text: On August 17, 2016, Madman Entertainment released the series on Blu-ray to Australia and New Zealand in 1080p. The eight-disc set includes each episode in HD. Extras include theatrical version of the pilot episode and feature-length version of "Flight of the War Witch" (both in standard definition), the syndicated two-part version of "Journey to Oasis" (in HD), textless opening and closing credits sequences, opening credits without voice-over narration, and isolated music and effects audio tracks on each episode. The Blu-ray sets have been released in various other countries since.


title: Buck Rogers in the 25th Century (TV series)

text: Kino Lorber announced a Region 1 Blu-ray set to be released on November 24, 2020. It includes the movie (in HD for the first time on home media) and seasons one and two.


text: Contemporary assessments of "Buck Rogers in the 25th Century" were generally mixed. In his book "Sci-Fi TV from Twilight Zone to Deep Space Nine", writer James Van Hise claimed the show's scripts "just never took advantage of what they had at hand" and criticized Larson's version of "Buck Rogers" as a cynical attempt to exploit one of the most loved characters in American popular culture. John Javna's book "The Best of Science Fiction TV" included "Buck Rogers in the 25th Century" on its list of the "Worst Science Fiction Shows of All Time" (along with "The Starlost", "", and "Manimal"). Journalist Bill Lengeman also strongly criticized the program, stating "the acting is so wooden that Ed Wood himself (no pun intended) would surely have gone weak in the knees and wept openly upon witnessing it." Lengemen also called the "Buck Rogers" episode "Space Rockers" the worst episode of TV science fiction he had ever seen. On a more positive note, writing in the UK's "Observer" newspaper in October 1980 (shortly after the series began showing there), journalist Clive James stated, "the best comic-strip science fiction on at the moment is "Buck Rogers in the 25th Century". The hardware looks good and Wilma Deering looks simply sensational, like Wonder Woman with brains."


text: "Filmink" thought the series did not live up to its pilot, in particular the Buck-Wilma-Ardala triangle, arguing "the writers forgot the simple motivations and characterisations. Poor old Wilma was disempowered and shunted to the side, where she held Buck’s water while he had adventures and was thus no threat to Ardala (this was reportedly due to Gil Gerard’s sulking over the prominence given to Wilma on the show). They also forgot Ardala’s motivation was to use Buck politically to get an edge on her 23 siblings, not just because she found him hot. Pamela Hensley was everything you wanted in a silly '70s sci-fi epic and on one hand the producers knew it (they kept bringing her back), but on the other they didn't know how to exploit it."


text: Two novels were published by Dell Publishing based on this series, both by Addison E. Steele. The first () was a novelization of the pilot film. The second, "That Man on Beta" (), was adapted from an unproduced episode script. A fumetti book entitled "Buck Rogers in the 25th Century" was published by Fotonovel Publications in 1979, reproducing the theatrical version of the pilot episode.


text: Two sets of action figures were produced by Mego, including a 12-in line and a series of 3.75-in figures and scaled spaceships. Milton-Bradley produced a Buck Rogers board game and a series of jigsaw puzzles. Other companies produced a variety of tie-ins. Monogram produced 1/48-scale, injection-molded model kits of the Earth Defense Directorate Starfighter and the Draconian Marauder from 1979 through 1981. Die-cast toys were released by Corgi, Topps trading cards, and a painted metal lunch box.


title: Boards of Canada

text: Boards of Canada are a Scottish electronic music duo consisting of brothers Michael Sandison and Marcus Eoin, formed initially as a group in 1986 before becoming a duo in the 1990s. Signing first to Skam followed by Warp Records in the 1990s, the duo subsequently received recognition following the release of their debut album "Music Has the Right to Children" on Warp in 1998. They followed with the critically acclaimed albums "Geogaddi" (2002), "The Campfire Headphase" (2005) and "Tomorrow's Harvest" (2013), but have remained reclusive and continue to rarely appear live.


title: Boards of Canada

text: The duo's music, largely influenced by psychedelic music and electronic music of the 1970s and 1980s, incorporates vintage synthesizer tones, samples from outdated media, analog equipment, sound collages, hip hop-inspired beats and drones; it has been described by critics as exploring themes related to nostalgia, as well as childhood memory, science, environmental concerns and esoteric subjects. In 2012, "Fact" summarized them as "one of the best-known and best-loved electronic acts of the last two decades."


title: Boards of Canada

text: Brothers Michael Sandison (born 1 June 1970) and Marcus Eoin (born Marcus Eoin Sandison, 21 July 1971) were brought up in Cullen, Moray on the north east coast of Scotland.


title: Boards of Canada

text: From 1979 to 1980 they lived in the Canadian city of Calgary while their father, who worked in construction, took part in the project to build the Saddledome. Both brothers attended the University of Edinburgh, where Michael studied music and Marcus studied artificial intelligence, though Marcus dropped out before completing his degree.


title: Boards of Canada

text: Growing up in a musical family, the brothers first played instruments at a young age. They experimented with recording techniques from around the age of 10, using tape machines to layer cut-up samples of found sounds over compositions of their own. In their teens they participated in a number of amateur bands. However, it was not until 1986 when Marcus was invited to join Mike's band that Boards of Canada was born. The band's name was inspired by the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), the government agency whose award winning documentary films and animation they had watched as children. By 1989, the band had been reduced to Mike and Marcus. In the early 1990s, a number of collaborations took place and the band put on small shows among the Hexagon Sun collective.


title: Boards of Canada

text: In 1995, the band made their first Hexagon Sun studio release, the EP "Twoism". Like earlier Music70 releases, it was produced in a self-financed limited run and was privately distributed, primarily to friends and labels. Unlike previous releases, however, a small number of copies were also released to the public through a mailing list. Though not a widespread commercial release, it was considered of sufficient quality and worth to be subsequently re-pressed in 2002.


title: Boards of Canada

text: The band made another release in 1996; titled "Boc Maxima", it was a semi-private release that was notable for being a full-length album, and was the precursor to "Music Has the Right to Children", with which it shares many tracks.


