title: Printing

text: Print gave a broader range of readers access to knowledge and enabled later generations to build directly on the intellectual achievements of earlier ones without the changes arising within verbal traditions. Print, according to Acton in his 1895 lecture "On the Study of History", gave "assurance that the work of the Renaissance would last, that what was written would be accessible to all, that such an occultation of knowledge and ideas as had depressed the Middle Ages would never recur, that not an idea would be lost".


title: Printing

text: Elizabeth Eisenstein identifies two long-term effects of the invention of printing. She claims that print created a sustained and uniform reference for knowledge and allowed comparisons of incompatible views.


title: Printing

text: Asa Briggs and Peter Burke identify five kinds of reading that developed in relation to the introduction of print:


title: Printing

text: The invention of printing also changed the occupational structure of European cities. Printers emerged as a new group of artisans for whom literacy was essential, while the much more labour-intensive occupation of the scribe naturally declined. Proof-correcting arose as a new occupation, while a rise in the numbers of booksellers and librarians naturally followed the explosion in the numbers of books.


title: Printing

text: Gutenberg's printing press had profound impacts on universities as well. Universities were influenced in their "language of scholarship, libraries, curriculum, [and] pedagogy"


title: Printing

text: Before the invention of the printing press, most written material was in Latin. However, after the invention of printing the number of books printed expanded as well as the vernacular. Latin was not replaced completely, but remained an international language until the eighteenth century.


title: Printing

text: At this time, universities began establishing accompanying libraries. "Cambridge made the chaplain responsible for the library in the fifteenth century but this position was abolished in 1570 and in 1577 Cambridge established the new office of university librarian. Although, the University of Leuven did not see a need for a university library based on the idea that professor were the library. Libraries also began receiving so many books from gifts and purchases that they began to run out of room. However, the issue was solved in 1589 by a man named Merton who decided books should be stored on horizontal shelves rather than lecterns.


title: Printing

text: The printed press changed university libraries in many ways. Professors were finally able to compare the opinions of different authors rather than being forced to look at only one or two specific authors. Textbooks themselves were also being printed in different levels of difficulty, rather than just one introductory text being made available.


title: Printing

text: By 2005, digital printing accounted for approximately 9% of the 45 trillion pages printed annually around the world.


title: Printing

text: Vendors typically stress the total cost to operate the equipment, involving complex calculations that include all cost factors involved in the operation as well as the capital equipment costs, amortization, etc. For the most part, toner systems are more economical than inkjet in the long run, even though inkjets are less expensive in the initial purchase price.


title: Printing

text: Professional digital printing (using toner) primarily uses an electrical charge to transfer toner or liquid ink to the substrate onto which it is printed. Digital print quality has steadily improved from early color and black and white copiers to sophisticated colour digital presses such as the Xerox iGen3, the Kodak Nexpress, the HP Indigo Digital Press series, and the InfoPrint 5000. The iGen3 and Nexpress use toner particles and the Indigo uses liquid ink. The InfoPrint 5000 is a full-color, continuous forms inkjet drop-on-demand printing system. All handle variable data, and rival offset in quality. Digital offset presses are also called direct imaging presses, although these presses can receive computer files and automatically turn them into print-ready plates, they cannot insert variable data.


title: Printing

text: Small press and fanzines generally use digital printing. Prior to the introduction of cheap photocopying, the use of machines such as the spirit duplicator, hectograph, and mimeograph was common.


title: Printing

text: 3D printing is a form of manufacturing technology where physical objects are created from three-dimensional digital models using 3D printers. The objects are created by laying down or building up many thin layers of material in succession. The technique is also known as additive manufacturing, rapid prototyping, or fabricating.


title: Printing

text: Gang run printing is a method in which multiple printing projects are placed on a common paper sheet in an effort to reduce printing costs and paper waste. Gang runs are generally used with sheet-fed printing presses and CMYK process color jobs, which require four or eight separate plates that are hung on the plate cylinder of the press. Printers use the term "gang run" or "gang" to describe the practice of placing many print projects on the same oversized sheet. Basically, instead of running one postcard that is 4 x 6 as an individual job the printer would place 15 different postcards on 20 x 18 sheet, therefore using the same amount of press time the printer will get 15 jobs done in roughly the same amount of time as one job.


title: Printing

text: Printed electronics is the manufacturing of electronic devices using standard printing processes. Printed electronics technology can be produced on cheap materials such as paper or flexible film, which makes it an extremely cost-effective method of production. Since early 2010, the printable electronics industry has been gaining momentum and several large companies, including Bemis Company and Illinois Tool Works have made investments in printed electronics and industry associations including OE-A and FlexTech Alliance are contributing heavily to the advancement of the printed electronics industry.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: Richard Samuel Benjamin (born May 22, 1938) is an American actor and film director. He has starred in a number of well-known film productions, including "Goodbye, Columbus" (1969), based on the novella by Philip Roth; "Catch-22" (1970), from the Joseph Heller best-seller; "Westworld" (1973), a science-fiction thriller by Michael Crichton; and "The Sunshine Boys" (1975), written by Neil Simon. After directing for television, his first film as director was the 1982 comedy "My Favorite Year". His other films as director include "City Heat" (1984), starring Burt Reynolds and Clint Eastwood, "The Money Pit" (1986) with Tom Hanks, and "Made in America" (1993) with Whoopi Goldberg.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: Benjamin was born in New York City, the son of Samuel Roger Benjamin (1910–1997), a garment industry worker. Benjamin's uncle was vaudeville comedian Joe Browning. His family was Jewish. He attended the High School of Performing Arts and graduated from Northwestern University, where he was involved in many plays and studied in the Northwestern theater school. While there, he met Paula Prentiss, whom he married in 1961.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: Benjamin struggled to get work early in his career, while Prentiss became a film star almost immediately in "Where the Boys Are" (1961). Benjamin appeared on stage in "The Taming of the Shrew" and guest-starred on shows such as "The New Breed" and "Dr. Kildare".


title: Richard Benjamin

text: Benjamin's early break came when cast in the touring company of "Barefoot in the Park" in 1964. During this run, he received word that Prentiss had a nervous breakdown while making "What's New Pussycat?" in Paris. Prentiss got treatment and made a full recovery.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: Benjamin later toured in "The Odd Couple" with Dan Dailey. In 1966, he directed "Barefoot in the Park" on stage in London.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: Simon was pleased with Benjamin's work and cast him in his new play"The Star-Spangled Girl" (1966–67) directed by George Axelrod. Benjamin appeared alongside Anthony Perkins and Connie Stevens, and the show ran for 261 performances.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: The success of the show led to Benjamin appearing in a television series with his wife Paula, "He & She" (1967–68). It ran for 26 episodes.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: Benjamin's first lead role in a film came with an adaptation of the Philip Roth novella, "Goodbye, Columbus" (1969) with Ali MacGraw. It was a critical and commercial hit.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: Benjamin followed it with a key support role in the film of "Catch-22" (1970). He was top billed in "Diary of a Mad Housewife" (1970) from the team of Eleanor and Frank Perry, appearing alongside Carrie Snodgress and Frank Langella.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: He directed his wife off-Broadway in "Arf/The Great Airplane Snatch" (1969), which ran for five performances.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: Benjamin played the lead in "The Marriage of a Young Stockbroker" (1971), directed by the producer and original author of "The Graduate", though it was not as successful.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: He acted in a comedy, "The Steagle" (1971), the directorial debut of designer Paul Sylbert, which was little seen. Another box-office flop was the film of Roth's "Portnoy's Complaint" (1972), the sole directorial effort of Ernest Lehman.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: In 1972, Benjamin returned to Broadway with "The Little Black Book", which only ran for nine performances.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: Benjamin then acted in two more successful films, as part of an all-star cast in "The Last of Sheila" (1973), from a script by Anthony Perkins and Stephen Sondheim, and in "Westworld" (1973), directed by Michael Crichton and co-starring Yul Brynner.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: The "Los Angeles Times" stated that by this stage, his image was of "a whining, petulant bore by doing too good a job of acting in a series of sleazy roles." He decided to steer away from such roles by turning down a part in "The Towering Inferno" (which Richard Chamberlain ended up playing).


title: Richard Benjamin

text: Benjamin supported Walter Matthau and George Burns in the film adaptation of Neil Simon's "The Sunshine Boys" (1975), for which he won a Golden Globe award.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: Benjamin and Prentiss starred in "The Norman Conquests" (1975–76) on Broadway, which went for 76 performances.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: Benjamin went to Australia to make a TV film with his wife, "No Room to Run" (1978). In Hollywood, he supported Matthau and Glenda Jackson in "House Calls" (1978).


title: Richard Benjamin

text: In 1978, he starred in the ambitious but short-lived television series "Quark". The same year he appeared in a TV film "Fame", written by Arthur Miller.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: Benjamin played a frustrated fiancé of a woman who falls for the vampire Count Dracula in the surprise box-office smash "Love at First Bite" (1979) starring George Hamilton and Susan Saint James.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: Benjamin had directed in theatre and was keen to do it in film. In 1979, Benjamin directed for the first time, creating a pilot for a sitcom spin-off of the film "Where's Poppa?" by Carl Reiner. "The pilot turned out really well", said Benjamin. "But I don't think ABC ever quite 'got' it. They never did put the show on the air... At least I could prove that I wasn't nuts, that I really had actually directed something." He directed one episode of the 1980 TV series "Semi-Tough".


title: Richard Benjamin

text: Benjamin had support roles in "The Last Married Couple in America" (1980), "How to Beat the High Co$t of Living" (1980), "Witches' Brew" (1980), and "First Family" (1980). Prentiss and he had the leads in "Saturday the 14th" (1981). They also began hosting corporate videos.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: Benjamin's work on the "Where's Poppa?" pilot saw him offered the job as director on "My Favorite Year" (1982) starring Peter O'Toole. The film was warmly received, earning O'Toole an Oscar nomination for Best Actor and launched Benjamin as a director.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: Benjamin and Prentiss returned to acting with the TV movie "Packin' It In" (1983). He said, "If I get a wonderful script to act in and a mediocre script to direct, I'll act. And the same principle applies the other way around. It's the material that counts." He focused on directing, though, for the next decade. Benjamin's second feature as director was "Racing with the Moon" (1984) from a script by Steve Kloves starring Sean Penn and Nicolas Cage. He was then called in at short notice to replace Blake Edwards on "City Heat" (1984) with Clint Eastwood and Burt Reynolds, which was a critical and commercial disappointment.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: Benjamin directed a comedy for Steven Spielberg's company, "The Money Pit" (1986) with Tom Hanks and Shelley Long. He then directed a thriller "Little Nikita" (1988) with Sidney Poitier and River Phoenix, and a comedy with Dan Aykroyd, "My Stepmother Is an Alien" (1988). Benjamin did another comedy, "Downtown" (1990), with Anthony Edwards and Forest Whitaker. He had a moderate hit with "Mermaids" (1990) starring Cher and Winona Ryder.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: "Made in America" (1993) with Whoopi Goldberg and Ted Danson was also successful. "Milk Money" (1994) with Melanie Griffith and Ed Harris was less so. He also directed "Mrs. Winterbourne" (1996).


