title: Susa

text: Once the city was taken, as Daniel () was not mentioned in the Qur'an, nor is he regarded as a prophet in Judaism, the initial reaction of the Muslim was to destroy the cult by confiscating the treasure that had stored at the tomb since the time of the Achaemenids. They then broke open the silver coffin and carried off the mummified corpse, removing from the corpse a signet ring, which carried an image of a man between two lions. However, upon hearing what had happened, the caliph Umar ordered the ring to be returned and the body reburied under the riverbed. In time, Daniel became a Muslim cult figure and they as well as Christians began making pilgrimages to the site, despite several other places claiming to be the site of Daniel's grave.


title: Susa

text: Susa recovered following its capture and remained a regional center of more than 400 hectares in size. A mosque was built, but also Nestorian bishops are still testifie. In addition, there was a Jewish community with its own synagogue.


title: Susa

text: The city continued to be a manufacturing center of luxury fabrics during this period. Archaeologically, the Islamic period is characterized mainly by its rich ceramics. Beth Huzaye (East Syrian Ecclesiastical Province) had a significant Christian population during the first millennium, and was a diocese of the Church of the East between the 5th and 13th centuries, in the metropolitan province of Beth Huzaye (Elam).


title: Susa

text: In 1218, the city was razed by invading Mongols and was never able to regain its previous importance. The city further degraded in the 15th century when the majority of its population moved to Dezful.


title: Susa

text: Today the ancient center of Susa is unoccupied, with the population living in the adjacent modern Iranian town of Shush to the west and north of the historic ruins. Shush is the administrative capital of Shush County in Iran's Khuzestan province. It had a population of 64,960 in 2005.


title: Susa

text: Although numerous excavation reports have been published so far, many excavations are not or only partially published. Above all, the found architecture was often presented only in short preliminary reports and plans.


title: William Rees-Mogg

text: William Rees-Mogg, Baron Rees-Mogg (14 July 192829 December 2012) was a British newspaper journalist who was Editor of "The Times" from 1967 to 1981. In the late 1970s, he served as High Sheriff of Somerset, and in the 1980s was Chairman of the Arts Council of Great Britain and Vice-Chairman of the BBC's Board of Governors. He was the father of the politicians Jacob and Annunziata Rees-Mogg.


title: William Rees-Mogg

text: William Rees-Mogg was born in 1928 in Bristol, England. He was the son of Edmund Fletcher Rees-Mogg (1889–1962) of Cholwell House in the parish of Cameley in Somerset, an Anglican by Christian denomination, and his Irish American Catholic wife, Beatrice Warren, a daughter of Daniel Warren of New York. William Rees-Mogg was raised in the Roman Catholic faith.


title: William Rees-Mogg

text: He was educated at Clifton College Preparatory School in Bristol and Charterhouse in Godalming, where he was Head of School.


title: William Rees-Mogg

text: Not yet eighteen, Rees-Mogg went up to Balliol College, Oxford, as a Brackenbury Scholar to read history in January 1946 as a place had fallen temporarily vacant. By the end of the Trinity (summer) term, he had been elected to the library committee (the junior committee) of the Oxford Union Society and was due to be an officer of the Oxford University Conservative Association under Margaret Roberts (the future Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher), President for Michaelmas (autumn) Term 1946.


title: William Rees-Mogg

text: However, having spent 5 months at Oxford he did not return in October as he was forced to give up his place to a disabled ex-serviceman. From 1946 to 1948, beginning with an exceptionally bitter winter, he did his National Service in the Royal Air Force education department rising to the rank of sergeant. His duties included teaching illiterate recruits to read and write, and his reference from his commanding officer stated that he was competent to perform simple tasks under supervision.


title: William Rees-Mogg

text: He returned to Oxford to complete his degree, and became President of Oxford University Conservative Association in Michaelmas Term 1950 and President of the Oxford Union in Trinity term, 1951. He graduated that term with a second-class degree.


title: William Rees-Mogg

text: Rees-Mogg began his career in journalism in London at the "Financial Times" in 1952 becoming chief leader writer in 1955 and, in addition, assistant editor in 1957. During this period, he was Conservative candidate for the safe Labour seat of Chester-le-Street in a by-election on 27 September 1956, losing to the Labour candidate Norman Pentland by 21,287 votes, as he did in the subsequent general election by a similar margin.


title: William Rees-Mogg

text: He moved to "The Sunday Times" in 1960, later becoming its Deputy Editor from 1964 where he wrote "A Captain's Innings", which many believe convinced Alec Douglas-Home to resign as Tory leader, making way for Edward Heath, in July 1965.


title: William Rees-Mogg

text: Rees-Mogg was editor of "The Times" from 1967 to 1981. In a 1967 editorial entitled "Who breaks a butterfly on a wheel?", he criticised the severity of the custodial sentence for Mick Jagger on a drugs offence. With colleagues, he attempted a buyout of Times Group Newspapers in 1981 to stop its sale by the Thomson Organisation to Rupert Murdoch, but was unsuccessful. Murdoch replaced him as editor with Harold Evans. Rees-Mogg wrote a comment column for "The Independent" from its foundation in the autumn of 1986 until near the end of 1992, when he rejoined "The Times", where he remained a columnist until shortly before his death. In his "Memoirs", published in 2011, he wrote of Murdoch: "Looking back, he has been an excellent proprietor for the Times, but also for Fleet Street."


title: William Rees-Mogg

text: Rees-Mogg was a member of the BBC's Board of Governors and chairman of the Arts Council, overseeing a major reform of the latter body which halved the number of arts organisations receiving regular funding and reduced the Council's direct activities. Having been High Sheriff of Somerset from 1978 to 1979, he was appointed a Knight Bachelor in the 1981 Birthday Honours and knighted by Elizabeth II in an investiture ceremony at Buckingham Palace on 3 November 1981. In the 1988 Birthday Honours, Rees-Mogg was made a life peer on 8 August that year as Baron Rees-Mogg, of Hinton Blewett in the County of Avon, and sat in the House of Lords as a cross-bencher, having twice attempting to become a Conservative MP in the 1950s. He was a member of the European Reform Forum. The University of Bath awarded him an Honorary Degree (Doctor of Laws) in 1977.


title: William Rees-Mogg

text: He co-authored, with James Dale Davidson, three books on the general topic of financial investment and the future of capitalism: "Blood in the Streets", "The Great Reckoning", and "The Sovereign Individual". Published in 1997, "The Sovereign Individual" argues that in an internet age the nation state will become outmoded, and an era of the individual will develop. Peter Thiel, the co-founder of PayPal, stated in 2014 that "The Sovereign Individual" was the most influential book he had read. "The Sovereign Individual" has had a strong influence on neoreactionnary (NRx) politics.


title: William Rees-Mogg

text: Writing in "The Times" in 2001, Lord Rees-Mogg, who had a house in Somerset, described himself as "a country person who spends most of his time in London", and attempted to define the characteristics of a "country person". He also wrote that Tony Blair was as unpopular in rural England as Mrs Thatcher had been in Scotland. By now his liberal attitude to drugs policy had led to his being mocked as "Mogadon Man" by "Private Eye". The magazine later referred to him as "Mystic Mogg" (a pun on "Mystic Meg", a tabloid astrologer) because of the perception that his economic and political predictions were ultimately found to be inaccurate.


title: William Rees-Mogg

text: Rees-Mogg served as the chairman of the London publishing firm Pickering & Chatto Publishers and of NewsMax Media and wrote a weekly column for "The Mail on Sunday". He also collected 18th-century literature.


title: William Rees-Mogg

text: Rees-Mogg and his wife Gillian Shakespeare Morris (b.1939) married in 1962. She is the daughter of Thomas Richard Morris who was a lorry driver and later a car salesman. He became a Conservative councillor and Mayor in the Borough of St Pancras, and later councillor for the Kings Cross ward of the London Borough of Camden. He was also a JP.


title: William Rees-Mogg

text: Rees-Mogg, a Roman Catholic, argued that the image of an ultra-conservative papacy is false and that the Vatican must overhaul its PR machine (as of 2009).


title: William Rees-Mogg

text: In 1964, Rees-Mogg purchased Ston Easton Park near Bath, Somerset, the former home of the Hippisley family. The house had been threatened with demolition and Rees-Mogg partially restored it. He sold the house to the Smedley family in 1978.


title: William Rees-Mogg

text: Afflicted by oesophageal cancer, he became seriously ill just before Christmas of 2012, and died in London on 29 December at the age of 84. Rees-Mogg's funeral was held at Westminster Cathedral on 9 January 2013, with his body being buried in the graveyard of the Church of St James at Cameley in the county of Somerset.


title: Ryusuke Hamaguchi

text: Hamaguchi first gained international recognition with the film "Happy Hour" (2015) and continued with "Asako I & II" (2018). In 2021, he released two films, "Wheel of Fortune and Fantasy" and "Drive My Car", for the latter he has received two Academy Awards nominations, for Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay. He is the third Japanese director to be nominated for an Oscar for Best Director.


title: Ryusuke Hamaguchi

text: After graduating from the University of Tokyo, Hamaguchi worked in the commercial film industry for a few years before entering the graduate program in film at Tokyo University of the Arts where he studied with and was influenced by Kiyoshi Kurosawa. His graduation film "Passion" was selected for the competition of the 2008 Tokyo Filmex.


title: Ryusuke Hamaguchi

text: With Kō Sakai, he made a three-part documentary about survivors of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, with "Voices from the Waves" being selected for the competition at the 2013 Yamagata International Documentary Film Festival, and "Storytellers" winning the Sky Perfect IDEHA Prize.


title: Ryusuke Hamaguchi

text: His next film, "Happy Hour", was first developed while Hamaguchi was an artist in residence at KIITO Design and Creative Center Kobe in 2013. It came out of an improvisational acting workshop he held for non-professionals, with many of the film's performers having participated in the workshop. The four lead actresses shared the best actress award and the film earned a special mention for its script at the 2015 Locarno Film Festival. Hamaguchi was also given a special jury award at the 2016 Japan Movie Critic Awards, as well as a best newcomer award in the film division of the Agency for Cultural Affairs's Geijutsu Sensho Awards that year.