title: Boards of Canada

text: Boards of Canada's first commercial release occurred after attracting the attention of Autechre's Sean Booth, of the English label Skam Records, one of many people who were sent a demo EP. Skam issued what was considered Boards of Canada's first "findable" work, "Hi Scores", in 1996.


title: Boards of Canada

text: The debut studio album, "Music Has the Right to Children", was released in April 1998. The album consists of longer tracks mixed with song vignettes. It also includes one of the duo's most popular songs, "Roygbiv". "Music Has the Right to Children" received widespread acclaim upon release. It featured at No. 35 on Pitchfork's "Top 100 Albums of the 1990s" list. It was ranked No. 91 in Mojo's 100 Modern Classics list.


title: Boards of Canada

text: John Peel featured Boards of Canada on his BBC Radio 1 programme in July of that year. The session featured two remixes from "Music Has the Right to Children" — "Aquarius (Version 3)" and "Olson (Version 3)" — along with the tracks "Happy Cycling" and "XYZ". "XYZ" was excluded from the "Peel Session TX 21/07/1998" release until 2019.


title: Boards of Canada

text: Though never an actively touring band, Boards of Canada did perform a handful of shows. Early shows saw them supporting Warp labelmates Seefeel and Autechre in a handful of UK dates. They also participated in a few festivals and multi-artist bills including two Warp parties: Warp's 10th Anniversary Party in 1999 and The Incredible Warp Lighthouse Party almost one year later. They made their most prominent showing in 2001 as one of the headliners at the Tortoise-curated All Tomorrow's Parties. They have not performed a live show since.


title: Boards of Canada

text: The band released a four-track EP, "In a Beautiful Place Out in the Country", in November 2000, their first original release in two years. The 12" edition was pressed on sky blue vinyl.


title: Boards of Canada

text: Their second studio album, "Geogaddi", was released in February 2002. Like "Music Has the Right to Children", this album consists of longer tracks mixed with song vignettes. It also presents a darker sound than its predecessor. "Geogaddi" received universal acclaim from music critics.


title: Boards of Canada

text: It was described by Sandison as "a record for some sort of trial-by-fire, a claustrophobic, twisting journey that takes you into some pretty dark experiences before you reach the open air again."


title: Boards of Canada

text: Their third album for Warp Records, "The Campfire Headphase", was released on 17 October 2005 in Europe and 18 October 2005 in the United States. The album featured fifteen tracks, including "Peacock Tail", "Chromakey Dreamcoat," and "Dayvan Cowboy". Two versions of "Dayvan Cowboy" — the original and a remix by Odd Nosdam — are on the six-track EP, "Trans Canada Highway", which was released on 26 May 2006.


title: Boards of Canada

text: In late 2009, the "Warp20 (Recreated)" compilation featured two BoC covers, one by Bibio of their song "Kaini Industries" and one by Mira Calix of "In a Beautiful Place Out in the Country". Warp20 (Recreated) is part of the larger Warp20 boxed set, which also includes two previously unreleased Boards of Canada tracks, "Seven Forty Seven" and a 1.8 second sample of the song "Spiro", which had previously been performed at their show at the Incredible Warp Lighthouse Party in 2000.


title: Boards of Canada

text: On Record Store Day 2013, a vinyl record containing a short clip of music which was believed to be the work of Boards of Canada surfaced at the New York record store Other Music. Shortly after the release, Warp Records vouched for the record's authenticity. The record (titled "------/------/------/XXXXXX/------/------") contained a short clip of audio followed by a voice reading six digits similar to that of a numbers station. The record revealed what was to become one of six unique numbers that were part of a type of alternate reality game that was used to promote the release of their next studio album.


title: Boards of Canada

text: The rest of the codes were hidden through various websites and online communities, as well as being broadcast over BBC Radio One, NPR, and Adult Swim. After much speculation, the official website for the band redirected users to another website which asked for the user to enter a password. Once all six unique codes are entered, a video is shown announcing "Tomorrow's Harvest", their fourth studio album. The album was released on 5 June 2013 in Japan, 10 June 2013 in Europe, and 11 June 2013 in the United States to widespread critical acclaim.


title: Boards of Canada

text: In 2016, Boards of Canada released two remixes. The first, of Nevermen's "Mr Mistake", was released on 12 January, and was followed shortly after by a remix of "Sisters" by Odd Nosdam on 22 February. On 17 February 2017, an instrumental version of the "Mr Mistake" remix was released. In 2017 Boards of Canada released a remix of "Sometimes" by The Sexual Objects. On July 3, 2021, Boards of Canada released a remix of a second Nevermen song, "Treat Em Right".


title: Boards of Canada

text: In 2019, Warp Records kicked off the celebrations for their 30th anniversary, entitled WXAXRXP, with a 100-hour takeover of online radio station NTS Radio, featuring mixes, radio shows and unreleased music from a number of artists on their roster. This included a 2-hour mixtape from Boards of Canada titled "Societas x Tape", aired on 23 June 2019 at 9:00 PM BST, and featured music from other artists such as Grace Jones, Devo and Yellow Magic Orchestra, spliced with spoken word samples and music that is rumoured to be unreleased work from the group itself.


title: Boards of Canada

text: The music of Boards of Canada has been described as "evocative, mournful, sample-laden downtempo music often sounding as though produced on malfunctioning equipment excavated from the ruins of an early-'70s computer lab." Critic Simon Reynolds described their style as "a hazy sound of smeared synth-tones and analog-decayed production, carried by patient, sleepwalking beats, and aching with nostalgia" while crediting them with "reinvent[ing]" elements of psychedelia through the deliberate misuse of technology. Their distinctive style is a product of their use of analogue equipment, mix of electronic and conventional instrumentation, use of distorted samples, and their layering and blending of these elements. To achieve their evocative and "worn down" sound, the duo have made use of outdated brands of recording equipment, such as tape machines manufactured by Grundig. They also make use of samples from 1970s television shows and other media prevalent in the era of the brothers' shared childhood, especially the nature-inspired documentaries produced by the National Film Board of Canada. The duo's preoccupation with memory, past aesthetics, and public broadcasting presaged the 2000s electronic movement known as hauntology. Critic Adam Harper described their work as "a simultaneously Arcadian and sinister musical hauntology based on cut-up samples, vintage synthesiser technology and a faded modernism arising from mid-twentieth-century television, science, public education, childhood and spirituality."