title: Richard Benjamin

text: In the 1990s, Benjamin returned to acting with appearances on shows including "The Ray Bradbury Theatre", "Love & War", "Ink", "Mad About You", and "Titus", as well as the films "Deconstructing Harry" (1997), "Keeping Up with the Steins" (2006), and "Henry Poole Is Here" (2008).


title: Richard Benjamin

text: In 1998, Benjamin and Prentiss performed "Power Plays" on stage. Benjamin did some directing for TV – "The Pentagon Wars" (1998), "Tourist Trap" (1999), "The Sports Pages" (2001), and "Laughter on the 23rd Floor" (2001) from the play by Neil Simon. Benjamin returned to features with "The Shrink Is In" (2001) and "Marci X" (2003), in which he also had a small role.


title: Richard Benjamin

text: He produced and directed a TV adaptation of Simon's "The Goodbye Girl" (2004) with Jeff Daniels and Patricia Heaton. In 2006, Benjamin directed the award-winning cable television drama "A Little Thing Called Murder", starring Australian Judy Davis. It was based on the true story of Sante and Kenny Kimes, mother and son grifters and killers. His later acting appearances include "Ray Donovan" and "Childrens Hospital".


title: Richard Benjamin

text: He married actress Paula Prentiss on October 26, 1961; they have two children who are also actors: Ross Benjamin and Prentiss Benjamin.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: The Lotus Esprit is a British sports car that was built by Lotus Cars at their Hethel factory in England between 1976 and 2004. It was among the first of designer Giorgetto Giugiaro's polygonal "folded paper" designs.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: In 1970 Tony Rudd, who had arrived at Lotus the previous year, proposed two new model development projects. The first, Project M50, resulted in the 1974 Elite. The second, Project M70, meant to develop a successor to the Europa which, like the Europa, was to be a two-door fixed-head mid-engine coupé.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: A meeting between Colin Chapman and Giugiaro was arranged in 1971 by designer Oliver Winterbottom, who also suggested that Giugiaro use his Maserati Boomerang concept as the inspiration for the new Lotus.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: Work began on the new car in mid-1971 with production of a 1:4 scale model. According to Italdesign, Chapman was disappointed with the wind-tunnel test results with the model and halted the project, but the Italian coachbuilder pressed on and built a full-size mock-up on a stretched, modified Europa chassis. That nameless prototype, often simply called "the Silver Car", appeared on the Italdesign stand at the 1972 Turin Auto Show and the positive reception convinced Chapman to approve further development.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: Development continued with production of a second prototype, registered as "IDGG 01" and known as "the Red Car", that would be a functional car. Design of the car's mechanical systems progressed, but was not complete when the Esprit was officially announced.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: The Esprit was launched in October 1975 at the Paris Motor Show and entered production in June 1976, replacing the Europa in the Lotus model lineup. These first cars became known as "Series 1" (or S1) Esprits. The wedge-shaped fibreglass body was mounted on a steel backbone chassis. Power was from the Lotus 907 four-cylinder engine that was rated at in European trim and in US/Federal trim. The engine was mounted longitudinally behind the passengers and drove the rear wheels through a Citroën C35 5-speed manual transaxle also used in the SM and Maserati Merak. Rear brakes were mounted inboard, following contemporary racing practice. The Series 1 embodied Lotus' "performance through light weight" mantra, weighing less than .


title: Lotus Esprit

text: Front suspension consisted of upper A-arms and lower lateral links triangulated by the anti-roll bar. Rear suspension consisted of tapering box-section trailing arms and lower lateral links. The half-shafts had no provision for plunge and handled some of the lateral forces. There were coil-over shock absorbers and disc brakes at all four corners. Steering was by an unassisted rack and pinion.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: While the S1 Esprit was lauded for its handling and was said to have the best steering of any Esprit, it was generally regarded as being under-powered, especially in markets such as the United States where the engine was stifled by emission controls. Lotus' claim of acceleration from in 6.8 seconds and a top speed of may have been optimistic, as actual road tests revealed a 0-60 mph acceleration time of 8 seconds and a top speed of about .


title: Lotus Esprit

text: The S1 Esprit was distinguished from later Esprits by its shovel-style front air dam, Fiat X1/9-sourced taillights, absence of body-side ducting, and Wolfrace alloy wheels. Inside the car, the S1 Esprit had a one-piece instrument cluster with green-faced Veglia gauges. The S1 is rare in the present day, mostly due to drivetrain problems.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: In 1978, the revised Series 2 (or S2) Esprit was introduced. External changes included intake and cooling ducts added behind the rear quarter windows, taillights from the Rover SD1, and an integrated front spoiler. S2 Esprits also had Speedline alloy wheels designed by Lotus. Other changes included relocating the battery from above the right side fuel tank under the rear quarter window to the rear of the car, adding an access door to the engine cover, installing wider seats and replacing the Veglia instrument cluster with individual gauges made by Smiths and a new style of illuminated dashboard switches. Many switches and buttons came from the Morris Marina.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: A special edition model was released to commemorate Lotus' victory in the 1978 F1 World Championship. Wearing the black and gold livery of John Player & Sons (JPS), Lotus' F1 sponsor at the time, these cars were known as the Commemorative Edition Esprits as Lotus had stopped being sponsored by JPS. They were mechanically identical to the regular 2.0, with special seat and dash trim, smaller steering wheel and special plaque. According to Lotus a series of 300 were built, but it is likely the total was considerably lower. Lotus' production records are notoriously vague, but reliable estimates suggest that 149 Commemorative Esprit cars were made.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: The S2.2 was a stop-gap model introduced in May 1980 whose only major difference from the S2 was, as indicated in its model name, having a 2.2 L type 912 engine. Engine power output was unchanged but torque rose from to . The S2.2 received a galvanised chassis, but not the revised chassis structure to come in the Series 3. S2.2 cars are extremely rare even among Esprits. According to Lotus only 88 were produced during its thirteen-month production span.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: In 1980 the Essex Turbo Esprit was launched. This special edition model wore the blue, red and chrome livery of the Essex Overseas Petroleum Corporation, the sponsor of Team Lotus from 1979 to 1981. While Lotus dealer Bell and Colvill had been offering turbo conversions for the S2 Esprit from as early as 1978, the Essex Turbo Esprit was the first factory turbocharged Esprit. The Essex Turbo Esprit received the dry sump type 910 engine which has a power output of at 6,250 rpm and of torque at 4,500 rpm. Acceleration from 0- could be achieved in 6.1 seconds and a top speed of .


title: Lotus Esprit

text: The chassis and rear suspension were redesigned, with an upper link added at the rear to alleviate strain on the half-shafts. The brakes were also improved. Giugiaro designed an aerodynamic body kit for the car, with a rear lip spoiler, prominent louvered rear hatch, more substantial bumpers, a deeper front airdam, and air ducts in the sills just ahead of the new three-piece 15 inch Compomotive rear wheels. Inside scarlet leather combined with a roof-mounted Panasonic stereo for a dramatic environment. 45 Essex Turbo Esprit cars were built, interspersed and followed by a number of non-Essex-liveried but otherwise identical specification dry sump turbo cars.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: By the end of 1980, Lotus was building three different models of Esprit with distinct chassis designs and body moulds - the domestic (i.e. UK) S2.2, the export S2.2, and the dry sump Turbo Esprit.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: The Series 3 (or S3) and Turbo Esprit debuted in April 1981. The two models shared a common chassis, and bodywork was based on a common set of moulds.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: The S3 received the 2.2 L Type 912 engine. The Turbo Esprit had a wet sump engine with the same power and torque output as its dry sump predecessor. Interior trim was revised which, when combined with changes to the body moulds, resulted in more headroom and an enlarged foot-well. The Turbo Esprit retained the aerodynamic body kit of the Essex cars and featured prominent 'turbo esprit' decals on the nose and sides. The S3 gained the new larger bumpers but kept the simpler sill line and glazed rear hatch of the S2.2 body. Both cars came with BBS alloy wheels. One interesting omission was that the Esprit S3 had no cigarette lighter as standard equipment; ashtrays are tucked away in the door sills.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: The final incarnations of the Giugiaro-styled Esprit were announced in April 1986. Higher compression ratios for the engines was indicated by the 'HC' moniker. Power output of the naturally aspirated engine rose to and for the Esprit HC, and to and for the Turbo Esprit HC, with more torque available at lower engine speeds.<ref name="lotusespritworld.com/ERoadtests"></ref>


title: Lotus Esprit

text: For markets with stringent emissions requirements like the United States, Lotus introduced the first fuel-injected Esprits. The HCi variant added Bosch KE-Jetronic fuel injection and a catalytic converter to the higher compression engine. This engine had the same peak power as the carburetted version but at a somewhat higher engine speed. Torque dropped to .


title: Lotus Esprit

text: In 1987, the Esprit was restyled by British designer Peter Stevens. Stevens, who would later go on to design the McLaren F1, produced a less angular, more rounded Esprit. Giugiaro is said to have liked the new shape, claiming it was perhaps too close to his original design. The exterior changes were accompanied by a redesign of the interior that gave more space to the occupants. The revised Esprit was not given a new "Series" number but is often called by its project code of X180.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: Panels for the body were produced using a new process called VARI (Vacuum Assisted Resin Injection). This method, which was patented by Lotus, offered advantages over the previous hand lay-up process. Kevlar reinforcement was added to the roof and sides for roll-over protection. This contributed to a 22% increase in the Esprit's torsional rigidity.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: The X180 cars inherited most of their mechanical components from the earlier HC Esprit and Turbo Esprit, although the name for the forced induction model was now Esprit Turbo. 1988 model year North American Esprit Turbo models kept the Citroën transaxle and Bosch fuel injection system used in the previous model year. Other X180 models received a new Renault UN-1 transaxle, which necessitated a move to outboard rear brakes.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: Power output of the Type 910 turbocharged engine was unchanged, but 0–97 km/h (60 mph) acceleration times decreased from 5.6 seconds to between 5.4 and 5.1 seconds. Top speed was over .