title: Ryusuke Hamaguchi

text: In 2021, Hamaguchi won the Silver Bear award at the Berlinale with his "Wheel of Fortune and Fantasy". That same year his "Drive My Car" won Best Picture awards from the New York Film Critics Circle, Boston Society of Film Critics, and Los Angeles Film Critics Association as well as "Best Motion Picture - Non-English Language" at the Golden Globes. Hamaguchi was nominated for an Oscar for Best Director for "Drive My Car", becoming the third Japanese director to accomplish this feat.


title: Ryusuke Hamaguchi

text: Hamaguchi has referred to himself as "purely a cinephile" and "conventionally in love with Hollywood films." He has been influenced by the works of John Cassavetes.


title: Chemical industry

text: The chemical industry comprises the companies that produce industrial chemicals. Central to the modern world economy, it converts raw materials (oil, natural gas, air, water, metals, and minerals) into more than 70,000 different products. The plastics industry contains some overlap, as some chemical companies produce plastics as well as chemicals.


title: Chemical industry

text: Various professionals are involved in the chemical industry including chemical engineers, chemists and lab technicians.


title: Chemical industry

text: Although chemicals were made and used throughout history, the birth of the heavy chemical industry (production of chemicals in large quantities for a variety of uses) coincided with the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution.


title: Chemical industry

text: One of the first chemicals to be produced in large amounts through industrial processes was sulfuric acid. In 1736 pharmacist Joshua Ward developed a process for its production that involved heating saltpeter, allowing the sulfur to oxidize and combine with water. It was the first practical production of sulphuric acid on a large scale. John Roebuck and Samuel Garbett were the first to establish a large-scale factory in Prestonpans, Scotland, in 1749, which used leaden condensing chambers for the manufacture of sulfuric acid.


title: Chemical industry

text: In the early 18th century, cloth was bleached by treating it with stale urine or sour milk and exposing it to sunlight for long periods of time, which created a severe bottleneck in production. Sulfuric acid began to be used as a more efficient agent as well as lime by the middle of the century, but it was the discovery of bleaching powder by Charles Tennant that spurred the creation of the first great chemical industrial enterprise. His powder was made by reacting chlorine with dry slaked lime and proved to be a cheap and successful product. He opened a factory in St Rollox, north of Glasgow, and production went from just 52 tons in 1799 to almost 10,000 tons just five years later.


title: Chemical industry

text: Soda ash was used since ancient times in the production of glass, textile, soap, and paper, and the source of the potash had traditionally been wood ashes in Western Europe. By the 18th century, this source was becoming uneconomical due to deforestation, and the French Academy of Sciences offered a prize of 2400 livres for a method to produce alkali from sea salt (sodium chloride). The Leblanc process was patented in 1791 by Nicolas Leblanc who then built a Leblanc plant at Saint-Denis. He was denied his prize money because of the French Revolution.


title: Chemical industry

text: In Britain the Leblanc process became popular. William Losh built the first soda works in Britain at the Losh, Wilson and Bell works on the River Tyne in 1816, but it remained on a small scale due to large tariffs on salt production until 1824. When these tariffs were repealed, the British soda industry was able to rapidly expand. James Muspratt's chemical works in Liverpool and Charles Tennant's complex near Glasgow became the largest chemical production centres anywhere. By the 1870s, the British soda output of 200,000 tons annually exceeded that of all other nations in the world combined.


title: Chemical industry

text: These huge factories began to produce a greater diversity of chemicals as the Industrial Revolution matured. Originally, large quantities of alkaline waste were vented into the environment from the production of soda, provoking one of the first pieces of environmental legislation to be passed in 1863. This provided for close inspection of the factories and imposed heavy fines on those exceeding the limits on pollution. Methods were devised to make useful byproducts from the alkali.


title: Chemical industry

text: The Solvay process was developed by the Belgian industrial chemist Ernest Solvay in 1861. In 1864, Solvay and his brother Alfred constructed a plant in Charleroi Belgium. In 1874, they expanded into a larger plant in Nancy, France. The new process proved more economical and less polluting than the Leblanc method, and its use spread. In the same year, Ludwig Mond visited Solvay to acquire the rights to use his process, and he and John Brunner formed Brunner, Mond & Co., and built a Solvay plant at Winnington, England. Mond was instrumental in making the Solvay process a commercial success. He made several refinements between 1873 and 1880 that removed byproducts that could inhibit the production of sodium carbonate in the process.


title: Chemical industry

text: Manufacture of chemical products from fossil fuels began at scale in the early 19th century. The coal tar and ammoniacal liquor residues of coal gas manufacture for gas lighting began to be processed in 1822 at the Bonnington Chemical Works in Edinburgh to make naphtha, pitch oil (later called creosote), pitch, lampblack (carbon black) and sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride). Ammonium sulphate fertiliser, asphalt road surfacing, coke oil and coke were later added to the product line.


title: Chemical industry

text: The late 19th century saw an explosion in both the quantity of production and the variety of chemicals that were manufactured. Large chemical industries arose in Germany and later in the United States.


title: Chemical industry

text: Production of artificial manufactured fertilizer for agriculture was pioneered by Sir John Lawes at his purpose-built Rothamsted Research facility. In the 1840s he established large works near London for the manufacture of superphosphate of lime. Processes for the vulcanization of rubber were patented by Charles Goodyear in the United States and Thomas Hancock in England in the 1840s. The first synthetic dye was discovered by William Henry Perkin in London. He partly transformed aniline into a crude mixture which, when extracted with alcohol, produced a substance with an intense purple colour. He also developed the first synthetic perfumes. German industry quickly began to dominate the field of synthetic dyes. The three major firms BASF, Bayer and Hoechst produced several hundred different dyes. By 1913 German industry produced almost 90% of the world supply of dyestuffs and sold approximately 80% of their production abroad. In the United States, Herbert Henry Dow's use of electrochemistry to produce chemicals from brine was a commercial success that helped to promote the country's chemical industry.


title: Chemical industry

text: The petrochemical industry can be traced back to the oil works of James Young in Scotland and Abraham Pineo Gesner in Canada. The first plastic was invented by Alexander Parkes, an English metallurgist. In 1856, he patented Parkesine, a celluloid based on nitrocellulose treated with a variety of solvents. This material, exhibited at the 1862 London International Exhibition, anticipated many of the modern aesthetic and utility uses of plastics. The industrial production of soap from vegetable oils was started by William Lever and his brother James in 1885 in Lancashire based on a modern chemical process invented by William Hough Watson that used glycerin and vegetable oils.


title: Chemical industry

text: By the 1920s, chemical firms consolidated into large conglomerates; IG Farben in Germany, Rhône-Poulenc in France and Imperial Chemical Industries in Britain. Dupont became a major chemicals firm in the early 20th century in America.


title: Chemical industry

text: Polymers and plastics such as polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene terephthalate, polystyrene and polycarbonate comprise about 80% of the industry's output worldwide. These materials are often converted to fluoropolymer tubing products and used by the industry to transport highly corrosive materials. Chemicals are used in many different consumer goods, and are also used in many different sectors. This includes agriculture manufacturing, construction, and service industries. Major industrial customers include rubber and plastic products, textiles, apparel, petroleum refining, pulp and paper, and primary metals. Chemicals are nearly a $3 trillion global enterprise, and the EU and U.S. chemical companies are the world's largest producers.


title: Chemical industry

text: Sales of the chemical business can be divided into a few broad categories, including basic chemicals (about 35% - 37% of dollar output), life sciences (30%), specialty chemicals (20% - 25%) and consumer products (about 10%).


title: Chemical industry

text: Basic chemicals, or "commodity chemicals" are a broad chemical category including polymers, bulk petrochemicals and intermediates, other derivatives and basic industrials, inorganic chemicals, and fertilizers.


title: Chemical industry

text: Polymers are the largest revenue segment and includes all categories of plastics and man-made fibers. The major markets for plastics are packaging, followed by home construction, containers, appliances, pipe, transportation, toys, and games.


title: Chemical industry

text: Petrochemicals and intermediate chemicals are primarily made from liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), natural gas and crude oil fractions. Large volume products include ethylene, propylene, benzene, toluene, xylenes, methanol, vinyl chloride monomer (VCM), styrene, butadiene, and ethylene oxide. These basic or commodity chemicals are the starting materials used to manufacture many polymers and other more complex organic chemicals particularly those that are made for use in the specialty chemicals category.


title: Chemical industry

text: Other derivatives and basic industrials include synthetic rubber, surfactants, dyes and pigments, turpentine, resins, carbon black, explosives, and rubber products and contribute about 20 percent of the basic chemicals' external sales.


title: Chemical industry

text: Inorganic chemicals (about 12% of the revenue output) make up the oldest of the chemical categories. Products include salt, chlorine, caustic soda, soda ash, acids (such as nitric acid, phosphoric acid, and sulfuric acid), titanium dioxide, and hydrogen peroxide.


title: Chemical industry

text: Fertilizers are the smallest category (about 6 percent) and include phosphates, ammonia, and potash chemicals.


title: Chemical industry

text: Life sciences (about 30% of the dollar output of the chemistry business) include differentiated chemical and biological substances, pharmaceuticals, diagnostics, animal health products, vitamins, and pesticides. While much smaller in volume than other chemical sectors, their products tend to have high prices - over ten dollars per pound - growth rates of 1.5 to 6 times GDP, and research and development spending at 15 to 25% of sales. Life science products are usually produced with high specifications and are closely scrutinized by government agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration. Pesticides, also called "crop protection chemicals", are about 10% of this category and include herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides.


title: Chemical industry

text: Specialty chemicals are a category of relatively high valued, rapidly growing chemicals with diverse end product markets. Typical growth rates are one to three times GDP with prices over a dollar per pound. They are generally characterized by their innovative aspects. Products are sold for what they can do rather than for what chemicals they contain. Products include electronic chemicals, industrial gases, adhesives and sealants as well as coatings, industrial and institutional cleaning chemicals, and catalysts. In 2012, excluding fine chemicals, the $546 billion global speciality chemical market was 33% Paints, Coating and Surface Treatments, 27% Advanced Polymer, 14% Adhesives and Sealants, 13% additives and 13% pigments and inks.


title: Chemical industry

text: Speciality chemicals are sold as effect or performance chemicals. Sometimes they are mixtures of formulations, unlike "fine chemicals," which are almost always single-molecule products.


title: Chemical industry

text: Consumer products include direct product sale of chemicals such as soaps, detergents, and cosmetics. Typical growth rates are 0.8 to 1.0 times GDP.