title: Boards of Canada

text: Interviews with the Sandison brothers have variously provided insight into their creative process: they have cited several acts that have influenced their work including Joni Mitchell, the Incredible String Band (saying "we have all the String Band records […] our rural sensibilities are similar"), the Beatles (saying "[they] really became enthralling to us through their psychedelism") and My Bloody Valentine (saying "even if we don't sound like them, there's a connection in terms of the approach to music"). They have also named Meat Beat Manifesto as a chief influence, citing their synth sounds.


title: Boards of Canada

text: Brief interludes or vignettes feature prominently in the duo's music, often lasting less than two minutes; Sandison has said that "we write far more of [these] than the so-called 'full-on' tracks, and, in a way, they are our own favourites". Boards of Canada have written an enormous number of such fragments as well as full-length tracks, most of which have been held back from release, and it does not appear that their music is made exclusively for commercial release; rather, albums seem to be the result of selecting complementary songs from current work. For instance, "Geogaddi" allegedly involved the creation of 400 song fragments and 64 complete songs, of which 22 were selected (possibly 23, if the final track of complete silence is included). Eoin has said about the duo's discography that "the idea of the perfect album is this amorphous thing that we're always aiming at […] the whole point of making music is at least to aim at your own idea of perfection."


title: Boards of Canada

text: The duo have expressed interest in themes of subliminal messaging, and subsequently their work has incorporated cryptic messages, including references to numerology and cult figures such as David Koresh of the Branch Davidians. When questioned about their aims in making such references, the duo have expressed themselves in neutral terms (saying "We're not religious at all [...] and if we're spiritual at all it's purely in the sense of caring about art and inspiring people with ideas.") while remaining fascinated with the ability of music to influence the minds of others (saying, with irony, that "[We] do actually believe that there are powers in music that are almost supernatural. I think you actually manipulate people with music...").


title: Levy Tran

text: Levy Tran (born November 16, 1983), born as Vy Le Tran, is an American actress and model, best known for her role as Roenick in the 2018 film "The First Purge", Desi Nguyen in "MacGyver", the guest hostess to MTV's "Guy Code", for her appearance as the race starter in the 2015 film "Furious 7", and as a tattooed model.


title: Levy Tran

text: Levy was born November 16, 1983 in San Jose, California to Vietnamese parents. She can speak English and Vietnamese. After she graduated from high school, she received a bachelor's degree in child and adolescent development while minoring in mathematics. Afterwards, she worked at a funeral home as an embalmer in 2011.


title: Levy Tran

text: In 2011, Tran pursued a modeling career, and after doing commercials decided to move to Los Angeles in 2012. Tran then became successful in modeling as a top Asian female model. Tran modeled for top brands like Inked Magazine, Glass Magazine and Tattoo Life. She stated that her favorite tattoo on her body is her zombie tattoo because of its artistry, but partially regrets her first tattoo she got when she was 18 years old. In 2012, Levy made her first television debut on MTV's Guy Code as a guest host. In 2013, Tran was involved in a controversial music video called "Asian Girlz" created by Day Above Ground. Tran quickly apologized for the music video stating: “I sincerely apologize to all who feels that I set Asian women back 50 yrs. I know I lost respect from a lot of ppl [sic]. It wasn't my intention. [...] It was meant to be light hearted and fun. Satirical. They are sweet boys and not at all racist. That is all I will say. I'm sorry once again.”


title: Levy Tran

text: In 2015, Levy played the role of the race starter in Furious 7. She was later voted as one of the most beautiful women of the "Fast & Furious" franchise. She later went on to have appearances on the television series Jungle Justice in 2015, and later starred in the films "Female Fight Squad" and "The Unwilling". Tran went on to appear in several other television series, including playing Eddie in season 8 of "Shameless". Levy then went on to play the role of Roenick in the 2018 film "The First Purge", and also appeared in the 2018 Netflix series "The Haunting of Hill House", as Trish Park.


title: Levy Tran

text: Levy was cast to play operative Desiree "Desi" Nguyen in the final eight episodes for season three of "MacGyver" in 2019. Tran said that she enjoys her role as Desi, and was excited for season four. In June 2019, Tran was officially confirmed as a main cast member for season four of "MacGyver".


title: Levy Tran

text: Tran is very dedicated to her fitness. Tran has also stated "I want to start a movement of new age housewives where you have women with dyed hair, piercings, and tattoos who are very traditional in a household kind of setting."


title: DJ Premier

text: Christopher Edward Martin (born March 21, 1966), known professionally as DJ Premier (also known as Preemo), is an American record producer and DJ. He is considered one of the greatest hip hop producers of all time. He was half of the hip hop duo Gang Starr—alongside the rapper Guru—and presently forms half of the hip hop duo PRhyme, together with Royce da 5'9".


title: DJ Premier

text: Christopher Edward Martin was born in the Fifth Ward of Houston, Texas on March 21, 1966. He was then raised in Prairie View, Texas, before moving to Brooklyn, New York, during his teenage years. He attended Prairie View A&M University, where he honed his musical skills as the campus DJ, and he also occasionally performed with the Marching Storm band.


title: DJ Premier

text: Premier is known for producing all of Gang Starr's songs as well as many of those composed by the Gang Starr Foundation. Notable artists he has worked with include Anderson .Paak, AZ, Big Daddy Kane, Big L, Blaq Poet, Bun B, Canibus, Christina Aguilera, Common, D'Angelo, Dilated Peoples, D.I.T.C., Dr. Dre, Fat Joe, The Game, Ill Bill, J. Cole, Janet Jackson, Jay-Z, Joey Bada$$, Kanye West, KRS-One, The Lady of Rage, Limp Bizkit, Lord Finesse, The LOX, Ludacris, Mac Miller, Mobb Deep, M.O.P., Mos Def, Eminem, Nas, The Notorious B.I.G., O.C., Papoose, Rakim, Royce da 5'9", Snoop Dogg, Xzibit and more.