title: Lotus Esprit

text: In 1989, the K-Jetronic system was replaced with a Lotus/Delco multi-point fuel injection (MPFI) system. The engine also received an air-water-air intercooler called a Chargecooler by Lotus. This revised engine was known as the Type 910S. Power output was up to with available on overboost. 0–97 km/h (60 mph) acceleration times decreased to 4.7 seconds and top speed was over . The 910S engine went into the new Special Equipment (SE) model, which also received changes to the body, with side skirts parallel to the body, five air ducts in the front air dam, wing mirrors from the Citroën CX and the addition of a rear wing.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: Lotus also produced the rarely seen Esprit S, a mid-range turbocharged variant offering fewer appointments and having a power output of , as well as the standard Turbocharged engine having a power output of included as an option. Original normally aspirated (Esprit) and turbo (Esprit Turbo) models were discontinued after 1990. The S models were cancelled in 1991. A unique two-litre "tax special" Esprit with SE trim was developed for the Italian market. Equipped with an intercooled and turbocharged version of the 900-series engine that had a power output of at 6,250 rpm, this model appeared in December 1991. This engine became available in other markets beginning in the fall of 1996.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: In 1990, two specially prepared Esprits competed in the SCCA Escort World Challenge series. These cars started out as regular SE models but had all unnecessary equipment, trim removed and glass replaced by plexiglass. The suspension geometry was revised and Monroe shock absorbers were added. The brakes were by AP Racing, and the car's Delco/Moraine ABS system was the first anti-lock braking system ever used on an Esprit. The Chargecooled Type 910S engine had a revised engine management system with larger fuel injectors and now had a power output of . These cars were designated Type 105 and were campaigned by the Pure Sports team headed by "Doc" Bundy, who helped with development. In the first season the car was able to claim six pole positions, win four races and post two one-two finishes.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: Late in 1990, Lotus built 20 road-going examples of the Type 105 and gave them the name X180R. These were developed to homologate parts for the 1991 and 1992 racing seasons, specifically to allow an Esprit to campaign in IMSA's newly formed Bridgestone Supercar Championship. With a MSRP of $126,000, these cars came with amenities like glass windows, sport seats, a heater and air conditioning. The chassis of the road-going X180R was also galvanized, in contrast to the untreated chassis of the Type 105. The special road-going 1991 model year X180Rs were only sold within the United States. They were fitted with a full roll cage, reduced sound insulation, special bucket seats, competition-type disc brakes, synchromesh gearbox with limited-slip differential, 16" Revolution racing-style 3-piece wheels, special tuned suspension and shock package, racing-type front spoiler and rear wing, and competition type mirrors. The type 910S engine was developed to an officially reported 286 hp, though actual output is unknown.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: Three more race cars were built for the 1991 season to be run by Lotus Sport alongside the two upgraded 105s in the American IMSA Bridgestone Supercar Championship. The new cars were designated Type 106, but adopted the X180R name as well. They had a reinforced chassis with a revised roll cage and larger wheels and tyres but weighed less than the Type 105. The engine was modified with larger fuel injectors, a better Chargecooler and the removal of the catalytic converter which caused the output to rise to . In 1991 driver/actor Robert Carradine placed second in the series and in 1992, Bundy won three races and took the driver's title.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: In 1993, the sanctioning body changed the rules such that the X180R was assessed a weight penalty, which made the cars uncompetitive.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: An extensively modified derivative of the X180R was sold in Europe as the Sport 300. These are known as the fastest of the four-cylinder Esprits and among the most desirable with only 50 cars produced. The Sport 300 utilised a Garrett T4 turbocharger along with an improved Chargecooler and larger inlet valves enabling the engine to have a power output of at 6,400 rpm and of torque at 4,400 rpm. The power to weight ratio rose to 243 hp per tonne, same as the Porsche 964 Turbo 3.6. The Sport 300 could accelerate from 0–97 km/h (60 mph) in 4.7 seconds and had a claimed top speed of (tested top speed amounted to during a test conducted by British magazine Autocar in 1993).<ref name="lotusespritworld.com/ERoadtests/300"></ref>


title: Lotus Esprit

text: Esprit sales and production fell sharply in 1991 and 1992 as the SE started to face newer competitors like the Honda NSX.<ref name="lotusespritworld.com/EHistory/Production_Figures"></ref>


title: Lotus Esprit

text: Another refresh of the car in 1993 penned by Julian Thomson resulted in the Series 4 (or S4). Exterior changes included a smaller rear spoiler placed halfway up the rear deck-lid, revised front and rear bumpers, side skirts and valence panels. New five-spoke alloy wheels were also fitted. New rectangular taillights were borrowed from the Toyota AE86. The S4's engine had the same power output as the SE at . The S4 was the first Esprit to use a power steering.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: The S4 was complemented in 1994 by the S4 Sport (S4s). The most obvious external change from the S4 was the addition of a rear wing from the Sport 300. The engine was still a 2.2 L 910-series, but with performance-enhancing modifications that included enlarged inlet ports, cylinder head modifications, a re-calibrated ECM and a revised turbocharger. Engine output rose to and of torque. Top speed was , slalom speed , lateral acceleration increased to 0.91g and 0–97 km/h (60 mph) took 4.6 seconds.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: The last iteration of the four-cylinder Esprit was the GT3, a turbocharged, Chargecooled variant with the 2.0 L Type 920 which had previously been used only in Italian market cars. The GT3 was produced alongside the Esprit V8. Lotus originally intended to produce 50 GT3 models, but following the car's popularity, a total of 190 units were eventually built. The interior of the GT3 featured a re-designed instrument binnacle, which was narrower and more focused than the design used for previous models. Other notable interior features included a milled steel gearshift knob and a colour coded central tunnel to complement it.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: In 1996, Lotus launched the Esprit V8. The car came equipped with Lotus' own Type 918 V8 engine. The engine is an all-aluminium 90° DOHC 4 valves per cylinder with a flat-plane crankshaft and two Garrett T25/60 turbochargers but with no Chargecooler. The transaxle used was the same Renault unit as before but upgraded by Lotus racing driver Derek Bell with a much thicker single piece input shaft. Despite having a modified transaxle, the Type 918 engine was detuned from a potential to to prevent gearbox damage. In period tests, acceleration from 0–97 km/h (60 mph) was achieved in 4.4 seconds and a top speed of over was achieved.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: In 1998 the V8 range was split into SE and GT models. Both cars had revised interiors and similar performance but the SE was the more luxurious of the two.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: The ultimate incarnation of the Esprit was the 1999 Sport 350. Only 50 were made.<ref name="lotusespritworld.com/ERoadtests/350"></ref> the engine in the Sport 350 was tuned to have a power output of 350 horsepower (per the name) and various engine, chassis and braking improvements that included AP Racing brakes, stiffer springs and a revised ECU. Among the visual changes was a large carbon fibre rear wing on aluminium uprights in place of the standard fibreglass rear wing. The Sport 350 weighed and could accelerate to in 4.3 seconds and to in under 10 seconds.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: Having raced the Esprit in GT2 and GT3 classes, Lotus began to develop a new version of the car to race in GT1 class racing. Development of the car was entrusted to the newly formed Lotus GT1 Engineering group, which included many staff from the recently dissolved Team Lotus Formula One team.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: The Esprit GT1 was built on the Type 114 platform using the body from the new S4 road-going Esprit made from composite materials and carbon fibre. Changes to the bodywork included a new carbon fibre splitter, diffuser and floor. Power came from a Type 918 V8 engine with a single Garrett T4 turbocharger that had a power output of . The Renault transaxle was not considered adequate for the task. Where the GT2 cars used Hewland DG300 units, the GT1 would use the new TGT200 6-speed transverse transaxle. The front suspension was now upper and lower A-arms, while at the rear were upper and lower lateral links paired with upper and lower trailing links. The braking system used AP Racing carbon ceramic discs and calipers, and Penske triple-adjustable gas-pressurised shock absorbers were used at all four wheels. The chassis was similar to the production Esprit but with a roll-cage that added stiffness. Weight was reduced to .


title: Lotus Esprit

text: Production amounted to 3 units: chassis 114-001, 114-002 and 114-003. Two cars debuted at the 1996 BPR Global GT Series 4 Hours of Donington. Reliability dogged the car throughout the year, with problems linked to brakes, oil pumps, oil pipes and overheating, and it was succeeded by the Type 115 Elise GT1 the next year. Two of the Esprit GT1 cars were converted to GT2 specifications. Chassis 114-001 was acquired by Mike Haines Racing, who developed it into a competitive GT2 car. Chassis 114-001 now resides in a private museum in Tokyo, Japan. Chassis 114-002 was damaged at Oulton Park and became a parts donor for the remaining cars. Chassis 114-003 was destroyed in a fire.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: In 2002, the Esprit received another styling update done by future Lotus Design head Russell Carr. Carr, who had contributed to the S4 update, revised the car with changes that included incorporating the same round taillights as the Lotus Elise S2. Few if any mechanical changes were made to the car.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: After a 28-year production run, the last Esprit rolled off the production line on February 20, 2004, and was shipped to Chicago. A total of 10,675 Esprits were produced. Alongside the Chevrolet Corvette C5 which ended production on July 2, 2004, the Esprit was one of the last cars produced with pop-up headlights.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: While Lotus Cars never developed or built a convertible Esprit, custom manufacturers stepped in to fill this market.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: The St. Tropez conversion was designed by Paul Bailey and his company PBB Design, which was established in 1987. The conversion involved removing the roof and rear bodywork. The wheel arches were also widened and new Compomotive wheels were part of the package. The A-pillar and the chassis were reinforced with steel, and a steel subframe was added in the rear.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: PBB Design built three cars before the moulds were sold to Mark Irwin's Esprit Developments, who updated the design and marketed it along with a Rover V8 conversion. Esprit Developments completed another three cars.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: Another Esprit convertible was built in Hamburg Germany by Autohaus Kollinger GMBH. Their Esprit Roadster was based on S2, S3 & Turbo Esprit donor cars.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: As part of a five-car announcement at the 2010 Paris Motor Show, Lotus unveiled a completely redesigned Esprit. Production was slated to start in late 2013 and sales in the spring of 2014.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: Work on a new Esprit had started as early as 2006 under Carr. The car was unveiled during Donato Coco's tenure as design chief and was to have featured a futuristic front-end with LED front daytime running lights and a centre-mounted dual exhaust system in the rear. Power was to come from a 5.0 litre V8 engine delivering up to through a 7 speed dual-clutch transaxle. A KERS system was to be optional. The interior was to have a futuristic but minimal design which included a digital instrument cluster, a sport steering wheel and carbon fibre trim scattered throughout the cabin. The design exhibited had a length of , a width of and a height of . Gross weight was stated to be around .