title: Chemical industry

text: Consumers rarely come into contact with basic chemicals. Polymers and specialty chemicals are materials that they encounter everywhere daily. Examples are plastics, cleaning materials, cosmetics, paints & coatings, electronics, automobiles and the materials used in home construction. These speciality products are marketed by chemical companies to the downstream manufacturing industries as pesticides, specialty polymers, electronic chemicals, surfactants, construction chemicals, Industrial Cleaners, flavours and fragrances, speciality coatings, printing inks, water-soluble polymers, food additives, paper chemicals, oil field chemicals, plastic adhesives, adhesives and sealants, cosmetic chemicals, water management chemicals, catalysts, textile chemicals. Chemical companies rarely supply these products directly to the consumer.


title: Chemical industry

text: Annually the American Chemistry Council tabulates the US production volume of the top 100 chemicals. In 2000, the aggregate production volume of the top 100 chemicals totaled 502 million tons, up from 397 million tons in 1990.


title: Chemical industry

text: Inorganic chemicals tend to be the largest volume, though much smaller in dollar revenue terms due to their low prices. The top 11 of the 100 chemicals in 2000 were sulfuric acid (44 million tons), nitrogen (34), ethylene (28), oxygen (27), lime (22), ammonia (17), propylene (16), polyethylene (15), chlorine (13), phosphoric acid (13) and diammonium phosphates (12).


title: Chemical industry

text: The largest chemical producers today are global companies with international operations and plants in numerous countries. A list of the top 25 chemical companies by chemical sales in 2015 appears below. (Note: Chemical sales represent only a portion of total sales for some companies.)


title: Chemical industry

text: From the perspective of chemical engineers, the chemical industry involves the use of chemical processes such as chemical reactions and refining methods to produce a wide variety of solid, liquid, and gaseous materials. Most of these products serve to manufacture other items, although a smaller number go directly to consumers. Solvents, pesticides, lye, washing soda, and portland cement provide a few examples of product used by consumers.


title: Chemical industry

text: The industry includes manufacturers of inorganic- and organic-industrial chemicals, ceramic products, petrochemicals, agrochemicals, polymers and rubber (elastomers), oleochemicals (oils, fats, and waxes), explosives, fragrances and flavors. Examples of these products are shown in the Table below.


title: Chemical industry

text: Related industries include petroleum, glass, paint, ink, sealant, adhesive, pharmaceuticals and food processing.


title: Chemical industry

text: Chemical processes such as chemical reactions operate in chemical plants to form new substances in various types of reaction vessels. In many cases the reactions take place in special corrosion-resistant equipment at elevated temperatures and pressures with the use of catalysts. The products of these reactions are separated using a variety of techniques including distillation especially fractional distillation, precipitation, crystallization, adsorption, filtration, sublimation, and drying.


title: Chemical industry

text: The processes and product or products are usually tested during and after manufacture by dedicated instruments and on-site quality control laboratories to ensure safe operation and to assure that the product will meet required specifications. More organizations within the industry are implementing chemical compliance software to maintain quality products and manufacturing standards. The products are packaged and delivered by many methods, including pipelines, tank-cars, and tank-trucks (for both solids and liquids), cylinders, drums, bottles, and boxes. Chemical companies often have a research-and-development laboratory for developing and testing products and processes. These facilities may include pilot plants, and such research facilities may be located at a site separate from the production plant(s).


title: Chemical industry

text: The scale of chemical manufacturing tends to be organized from largest in volume (petrochemicals and commodity chemicals), to specialty chemicals, and the smallest, fine chemicals.


title: Chemical industry

text: The petrochemical and commodity chemical manufacturing units are on the whole single product continuous processing plants. Not all petrochemical or commodity chemical materials are made in one single location, but groups of related materials often are to induce industrial symbiosis as well as material, energy and utility efficiency and other economies of scale.


title: Chemical industry

text: Those chemicals made on the largest of scales are made in a few manufacturing locations around the world, for example in Texas and Louisiana along the Gulf Coast of the United States, on Teesside (United Kingdom), and in Rotterdam in the Netherlands. The large scale manufacturing locations often have clusters of manufacturing units that share utilities and large scale infrastructure such as power stations, port facilities, road and rail terminals. To demonstrate the clustering and integration mentioned above, some 50% of the United Kingdom's petrochemical and commodity chemicals are produced by the Northeast of England Process Industry Cluster on Teesside.


title: Chemical industry

text: Specialty chemical and fine chemical manufacturing are mostly made in discrete batch processes. These manufacturers are often found in similar locations but in many cases they are to be found in multi sector business parks.


title: Chemical industry

text: In the U.S. there are 170 major chemical companies. They operate internationally with more than 2,800 facilities outside the U.S. and 1,700 foreign subsidiaries or affiliates operating. The U.S. chemical output is $750 billion a year. The U.S. industry records large trade surpluses and employs more than a million people in the United States alone. The chemical industry is also the second largest consumer of energy in manufacturing and spends over $5 billion annually on pollution abatement.


title: Chemical industry

text: In Europe the chemical, plastics and rubber sectors are among the largest industrial sectors. Together they generate about 3.2 million jobs in more than 60,000 companies. Since 2000 the chemical sector alone has represented 2/3 of the entire manufacturing trade surplus of the EU.


title: Chemical industry

text: In 2012, the chemical sector accounted for 12% of the EU manufacturing industry's added value. Europe remains world's biggest chemical trading region with 43% of the world's exports and 37% of the world's imports, although the latest data shows that Asia is catching up with 34% of the exports and 37% of imports. Even so, Europe still has a trading surplus with all regions of the world except Japan and China where in 2011 there was a chemical trade balance. Europe's trade surplus with the rest of the world today amounts to 41.7 billion Euros.


title: Chemical industry

text: Over the 20 years between 1991 and 2011 the European Chemical industry saw its sales increase 295 billion Euros to 539 billion Euros, a picture of constant growth. Despite this the European industry's share of the world chemical market has fallen from 36% to 20%. This has resulted from the huge increase production and sales in the emerging markets like India and China. The data suggest that 95% of this impact is from China alone. In 2012 the data from the European Chemical Industry Council shows that five European countries account for 71% of the EU's chemicals sales. These are Germany, France, United Kingdom, Italy and the Netherlands.


title: Chemical industry

text: The chemical industry has seen growth in China, India, Korea, the Middle East, South East Asia, Nigeria and Brazil. The growth is driven by changes in feedstock availability and price, labor and energy costs, differential rates of economic growth and environmental pressures.


title: Chemical industry

text: Just as companies emerge as the main producers of the chemical industry, we can also look on a more global scale to how industrialized countries rank, with regards to the billions of dollars worth of production a country or region could export. Though the business of chemistry is worldwide in scope, the bulk of the world's $3.7 trillion chemical output is accounted for by only a handful of industrialized nations. The United States alone produced $689 billion, 18.6 percent of the total world chemical output in 2008.


title: King's Field

text: "King's Field" was released as a launch title for the PlayStation in 1994. The game's fully 3D, first person perspective was considered groundbreaking among role-playing video games of the time; it would influence FromSoftware’s later work, most notably "Demon’s Souls" and the "Dark Souls" series, as well as Soulslike games. The next two "King's Field" titles followed in quick succession: "King's Field II" in 1995 and "King's Field III" in 1996. "King's Field IV" was released for the PlayStation 2 in 2001.


title: King's Field

text: The first game in the series, "King's Field", was released only in Japan. While it was not localized into English, a fan has written a full English translation patch.


title: King's Field

text: In "King's Field", the player takes the role of Jean Alfred Forrester. He is searching for his missing father, Hauser Forrester, who disappeared along with his soldiers while exploring a dead king's underground graveyard. Shorter than the others in the series, "King's Field" includes five floors. The main aspects of gameplay consist of first-person battles, puzzle solving, and exploration.


title: King's Field

text: After the success of the first game, "King's Field II" was also released in North America and Europe, retitled simply "King's Field" without a numeral nor subtitle. In the sequel, the player takes the role of Granitiki prince Aleph (アレフ・ガルーシャ・レグナス) (alternatively named Alef/Alexander) who is shipwrecked on Melanat, an accursed island that has drawn the attention and forces of the new king of Verdite—and an old friend—Jean.


title: King's Field

text: In "King's Field III" (released in North America as "King's Field II"), the player takes the role of Verdite prince Lyle (ライル・ウォリシス・フォレスター) as he struggles to uncover the reasons behind his father Jean's sudden descent into madness and restore his kingdom. A large portion of the game takes place above ground, but the main aspects of gameplay remain unchanged: first-person battles, puzzle solving and exploration.


title: King's Field

text: "King's Field IV" (released as "King's Field: The Ancient City" in North America) was the first game from the series released on the PlayStation 2 console. The entire game takes place within the Land of Disaster, where the forest folk once dwelled until an evil curse came upon the land. The player takes the role of Prince Devian of the Azalin Empire who has been given the task of returning the cause of the blight, the Idol of Sorrow, back to the cursed land. His journey follows the downfall of the Kingdom of Heladin and the exploits of Septiego the Sword Master who led an expedition of over 1000 men in a failed effort to return the cursed Idol.


title: King's Field

text: "King's Field: Additional I" is the first game of the series released on the PlayStation Portable. It was only released in Japan and was never localized into English. The "Additional" series uses a step-by-step style of gameplay, rather than free-roaming.


title: King's Field

text: "King's Field: Additional II", the sequel, was also released only in Japan with no English localization. It featured the ability to import the player's character from "Kings Field: Additional I", including all equipment and statistics.


title: King's Field

text: "Sword of Moonlight: King's Field Making Tool" is a "King's Field" designing tool for the Microsoft Windows platform which was released in Japan. It lets the user construct free-standing "King's Field" games which may be played independently, without having "Sword of Moonlight" installed. It also contains a full remake of the first "King’s Field" game originally released on the PlayStation. A fan-made full English translation is available as an unofficial patch.


title: King's Field

text: "King's Field Mobile" was released in Japan for mobile phones. It was followed by two sequels: "King's Field Mobile 2", and "King's Field EX".


title: King's Field

text: To commemorate their 20th anniversary, From Software released the special collection package called the "King's Field Dark Side Box" in 2007, which contained a reissue of the four "King's Field" games which had previously been released on the PlayStation and PlayStation 2, as well as soundtracks for all six games, a map of Verdite, and other bonuses.