title: DJ Premier

text: Premier collaborated with MC Jeru the Damaja on the album "The Sun Rises in the East", released in 1994, as well as the 1996 follow-up, "Wrath of the Math". Premier produced and supervised "Livin' Proof" by Group Home, also from the Gang Starr Foundation; although overlooked at the time of its 1995 release, the album eventually received acclaim.


title: DJ Premier

text: In 2006, pop/R&B singer Christina Aguilera recruited Premier to produce her album "Back to Basics". Premier explained the reservations he heard from people regarding the collaboration:


title: DJ Premier

text: When Christina [Aguilera] had me work with her, people were like, "Oh no. Please don't." Then, when they heard "Ain't No Other Man," "Back In The Day," and all the other records were still constructed like Premier tracks they were like, "Yo, I really love this album. I was really impressed. I was worried, but you totally sound like what we love about you." Until you hear it, don't say a word. I never want to be just attached to hip hop. I want to be attached to music—country, rap, soul, jazz, blues, it doesn't matter, gospel music—I come from all of that.


title: DJ Premier

text: In 2008, Premier appeared in "Grand Theft Auto IV" as himself – the host for radio station The Classics 104.1.


title: DJ Premier

text: Premier produced the majority of Blaq Poet's "Tha Blaqprint", which was released in mid-2009. Premier contributed a song on Game's 2011 album, "The R.E.D. Album". Also in 2011, Premier appeared on the song "Gangster", on Bushido's album "Jenseits von Gut und Böse".


title: DJ Premier

text: Premier was one of the artists followed in the 2012 documentary, "Re:GENERATION". The film followed his production of the song "Regeneration," for which he used a live performance of his work by the Berklee Symphony Orchestra.


title: DJ Premier

text: In September 2012, Immortal Technique said that a song called "Born in the Trap," on his upcoming album, titled "The Middle Passage", would feature production by Premier.


title: DJ Premier

text: In early 2014, Premier revealed that he is working with Aguilera again in an interview with New Zealand's "Rip It Up" magazine. Premier produced "Y'all Ready Know" by Slaughterhouse, from the Shady Records album, "Shady XV", and the music video was published in November 2014.


title: DJ Premier

text: In mid-2014, Premier collaborated with Korean hip-hop group Dynamic Duo on two singles "AEAO" and "Animal", which were both warmly received.


title: DJ Premier

text: A mid-January 2015 announcement from Premier stated that the producer's studio, D&D, also known as "The HeadQcouterz," will cease to be operational. As part of the announcement, Premier confirmed that he is working on the album, "Last Session @320", after he relocates to a recording space in Astoria, New York City, U.S.


title: DJ Premier

text: DJ Premier hosts a weekly two-hour show, "Live From HeadQCourterz", on Sirius Satellite Radio's Shade 45.


title: DJ Premier

text: DJ Premier served as one of the three curators for the soundtrack to the video game "NBA 2K16", alongside DJ Khaled and DJ Mustard.


title: DJ Premier

text: The early line-up of the Gang Starr Foundation in the mid-1990s included Jeru the Damaja, Group Home, Big Shug, and Gang Starr. Premier was fully responsible for the production of Jeru the Damaja's first two albums, "The Sun Rises in the East" and "Wrath of the Math". Jeru released three subsequent albums that did not include Premier's involvement. In terms of his Group Home collaboration, Premier commented in a 2003 interview: "They [Group Home] don't respect what fed them." He further explained that he only agreed to produce the track "The Legacy" because of Guru's involvement.


title: DJ Premier

text: Other artists closely tied to the Gang Starr Foundation who Premier collaborated with include: Afu Ra, Bahamadia, Krumbsnatcha, Big Shug, Smiley the Ghetto Child, and NYGz.


title: DJ Premier

text: Premier definitely coached me when I was in the booth. "harder..stronger..more this..more that"—I was an untamed artist and rapping next to recording your vocals are different. He gave me this knowledge through the work we did.


title: DJ Premier

text: Besides the Gang Starr Foundation, Premier is closely affiliated with M.O.P., which he names as one of his all-time favorite groups. The relationship started with the remix of "Rugged, Neva Smoove" in 1994, a single from the group's first album, which also included the exclusive B-side "Downtown Swinga." From then, Premier produced about one-third of the songs on each subsequent album and overseeing and mixing the projects. On M.O.P.'s 2009 "Foundation" album, Premier provided only one track, which was called "What I Wanna B."


title: DJ Premier

text: On May 16, 2019, DJ Premier released a collaboration with Buffalo (New York) rappers Conway The Machine, Westside Gunn, and Benny the Butcher, called "Headlines."


title: DJ Premier

text: DJ Premier's style of production epitomizes the New York sound of his earlier peers. He is known for sampling jazz, funk, and soul artists, as well as sampling an artist's past work when creating a new track for that same artist. For example, on Jay-Z's "So Ghetto", from the 1999 album "Vol. 3... Life and Times of S. Carter", Premier samples an older Jay-Z song, 1997's "Who You Wit II". In addition, his encyclopedic memory of hip-hop lyrics allows him to distinctively speak with his hands by scratching in lyrics from several different songs to construct new phrases. Premier's beats are known for his oft-imitated combinations of short vocal samples, often from multiple artists, to create a chorus. Premier has also experimented with atonal samples that are not confined to soul, jazz, and funk. For example, he sampled and chopped up seminal electro-acoustic music from the 1960s on the track "Physical Stamina" by Jeru the Damaja.