title: Lotus Esprit

text: On 29 September 2014 Lotus cancelled the project and announced that they would not make the Esprit. Lotus had decided to continue making lightweight cars and nimble cars instead of heavier and more expensive cars due to the company's financial position at the time.


title: Lotus Esprit

text: Lotus used a variety of parts from other cars to reduce development costs. Esprits built before 1993 used many British Leyland parts and those built in the mid-to-late 1980s incorporated more Toyota parts while those built after 1993 had many GM (Vauxhall, Opel) parts. Door handles from the Morris Marina/Austin Allegro were used until the S4 model in 1994 when GM Calibra door handles were used. Early cars used a Momo steering wheel, while later ones had the same wheel as the Pontiac Trans Am. Headlight lift motors came from the Pontiac Fiero. The aerial mount and whip on the S4 and V8 was the same as the GM Calibra and Tigra. The side mirrors were from the Citroën CX. Non-SE fog lamps from about 1989 were GM Astra MK1. The fan motors came from the Ford Fiesta Mk2. The alternator on the V8 models was a standard GM unit also found in the V6 Opel Omega B and the earlier Lotus Carlton/Omega, which also provided interior plastic fittings such as door handles and steering column covering. The clutch master and slave cylinders on 1998 and newer models were Girling parts shared with the series 2A Land Rover.<ref name="lotusespritworld.com/ERunning"></ref> The S1 and S2 shared some front suspension components with the Opel Ascona. The GT3's Brembo front brake pads were the same as on a Fiat Coupé Turbo or a Peugeot 406 3.0 V6. The SE's fuel pump was from the Renault Fuego V8 pistons are from a RENAULT F7P 2.0L 16V CLIO WILLIAMS .


title: Decision tree learning

text: Decision tree learning is a supervised learning approach used in statistics, data mining and machine learning. In this formalism, a classification or regression decision tree is used as a predictive model to draw conclusions about a set of observations.


title: Decision tree learning

text: Tree models where the target variable can take a discrete set of values are called classification trees; in these tree structures, leaves represent class labels and branches represent conjunctions of features that lead to those class labels. Decision trees where the target variable can take continuous values (typically real numbers) are called regression trees.


title: Decision tree learning

text: Decision trees are among the most popular machine learning algorithms given their intelligibility and simplicity.


title: Decision tree learning

text: In decision analysis, a decision tree can be used to visually and explicitly represent decisions and decision making. In data mining, a decision tree describes data (but the resulting classification tree can be an input for decision making).


title: Decision tree learning

text: Decision tree learning is a method commonly used in data mining. The goal is to create a model that predicts the value of a target variable based on several input variables.


title: Decision tree learning

text: A decision tree is a simple representation for classifying examples. For this section, assume that all of the input features have finite discrete domains, and there is a single target feature called the "classification". Each element of the domain of the classification is called a "class".


title: Decision tree learning

text: A decision tree or a classification tree is a tree in which each internal (non-leaf) node is labeled with an input feature. The arcs coming from a node labeled with an input feature are labeled with each of the possible values of the target feature or the arc leads to a subordinate decision node on a different input feature. Each leaf of the tree is labeled with a class or a probability distribution over the classes, signifying that the data set has been classified by the tree into either a specific class, or into a particular probability distribution (which, if the decision tree is well-constructed, is skewed towards certain subsets of classes).


title: Decision tree learning

text: A tree is built by splitting the source set, constituting the root node of the tree, into subsets—which constitute the successor children. The splitting is based on a set of splitting rules based on classification features. This process is repeated on each derived subset in a recursive manner called recursive partitioning.


title: Decision tree learning

text: The recursion is completed when the subset at a node has all the same values of the target variable, or when splitting no longer adds value to the predictions. This process of "top-down induction of decision trees" (TDIDT) is an example of a greedy algorithm, and it is by far the most common strategy for learning decision trees from data.


title: Decision tree learning

text: In data mining, decision trees can be described also as the combination of mathematical and computational techniques to aid the description, categorization and generalization of a given set of data.


title: Decision tree learning

text: The dependent variable, formula_2, is the target variable that we are trying to understand, classify or generalize. The vector formula_3 is composed of the features, formula_4 etc., that are used for that task.


title: Decision tree learning

text: The term classification and regression tree (CART) analysis is an umbrella term used to refer to either of the above procedures, first introduced by Breiman et al. in 1984. Trees used for regression and trees used for classification have some similarities – but also some differences, such as the procedure used to determine where to split.


title: Decision tree learning

text: A special case of a decision tree is a decision list, which is a one-sided decision tree, so that every internal node has exactly 1 leaf node and exactly 1 internal node as a child (except for the bottommost node, whose only child is a single leaf node). While less expressive, decision lists are arguably easier to understand than general decision trees due to their added sparsity, permit non-greedy learning methods and monotonic constraints to be imposed.


title: Decision tree learning

text: ID3 and CART were invented independently at around the same time (between 1970 and 1980), yet follow a similar approach for learning a decision tree from training tuples.


title: Decision tree learning

text: It has also been proposed to leverage concepts of fuzzy set theory for the definition of a special version of decision tree, known as Fuzzy Decision Tree (FDT).


title: Decision tree learning

text: In this type of fuzzy classification, generally, an input vector formula_3 is associated with multiple classes, each with a different confidence value.


title: Decision tree learning

text: Boosted ensembles of FDTs have been recently investigated as well, and they have shown performances comparable to those of other very efficient fuzzy classifiers.


title: Decision tree learning

text: Algorithms for constructing decision trees usually work top-down, by choosing a variable at each step that best splits the set of items. Different algorithms use different metrics for measuring "best". These generally measure the homogeneity of the target variable within the subsets. Some examples are given below. These metrics are applied to each candidate subset, and the resulting values are combined (e.g., averaged) to provide a measure of the quality of the split. Depending on the underlying metric, the performance of various heuristic algorithms for decision tree learning may vary significantly.


title: Decision tree learning

text: A simple and effective metric can be used to identify the degree to which true positives outweigh true negatives (see Confusion matrix). This metric, "Estimate of Positive Correctness" is defined below:


title: Decision tree learning

text: In this equation, the total false positives (FP) are subtracted from the total true positives (TP). The resulting number gives an estimate on how many positive examples the feature could correctly identify within the data, with higher numbers meaning that the feature could correctly classify more positive samples. Below is an example of how to use the metric when the full confusion matrix of a certain feature is given:


title: Decision tree learning

text: Here we can see that the TP value would be 8 and the FP value would be 2 (the underlined numbers in the table). When we plug these numbers in the equation we are able to calculate the estimate: formula_7. This means that using the estimate on this feature would have it receive a score of 6.


title: Decision tree learning

text: However, it should be worth noting that this number is only an estimate. For example, if two features both had a FP value of 2 while one of the features had a higher TP value, that feature would be ranked higher than the other because the resulting estimate when using the equation would give a higher value. This could lead to some inaccuracies when using the metric if some features have more positive samples than others. To combat this, one could use a more powerful metric known as Sensitivity that takes into account the proportions of the values from the confusion matrix to give the actual true positive rate (TPR). The difference between these metrics is shown in the example below:


title: Decision tree learning

text: In this example, Feature A had an estimate of 6 and a TPR of approximately 0.73 while Feature B had an estimate of 4 and a TPR of 0.75. This shows that although the positive estimate for some feature may be higher, the more accurate TPR value for that feature may be lower when compared to other features that have a lower positive estimate. Depending on the situation and knowledge of the data and decision trees, one may opt to use the positive estimate for a quick and easy solution to their problem. On the other hand, a more experienced user would most likely prefer to use the TPR value to rank the features because it takes into account the proportions of the data and all the samples that should have been classified as positive.


title: Decision tree learning

text: Gini impurity, Gini's diversity index, or Gini-Simpson Index in biodiversity research, is used by the CART (classification and regression tree) algorithm for classification trees, Gini impurity (named after Italian mathematician Corrado Gini) is a measure of how often a randomly chosen element from the set would be incorrectly labeled if it was randomly labeled according to the distribution of labels in the subset. The Gini impurity can be computed by summing the probability formula_8 of an item with label formula_9 being chosen times the probability formula_10 of a mistake in categorizing that item. It reaches its minimum (zero) when all cases in the node fall into a single target category.


title: Decision tree learning

text: The Gini impurity is also an information theoretic measure and corresponds to Tsallis Entropy with deformation coefficient formula_11, which in physics is associated with the lack of information in out-of-equilibrium, non-extensive, dissipative and quantum systems. For the limit formula_12 one recovers the usual Boltzmann-Gibbs or Shannon entropy. In this sense, the Gini impurity is nothing but a variation of the usual entropy measure for decision trees.


title: Decision tree learning

text: To compute Gini impurity for a set of items with formula_13 classes, suppose formula_14, and let formula_8 be the fraction of items labeled with class formula_9 in the set.


title: Decision tree learning

text: Used by the ID3, C4.5 and C5.0 tree-generation algorithms. Information gain is based on the concept of entropy and information content from information theory.


title: Decision tree learning

text: where formula_19 are fractions that add up to 1 and represent the percentage of each class present in the child node that results from a split in the tree.


title: Decision tree learning

text: That is, the expected information gain is the mutual information, meaning that on average, the reduction in the entropy of "T" is the mutual information.


title: Decision tree learning

text: Information gain is used to decide which feature to split on at each step in building the tree. Simplicity is best, so we want to keep our tree small. To do so, at each step we should choose the split that results in the most consistent child nodes. A commonly used measure of consistency is called information which is measured in bits. For each node of the tree, the information value "represents the expected amount of information that would be needed to specify whether a new instance should be classified yes or no, given that the example reached that node".