title: King's Field

text: Critical reception for the series in general was extremely polarized. Common criticisms include: slow-moving player character, low number of game characters (NPCs), difficult gameplay, and muddy colors.


title: King's Field

text: As opposed to other combat based role-playing video games, "King's Field" focuses more on exploration and a dark brooding ambience. The slow character movement facilitates streaming data from the game disc which eliminates loading screens that were common among most PlayStation titles.


title: King's Field

text: A spiritual successor to the series, "Demon's Souls", was released in 2009. That game in turn served as a predecessor to the "Dark Souls" series.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Worst Cooks in America is an American reality television series that premiered on January3, 2010, on Food Network. The show takes 12 to 16 contestants (referred to as "recruits") with very poor cooking skills through a culinary boot camp, to earn a cash prize of $25,000 and a Food Network cooking set. In the celebrity edition of the show, the winning celebrity gets a $50,000 prize to donate to the charity of their choice. The recruits are trained on the various basic cooking techniques including baking, knife skills, temperature, seasoning and preparation. The final challenge is to cook a restaurant-quality, three-course meal for three food critics.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Chefs Beau MacMillan and Anne Burrell lead an intense culinary boot camp. They have six recruits each, and every week they must eliminate one recruit from each of their teams until there is only one from each team left. The final two create a three-course meal to fool a panel of restaurant critics into believing that the meal was created by the acclaimed chefs.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Twelve chefs competed in the first season of "Worst Cooks in America". Hometowns and occupations are available from the Food Network website. Chef Anne's team was known as the Red Team and Chef Beau's team was known as the Blue Team.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Baseline Challenge: 24 of the Worst Cooks in America were brought to Boot Camp. With 45 minutes on the clock, the chef had to cook a dish and whoever has the worst dishes were to be picked for teams. What the recruits didn't know was that Anne and Beau would only select the 12 worst of the worst for boot camp, and they also didn't know that Anne and Beau would pick for their opponent's team.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Team Selection: Beau gives Anne Jenny, Eddie, Hamed, Rachel, Rebecca, and Kelly. Anne Gives Beau Sophia, Susie, David, Wilhelmina, Marque, and Jen.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Main Dish: Anne made Tuscan Fish Stew, while Beau made Poached Tiger Prawns with Littleneck Clams, Bok Choy, and Shiitake Mushrooms. Each team had one hour to replicate their respective chef's dish. During the challenge, Hamed, Wilhelmina, Eddie, and David all struggled. Hamed forgot to put his clams on the plate, Eddie overcooked his shrimp and used too much saffron, Wilhelmina's Broth had too much soy sauce, and David messed up the garnish.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Elimination: After tasting, Rebecca and Marque were named the winners on their respective teams, and Sophia, Rachel, Jenny, Jen, Kelly, and Susie didn't have the best dishes, but they also didn't have the worst dishes and they were deemed safe from elimination. Hamed and Eddie were the bottom two on the red team, and Wihelmina and David with the bottom two on the blue team, but in the end, Hamed and Wihelmina were sent home.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Skill Drill: The chefs bring the recruits to Arirang Hibachi Steakhouse to teach them about classic knife skills such as Julienne and Slicing.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Casting for season 2 of "Worst Cooks in America" was held at the LA Marriott Burbank Airport, Hotel & Convention Center on March 27, 2010. The Food Network also began accepting online video applications for season 2. Food Network's website announced that Robert Irvine would replace Beau MacMillan for season 2. Season 2 debuted on January 2, 2011. In this season the chefs had eight recruits each.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: In the first episode, a group of selected novice cooks were to prepare a dish from scratch so the chefs would get an idea of how poor their skills were. After tasting all the items, the chefs took turns picking team members for their rival chef. The first season started off with 24 novice cooks but only the worst 12 were chosen for a team. In the second season, the first episode began with 16 amateurs and all took part for the remainder of that episode.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: In the penultimate episode of the season, the remaining four recruits learned and replicated a dessert. After this, in the first season, the recruits had to instruct a group of high school students how to replicate the dessert recipe. In the second one, the recruits were assigned the dessert to serve after both chefs, and a special guest enjoyed a main dish.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: After learning and replicating a dessert, the recruits had to prepare a meal for both chefs and a surprise guest, usually a spouse or other family member. The first season's main dishes were an improved version of the recruits’ audition meal. The special guests in the second season got to choose what they wanted the students to make them.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Two recruits remained in the final episode and had to prepare an appetizer, main dish, and dessert for a panel of three food critics. The critics in season 1 thought that the final meal was prepared by the chefs until after they sampled all the courses. In season 2, the critics learned their meal was prepared by the recruits immediately after entering the restaurant.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Tyler Florence joined Anne Burrell to host season 6, replacing Bobby Flay after 3 seasons. The season premiered on January 4, 2015 to 2,123,000 viewers. The second episode was lower at 1,456,000 viewers, with the third episode rising to 1,732,000 viewers and the fourth episode reached 1,689,000 viewers. the 5th episode reached 1,634,000 viewers. The sixth episode received 1.55 million viewers.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Rachael Ray joins Anne Burrell to host season 7. The winner earns a $50,000 donation for their chosen charity. Because this season had only 7 total recruits, each team's worst recruit from that week's Main Dish challenge competed head to head in a quickfire elimination challenge instead of eliminating both recruits each week. This challenge involved more basic cooking techniques (e.g. knife skills) and the winner would be decided by a blind judging from both Anne and Rachael. The winning recruit stayed in the competition while the losing recruit was eliminated.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Rachael Ray returns with Anne Burrell to host season 2 of the Celebrity Edition. The winner earns a $50,000 donation for their chosen charity. The season premiered on September 14, 2016 to 1,185,000 viewers.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Rachael Ray returns with Anne Burrell to host season 3 of the Celebrity Edition. The season premiered on August 23, 2017.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Three contestants from this season—runner-up Steven Crowley, Sharon Shvarzman, and Kevin Pettice—would compete in, and win, season 9 of "The Great Food Truck Race."


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: In episode 5, contestants Lacey and Spencer switch teams instead of being eliminated, Lacey on Chef Anne's Team and Spencer on Chef Tyler's team.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Tyler Florence returns with Anne Burrell to host season 4 of the Celebrity Edition. This is the first Celebrity Edition to not feature Rachael Ray as a judge. The season premiered on April 15, 2018.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Tyler Florence joins Anne Burrell to host season 15. Since the number of contestants is odd, one of them is eliminated before getting into the teams.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Tyler Florence returns with Anne Burrell to host the fifth run of the Celebrity Edition. The season premiered on April 21, 2019.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Bobby Flay joins Anne Burrell to host season 17. The season, featuring 14 recruits, debuted on August 4, 2019.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Alton Brown joins Anne Burrell to host season 18. The season, featuring 16 recruits, premiered on January 5, 2020.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: In episode 4, Chef Alton deemed the recruits' performances in the Main Dish challenge are too flawed to declare a winner in his team.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Tyler Florence returns with Anne Burrell to host the sixth run of the Celebrity Edition. The season premiered on May 10, 2020.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: The entire run of this season, along with text summaries of it, was pulled from all Discovery platforms on January 23, 2021, after the season's champion, Ariel Robinson, was charged with homicide by child abuse with her husband for the racially motivated murder of her three-year-old white adopted daughter.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Carla Hall joins Anne Burrell to host season 21. The season debut on January 3, 2021 with a 90-minute premiere. Immediately following, spin-off companion series "" begins its first-ever run. The show sees former boot camp contestants and comedians commenting on past episodes.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: An additional twist added this season is the "Danger Zone," in which the worst recruit on each team in the Skill Drill must cook their Main Dish at the stations used by Burrell and Hall in demonstrating the recipe, giving the mentors the ability to keep a close eye on them as they cook.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Michael Symon joins Anne Burrell for the first time to host a new Best of the Worst season where fan-favorite recruits from past seasons return for another chance at redemption. The season premiered on April 25, 2021.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: This season features two additional twists. First, the cast includes 5 pairs of recruits with previously established relationships: Angie & Cheyenne (long-lost cousins), Bianca & Hector (married), Deneise & Hilda (neighbors), Eddie & Kara (married), and Marti & Peachez (best friends). Second, this season features alternating elimination weeks for each team, with the winning recruit on the non-eliminating team receiving a $1,000 prize each week.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: In Episode 4, Cheyenne was originally eliminated. Melody, feeling Cheyenne deserved to stay, voluntarily left the competition and gave Cheyenne her spot.


title: Worst Cooks in America

text: Jeff Mauro joins Anne Burrell to host the seventh run of the Celebrity Edition. The season premiered on April 24, 2022.


title: Malayankunju

text: Malayankunju is a 2022 Indian Malayalam-language survival thriller film directed by Sajimon Prabhakar and written by Mahesh Narayanan. It stars Fahadh Faasil in the lead role and features Rajisha Vijayan, Indrans, Jaffar Idukki and Deepak Parambol in supporting roles. Along with the script Mahesh Narayanan handles the cinematography and Arju Benn edits the film. The music of the film is composed by A. R. Rahman.


title: Malayankunju

text: Anikkuttan (Fahadh Faasil) is a service mechanic who repairs all electronic devices from home. He is not mentally stable after his father Radhakrishnan (Jaffar Idukki) hung himself to death when Anikkuttan's sister Sandhya (Rajisha Vijayan) eloped with her lover Deepu on the night before her wedding. Anikkuttan hates his sister and refuses to talk or even let his mother go there. The reason for the hate is not just his father's death, but also that Deepu, Sandhya's husband is from a lower caste. Anikkuttan hates his neighbor Suni for the same reason and has frequent fights with them when Suni's newborn daughter cries in the middle of the night and disturbs Anikkuttan's sleep.


title: Malayankunju

text: Govt gives public service announcements that everyone should move to shelter homes. Anikkuttan refuses to go stating that it's just a publicity stunt from govt and that he has to share amenities with other castes. Anikkuttan gets an invite for Suni's baby's 28th day ceremony. There Anikkuttan gets particularly upset because his mom gifts a gold bangle to Suni's kid without asking him and that makes his relationship with Suni's family worse. That night, the rain gets worse and Suni and his family decide to move to a shelter home but Ani refuses to go and says he will stay back with his mom. But soon after Anikkuttan goes to bed, a landslide happens in that area and Anikkuttan gets trapped under the soil.