title: DJ Premier

text: In an interview with "XXL Magazine", DJ Premier was asked how his sound evolved, to which he replied, "Marley Marl is my number-one inspiration. Jam Master Jay, Mix Master Ice, and UTFO. Grandmaster D, and Whodini. DJ Cheese, Grandmaster Flash, Kool Herc, Afrika Bambaataa. Jazzy Jay—even Cut Creator. Seeing them do what they do. It's black music, it's black culture, it comes from the ghetto. How can you not relate to ghetto people when that's the rawest form of blackness? Even though it's not a good place in regards to the economy and how bad people have it in the neighborhood, the realism's there, and that's what we were born out of. So I very much pay respect by doing the same type of music in return." DJ Premier attended Prairie View A&M University and may have been influenced by the musical atmosphere at the university while serving as the campus DJ and occasional performer with the world-famous Marching Storm band. He was a major progenitor of the boom-bap style of hip-hop production.


title: DJ Premier

text: As a businessman, DJ Premier has his own record company named Year Round Records. Among its artists are New York group NYGz, New Jersey rapper Nick Javas, and Houston rapper Khaleel. "Tha Blaqprint" by Blaq Poet, which features 13 Premier productions, was released by Year Round Records through Fat Beats Records in June 2009.


title: DJ Premier

text: For its 20th-anniversary issue in 2008, "The Source" selected DJ Premier for its list of the 20 greatest producers in the magazine's history. He also made the finals in "Vibe" magazine's 2010 search for the greatest hip hop producer of all time—he finished second after Dr. Dre received 62 percent of the votes.


title: Subramania Bharati

text: C. Subramania Bharathi (IPA: ; born C. Subramaniyan 11 December 1882 – 11 September 1921) was a Tamil writer, poet, journalist, Indian independence activist, social reformer and polyglot. He was bestowed the title "Bharathi" for his excellence in poetry. He was a pioneer of modern Tamil poetry and is considered one of the greatest Tamil literary figures of all time. He is popularly known by his mononymous title "Bharathi/ Bharathiyaar," and also by the other title "Mahakavi Bharathi" ("the great poet Bharathi"). His numerous works included fiery songs kindling patriotism during the Indian Independence movement. He fought for the emancipation of women, against child marriage, vehemently opposed the caste system, and stood for reforming society and religion. He was also in solidarity with Dalits and Muslims.


title: Subramania Bharati

text: Born in Ettayapuram of Tirunelveli district (present-day Thoothukudi) in 1882, Bharathi had his early education in Tirunelveli and Varanasi and worked as a journalist with many newspapers, including The Hindu, Bala Bharata, Vijaya, Chakravarthini, the "Swadesamitran" and "India". In 1908, an arrest warrant was issued against Bharathi by the government of British India caused him to move to Pondicherry where he lived until 1918.


title: Subramania Bharati

text: His influence on Tamil literature is phenomenal, although it is said that he was proficient in around 32, including 3 non-Indian foreign languages. His favorite language was Tamil. He was prolific in his output. He covered political, social and spiritual themes. The songs and poems composed by Bharathi are very often used in Tamil cinema and have become staples in the literary and musical repertoire of Tamil artistes throughout the world. He paved the way for modern blank verse. He wrote many books and poems on how Tamil is beautiful in nature.


title: Subramania Bharati

text: C. Subramaniyan (Tamil: ) was born in a brahmin family on 11 December 1882 in the village of Ettayapuram, Tamil Nadu to Chinnaswami Subramania Iyer and Lakshmi Ammal. From a very young age, Subramaniyan was musically and poetically inclined. He lost his mother at the age of five and was brought up by his father who wanted him to learn English, excel in arithmetic, and become an engineer. At around the young age of 11, he was conferred the title of "Bharathi", meaning blessed by the goddess of learning Saraswati, by the Raja of Ettayapuram on seeing his excellence in poetry. Henceforth he was known as C. Subramania Bharathi (Tamil: ). At the age of 15 he was married to Chellamma who was seven years old. Chellama was from Kadayam town near Tenkasi. He lost his father at the age of sixteen. He went to the M.D.T. Hindu College in Tirunelveli. Bharathi was a proficient linguist, he was well-versed in Tamil, Sanskrit, Hindi, Telugu, English, French and had a smattering knowledge of Arabic.


title: Subramania Bharati

text: During his stay in Varanasi, Bharathi was exposed to Hindu spirituality and nationalism. This broadened his outlook and he learned Sanskrit, Hindi and English. In addition, he changed his outward appearance. He also grew a beard and wore a turban due to his admiration of Sikhs, influenced by his Sikh friend. Though he passed an entrance exam for a job, he returned to Ettayapuram during 1901 and started as the court poet of Raja of Ettayapuram for a couple of years. He was a Tamil teacher from August to November 1904 in Sethupathy High School in Madurai. During this period, Bharathi understood the need to be well-informed of the world outside and took interest in the world of journalism and the print media of the West. Bharathi joined as Assistant Editor of the "Swadesamitran", a Tamil daily in 1904. In December 1905, he attended the All India Congress session held in Benaras. On his journey back home, he met Sister Nivedita, Swami Vivekananda's spiritual heir. She inspired Bharathi to recognise the privileges of women and the emancipation of women exercised Bharathi's mind. He visualised the new woman as an emanation of Shakti, a willing helpmate of man to build a new earth through co-operative endeavour. Among other greats such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak, he considered Nivedita his Guru, and penned verses in her praise. He attended the Indian National Congress session in Calcutta under Dadabhai Naoiroji, which demanded Swaraj and boycott of British goods.


title: Subramania Bharati

text: By April 1907, he started editing the Tamil weekly "India" and the English newspaper "Bala Bharatham" with M.P.T. Acharya. These newspapers were also a means of expressing Bharathi's creativity, which began to peak during this period. Bharathi started to publish his poems regularly in these editions. From hymns to nationalistic writings, from contemplations on the relationship between God and Man to songs on the Russian and French revolutions, Bharathi's subjects were diverse.


title: Subramania Bharati

text: Bharathi participated in the historic Surat Congress in 1907 along with V.O. Chidambaram Pillai and Mandayam Srinivachariar, which deepened the divisions within the Indian National Congress with a section preferring armed resistance, primarily led by Tilak over moderate approach preferred by certain other sections. Bharathi supported Tilak with V. O. Chidambaram Pillai and Kanchi Varathachariyar. Tilak openly supported armed resistance against the British.