title: Decision tree learning

text: Consider an example data set with four attributes: "outlook" (sunny, overcast, rainy), "temperature" (hot, mild, cool), "humidity" (high, normal), and "windy" (true, false), with a binary (yes or no) target variable, "play", and 14 data points. To construct a decision tree on this data, we need to compare the information gain of each of four trees, each split on one of the four features. The split with the highest information gain will be taken as the first split and the process will continue until all children nodes each have consistent data, or until the information gain is 0.


title: Decision tree learning

text: To find the information gain of the split using "windy", we must first calculate the information in the data before the split. The original data contained nine yes's and five no's.


title: Decision tree learning

text: The split using the feature "windy" results in two children nodes, one for a "windy" value of true and one for a "windy" value of false. In this data set, there are six data points with a true "windy" value, three of which have a "play" (where "play" is the target variable) value of yes and three with a "play" value of no. The eight remaining data points with a "windy" value of false contain two no's and six yes's. The information of the "windy"=true node is calculated using the entropy equation above. Since there is an equal number of yes's and no's in this node, we have


title: Decision tree learning

text: To find the information of the split, we take the weighted average of these two numbers based on how many observations fell into which node.


title: Decision tree learning

text: To build the tree, the information gain of each possible first split would need to be calculated. The best first split is the one that provides the most information gain. This process is repeated for each impure node until the tree is complete. This example is adapted from the example appearing in Witten et al.


title: Decision tree learning

text: Introduced in CART, variance reduction is often employed in cases where the target variable is continuous (regression tree), meaning that use of many other metrics would first require discretization before being applied. The variance reduction of a node is defined as the total reduction of the variance of the target variable due to the split at this node:


title: Decision tree learning

text: To build the tree, the "goodness" of all candidate splits for the root node need to be calculated. The candidate with the maximum value will split the root node, and the process will continue for each impure node until the tree is complete.


title: Decision tree learning

text: Compared to other metrics such as information gain, the measure of "goodness" will attempt to create a more balanced tree, leading to more-consistent decision time. However, it sacrifices some priority for creating pure children which can lead to additional splits that are not present with other metrics.


title: Decision tree learning

text: In a decision tree, all paths from the root node to the leaf node proceed by way of conjunction, or "AND". In a decision graph, it is possible to use disjunctions (ORs) to join two more paths together using minimum message length (MML). Decision graphs have been further extended to allow for previously unstated new attributes to be learnt dynamically and used at different places within the graph. The more general coding scheme results in better predictive accuracy and log-loss probabilistic scoring. In general, decision graphs infer models with fewer leaves than decision trees.


title: Decision tree learning

text: Evolutionary algorithms have been used to avoid local optimal decisions and search the decision tree space with little "a priori" bias.


title: Decision tree learning

text: The tree can be searched for in a bottom-up fashion. Or several trees can be constructed parallelly to reduce the expected number of tests till classification.


title: Chun-Li

text: Since her debut, Chun-Li has become a mainstay of the franchise and one of its most popular figures. She has appeared in nearly all subsequent installments of the series and several Capcom spinoff games. She is also featured prominently in "Street Fighter"-related media, including two feature films, multiple anime and comic book productions, and other official series merchandise. She has earned much positive fan and critical reception for factors such as her backstory, athleticism and in-game playability, and she is considered a trailblazer for female characters in fighting titles and general video gaming.


title: Chun-Li

text: Chun Li's design was primarily inspired by Tong Pooh, a female villain from "Strider", an earlier Capcom game. Capcom designer Akira Nishitani said on recounting the creation of the character: "Previously there were no women in fighting games". In Chun-Li's case said Nishitani, I wanted a woman in the game. I determined what her fighting abilities would be. Then China just came up as a possible homeland." Capcom artist and designer Akira "Akiman" Yasuda said the initial inspiration for Chun-Li came from the 1983 anime film "Harmagedon: Genma Wars" (featuring early character design work by "Akira" creator Katsuhiro Otomo), which had a Chinese female character called Tao. Chun-Li was originally known as just 'Chinese Girl' among the development team. She had a backflip attack that was popular among testers but deemed too strong, and unfortunately had to be cut from the game after they ran out of time. Her name means 'beautiful spring' in Chinese as 麗. Chūn (春) means 'spring', and lì (麗) means 'beautiful' in Mandarin dialects.


title: Chun-Li

text: Yasuda recalled they only had five weeks to make Chun-Li in the game and he was deeply worried about the quality of her design and how she would be received. Chun-Li "was wearing pants right up until the very end [of the development]. When we made the sprites I thought she didn't look right, so I had them changed to tights instead." Akiman added that they "wanted "" to be more entertaining than its predecessor. That also helps explain how Chun-Li came to be. Having a female character in the game completely changes the game's dynamic, she brightens up the entire palette. We needed a reason for her to fight, and so an evil empire [of M. Bison] came to mind." He also said: "To be honest, I spent some time worrying about putting Chun-Li, the heroine, into such a plain setting. Ordinarily, you don't see women participating in global martial arts tournaments. Just by adding her we were starting to push things to the 'fun' side. I didn't think about it at the time, but thinking about it now, from the moment we put Chun-Li into the game we were already pushing things towards the full-on entertainment side."


title: Chun-Li

text: Chun-Li was designed with an exceptionally strong physique because she was the sole woman among a roster of powerful male characters in "Street Fighter II". To overcome this perceived imbalance, she was devised as a character who had mastered Chinese kenpo and really pushed her body to the limit so that she could compete with such a cast of large and imposing men. She was nevertheless the fastest but physically weakest character in her first game. Capcom producer Yoshiki Okamoto said he wanted to also make the life bar for Chun-Li "shorter than for the other characters because women are not as strong. But Nishitani didn't want to do that. We both had legitimate reasons, but then we came to an agreement to not make it shorter."


title: Chun-Li

text: Chun-Li is particularly well known for her very muscular legs, while depictions of the rest of her body are more variable. According to Capcom composer Yoko Shimomura, Chun-Li's big thighs originated from Akiman's personal fetish. The size of Chun-Li's thighs massively increased in "Street Fighter III". Capcom producer Yoshinori Ono commented on the issue. "I witnessed as her thighs made a sudden jump into gigantism in "SFIII". When we first put her in the game, her sprite was just an outline and her thighs weren't that big...but as the artists starting coloring her in, her legs got thicker and thicker." However, they all felt the larger legs increased the expressiveness of her animations. Regarding then-upcoming "Street Fighter IV", Ono said the "character designer, [Daigo] Ikeno, is kind of into thick girls, so as an artist he feels that the most beautiful thighs he can give Chun-Li would be of the wide variety."


title: Chun-Li

text: Chun-Li sprite's panty-flashing animation frames have been censored for the home console releases by Nintendo. In response to fans that were disappointed with Chun-Li's absence from "Street Fighter III", Capcom added her to the "" version of the game. Since her main designer, Akiman, was busy with other assignments she was redesigned by other members from the staff, taking the most time and effort out of all characters. Her inclusion into "Street Fighter EX" was deemed natural by the studio Arika, with producer Ichiro Mihara describing her as one of the three essential "Street Fighter" characters along with Ryu and Ken.


title: Chun-Li

text: In the "Street Fighter Alpha" games, where she was redesigned by Eri "Erichan" Nakamura, Chun-Li wears a sleeveless tight outfit, her arms and upper body were visibly much stronger than those of any other female character in the franchise, however many artists choose to depict her as petite and slim, in official and unofficial artworks alike, drawing only her legs strong due to her emphasis on kicking moves. An early version of Chun-Li in "Street Fighter IV" was reworked following complaints from location tests that she was not "cute". Ono later announced Chun-Li's controversial face in "" would be also corrected based on a negative feedback from the fans.


title: Chun-Li

text: In the "Street Fighter II" sub-series and most of her later appearances, Chun-Li wears a usually blue qipao, an early-20th-century Chinese dress, with golden accents, puffy sleeves, and a white waistband. The dress is modified to allow a far wider range of movement than a generic qipao. In "", Chun-Li was originally depicted wearing a red qipao instead of blue. It can be also either red or white within some games since "" and "", respectively. In "", the qipao has a very noticeable silky sheen. Her other ensemble includes a pair of white combat boots and brown tights. She usually wears her hair in "ox horns", with silk brocades and ribbons in her hair. Another iconic part of her design are the large spiked bracelets she wears on her wrists.


title: Chun-Li

text: In the "Street Fighter Alpha" games (set during the time period before "Street Fighter II"), Chun-Li wears a Chinese acrobatic outfit consisting of an embroidered vest, a unitard, and sneakers; she is wearing her ox horns unadorned, but kept in place with yellow ribbons. In "Street Fighter IV", Chun-Li's alternate outfit consists of black tabard with gold accents at the bottom, while her ox horns are unadorned, just like in her "Alpha" appearance, only this time it is held by red ropes with golden balls at the tip. This outfit is completed with red shoes, gold earrings and black and gold bracelets. Her alternative wardrobe in "Super Street Fighter IV" includes a costume inspired by Mai Shiranui and in "Street Fighter V" she has a Halloween downloadable content (DLC) appearing as Morrigan Aensland. She has by far most costumes out of all characters in "Street Fighter V" (a total of 17 by 2018), including some with different hairstyles.


title: Chun-Li

text: Chun-Li's gameplay style changes notably from game to game, with for example "Champion Edition" restoring her flipping attacks that have been removed from the original version of "Street Fighter II". "Street Fighter III: 3rd Strike" marked a strong departure from previous incarnations as it featured a large number of revamped moves. Later games have looked to balance between her "Street Fighter II" and "3rd Strike" styles.


title: Chun-Li

text: Chun-Li started as a weak and fast close-range fighter compared to the bigger male characters from "Street Fighter II" with the best aerial ability in the game, but she steadily gained an array of different moves through the games, such as a projectile attack or an anti-air defensive move, which steered her towards a more balanced type with an emphasis on poking and control of neutral game thanks to a rich set of non-special moves of relatively long range. She has been noted to be one of the most powerful characters in the game, alongside Ken and Yun.


title: Chun-Li

text: "Street Fighter Alpha 2" and "Alpha 3" feature Chun-Li's original outfit from "Street Fighter II" as an alternate version of the character with alternate special abilities and Super Combos. "CVG" opined she was "the most-improved character in "Alpha 2", and possibly the #1 character in the whole game."