title: Malayankunju

text: He becomes unconscious and is underwater when his dad comes into his dream and tells him that caste is only helpful until one is alive. Anikkuttan regains consciousness and fights back his way up. He calls the names of Suni, his mom, and others but no one responds. Suddenly he hears the sound of Ponni, Suni's baby daughter and he frantically searches for her. He finds the dead body of Divakaran on the way. He finally manages to find the baby and hold her close before the rescuers find them and take them to the hospital. All others' lives are lost.


title: Malayankunju

text: At the hospital, Sandhya and Deepu come to help Anikkuttan. He slowly walks towards the children's ICU and finds Ponni there. He happily accepts Ponni as his daughter as she is the only one left for him.


title: Malayankunju

text: Mahesh Narayanan, who had previously worked with Fahadh in "Take Off", "C U Soon" and "Mālik" approached Fazil with the story. Fazil liked the story and agreed to bankroll the film. Also, Sajimon Prabhakar, who worked as associate director in the films "Ente Ummante Peru" and "Android Kunjappan Version 5.25", was confirmed as the director. Rajisha Vijayan was opted in to play the female lead opposite Fahadh.


title: Malayankunju

text: Principal photography began on 28 January 2021 at Erattupetta following COVID-19 protocols. Filming continued in different locations at Erattupetta and Ernakulam and finished the first schedule after 26 days shoot. During the second schedule, while filming a stunt scene on 2 March 2021, Fahadh fell from a height, suffered a nose injury and underwent a surgery next day. Sushin Shyam was selected as the music composer. However, he was replaced by A. R. Rahman.


title: Malayankunju

text: The original songs and background score were composed by A. R. Rahman. The first single "Cholappenne" sung by Vijay Yesudas was released on 12 July 2022, the second title "Mannum Niranje" sung by Swetha Mohan was released on 19 July 2022 and the third song "Ponni Makale" sung by Padma Bhushan Dr. K. S. Chithra.


title: K-19: The Widowmaker

text: K-19: The Widowmaker is a 2002 historical submarine film directed and produced by Kathryn Bigelow, and produced by Edward S. Feldman, Sigurjon Sighvatsson, Christine Whitaker and Matthias Deyle with screenplay by Christopher Kyle. An international production of the United States, United Kingdom, Germany and Canada, the film takes place in 1961 and focuses its story on the Soviet Hotel-class submarine "K-19".


title: K-19: The Widowmaker

text: The film stars Harrison Ford and Liam Neeson alongside Peter Sarsgaard, Donald Sumpter, Christian Camargo, Michael Gladis and John Shrapnel in supporting roles.


title: K-19: The Widowmaker

text: "K-19: The Widowmaker" was released by Paramount Pictures on July 19, 2002 in the United States while on September 5, 2002 in Germany and October 25, 2002 in the United Kingdom. Upon release, the film received generally mixed reviews from critics, which particularly praised the performances and the dramatic atmosphere but criticized the screenwriting. The film became a box-office bomb grossing $65 million against a production budget of $90 million.


title: K-19: The Widowmaker

text: In 1961, the Soviet Union launches its first ballistic missile nuclear submarine, the "K-19", commanded by Captain Alexei Vostrikov, with executive officer Mikhail Polenin, the crew's original captain. Vostrikov is alleged to have been appointed through his wife's political connections, as well as Polenin's tendency to put crew morale and safety before Soviet pride. Discovering the reactor officer drunk and asleep on duty, Vostrikov fires him, receiving a replacement, Vadim Radtchenko, fresh from the academy. The launch is plagued by misfortune; the medical officer is killed by a truck and the inaugural bottle of champagne fails to break on the bow.


title: K-19: The Widowmaker

text: The "K-19"s first mission is to surface in the Arctic, test-fire an unarmed intercontinental ballistic missile, and patrol the Atlantic within striking range of New York City and Washington, D.C. Vostrikov orders "K-19" to submerge past its maximum operational depth, then surface at full-speed to break through the Arctic pack-ice. Protesting the dangerous maneuver, Polenin storms off the bridge. The test missile launches successfully.


title: K-19: The Widowmaker

text: A reactor coolant pipe bursts. Control rods are inserted into the reactor, but the temperature rises; back-up coolant systems were not installed. "K-19" surfaces to contact fleet command but the long-range transmitter antenna cable is damaged. Engineers rig a makeshift coolant system, working in shifts to limit radiation exposure. The first team emerges vomiting and blistered. The second and third teams cool the reactor, but all suffer radiation poisoning. With radiation levels rising, the submarine surfaces and most of the crew are ordered topside. Radtchenko balks after seeing the first team's injuries, and the crew chief takes his place on the third team.


title: K-19: The Widowmaker

text: A Sikorsky H-34 helicopter from a nearby United States Navy destroyer offers assistance, which Vostrikov rejects. The Soviet government grows concerned when the "K-19" ceases contact but is spotted near the destroyer. Hoping diesel submarines will be sent to tow the "K-19", Vostrikov orders a return to port. The repaired pipework leaks causing the reactor temperature to raise. Torpedo fuel ignites a fire. Initially ordering the fire suppression system activated – which would suffocate anyone in the area – Vostrikov is talked down by Polenin, who personally assists the fire crew. Two officers mutiny against Vostrikov and Radtchenko enters the reactor alone to attempt repairs.


title: K-19: The Widowmaker

text: Polenin deceives the mutineers into handing over their weapons, arrests them, and frees Vostrikov. Unaware of Radtchenko, Vostrikov, at Polenin's behest, announces his plan to dive and attempt another repair, fearing an overheating reactor could set off their warheads and incite nuclear war. The crew responds positively, and "K-19" dives. Radtchenko's repairs are successful. Blinded and weakened by the radiation, he is dragged to safety by Vostrikov. A meltdown is prevented, but irradiated steam leaks throughout the submarine.


title: K-19: The Widowmaker

text: A Soviet diesel submarine reaches "K-19", with orders to confine the crew aboard until a freighter can pick them up. Vostrikov instead orders an evacuation. Returning to the Soviet Union, Vostrikov is tried for endangering the mission and disobeying a direct order, but Polenin comes to his defense. In all, twenty seven men died from radiation sickness.


title: K-19: The Widowmaker

text: In 1989, an aged Vostrikov meets Polenin and other survivors at a cemetery on the anniversary of their rescue. Vostrikov reveals that he nominated the deceased crewmen for the Hero of the Soviet Union award, but was told the honor was reserved for combat veterans. Remarking "what good are honors from such people," Vostrikov toasts the survivors and those who sacrificed their lives.


title: K-19: The Widowmaker

text: An epilogue reveals Vostrikov was acquitted, but the "K-19" crew was sworn to secrecy and Vostrikov was never again given a command.


title: K-19: The Widowmaker

text: "K-19: The Widowmaker" cost $100 million to produce, but gross returns were only $35 million in the United States and $30.5 million internationally. The film was not financed by a major studio ("National Geographic" was owned by National Geographic Partners, a joint venture with 21st Century Fox and The National Geographic Society), making it one of the most expensive independent films to-date. "K-19: The Widowmaker" was filmed in Canada, specifically Toronto, Ontario; Gimli, Manitoba; and Halifax, Nova Scotia.


title: K-19: The Widowmaker

text: The producers made some efforts to work with the original crew of "K-19", who took exception to the first version of the script available to them. The submarine's captain presented an open letter to the actors and production team, and a group of officers and crew members presented another. In a later script, several scenes were cut, and the names of the crew changed at the request of the crew members and their families.


title: K-19: The Widowmaker

text: The ""K-19"" was portrayed in the film by the "Juliett"-class "K-77", which was significantly modified for the role. HMCS "Ojibwa" portrayed the Soviet "S-270". portrayed . The Canadian Halifax Shipyard stood in for the Sevmash shipyard of northern Russia.


title: K-19: The Widowmaker

text: The nickname "The Widowmaker" was used only in the film. In real life, the submarine had no nickname until the nuclear accident on July 3, 1961, when it received the nickname "Hiroshima".


title: K-19: The Widowmaker

text: The film shows several officers attempting to commit mutiny aboard the "K-19". In real life, there was no mutiny attempt, though Captain Vostrikov was worried enough about the possibility of mutiny that he had almost of all the submarine's small arms thrown overboard.


title: K-19: The Widowmaker

text: "K-19: The Widowmaker" received mixed reviews. It has a 61% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 170 reviews, with an average score of 6.09/10. It is summarized as being "A gripping drama even though the filmmakers have taken liberties with the facts." Metacritic calculated an average score of 58 out of 100 based on 35 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.


title: K-19: The Widowmaker

text: When "K-19: The Widowmaker" was premiered in Russia in October 2002, 52 veterans of the "K-19" submarine accepted flights to the Saint Petersburg premiere; despite what they saw as technical as well as historical compromises, they praised the film and, in particular, the performance of Harrison Ford.


title: K-19: The Widowmaker

text: In his review, film critic Roger Ebert compared "K-19: The Widowmaker" to other classic films of the genre, "Movies involving submarines have the logic of chess: The longer the game goes, the fewer the possible remaining moves. "K-19: The Widowmaker" joins a tradition that includes "Das Boot" and "The Hunt for Red October" and goes all the way back to "Run Silent, Run Deep". The variables are always oxygen, water pressure and the enemy. Can the men breathe, will the sub implode, will depth charges destroy it?"


title: K-19: The Widowmaker

text: Stanley Kauffmann of "The New Republic" wrote: "Why did movie moguls think that this was the right moment for a tale of unflinching loyalty to the Soviet Union?"


title: Jadakiss

text: Jason Terrance Phillips (born May 27, 1975), better known by his stage name Jadakiss, is an American rapper from Yonkers, New York. He began his career in the 1990s as a member of the rap trio The Lox, managed by Ruff Ryders and signed with Bad Boy. After leaving the label in 1999, they signed a joint venture deal between Interscope and Ruff Ryders. He is currently signed to Def Jam and D-Block.


title: Jadakiss

text: Jadakiss' debut solo album, "Kiss Tha Game Goodbye", was released in 2001. He has released three more solo studio albums, another album with the Lox, and an album with fellow rapper Fabolous. In 2007, Jadakiss signed with Jay-Z's Roc-A-Fella and Def Jam, which, with Ruff Ryders, co-released his 2009 album "The Last Kiss". Altogether, he has released five studio albums, most recently "Ignatius" in 2020.