title: Subramania Bharati

text: In 1908, the British instituted a case against V.O. Chidambaram Pillai. In the same year, the proprietor of the journal "India" was arrested in Madras. Faced with the prospect of arrest, Bharathi escaped to Pondicherry, which was under French rule. From there he edited and published the weekly journal "India", "Vijaya", a Tamil daily, "Bala Bharatham", an English monthly, and "Suryodayam", a local weekly in Pondicherry. The British tried to suppress Bharathi's output by stopping remittances and letters to the papers. Both "India" and "Vijaya" were banned in India in 1909.


title: Subramania Bharati

text: During his exile, Bharathi had the opportunity to meet many other leaders of the revolutionary wing of the Independence movement like Aurobindo, Lajpat Rai and V.V.S. Aiyar, who had also sought asylum under the French. Bharathi assisted Aurobindo in the "Arya" journal and later "Karma Yogi" in Pondicherry. This was also the period when he started learning Vedic literature. Three of his greatest works namely, "Kuyil Pattu", "Panchali Sapatham" and "Kannan Pattu" were composed during 1912. He also translated Vedic hymns, Patanjali's "Yoga Sutra" and "Bhagavat Gita" to Tamil. Bharathi entered India near Cuddalore in November 1918 and was promptly arrested. He was imprisoned in the Central prison in Cuddalore in custody for three weeks from 20 November to 14 December and was released after the intervention of Annie Besant and C.P. Ramaswamy Aiyar. He was stricken by poverty during this period, resulting in his ill health. The following year, 1919, Bharathi met Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. He resumed editing "Swadesimeitran" from 1920 in Madras (modern-day Chennai).


title: Subramania Bharati

text: He was badly affected by the imprisonments and by 1920 when a General Amnesty Order finally removed restrictions on his movements, Bharathi was already struggling. He was struck by an elephant named Lavanya at Parthasarathy temple, Triplicane, Chennai, whom he used to feed every day. When he fed a coconut to Lavanya (the elephant), the elephant got fired up and attacked Bharathi. Although he survived the incident, his health deteriorated a few months later and he died early morning on 12 September 1921 at around 1 am. Though Bharathi was considered a people's poet, a great nationalist, outstanding freedom fighter and social visionary, it was recorded that there were only 14 people to attend his funeral. He delivered his last speech at Karungalpalayam Library in Erode, which was about the topic "Man is Immortal". The last years of his life were spent in a house in Triplicane, Chennai. The house was bought and renovated by the Government of Tamil Nadu in 1993 and named Bharathi Illam (Home of Bharathi).


title: Subramania Bharati

text: Bharathi is considered one of the pioneers of modern Tamil literature. Bharathi used simple words and rhythms, unlike his previous century works in Tamil, which had complex vocabulary. He also employed novel ideas and techniques in his devotional poems. He used a metre called "Nondi Chindu" in most of his works, which was earlier used by Gopalakrisnha Bharathiar.


title: Subramania Bharati

text: Bharathi's poetry expressed a progressive, reformist ideal. His imagery and the vigour of his verse were a forerunner to modern Tamil poetry in different aspects. He was the forerunner of a forceful kind of poetry that combined classical and contemporary elements. He had a prodigious output penning thousands of verses on diverse topics like Indian Nationalism, love songs, children's songs, songs of nature, glory of the Tamil language, and odes to prominent freedom fighters of India like Tilak, Gandhi and Lajpat Rai. He even penned an ode to New Russia and Belgium.


title: Subramania Bharati

text: Bharathi's poetry not only includes works on Hindu deities like Shakti, Kali, Vinayagar, Murugan, Sivan, Kannan(Krishna), but also on other religious gods like Allah and Jesus. His insightful similes have been read by millions of Tamil readers. He was well-versed in various languages and translated speeches of Indian National reform leaders like Sri Aurobindo, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Swami Vivekananda. Bharathi's works can be found at and also at the open access Tamil literature repository called Project Madurai. Bharathi's works were nationalized meaning they were brought under public ownership of the government thus becoming public domain works in 1949 by the then Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, Omandur Ramasamy Reddy.


title: Subramania Bharati

text: It is the opinion of some litterateurs that Bharathiar's "Panchali Sapatham," based on the story of Panchali (Draupadi), is also an ode to Bharat Mata. That the Pandavass are the Indians, the Kauravas the British and the Kurukshetra war of Mahabharat that of the Indian freedom struggle. It certainly is ascribed to the rise of womanhood in society.


title: Subramania Bharati

text: He is known to have said, "Even if Indians are divided, they are children of one Mother, where is the need for foreigners to interfere?" In the period 1910–1920, he wrote about a new and free India where there are no castes. He talks of building up India's defense, her ships sailing the high seas, success in manufacturing and universal education. He calls for sharing amongst states with wonderful imagery like the diversion of excess water of the Bengal delta to needy regions and a bridge to Sri Lanka.


title: Subramania Bharati

text: Bharathi also wanted to abolish starvation. He sang, ""Thani oru manithanakku unavu illayenil intha jagaththinai azhithiduvom"" translated as " If one single man suffers from starvation, we will destroy the entire world".


title: Subramania Bharati

text: Some of his poems are translated by Jayanthasri Balakrishnan in English in her blog, though not published.


title: Subramania Bharati

text: Even though he has strong opinions about Gods, he is also against false stories spread in epics and other part of social fabric in Tamil Nadu.


title: Subramania Bharati

text: Bharathi also fought against the caste system in Hindu society. Bharathi was born in an orthodox Brahmin family, but he considered all living beings to be equal, and to illustrate this he performed the "upanayanam" for a young Dalit man and made him a Brahmin. He also scorned the divisive tendencies being imparted into the younger generations by their elderly tutors during his time. He openly criticised the preachers for mixing their individual thoughts while teaching the Vedas, Upanishads and the Gita. He strongly advocated bringing the Dalits to the Hindu mainstream.