title: Chun-Li

text: She was considerably weakened in "Street Fighter EX", but has remained one of the fastest characters. The development team for "Street Fighter EX" attempted to bring Chun-Li back to her roots as an agility-oriented character by, among other things, restoring her Spinning Bird Kick and removing the fireball attack she acquired in "Street Fighter II Turbo" as they felt the projectile attack had too radically altered her originally agile fighting style.


title: Chun-Li

text: Her appearances in the "Marvel vs. Capcom" series are reminiscent of her early gameplay, featuring her as one of the fastest characters in the games, taking advantage of the faster gameplay of the games as well as game mechanics such as multiple jumps and air dashes; her X-Factor power-up in "Marvel vs. Capcom 3" features an increment in speed. Chun-Li's normal moves are balanced among punches and kicks, but most of her special moves are kicks. Her most recognizable special moves remain the Hyakuretsu Kyaku, a series of quick kicks from a one-legged stance (usually referred to as Lightning Legs/Kicks in English), and the Spinning Bird Kick, where she spins while upside down in a front split kicking all around her. Chun-Li can also use the Kiko-Ken, a ranged energy projectile similar to Ryu's Hadouken, and a concentrated static energy burst known as the Kiko-Sho.


title: Chun-Li

text: Chun-Li, canonically born on March 1, 1968, is an expert martial arts practitioner. She started training in several styles of Chinese kempo ("Chinese martial arts") at the age of five, especially tai chi chuan, which she would later complement with sanda (combat wushu) and fighting styles from all around the world, such as taekwondo, full contact karate, judo and capoeira. Related to her police job, she is a very skilled firearm user, her game profiles stating that she has at least once achieved a sixth place in an international shooting competition. She has been noted in-universe for her fluent English, investigating skills, penetrating eyes, beauty and acting talent for deception. Chun-Li is presented as a woman with a strong sense of justice, and her motives for fighting crime range from avenging the death of her father to protecting innocents. She especially cares for kids, showing repulse for the use of brainwashed young girls in "Street Fighter Alpha 3" and the kidnap of a girl in "". In the latter game, she decides she will teach her fighting style and philosophy to children.


title: Chun-Li

text: Chun-Li was introduced in 1991 in the original version of "Street Fighter II" ("") as the franchise's first playable female character, an undercover Interpol agent seeking to avenge the death of her father at the hands of M. Bison and his criminal organization. Upon Bison's defeat, she fulfills her revenge and decides to return to her life as an ordinary girl; "Super Street Fighter II" allows players to choose this ending or another in which she remains a police officer. The "Street Fighter Alpha" prequel series built upon her backstory, while "Street Fighter III: 3rd Strike" shows her retired and teaching martial arts to young children, only to be forced to return to law enforcement after one of her students is abducted by Urien. Chun-Li returns in "Street Fighter IV", where her in-game narrative shows her at crossroads in her life, eventually returning to both street fighting and law enforcement. She returns in "Street Fighter V"; in her prologue story, Chun-Li recalls how she learned of her father's death. In non-canonical spin-off series "Street Fighter EX", Chun-Li is a police officer investigating Shadaloo in search of her missing father.


title: Chun-Li

text: Besides the core "Street Fighter" series, Chun-Li has also made appearances in many other Capcom-produced fighting games, including all titles of the long-running series "Marvel vs. Capcom" (ever since "X-Men vs. Street Fighter", including Shadow Lady, a dark version of Chun-Li that underwent harsh experiments on Bison's orders and was transformed into a brainwashed cyborg) and "" (as a rival to SNK character Mai Shiranui), and in "" and "Street Fighter X Tekken". She and Ryu are the only "Street Fighter" characters to appear in every Capcom crossover title, including the "SNK vs. Capcom" fighting game series by SNK and the tactical role-playing games "Namco × Capcom", "Project X Zone" and "Project X Zone 2" by Namco (where Chun-Li is paired into a single unit with Morrigan Aensland from "Darkstalkers"), as well as appearing as a boss in the platform game "Street Fighter X Mega Man". She was also planned to appear as a giant robot in . Often, Chun-Li either continues her existing story from "Street Fighter II" or seeks to arrest the other characters in the game that she sees as suspicious.


title: Chun-Li

text: Chun-Li is additionally playable in other Capcom games such as versus puzzle games "Super Puzzle Fighter II Turbo", "Super Gem Fighter Mini Mix" (where she can turn into Jill Valentine) and "Street Fighter: Puzzle Spirits", and social games "Capcom All-Stars" and "Street Fighter Battle Combination." She has made guest appearances in a number of mobile games, including "#Compass", "Destiny Child", "Granblue Fantasy", "", and "Valkyrie Connect". She makes cameo appearances in various Capcom games including "Asura's Wrath", "Breath of Fire", "Final Fight 2", "Mega Man 9", and "We Love Golf!." Furthermore, her costumes can be worn by player characters in Capcom's "Breath of Fire 6", "Dead Rising 3" (a DLC costume for Frank West), "", "Monster Hunter Explore", and "" (as an alternate costume for Ohatsu), as well as in Square Enix's "Gunslinger Stratos 2" (a costume for Mika Katagiri) and Sony's "LittleBigPlanet" (a DLC for Sackgirl). A playable Chun-Li character skin has also been added to "Fortnite". Chun-Li, under the name "Blue Phoenix Ranger", appears as a playable character in "" via downloadable content.


title: Chun-Li

text: Chun-Li was a central character in the 1994 "Street Fighter" film, played by Ming-Na Wen. Chun-Li was given a surname ("Zang Chun-Li") and posed as a television reporter working in Shadaloo in her personal quest to track down and kill Bison, who had murdered her father during a peasant uprising. Her relationship with Guile is acrimonious from the start, as he bluntly rejects her interview request and chides Chun-Li for his own inability to trace a signal broadcast by Bison. Chun-Li allies herself with E. Honda and Balrog, who work as her news crew and whose reputations were ruined by Bison's mafia connections, and later forms an initially uneasy alliance with Ryu and Ken working with Guile in attempting to locate Bison's secret fortress. After Guile's fake death during a staged prison break, Chun-Li uses a homing device to trace him to, and then infiltrate, the Allied Nations' headquarters, where she is shocked to discover that he is still alive. However, Guile does not want her vendetta against Bison interfering with his own. He orders Cammy and T. Hawk to take Chun-Li into custody, but she manages to escape. With Balrog and Honda, all posing as traveling carnival performers, she works with Ken and Ryu on a failed assassination attempt against Bison and Sagat before they are all captured and taken to Bison's fortress. Chun-Li is held prisoner in Bison's private chambers (in an approximation to her traditional game costume), and after she relays the story of her father's murder, Bison mocks her and her fighting skills in response, which provokes Chun-Li into attacking him, having planned all along for an opportunity to personally attack Bison. She actually gains the upper hand before becoming distracted by her comrades coming to her rescue, allowing Bison to escape before subduing them with knock-out gas and taking them hostage. When Guile and the Allied Nations launch an invasion on Bison's fortress during the film's climax, she and the rest of Bison's hostages are freed, and after Bison's forces are defeated, Guile promises her an exclusive interview, but only, he adds in jest, if she shows up in her costume.


title: Chun-Li

text: As the titular character in the 2009 film "", she was played by Kristin Kreuk, her last name was changed to "Xiang" as well as being a pianist turned fighter. Her father was named Huang Xiang and was a businessman Bison abducts and forces to work for him. While she was depicted as Chinese-American, her goal of avenging her father remained unchanged and she succeeds killing Bison with help from her mentor Gen and Charlie Nash. The film was released in Japanese theaters as a double bill with a Studio 4°C-produced anime short that starred fellow "Street Fighter" character Sakura Kasugano and played after the movie.


title: Chun-Li

text: Chun-Li was played by a cross-dressing Jackie Chan in the 1993 live-action adaptation of "City Hunter" during the "Street Fighter II" spoof scene that positively surprised the original manga's author Tsukasa Hojo. Chun-Li appears in the second season of "" titled "Street Fighter: World Warrior" in a significant role. In addition, she also makes cameo appearances in the 2008 Korean film "My Mighty Princess" (on a poster) and in the 2018 film "Ready Player One."


title: Chun-Li

text: Gemma Nguyen portrays Chun-Li in the official crossover between the Power Rangers and Street Fighter titled "Power Rangers: Legacy Wars—Street Fighter Showdown". In the short, Ryu morphs into the RyuRanger and Chun-Li teams with Tommy Oliver, Ninjor and Gia Moran to battle M. Bison and evil Power Rangers.


title: Chun-Li

text: Nguyen reprised her role in the fan film "Street Fighter: Enter the Dragon", intervening in the fight between Fei Long and Balrog near the end.


title: Chun-Li

text: Chun-Li is a central character in the 1994 anime film "", voiced by Miki Fujitani in the original Japanese version and by Lia Sargent (credited as Mary Briscoe) in the English dub. She is investigating M. Bison's Shadowlaw organization suspected of murdering several diplomats and requests to work with Guile; he initially balks at this as he wants to pursue Bison himself, but later they become inseparable. In a famous instance of fan service, an explicit scene showed Chun-Li showering in her apartment as a Shadowlaw assassin, Vega, arrives to kill her. The shower scene has been censored to varying degrees in versions of the English dub. After a brutal fight, Vega is kicked through a wall and sent plummeting several stories to the ground, but Chun-Li succumbs to her injuries and slips into a coma. She remains hospitalized for the rest of the movie, as a distraught Guile promises her that he will make Bison pay. After Bison is defeated by Ryu and Ken, Chun-Li pulls a prank on Guile by making it appear as if she has died while he was away.


title: Chun-Li

text: Chun-Li is a regular character in the 1996 American animated series "Street Fighter", voiced by Donna Yamamoto. The character reprises her film role as a reporter while she again seeks to avenge her father's death at the hands of Bison, which is shown in flashback in the second episode, "The Strongest Woman in the World".