title: Jadakiss

text: Jadakiss was born on May 27, 1975, in Yonkers, New York, and had an interest in hip hop from an early age. At age 12, he began hustling after his parents asked him to earn his own money. He began freestyle rapping for money after watching other people do it on the street corner. While freestyling, he eventually met longtime friends Sheek Louch and Styles P.


title: Jadakiss

text: Phillips quickly developed a small underground fanbase and at the age of 12, entered himself into a freestyle competition in Florida where he attracted the attention of the owners of Ruff Ryders. Along with Styles and Louch, he formed a group known as The Warlox, and the trio began rapping together. They eventually met Mary J. Blige, who, impressed with their lyrics, handed their demo to Puff Daddy, who signed the group to his label Bad Boy.


title: Jadakiss

text: Upon signing with Bad Boy, Puff Daddy shortened the group's name from The Warlocks to simply The Lox. They made their first appearance on Main Source's 1994 LP "Fuck What You Think" on the track "Set it Off." They immediately began writing and performing on hit songs with fellow Bad Boy artists, including Puff Daddy's "It's All About the Benjamins" and "I Got the Power", Mase's "24 Hrs. to Live", Mariah Carey's "Honey", Mary J. Blige's "Can't Get You Off My Mind" and The Notorious B.I.G.'s "Last Day". The group developed a close relationship with B.I.G., during which time Jadakiss especially was taken under his wing. The Lox's first hit song was a tribute to The Notorious B.I.G. in the wake of his 1997 death, titled "We'll Always Love Big Poppa". The song was chosen as the B-side to Puff Daddy's smash hit B.I.G. tribute song "I'll Be Missing You", and received widespread commercial success, achieving multi-platinum status from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The success and reception of the song opened the door for them to write more of their own songs, and in 1998, the Lox released their debut studio album, "Money, Power & Respect". The album was both a commercial and critical success, peaking at number 3 on the Billboard 200 and number 1 on the US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, and went on to achieve platinum status. Though the record was successful, The Lox grew unhappy with Bad Boy and Puff Daddy's glossy, radio friendly production, feeling it conflicted with their grimier street aesthetic. Following the release of their debut album, the group left the label to sign with Ruff Ryders. They released their second album, We Are The Streets, in 2000, through Ruff Ryders. The album was once again a success, peaking at number 5 on the Billboard 200 and number 2 on the US Top R&B/Hip Hop Albums chart. It featured production from Swizz Beatz and Timbaland, and spawned one single, "Ryde or Die, Bitch", featuring fellow Ruff Ryders artist Eve.


title: Jadakiss

text: Jadakiss began embarking on a solo career in 2001 and his debut album, "Kiss Tha Game Goodbye", was released in August 2001 on the Ruff Ryders/Interscope label. The album featured popular guests and producers such as DJ Premier, The Alchemist, DMX, Eve, Snoop Dogg, Nas and Swizz Beatz and was commercially successful, going on to be certified gold by the RIAA and selling over 200,000 copies during its first week of release. Despite commercial success, the album received negative reception from critics who criticised the album for being repetitive and uninspired. Jadakiss has acknowledged the criticism as valid, saying the record was done less out of inspiration but rather out of contractual obligations to Bad Boy. The album produced three singles, "We Gonna Make It" featuring Styles P, "Knock Yourself Out" and "Put Ya Hands Up". Jadakiss followed this album with "Kiss of Death", released in June 2004. It features guest appearances from Snoop Dogg, Eminem, The Lox, Kanye West, Pharrell Williams, Nate Dogg, DJ Quik and more. His song "Why?", featuring Anthony Hamilton and produced by Havoc of Mobb Deep, became one of the year's biggest hits, spawning a remix featuring Styles P, Common and Nas. "Why?" remains Jadakiss' biggest hit, peaking at #11 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. The song also garnered controversy for a line in which Jadakiss claims that he believes George W. Bush planned the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Another single from the record, "U Make Me Wanna," featuring Mariah Carey peaked at number 21 on the Billboard Hot 100. The album was both a commercial and critical success, receiving better reviews than his previous album and debuted at number 1 on both the Billboard 200 and the Top R&B/Hip Hop Albums charts. In late 2007, Jadakiss signed to Jay-Z's Roc-A-Fella Records, a move Jay had been trying to arrange for a long time. The move came on the heels of increased D-Block/Roc-a-Fella collaborations; in 2006, Jadakiss and former rival Beanie Sigel collaborated on DJ Khaled's album "Listennn... the Album", and in 2007, on Freeway's album "Free At Last". Styles P appeared on a radio freestyle with Freeway and Sigel, and also appeared briefly in the video for Jay-Z's "American Gangster" single "Roc Boys," in which he throws up the famous Roc-a-Fella sign, "the Diamond."


title: Jadakiss

text: In 2009, Jadakiss released his much-delayed and anticipated third studio album, "The Last Kiss". The first single, "By My Side" featuring Ne-Yo was released in October 2008. Two more singles, "Can't Stop Me" and "Death Wish" featuring Lil Wayne, were released in 2009. One more single, "Who's Real", featuring Swizz Beatz and OJ Da Juiceman released later that year. In 2010, Jadakiss left Roc-A-Fella records. In 2011, he was featured on two DJ Khaled tracks, one of them titled "It Ain't Over Til It's Over", featuring Mary J. Blige and Fabolous, and the remix of "Welcome to My Hood," also featuring Ludacris, Busta Rhymes, Twista, Mavado, Birdman, Ace Hood, Fat Joe, Game, Bun B and Waka Flocka Flame. On April 26, 2012, Jadakiss released his mixtape "Consignment", hosted by DJ Drama.


title: Jadakiss

text: On June 4, 2013, Jadakiss released the first single from his by then upcoming fourth studio album, "Top 5, Dead or Alive" titled "Big Boy Dialogue", featuring vocals from The-Dream. The album was scheduled to be released during September or October 2013, but after much delay, the album was finally released on November 20, 2015. It features guest appearances from Akon, Future, Jeezy, Lil Wayne, Ne-Yo, Nas, Nipsey Hussle, Styles P, Puff Daddy, Sheek Louch, Swizz Beatz, Wiz Khalifa and Young Buck, and was supported by 2 singles, "Jason" featuring Swizz Beatz, and Ain't Nothin' New featuring Ne-Yo and Nipsey Hussle. The album debuted at number 4 on the Billboard 200, and received positive reviews from critics.


title: Jadakiss

text: In 2016, The Lox released their first album in 16 years, title "Filthy America…It's Beautiful". The album featured guest appearances from Fetty Wap, Mobb Deep and Gucci Mane, and peaked at number 42 on the Billboard 200.


title: Jadakiss

text: On February 29, 2016, Fabolous posted a picture on Instagram with Jadakiss with the caption, "Freddy vs. Jason coming soon", hinting at the release of a joint project with Jadakiss, titled "Freddy vs. Jason". On April 2, 2016, Fabolous and Jadakiss released a freestyle of Future's "Wicked" from "Purple Reign" that was scheduled appear on "Freddy vs. Jason", but did not make the final cut of the album. They also revealed that it would not be a mixtape, but instead a full album. On October 31, 2017, the album's first and only single, "Stand Up" featuring Future was released. On November 21, 2017, it was announced that the album title was changed to "Friday on Elm Street". The album was released on November 24, 2017, and features guest appearances from Future, Jeezy, Styles P, French Montana and Yo Gotti.


title: Jadakiss

text: On March 6, 2020, Jadakiss's fifth studio album Ignatius was released. On June 29th of the same year, Jadakiss defeated Fabolous in a battle on Timbaland and Swizz Beatz' Verzuz held virtually because of the COVID-19 pandemic. The following year, Jadakiss returned for another Verzuz battle, this time alongside the Lox against The Diplomats (DipSet) live with an audience at the Hulu Theater at Madison Square Garden. The Lox were widely regarded as winning decisively, with decisive moments including Jadakiss calling out the Diplomats for using full songs including their own vocals instead of TV tracks and then performing his freestyle over The Notorious B.I.G.'s "Who Shot Ya?", originally released on his 2010 mixtape "The Champ Is Here, Pt. 3", and answering Cam'ron's remark before performing "Welcome to New York City" that the Lox did not have a New York record that could not beat it with his verse on "New York" (Jadakiss also performed the verse when Fat Joe – who was in the audience for the Lox-Diplomats Verzuz – and Ja Rule faced each other in the subsequent Verzuz at the same venue).


title: Jadakiss

text: Following their victory, streams of Lox music increased by 215%, including Jadakiss' "Who Shot Ya?" freestyle (both studio and live versions) being added to the iTunes Store and Apple Music 11 years after its initial release. Jadakiss was also dubbed "Mr. "Verzuz"" after becoming the first artist to win two battles and was able to restructure his Def Jam contract. Just over a year after the battle while they were performing at LL Cool J's Rock The Bells festival at Forest Hills Stadium in Queens, Jadakiss presented Styles P and Sheek Louch with Lox championship rings and unveiled his.


title: Jadakiss

text: Along with longtime friend and business associate, Jay Jackson and Jadakiss launched an online multimedia creative collective called SoRaspy that also serves as an umbrella company for his business endeavors which include an online publication, record label, apparel, and a YouTube channel.


title: Jadakiss

text: Reinvesting in their community, in the summer of 2014, Jadakiss and Styles P opened a juice bar in Yonkers, New York, called Juices For Life. Together, they have gone on to open two more branches in The Bronx and one in Brooklyn.


title: Jadakiss

text: In October 2022, Jadakiss launched a family-owned coffee company called Kiss Café with his father and son.


title: Jadakiss

text: On July 5, 2004, Jadakiss was arrested in North Carolina on marijuana and illicit gun possession charges. Several months later, he reached a plea agreement on misdemeanor charges and was ordered to pay a $900 fine.


title: Jadakiss

text: On October 7, 2006, Jadakiss was once again arrested in his hometown of Yonkers, New York on gun and drug possession charges. A Yonkers Police Department spokesperson said Jadakiss was one of four men sitting in a 2006 Toyota Camry that was parked near the intersection of Nepperhan Avenue and Elm Street in Yonkers at around 5 a.m. Saturday. Officers said the vehicle's driver was behaving oddly and said they noticed a strong odor of marijuana while approaching the car. Inside the vehicle, police found a .38 caliber revolver that had been reported stolen. According to The Associated Press, the weapon was loaded. All occupants were charged with possession of a stolen firearm; Jadakiss was also charged with possession of marijuana (a small amount was found on his person). The driver, Darnell Frazier, was charged with driving under the influence. The other two men in the vehicle are listed as Benjamin Lockhart and Kristian Smith. All were remanded to Westchester County Jail and were held until at least Tuesday of the following week, when they were due in court.