title: Subramania Bharati

text: Here he expresses the love between human beings, where a man should not see their caste. They should see them as human beings. Not only human beings, they should see them as their brothers and sisters. This means that a well-educated person knows to treat them equally and not by their caste.


title: Subramania Bharati

text: The Government of India in 1987 instituted a highest National Subramanyam Bharati Award conferred along with Ministry of Human Resource Development, annually confers on writers of outstanding works in Hindi literature.


title: Subramania Bharati

text: Bharathiar University, a state university named after the poet, was established in 1982 at Coimbatore. There is a statue of Bharathiar at Marina Beach and also in the Indian Parliament. A Tamil Movie titled Bharathi was made in the year 2000 on the life of the poet by Gnana Rajasekeran, which won National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Tamil. The movie "Kappalottiya Thamizhan" chronicles the important struggles of V.O.Chidambaranar along with Subramanya Siva and Bharathiar with S.V. Subbaiah starring as Subramania Bharathi.


title: Subramania Bharati

text: On 14 August 2014 Professor Muhammadu Sathik raja Started an Educational trust at thiruppuvanam pudur, near Madurai named as Omar -Bharathi educational trust, the name is kept to praise the two legendary poets Umaru Pulavar and Subramania Bharathiyar from Ettaiyapuram. Though these two Poets are having three centuries time interval, the divine service and their contribution to the Tamil language are made them unparallel legends. Both two poets are offered their services at vaigai river bank of thiruppuvanam. the two poets were strongly suffered by their financial status, so both of them were unsuccessful to fulfil their family members need.


title: Subramania Bharati

text: Many roads are named after him, notable ones including Bharathiar road in Coimbatore and Subramaniam Bharti Marg in New Delhi. The NGO Sevalaya runs the Mahakavi Bharatiya Higher Secondary School.


title: Subramania Bharati

text: Bharati had a critical reception from the Tamil music director Adhithya Venkatapathy through the musical duo Hiphop Tamizha which features Bharati in its logo. Many of the poems written by Bharati were used in various Tamil films in the form of songs. AVM productions was the first company to use his songs in films, "Aaduvome Palli" from "Naam Iruvar" (1947) was the first song inspired from Bharathi's poem. Many of the film titles were taken from his poems like "Vallamai Tharayo" (2008), "Aanmai Thavarel" (2011), "Nayyapudai" (2016), "Nerkonda Paarvai" (2019), "Soorarai Potru" (2020).


title: Aos Sí

text: The "aos sí" are said to live underground in fairy forts, across the Western sea, or in an invisible world that co-exists with the world of humans. This world is described in the "Lebor Gabála Érenn" as a parallel universe in which the "aos sí" walk among the living.


title: Aos Sí

text: In modern Irish the people of the mounds are also called daoine sí; in Scottish Gaelic they are called daoine sìth (in both cases, it means "people of the fairy mound"). They are variously said to be the ancestors, the spirits of nature, or goddesses and gods.


title: Aos Sí

text: In the Irish language, "aos sí" means "people of the mounds", as the ""sídhe"" in Irish are hills or burial mounds (consistent with Geoffrey Keating's suggestion that the "aos sí" came from the Land of the Dead). In modern Irish, the word is "sí"; in Scottish Gaelic, "sìth"; in Old Irish, "síde", and the singular is "síd".


title: Aos Sí

text: By the time of the Celtic Revival, when the "Fairy Faith became a topic for English and English-language authors, "sidhe" in its various forms, with various meanings, became a loanword into English and took on a variety of, often inaccurate, meanings. In a number of later, English-language texts, the word "sídhe" is incorrectly used both for the mounds and the people of the mounds. For example W. B. Yeats, writing in 1908, referred to the "aos sí" simply as "the "sídhe"". However "sidh" in older texts refers specifically to "the palaces, courts, halls or residences" of the otherworldly beings that supposedly inhabit them. The fact that many of these "sídhe" have been found to be ancient burial mounds has contributed to the theory that the "aos sí" were the pre-Celtic occupants of Ireland.


title: Aos Sí

text: In the scholarly literature of the "Popular Tales of Ireland" (1880) the word "sídh" is conjectured to be synonymous with "immortal," and is compared with words such as "sídsat" "they wait/remain," "síthbeo" "lasting," "sídhbuan" "perepetual," and "sídhbe" "long life." In most of the tales concerning the "sí" a great age or long life is implied.


title: Aos Sí

text: In many Gaelic tales, the "aos sí" are later, literary versions of the Tuatha Dé Danann ("People of the Goddess Danu")—the deities and deified ancestors of Irish mythology. Some sources describe them as the survivors of the Tuatha Dé Danann who retreated into the Otherworld when fleeing the mortal Sons of Míl Espáine who, like many other early invaders of Ireland, came from Iberia. As part of the terms of their surrender to the Milesians, the Tuatha Dé Danann agreed to retreat and dwell underground. (In later interpretations, each tribe of the Tuatha Dé Danann was given its own mound.) Geoffrey Keating, an Irish historian of the early 17th century, equates Iberia with the Land of the Dead, providing a possible connection to the "aos sí."


title: Aos Sí

text: In folk belief and practice, the "aos sí" are often appeased with offerings, and care is taken to avoid angering or insulting them. Often they are not named directly, but rather spoken of as "The Good Neighbours", "The Fair Folk", or simply "The Folk". The most common names for them, "aos sí", "aes sídhe", "daoine sídhe" (singular "duine sídhe") and "daoine sìth" mean, literally, "people of the mounds" (referring to the "sídhe"). The "aos sí" are generally described as stunningly beautiful, though they can also be terrible and hideous.