title: Chun-Li

text: In the 1997–1998 anime series "Street Fighter II V", Chun-Li is voiced by Chisa Yokoyama in the original Japanese version, while Lia Sargent reprises her role in the English dub. Chun-Li is introduced as the 15-year-old daughter of Inspector Do-Rai, a Hong Kong police chief who has schooled her in the martial arts. While attempting to bring down a drug smuggling operation in the country, she works with Interpol to investigate a mysterious organization known as Shadowlaw. Chun-Li serves as the tour guide for Ryu and Ken when they pay a visit to work on their training; Ken is smitten with her and later buys her lavish gifts, including an engagement ring. Despite being underage, they enter a club in a dangerous part of town that hosts an underground fighting ring so Ryu and Ken can prove themselves as street fighters. After Ryu soundly defeats several opponents, the trio are marked for death by the ringleader as a result, and while on the run they encounter and battle various street gangs before being rescued by Chun-Li's father. Traveling with Ryu and Ken to Spain, Chun-Li is stalked by an obsessive Vega, who presents her with a severed bull's ear, intercepts her outside her hotel, sneaks into her room to kiss her while sleeping, then invites her to a masquerade ball that is actually a setup to get Ken to fight him in a cage match. The whole time, Chun-Li is under the influence of Vega's love potion, but it wears off when Vega is defeated. Bison then accosts Chun-Li and she realizes that he is the leader of Shadowlaw, who, unbeknownst to her, had also hired Cammy to garrote Chun-Li's father, an attack he barely survives. Chun-Li plays her largest role in the five-part finale, when she and Ryu are kidnapped and brainwashed by Bison via cyberchip embedded in their foreheads and like in the 1994 American film, she acquires her signature outfit while under Bison's captivity. The chip puts her into an overly aggressive state, which she displays by snapping an opponent's neck in combat, and she later manages to overpower Guile in battle before Ryu and Ken, during their victorious final fight against Bison, succeed in destroying the equipment triggering the chips (in addition to reducing the Shadowlaw base to ruins), returning Chun-Li to normal.


title: Chun-Li

text: Chun-Li appears in the 1999 anime OVA "", voiced by Yumi Tōma in the original Japanese version and again by Lia Sargent in the English dub. There, she is as an Interpol agent who investigates a mad scientist called Sadler who works for Shadaloo. She believes the trail can lead her to her father, who at the time, was missing and presumed alive. She assists Ryu and Ken in finding a kidnapped boy named Shun who claims to be Ryu's younger brother. While tracking Sadler, she accompanies Ryu to where Akuma lives and witnesses as Ryu is almost overcome by the Dark Hadou. She accompanies Ryu, Ken, Birdie, Dan, Guy, Dhalsim, Sodom and Rolento to Sadler's hideout, where she sneaks into the facility with Ryu and Ken. She and Ken rescue the other fighters and end up in a tussle with Sadler's android enforcer, Rosanov, who beats them severely. Ryu ultimately manages to destroy both Rosanov and Sadler, though Shun dies in the process after making peace with Ryu. In the aftermath, Chun-Li returns to Interpol


title: Chun-Li

text: In the season 6 (2010) Halloween special of the cartoon series "American Dad!", Toshi's little sister Akiko goes trick-or-treating as Chun-Li. Chun-Li made cameo appearances in the animated films "Wreck-It Ralph" and "Ralph Breaks the Internet" alongside several fellow "Street Fighter" characters.


title: Chun-Li

text: In Malibu Comics' short-lived "Street Fighter" series, Chun-Li is depicted as having known Ryu and Ken since her late teens, as well as having a romantic interest in Ryu, though both make their first appearances therein fighting each other after he sneaks up on her from behind. She criticizes his overly devout dedication to his training that has seen him distance himself from Ken for a long time, while he tires of hearing her desire of revenge against Bison and is aghast at her announcement that she has started working with Interpol. The main storyline did not focus on Chun-Li nor Ryu, but rather the aftermath of Sagat's murder of Ken, which itself was never resolved as the comic was canceled at Capcom's request after only three issues. Chun-Li is also one of several "Street Fighter" characters featured in Archie Comics' "Worlds Unite" event, which saw several Capcom and Sega franchises crossover in the "Sonic the Hedgehog, Sonic Universe, Mega Man," and "Sonic Boom" comic lines.


title: Chun-Li

text: There have been multiple Chun-Li lookalike contests in Japan, United States and elsewhere during the early 1990s, with valuable main prizes such as the Nissan 300ZX or the Honda CR-X. Later such contests have been performed on a much smaller scale. Chun-Li's character was used to promote the film "Ready Player One" in Japan. In 2018, Japanese company Onitsuka Tiger collaborated with Capcom for Chun-Li to wear their new Mexico 66 SD line of sports shoes, and the 30th anniversary of "Street Fighter" collaboration between Capcom and Japan's Saga Prefecture featured singer and actress Kayo Noro dressed as Chun-Li. Previously, actress Miki Mizuno also dressed as Chun-Li in another promotional event as did pop singer Maki Miyamae to perform Chun-Li's official song on the television. In 1997, actress and pop star Rie Tomosaka played Chun-Li on television as well.


title: Chun-Li

text: A wide variety of Chun-Li figures have been produced by various manufacturers, including by Capcom itself, Ace Novelty, BigBoysToys, Funko, Kotobukiya, Pop Culture Shock Collectibles, S.H. Figuart, SOTA Toys, Storm Collectibles, Takara Tomy, and Tsume-Art, among many others. Artworks of her were also featured on an officially licensed animated Nubytech/UDON joypad for the PlayStation 2, and a Mad Catz wireless joypad for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. Other assorted merchandise included Diesel sneakers, women's lingerie, a figure-style flash drive USB stick, a postage stamp from Japanese Philatelic Association came with its own collectible figure, and a figurine that came with a DyDo drink. There are also Chun-Li themed pachinko slot games, including "Chun-Li Ni Makase China!", the first game of any kind that featured her in a starring role.


title: Chun-Li

text: Many fighting game characters from the 1990s that have been directly inspired by Chun-Li in terms of both graphics and gameplay include Li Xiang Fei in "", Liu Feilin in "Fighter's History", and Sekka in "". Similarities with Chun-Li were further observed in various other characters, such as the move sets of Jamm in "" and Miyabi in "Raging Fighter", or the looks of Mei Mei in unreleased "Mission: Deadly Skies." Her success furthermore directly contributed to the creation of such characters (besides "Street Fighter"'s own Cammy) as Mai Shiranui or "Mortal Kombat"'s Sonya Blade, followed by Kitana and Mileena; popular fighting characters that resemble Chun-Li include Lei Fang ("Dead or Alive"), Ling Xiaoyu ("Tekken"), and Pai Chan ("Virtua Fighter"). In the 1992 Hong-Kong film "Super Lady Cop", Cynthia Khan's character Ling is nicknamed "Chun Li" in an inspired role, including using some of Chun-Li's moves.


title: Chun-Li

text: Others who have dressed as Chun-Li have included Japanese gravure idols Akina Minami, Erina Kamiya, Yuka Kuramochi and Yuri Morishita, Italian model Francesca Dani, Japanese model Haruna Anno, Korean MMA fighter Jenny Huang, Russian bodybuilder Julia Vins, Japanese model and media personality Kayo Satoh, Japanese singer and model Kyary Pamyu Pamyu, American actress Ming-Na Wen (aside from having portrayed the character in the 1994 film), Japanese muscle idol Reika Saiki, Chinese doctor and bodybuilder Yuan Herong, Chengxiao from the Korean-Chinese idol group Cosmic Girls, and Turkish media personality Aşkım İrem Aktulga who was transformed into Chun-Li in the show "Red Bull Shape Shifters". Some of them have been also male, such as Japanese wrestler Hiroshi Tanahashi or Australian stunt actor and wrestler Ladybeard.


title: Chun-Li

text: In 2018, rapper Nicki Minaj released a single called “Chun-Li.” British band Arctic Monkeys released an instrumental titled "Chun Li Flying Bird Kick" as a B-side on their 2005 single "I Bet You Look Good on the Dancefloor".


title: Chun-Li

text: Chun-Li is widely regarded as one of the most popular characters in the series. As she is the first playable female fighting game character she has been dubbed as the "first lady of Fighting games", the "original videogame super-babe", and such. During the 1990s, "GamePro" chose her as the most iconic character of "Street Fighter II" and years later called her "everyone's favorite feminine fighter". "Mean Machines Sega" noted her being "a firm favourite among "Street Fighter II" fans" and "Saturn Power" described her as "subject of childish giggles as computer journalists everywhere try as they might to grab a screenshot of her showing her knickers". Her return in "Street Fighter III: Third Strike" has been called as the main and best addition to the game by IGN and "GamePro"; Virgin's head of distribution Peter Jones chose the "saucy, sexy, dangerous and fast" as definitely the best character of the game. Retrospectively, "Xbox 360 Official Magazine – Australia" used her and Samus Aran as examples of gaming's original sex symbols prior to the advent of Lara Croft and "Chilango" wrote of her, Lara and Mai Shiranui as the video game women "about whom we fantasied in the 90s" and described Mai as "SNK's response to the overwhelming success of Chun-Li."


title: Chun-Li

text: In 2002, Chun-Li was voted number one in Capcom's own poll of top 85 characters for the 15th anniversary of "Street Fighter". She was also ranked third in IGN's 2009 list of top "Street Fighter" characters, who commented: "Chun-Li's come a long way over the years. She's by far the most popular female fighting game character out there, and if you try to start naming off better-known women in videogaming period, you're going to wind up with a pretty short list." GameDaily ranked her as number one on their 2009 list of top "Street Fighter" characters of all time, praising her character evolution and for balanced gameplay, as well as second in their 2008 list of top Capcom characters of all time and as the favorite character from the "Street Fighter" series. UGO ranked her as third on their 2010 list of top "Street Fighter" characters, adding that as "the first female fighting game character", Chun-Li "was one of few female characters in the early '90s not cast in a role of damsel in distress, but instead showed that female characters could fight just as same as their male counterparts". In 2015, Digital Spy placed her second on their list of top "Street Fighter" characters, noting that she has "become one of gaming's most famous women alongside the likes of Lara Croft". In a 2018 worldwide poll by Capcom, Chun-Li was voted sixth most popular "Street Fighter" character. Reporting on this, IGN Japan ranked her third.