title: Jadakiss

text: Police arrested two men on multiple felony charges after they raided Jadakiss' Yonkers, New York apartment and found heroin (5 grams) and marijuana (6.5 pounds). Jadakiss was neither present during the investigation, nor wanted by the law enforcement agencies. The incident took place on the morning of August 24, 2009, and started when an investigation revealed the presence of marijuana inside the vehicle driven by two men. Both men were reportedly in police custody and had been criminally charged.


title: Jadakiss

text: In 2004, Jadakiss and Fat Joe were featured on a song by Ja Rule titled "New York". In this song, Ja Rule accuses 50 Cent of being a snitch, and also takes shots at G-Unit. In turn, 50 Cent released a song titled "Piggy Bank" in which he disses Fat Joe and Jadakiss among others for performing on the song. This caused Jadakiss to release numerous 50 Cent diss tracks, including "Checkmate", "Problem Child", "Shots Fired" and "I'm Sorry Ms. Jackson". 50 Cent along with his G-Unit crew responded with songs such as "I Run New York", "Window Shopper", and "Death Wish" by Lloyd Banks. Jadakiss challenged 50 Cent to an onstage battle in Madison Square Garden for 1 million dollars, but 50 Cent declined. The feud was later resolved, with Jadakiss and G-Unit performing together at 50 Cent's ThisIs50 Festival on October 3, 2009.


title: Jadakiss

text: In 2004, Bill O'Reilly called Jadakiss a "smear merchant" due to lyrics in his hit song "Why?", in which Jadakiss lyrically implied George W. Bush coordinated the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, with the line "Why do niggas push pounds of powder? Why did Bush knock down the towers?" Jadakiss said the line was a metaphor for Bush administration not doing enough to stop the attacks.


title: Jadakiss

text: In the music video for "Why?", a man holds up a picket sign reading "Buck Fush" (a spoonerism of "Fuck Bush"). O'Reilly took the position that the President should be allowed to sue Jadakiss for slander. The track was eventually banned on some radio stations or played with the lyrics in question censored.


title: Gogol Bordello

text: Gogol Bordello is an American punk rock band from the Lower East Side of Manhattan, formed in 1999 by musicians from all over the world and known for theatrical stage shows and persistent touring. Much of the band's sound is inspired by Romani music mixed with punk and dub, incorporating accordion and violin (and on some albums, saxophone).


title: Gogol Bordello

text: The band has appeared in several popular films, most notably "Everything Is Illuminated" (2005) in which lead singer Eugene Hütz co-starred with Elijah Wood in a dramedy/adventure story about the Nazi purges in Ukraine. The group appears playing a brass band in a set that included the "Star-Spangled Banner" and the traditional Yiddish song "Bublitschki". Gogol Bordello contributed the song "Start Wearing Purple" to the film's score. The band is the focus of the 2008 documentary "Gogol Bordello Non-Stop". The band recorded the song "Let's Get Crazy" for Coca-Cola's Euro 2012 advertising campaign.


title: Gogol Bordello

text: "Gogol" comes from Nikolai Gogol, a classical writer of Ukrainian origin. He serves as an ideological influence for the band because he "smuggled" Ukrainian culture into Russian society, which Gogol Bordello intends to do with Romani/East-European music in the English-speaking world. "Bordello", in Italian, refers to a brothel or a "gentleman's club". The band was originally titled Hütz and the Béla Bartóks, but Eugene Hütz says that they decided to change the name because "nobody knows who the hell Béla Bartók is in the United States." The band played their first show as the unofficial band at an after-hours club called "Pizdetz" where they became the house band and DJ Hütz became the house DJ.


title: Gogol Bordello

text: Gogol Bordello's first single was released in 1999, and since then they have released six full-length albums, and one EP. In 2005 the band signed to punk label SideOneDummy Records. On 27 April 2010 Gogol Bordello made its major record label debut with "Transcontinental Hustle" on Rick Rubin's American Recordings, a subsidiary of Columbia Records/Sony Music Entertainment. Many of the songs on "Transcontinental Hustle" were inspired by Hütz's move to Brazil.


title: Gogol Bordello

text: The band has toured extensively throughout Europe and America. They have made numerous appearances at international festivals and have toured with such diverse bands as Primus, Flogging Molly, and Cake. In an interview with NPR, frontman Eugene Hütz cites Jimi Hendrix and Parliament-Funkadelic as among the band's main musical influences. They have also mentioned Manu Chao, Fugazi, Zvuki Mu, Karamelo Santo, Sasha Kolpakov and The Clash as influences.


title: Gogol Bordello

text: They performed live at the Bonnaroo Music and Arts festival 2011 for Bonnaroo's 10 year anniversary, playing a 1.5 hour set in the middle of the night and performed with Devotchka.


title: Gogol Bordello

text: Gogol Bordello released "Let's Get Crazy" in 2012, the new song was part of Coca-Cola's advertising campaign for the European Football Championships, which were part-hosted by Ukraine. The track samples one of their earlier singles, "Wonderlust King", and the Coca-Cola advertising jingle.


title: Gogol Bordello

text: The 2010 song "Immigraniada" was remixed by Bassnectar becoming a smash hit amongst his fans hoping for a live performance anytime the band and he are in proximity to each other.


title: Gogol Bordello

text: Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Hütz released a video on social media condemning the Russian invasion, and has remained vocal about raising relief funds for the victims of the invasion. Gogol Bordello announced a benefit concert shortly after which sold out quickly, followed by announcing a benefit tour. Bordello collaborated with Les Claypool of the funk band Primus on the song "Man with the Iron Balls", praising Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky's courage. The proceeds of the track are set to benefit Nova Ukraine, a non-profit organization that provides humanitarian relief to the people of Ukraine.


title: Latchkey kid

text: A latchkey kid, or latchkey child, is a child who returns to an empty home after school (or other activities) or a child who is often left at home with no supervision because their parents are away at work. Such a child can be any age, alone or with siblings who are also under the age of majority for their community.


title: Latchkey kid

text: The term refers to the latchkey of a door to a house or apartment. The key is often strung around the child's neck or left hidden under a mat (or some other object) at the rear door to the property. The term seems to first appear in a CBC radio program called "Discussion Club – Topic: How War Affects Canadian Children" in 1942, due to the phenomenon of children being left home alone during World War II, when the father would be enlisted into the armed forces and the mother would need to get a job. Given that the "Discussion Club" participants are all familiar with the term and allude to it being in colloquial usage, it likely predates 1942. In general, the term latchkey designates "those children between the ages of five and thirteen who care for themselves after the school day until their parents or guardians return home".


title: Latchkey kid

text: More specifically for their purposes, the San Marino (CA) Public Library has defined a Library Latchkey Child as "one who on a regular basis is required by their parents or guardian to remain at the public library for extended periods of time after school in lieu of day care. 'Regular basis' is defined as three or more days per week. 'Extended period' is defined as two or more hours per day" (American Library Association 12).


title: Latchkey kid

text: The term latchkey kid became commonplace in the 1970s and 1980s to describe members of Generation X who, according to a 2004 marketing study, "went through its all-important, formative years as one of the least parented, least nurtured generations in U.S. history." Latchkey kids were prevalent during this time, a result of increased divorce rates and increased maternal participation in the workforce at a time before childcare options outside the home were widely available. These latchkey children, referred to as "day orphans" in the 1984 documentary, "To Save Our Children to Save Our Schools", mainly came from middle or upper-class homes. The higher the educational attainment of the parents, the higher the odds the children of this time would be latchkey kids.


title: Latchkey kid

text: Most children who experienced this kind of independence grew up to be healthy adults. Children often played with each other in parks and in streets and it was common for children to choose their own recreational activities. There was not a greater amount of negative incidents with crime or violence when compared with the next generation of 'helicopter kids' whose leisure time and activities were governed and supervised by their parents.


title: Latchkey kid

text: The effects of being a latchkey child differ with age. Loneliness, boredom and fear are most common for those younger than ten years of age. In the early teens, there is a greater susceptibility to peer pressure, potentially resulting in such behavior as alcohol abuse, drug abuse, sexual promiscuity and smoking. The behaviors might stem from "unspent energy, peer pressure to misbehave, or hostility because of the lack of appropriate adult attention". In one study, middle school students left home alone for more than three hours a day reported higher levels of behavioral problems, higher rates of depression, and lower levels of self-esteem than other students.


title: Latchkey kid

text: Socioeconomic status and length of time left alone can bring forth other negative effects. Children from lower income families are associated with greater externalizing issues (such as conduct disorders and hyperactivity) and academic problems. This association was weaker for children from middle income families as compared to their supervised peers. In 2000, a German PISA study found no significant differences in the scholastic performance between "latchkey kids" and kids in a "nuclear family".


title: Latchkey kid

text: Positive effects of being a latchkey child include independence and self-reliance at a young age. Deborah Belle, author of "The After-School Lives of Children: Alone and with Others While Parents Work" suggests that being left home alone may be a better alternative to staying with baby-sitters or older siblings.


title: Latchkey kid

text: The legality of the latchkey children's "alone time" varies with country, state and local area. In the United States, state and local laws typically do not specify any particular age under 18 when a child can be legally left without supervision. However, some states do have specific age restrictions, such as Oregon where leaving a child under 10 years old is an offence. Yet most of the US states have no minimum age for leaving kids unsupervised.


title: Latchkey kid

text: Parents can be held accountable by child welfare, child protective services organizations, or law enforcement if children come to harm while left without supervision if, in the opinion of the agency, the children's age or other considerations made such a choice inappropriate. Legal issues also continue to be important concerns for those who work in libraries. They worry about the potential liability should an unattended child be hurt, molested or abducted while at the facility. This issue becomes critical, particularly at closing time when "parents who are late picking up their children also create safety and possibly legal problems."


