundestag as well as other politicians have the chance to qualify via their party's state-wide list. As for the 2021 German federal election health politician Maria Klein-Schmeink (The Greens) won the districts seat in the Bundestag with 32.3% of the personal vote. Defeated candidates, former member of the Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia Stefan Nacke (CDU/26.2%) and former environment minister Svenja Schulze (SPD/24.1%) both became members of the 20th Bundestag via their parties' lists. Svenja Schulze enterd the new Scholz cabinet regaining a position as minister, this time in the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development.


title: Münster

text: On the state level Münster was divided into two constituencies up until the 2017 North Rhine-Westphalia state election. The election system of state elections mirrors that of national elections. During the legislative period of Laschet cabinet redistricting resulted in Münster now being split up into three constituencies, two of which now also include some surrounding municipalities. The 2017 election saw both CDU candidates Stefan Nacke and Simone Wendland winning their seat via the constituency. Via party lists Svenja Schulze (SPD) and Josefine Paul (The Greens) entered the Landtag. After Nacke and Schulze both changed into federal politics, Münster is left with only two representatives in the Landtag.


title: Münster

text: The city is considered the "creative desk of Westphalia". Greater Münster is home to many industries such as those of public authorities, consulting companies, insurance companies, banks, computer centres, publishing houses, advertising and design. The service sector has created several thousand jobs. Retailers have approximately 1.9 billion euro turnover. The city still has traditional merchants' townhouses as well as modern outlets.


title: Münster

text: The job market situation in Münster is "comparatively good". Of the approximately 130,000 employees subject to social insurance contribution more than 80% work in the tertiary sector, about 17% work in the secondary sector and 1% work in the primary sector.


title: Münster

text: Münster is home to many institutions of higher education, including the University of Münster and University of Applied Sciences. The city also has 92 primary and secondary education schools. The city had 61,441 students in 2015/16.


title: Münster

text: Münster Osnabrück International Airport serves the city of Münster. The airport provides flights to European destinations mostly.


title: Münster

text: Münster claims to be the bicycle capital of Germany. It states that in 2007, vehicle traffic (36.4%) fell below traffic by bicycle (37.6%), even though it is unclear how such a figure is defined. The city maintains an extensive network for bicycles including the popular "Promenade" which encircles Münster's city centre. While motorised vehicles are banned, there are paths for pedestrians. Additional bicycle paths link all city districts with the inner city and special traffic lights provide signals for bicyclists. Bicycle stations in Münster offer bicycle rentals.


title: Münster

text: Münster's Central Station is on the Wanne-Eickel–Hamburg railway. The city is connected by Intercity trains to many other major cities in Germany.


title: Münster

text: Historically, Münster had a historic tramway system, but it closed in 1954. Today, Münster does have some public transportation, which includes bus expresses, sightseeing buses, "waterbuses", Lime scooters and bicycle rentals. It is the largest German city without a U-Bahn or an S-Bahn system.


title: Münster

text: The city is home to Preußen Münster, which was founded on 30 April 1906. The main section is football, and the team plays at Preußenstadion. Other important sports teams include the USC Münster e.V. volleyball club.


title: Münster

text: After the Second World War, Münster became a major station within Osnabrück Garrison, part of British Forces Germany. Their presence was gradually reduced, yet there are still many active military bases. The last forces left Münster on 4 July 2013.


title: Definitions of fascism

text: What constitutes a definition of fascism and fascist governments has been a complicated and highly disputed subject concerning the exact nature of fascism and its core tenets debated amongst historians, political scientists, and other scholars since Benito Mussolini first used the term in 1915. Historian Ian Kershaw once wrote that "trying to define 'fascism' is like trying to nail jelly to the wall".


title: Definitions of fascism

text: A significant number of scholars agree that a "fascist regime" is foremost an authoritarian form of government, although not all authoritarian regimes are fascist. Authoritarianism is thus a defining characteristic, but most scholars will say that more distinguishing traits are needed to make an authoritarian regime fascist.