title: Chun-Li

text: Chun-Li's male fans have included the rapper Kid Ink. She has been also highly popular and acclaimed among women gamers, such as Codemasters manager Laura Peterson, model Ursula Mayes, and media personality Violet Berlin; Yuka Kuramochi, who chose Chun-Li as the most ideally erotic body due to her muscular thighs. The creation of "Street Fighter II: Champion Edition" was in fact inspired by an argument between two girls over which one of them would play as Chun-Li, which was witnessed by Capcom USA's Jeff Walker who then asked Capcom's founder Kenzo Tsujimoto to make a version allowing both players to play the same character. According to the Smithsonian Museum's Chris Mellisinos, Chun-Li "was such an anomaly. How many times did you have the chance to play as a strong female character in arcades? She was drawn attractively, just like Ken and Ryu, but in no way was she a diminished character because she was female." Video game scholar Jennifer deWinter felt it was furthermore very "interesting and surprising to have such a strong Chinese character in Chun-Li coming out of a Japanese game." Nevertheless, "PSM" noted by 1997 how "a vocal minority believes that [gaming's] female characters do very little to attract women. These people argue that Chun Li, Lara Croft, and most other female game characters are designed primarily for a male gamer's satisfaction, and not geared towards the needs of women garners at all."


title: Chun-Li

text: Chun-Li has appeared in many top list type articles for the fighting game genre, all video games, and in even in general fiction, often due to her attractiveness. She was awarded the title of the "Hottest Babe of 1992" by "Electronic Gaming Monthly", tying with Blaze from "Streets of Rage". Chun-Li's cameo in the role-playing game "Breath of Fire" was included in "Expert Gamer"s 1998 list of the greatest video game secrets. This "feminine, agile, strong, and above all beautiful fighter" was chosen as one of the "muses" of video games by Brazilian magazine "SuperGamePower" in 2001 and as one of ten "great women of gaming" by "GMR" in 2004. UGO placed her as ninth on their 2007 list of top "videogame hotties", commenting that "Chun-Li's female presence and early dominance of the fighting game genre propelled her into the minds of many early fanboys." In 2008, "Chip" ranked Chun-Li as the fifth-top "girl of gaming" and GameDaily ranked her as fourth among the "hottest game babes". In "Game Informer"s 2009 list of top ten best fighting game characters Chun-Li was seventh. In 2010, CraveOnline listed her as one of top ten "hottest girls in gaming", noting that "for millions of early-generation gamers, Capcom's arcade release of "Street Fighter II" was the very first real taste of a video-game crush." Similarly, Videogamer.com included her in the 2010 list of top ten "video game crushes", noting that gamers have loved her since 1992. "Complex" ranked her naked appearance in "Street Fighter II: The Animated Movie" as seventh on the list of the "hottest cartoon women" of all time in 2011, and "Complex" ranked her as the second-best Asian character in video games in 2012, commenting, "Easily one of the most recognizable characters in video games as a whole, Chun-Li seems to pop up in every list you can think of." That same year, MSN Malaysia included her among the "hottest women in video game history", while UGO including her in their list of "hottest fictional women" of 2012. In 2013, "Complex" placed her at their top of list of video game characters that deserve a spin-off, noting her as "arguably the most popular female video character ever created." They also ranked her as the "22nd-most-badass" video game character of all time, as well as the seventh-greatest heroine in video game history, calling her "probably the most iconic fighting game character ever." That same year, she was listed as the "second-sexiest female video game character of all time" by AMOG, who stated that "after all these years, Chun-Li remains one of the most classic video game beauties", and as the seventh-sexiest female video game character by Scarlet Clearwater of Soletron, while Steve Jenkins of CheatCodes.com declared her the 13th-hottest video game girl of all time. In 2015, Chun-Li was ranked as second-most-sexy Oriental woman character in games by Indonesian television Liputan 6 and as the 13th-sexiest female video game character by Vietnamese daily "Thanh Niên". Game Revolution ranked her as the top female character in 2017, noting her popularity among cosplayers. Suriel Vasquez from "Game Informer" included her among top ten fighting game characters in 2017 as "one of the most enduring aesthetic designs in a fighter (...) without veering too far into anything too eye-rolling or offensive." Retrospectively, Japanese magazine "Famitsu" and IGN Spain both put her among the best classic female game heroines from the 1990s, including as the first non-"Final Fantasy" character on the "Famitsu "list.


title: Chun-Li

text: Spike featured Chun-Li in their 2008 contest "Top 10 Video Game Vixens" at number four, citing a preference for her thighs. Ranking her as the second-most-memorable female video games character in 2009, Polish magazine "NEO Plus" noted her for the most famous thighs in gaming as well as her being a cult figure in Japan and perhaps the most recognizable "Street Fighter" character in the West. "PlayStation Official Magazine – Australia" included that "grandmother of all rectum-booting XX chromosomers" among the top five "kick-arse PS3 gals" in 2009 and Mania Entertainment put her second in their 2010 list of "video game women that kick ass". Ranking her as number one on their 2011 list of fighting games' finest female fighters, UGO added, "For the record: There's nothing wrong with Chun-Li's thighs, and they are definitely not 'too big'." "Complex" ranked her as the "ninth-most dominant" fighting game character in 2012, adding that "Chun-Li and her infamous thighs are instantly recognizable", and also pitted her against SNK's busty ninja icon Mai Shiranui in their 2012 "battle of the beauties" feature, commenting: "Breasts or legs? Personally, we'll take 'em both." GamesRadar put this "first lady of fighters (as in, literally the first one ever)" at 85th place in their 2012 list of the "most memorable, influential, and badass" protagonist in games, calling her "as one of the most recognizable heroines in gaming" praising her for "her combat prowess and positive attitude" and also for "her muscular thunder thighs." In 2013, "Entertainment Weekly"s Darren Franich listed Chun-Li as one of 15 "kick-ass" women in video games, asserting that she is "proof that ladies could quite literally kick ass as well as the dudes," while GamesRadar+'s Chris Hoffman included her thighs among Capcom's greatest contributions to gaming history.


title: John Lennon discography

text: John Lennon was an English singer-songwriter and peace activist, best known as one of the four principal members of the Beatles. His first three studio albums are experiments with Yoko Ono using tape loops, interviews, musique concrète, and other avant-garde performance techniques. Lennon also released one live album and three singles under his own name before the break-up of the Beatles.


title: John Lennon discography

text: After the break-up of the Beatles, Lennon began his solo career with "Plastic Ono Band," released simultaneously with Ono's album of the same name. He released the album "Imagine" the following year, which became his most critical and commercial success. His 1972 political themed album "Some Time in New York City" received scathing reviews and performed poorly commercially. Lennon's next two albums, "Mind Games" (1973) and "Walls and Bridges" (1974) were better received and had more commercial success. In 1975, Lennon released his covers album "Rock 'n' Roll" before retiring from music to focus on raising his newborn son Sean. He returned to the music industry in 1980 with the album "Double Fantasy," but was murdered three weeks after its release. Following his death, the 1984 album "Milk and Honey" was posthumously released.


title: John Lennon discography

text: In 2020, to celebrate what would have been Lennon's 80th birthday, Ono and his son Sean released the box set "Gimme Some Truth. The Ultimate Mixes", which contained newly remixed versions of 36 of Lennon's songs. In 2018 and 2021, super deluxe box-sets of "Imagine" and "John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band" were released.


title: John Lennon discography

text: By 2012, Lennon's solo album sales in the US had exceeded 14 million units. He had 25 number-one singles on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart as a writer, co-writer or performer.


title: Sumerian King List

text: The Sumerian King List (abbreviated SKL) or Chronicle of the One Monarchy is an ancient literary composition written in Sumerian that was likely created and redacted to legitimize the claims to power of various city-states and kingdoms in southern Mesopotamia during the late third and early second millennium BC. It does so by repetitively listing Sumerian cities, the kings that ruled there, and the lengths of their reigns. Especially in the early part of the list, these reigns often span thousands of years. In the oldest known version, dated to the Ur III period (c. 2112–2004 BC) but probably based on Akkadian source material, the "SKL" reflected a more linear transition of power from Kish, the first city to receive kingship, to Akkad. In later versions from the Old Babylonian period, the list consisted of a large number of cities between which kingship was transferred, reflecting a more cyclical view of how kingship came to a city, only to be inevitably replaced by the next. In its best-known and best-preserved version, as recorded on the Weld-Blundell Prism, the "SKL" begins with a number of fictional antediluvian kings, who ruled before a flood swept over the land, after which kingship went to Kish. It ends with a dynasty from Isin (early second millennium BC), which is well-known from other contemporary sources.


title: Sumerian King List

text: The "SKL" is preserved in several versions. Most of these date to the Old Babylonian period, but the oldest version dates to the Ur III period. The clay tablets on which the "SKL" was recorded were generally found on sites in southern Mesopotamia. These versions differ in their exact content; some sections are missing, others are arranged in a different order, names of kings may be absent or the lengths of their reigns may vary. These differences are both the result of copying errors, and of deliberate editorial decisions to change the text to fit current needs.


title: Sumerian King List

text: In the past, the "Sumerian King List" was considered as an invaluable source for the reconstruction of the political history of Early Dynastic Mesopotamia. More recent research has indicated that the use of the "SKL" is fraught with difficulties, and that it should only be used with caution, if at all, in the study of ancient Mesopotamia during the third and early second millennium BC.


title: Sumerian King List

text: The text is best known under its modern name "Sumerian King List", which is often abbreviated to "SKL" in scholarly literature. A less-used name is the "Chronicle of the One Monarchy", reflecting the notion that, according to this text, there could ever be only one city exercising kingship over Mesopotamia. In contemporary sources, the "SKL" was called after its first word: "nam-lugal", or "kingship". It should also be noted that what is commonly referred to as the "Sumerian King List", is in reality not a single text. Rather, it is a literary composition of which different versions existed through time in which sections were missing, arranged in a different order, and names, reigns and details on kings were different or absent.


title: Sumerian King List

text: Modern scholarship has used numbered dynasties to refer to the uninterrupted rule of a single city; hence the Ur III dynasty denotes the third time that the city of Ur assumed hegemony over Mesopotamia according to the "SKL". This numbering (e.g. Kish I, Uruk IV, Ur III) is not present in the original text. It should also be noted that the modern usage of the term dynasty, i.e. a sequence of rulers from a single family, does not necessarily apply to ancient Mesopotamia. Even though the "SKL" points out that some rulers were family, it was the city, rather than individual rulers, to which kingship was given.


title: Sumerian King List

text: The "Sumerian King List" is known from a number of different sources, all in the form of clay tablets or cylinders and written in Sumerian. At least 16 different tablets or fragments containing parts of the composition are known. Some tablets are unprovenanced, but most have been recovered, or are known to have come from various sites across Mesopotamia, the majority coming from Nippur. So far a version of the "SKL" has been found outside of Babylonia only once: there is one manuscript containing a part of the composition from Tell Leilan in Upper Mesopotamia.