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: A lithium polymer battery, or more correctly lithium-ion polymer battery (abbreviated as LiPo, LIP, Li-poly, lithium-poly and others), is a rechargeable battery of lithium-ion technology using a polymer electrolyte instead of a liquid electrolyte. High conductivity semisolid (gel) polymers form this electrolyte. These batteries provide higher specific energy than other lithium battery types and are used in applications where weight is a critical feature, such as mobile devices, radio-controlled aircraft and some electric vehicles.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: LiPo cells follow the history of lithium-ion and lithium-metal cells which underwent extensive research during the 1980s, reaching a significant milestone with Sony's first commercial cylindrical Li-ion cell in 1991. After that, other packaging forms evolved, including the flat pouch format.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: Lithium polymer cells have evolved from lithium-ion and lithium-metal batteries. The primary difference is that instead of using a liquid lithium-salt electrolyte (such as LiPF) held in an organic solvent (such as EC/DMC/DEC), the battery uses a solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) such as poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) or poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVdF).


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: In the 1970s the original polymer design used a solid dry polymer electrolyte resembling a plastic-like film, replacing the traditional porous separator that is soaked with electrolyte.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: The solid electrolyte can typically be classified as one of three types: dry SPE, gelled SPE and porous SPE. The dry SPE was the first used in prototype batteries, around 1978 by Michel Armand, and 1985 by ANVAR and Elf Aquitaine of France, and Hydro-Québec of Canada. From 1990 several organisations like Mead and Valence in the United States and GS Yuasa in Japan developed batteries using gelled SPEs. In 1996, Bellcore in the United States announced a rechargeable lithium polymer cell using porous SPE.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: A typical cell has four main components: positive electrode, negative electrode, separator and electrolyte. The separator itself may be a polymer, such as a microporous film of polyethylene (PE) or polypropylene (PP); thus, even when the cell has a liquid electrolyte, it will still contain a "polymer" component. In addition to this, the positive electrode can be further divided into three parts: the lithium-transition-metal-oxide (such as LiCoO or LiMnO), a conductive additive, and a polymer binder of poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVdF). The negative electrode material may have the same three parts, only with carbon replacing the lithium-metal-oxide. The main difference between lithium ion polymer cells and lithium ion cells is the physical phase of the electrolyte, such that LiPo cells use dry solid, gel-like electrolytes whereas Li-ion cells use liquid electrolytes.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: Just as with other lithium-ion cells, LiPos work on the principle of intercalation and de-intercalation of lithium ions from a positive electrode material and a negative electrode material, with the liquid electrolyte providing a conductive medium. To prevent the electrodes from touching each other directly, a microporous separator is in between which allows only the ions and not the electrode particles to migrate from one side to the other.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: The voltage of a single LiPo cell depends on its chemistry and varies from about 4.2 V (fully charged) to about 2.7–3.0 V (fully discharged), where the nominal voltage is 3.6 or 3.7 volts (about the middle value of highest and lowest value) for cells based on lithium-metal-oxides (such as LiCoO). This compares to 3.6–3.8 V (charged) to 1.8–2.0 V (discharged) for those based on lithium-iron-phosphate (LiFePO).


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: The exact voltage ratings should be specified in product data sheets, with the understanding that the cells should be protected by an electronic circuit that won't allow them to overcharge nor over-discharge under use.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: LiPo battery packs, with cells connected in series and parallel, have separate pin-outs for every cell. A specialized charger may monitor the charge on a per-cell basis so that all cells are brought to the same state of charge (SOC).


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: Unlike lithium-ion cylindrical and prismatic cells, which have a rigid metal case, LiPo cells have a flexible, foil-type (polymer laminate) case, so they are relatively unconstrained.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: Moderate pressure on the stack of layers that compose the cell results in increased capacity retention, because the contact between the components is maximised and delamination and deformation is prevented, which is associated with increase of cell impedance and degradation.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: LiPo cells provide manufacturers with compelling advantages. They can easily produce batteries of almost any desired shape. For example, the space and weight requirements of mobile devices and notebook computers can be met. They also have a low self-discharge rate, which is about 5% per month.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: LiPo batteries are now almost ubiquitous when used to power commercial and hobby drones (unmanned aerial vehicles), radio-controlled aircraft, radio-controlled cars and large scale model trains, where the advantages of lower weight and increased capacity and power delivery justify the price. Test reports warn of the risk of fire when the batteries are not used in accordance with the instructions.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: The voltage for long-time storage of LiPo battery used in the R/C model should be 3.6~3.9V range per cell, otherwise it may cause damage to the battery.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: LiPo packs also see widespread use in airsoft, where their higher discharge currents and better energy density compared to more traditional NiMH batteries has very noticeable performance gain (higher rate of fire).


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: LiPo batteries are pervasive in mobile devices, power banks, very thin laptop computers, portable media players, wireless controllers for video game consoles, wireless PC peripherals, electronic cigarettes, and other applications where small form factors are sought and the high energy density outweighs cost considerations.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: Hyundai Motor Company uses this type of battery in some of its battery electric and hybrid vehicles, as well as Kia Motors in their battery electric Kia Soul. The Bolloré Bluecar, which is used in car sharing schemes in several cities, also uses this type of battery.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: Lithium-ion batteries are becoming increasingly more commonplace in Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems. They offer numerous benefits over the traditional VRLA battery and with stability and safety improvements confidence in the technology is growing. Their power to size and weight ratio is seen as a major benefit in many industries requiring critical power back up including data centers where space is often at a premium. The longer cycle life, usable energy (Depth of discharge), and thermal runaway are also seen as a benefit for using Li-po batteries over VRLA batteries.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: The battery used to start a vehicle engine is typically 12V or 24V, so a portable jump starter or battery booster uses three or six LiPo batteries in series (3S1P/6S1P) to start the vehicle in an emergency, instead of the other jump-start methods.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: The price of a lead-acid jump starter is less but they are bigger and heavier than comparable lithium batteries, and so such products have mostly switched to LiPo batteries or sometimes lithium iron phosphate batteries.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: All Li-ion cells expand at high levels of state of charge (SOC) or over-charge, due to slight vaporisation of the electrolyte. This may result in delamination, and thus bad contact of the internal layers of the cell, which in turn brings diminished reliability and overall cycle life of the cell. This is very noticeable for LiPos, which can visibly inflate due to lack of a hard case to contain their expansion. The safety characteristics of Lithium Polymer batteries are different from those of lithium iron phosphate batteries.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: Polymer electrolytes can be divided into two large categories: dry solid polymer electrolytes (SPE) and gel polymer electrolytes (GPE). In comparison to liquid electrolytes and solid organic electrolytes, polymer electrolyte offer advantages such as increased resistance to variations in the volume of the electrodes throughout the charge and discharge processes, improved safety features. excellent flexibility and processability.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: Solid polymer electrolyte is initially defined as a polymer matrix swollen with lithium salts, which is now referred to as dry solid polymer electrolyte. Lithium salts are dissolved im the polymer matrix to provide ionic conductivity. Due to its physical phase, there is poor ion transfer resulting in poor conductivity at room temperature. In order to improve the ionic conductivity at room temperature, gelled electrolyte is added resulting in the formation of GPEs. GPEs are formed by incorporating an organic liquid electrolyte in the polymer matrix. Liquid electrolyte is entrapped by a small amount of polymer network, hence the properties of GPE is characterized by properties between those of liquid and solid electrolytes. The conduction mechanism is similar for liquid electrolytes and polymer gels, but GPEs have higher thermal stability and low volatile nature which also further contribute to safety.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: Cells with solid polymer electrolytes have not reached full commercialization and are still a topic of research. Prototype cells of this type could be considered to be between a traditional lithium-ion battery (with liquid electrolyte) and a completely plastic, solid-state lithium-ion battery.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: The simplest approach is to use a polymer matrix, such as polyvinylidene fluoride (PVdF) or poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), gelled with conventional salts and solvents, such as LiPF in EC/DMC/DEC.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: Nishi mentions that Sony started research on lithium-ion cells with gelled polymer electrolytes (GPE) in 1988, before the commercialisation of the liquid-electrolyte lithium-ion cell in 1991. At that time polymer batteries were promising and it seemed polymer electrolytes would become indispensable. Eventually, this type of cell went into the market in 1998.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: However, Scrosati argues that, in the strictest sense, gelled membranes cannot be classified as "true" polymer electrolytes, but rather as hybrid systems where the liquid phases are contained within the polymer matrix. Although these polymer electrolytes may be dry to the touch, they can still contain 30% to 50% liquid solvent. In this regard, how to really define what a "polymer battery" is remains an open question.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: Other terms used in the literature for this system include hybrid polymer electrolyte (HPE), where "hybrid" denotes the combination of the polymer matrix, the liquid solvent and the salt. It was a system like this that Bellcore used to develop an early lithium-polymer cell in 1996, which was called "plastic" lithium-ion cell (PLiON), and subsequently commercialised in 1999.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: A solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) is a solvent-free salt solution in a polymer medium. It may be, for example, a compound of lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (LiFSI) and high molecular weight poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), a high molecular weight poly(trimethylene carbonate) (PTMC), polypropylene oxide (PPO), poly[bis(methoxy-ethoxy-ethoxy)phosphazene] (MEEP), "etc".


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: PEO exhibits most promising performance as a solid solvent for lithium salts, mainly due to its flexible ethylene oxide segments and other oxygen atoms that comprise strong donor character, readily solvating Li cations. PEO is also commercially available at a very reasonable cost.


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: The performance of these proposed electrolytes is usually measured in a half-cell configuration against an electrode of metallic lithium, making the system a "lithium-metal" cell, but it has also been tested with a common lithium-ion cathode material such as lithium-iron-phosphate (LiFePO).


title: Lithium polymer battery

text: Other attempts to design a polymer electrolyte cell include the use of inorganic ionic liquids such as 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate ([BMIM]BF) as a plasticizer in a microporous polymer matrix like poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene)/poly(methyl methacrylate) (PVDF-HFP/PMMA).


title: Saiee Manjrekar

text: Saiee Manjrekar (born 23 December 1997) is an Indian actress who works in Hindi, Marathi and Telugu-language films. Daughter of actors Mahesh Manjrekar and Medha Manjrekar, she made her acting debut with "Dabangg 3" (2019), for which she received Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut nomination. She has since appeared in "Ghani" and "Major" (both 2022).


title: Saiee Manjrekar

text: Manjrekar was born on 23 December 1997 to film actors Medha and Mahesh Manjrekar. She studied at Dhirubhai Ambani International School, Mumbai and University of Mumbai.