title: Aos Sí

text: "Aos sí" are seen as fierce guardians of their abodes —whether a fairy hill, a fairy ring, a special tree (often a hawthorn) or a particular loch or wood. It is believed that infringing on these spaces will cause the "aos sí" to retaliate in an effort to remove the people or objects that invaded their homes. Many of these tales contribute to the changeling myth in west European folklore, with the "aos sí" kidnapping trespassers or replacing their children with changelings as a punishment for transgressing. The "aos sí" are often connected to certain times of year and hours; as the Gaelic Otherworld is believed to come closer to the mortal world at the times of dusk and dawn, the "aos sí" correspondingly become easier to encounter. Some festivals such as Samhain, Bealtaine and Midsummer are also associated with the "aos sí."


title: Aos Sí

text: Daoine maithe is Irish for "the good people", which is a popular term used to refer to the fairies in Irish folklore. Due to the oral nature of Irish folklore the exact origins of the fairies is not well defined. There are stories enough to support two possible origins. The fairies could either be fallen angels or the descendants of the Tuatha Dé Danann; in the latter case this is equivalent with "Aos Sí". In the former case, it is said that the fairies are angels who have fallen from heaven, but whose sins were not great enough to warrant hell.


title: Aos Sí

text: They are generally human-like, though there are exceptions such as the "púca" and the mermaid. The defining features of the Irish fairies are their supernatural abilities and their temperament. If treated with respect and kindness, Irish fairies can be quite benevolent; however, if they are mistreated they will react cruelly.


title: Aos Sí

text: The banshee or "bean sídhe" (from ), which means "woman of the "sídhe"", has come to indicate any supernatural woman of Ireland who announces a coming death by wailing and keening. Her counterpart in Scottish mythology is the "bean sìth" (sometimes spelled "bean-sìdh"). Other varieties of "aos sí" and "daoine sìth" include the Scottish "bean nighe": the washerwoman who is seen washing the bloody clothing or armour of the person who is doomed to die; the "leanan sídhe": the "fairy lover"; the "cat sìth": a fairy cat; and the "Cù Sìth": fairy dog.


title: Aos Sí

text: The "sluagh sídhe" — "the fairy host" — is sometimes depicted in Irish and Scottish lore as a crowd of airborne spirits, perhaps the cursed, evil or restless dead. The "siabhra" (anglicised as "sheevra"), may be a type of these lesser spirits, prone to evil and mischief. However, an Ulster folk song also uses "sheevra" simply to mean "spirit" or "fairy".


title: Aos Sí

text: ' is Irish for the "Fairy Faith", a collection of beliefs and practices observed by those who wish to keep good relationships with the ' and avoid angering them. The custom of offering milk and traditional foods—such as baked goods, apples or berries—to the ' has survived through the Christian era into the present day in parts of Ireland, Scotland and the diaspora. Those who maintain some degree of belief in the ' also are careful to leave their sacred places alone and protect them from damage through road or housing construction.


title: Major League Rugby

text: Major League Rugby (MLR or USMLR) is a professional rugby union competition and the top-level championship for clubs in North America. In the 2022 season it was contested by thirteen teams: twelve from the United States and one from Canada. Officially sanctioned by USA Rugby—a member union of Rugby Americas North (RAN)—and consequently part of World Rugby, the league was founded in 2017 and is headquartered in Dallas, Texas.


title: Major League Rugby

text: With its initial beginnings as part of established amateur rugby clubs in major North American urban areas, MLR began its first season in 2018 as an initiative of the American rugby community in partnership with private investors. Three further American clubs, in Atlanta, Boston, and Washington D.C., began play in 2020.


title: Major League Rugby

text: Major League Rugby implemented its first collegiate MLR Draft in 2020. In 2020, Major League Rugby teams started forming youth academies.


title: Major League Rugby

text: The 2020 season was suspended on March 12, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On March 18, the league announced that they would resume play in 2021, with two new teams in both Los Angeles in 2021 and Dallas joining in 2022 (delayed by one year).


title: Major League Rugby

text: The 2022 season was marked by the disqualification, and subsequent departure, of two teams from the Western Conference, LA Giltinis and Austin Gilgronis, both of whom had been under the ownership of Adam Gilchrist. This setback was offset with the announcement of a new franchise in Chicago, starting 2023 and bringing the circuit back to twelve teams.


title: Major League Rugby

text: In September 2016, with at least five amateur rugby union clubs across the United States discussing a possible professional league, Dean Howes, who had previously been an executive with Major League Soccer's Real Salt Lake and the St. Louis Blues of the National Hockey League, stepped in as senior strategic advisor for Rugby Utah in an attempt to provide a pathway for expanding professional rugby stateside.


title: Major League Rugby

text: By February 2017, a total of nine amateur rugby union organizations including the Austin Huns, Dallas Griffins, Glendale Raptors, Houston Strikers, Kansas City Blues, Minneapolis, New Orleans RFC, Rugby Utah and the Seattle Saracens, announced their intentions to form a professional league to begin play the following year.


title: Major League Rugby

text: On August 15, 2017, the Austin Huns announced that it would opt-out of MLR in favor of allowing a newly branded spinoff, the Austin Elite compete in the league. The Houston Strikers rebranded themselves as the Houston SaberCats. Whereas the elite players of New Orleans, Utah, and Seattle became the New Orleans Gold, Utah Warriors, and Seattle Seawolves respectively, interests in Minneapolis were replaced by the San Diego Legion. With Kansas City and Dallas still in planning stages, the league continued as seven members for its inaugural season.


title: Major League Rugby

text: On November 6, 2017, Major League Rugby and CBS Sports Network announced a multi-year television partnership which marked MLR's first major television deal for broadcast rights. It was the first time in American history that a new sporting league had a national television deal prior to launch.


title: Major League Rugby

text: The first regular-season game in Major League Rugby history was held on April 21, 2018, when the Houston SaberCats hosted the New Orleans Gold in Houston.


title: Major League Rugby

text: In addition to Rugby United New York, the Toronto Arrows joined the league ahead of 2019 season as the first Canadian team in MLR. Three further American clubs began play in 2020, with the New England Free Jacks, Old Glory DC, and Rugby ATL. With the opening of Aveva Stadium as Houston's permanent stadium in April 2019, MLR gained its first stadium that was specifically built for league play.


title: Major League Rugby

text: Later in April, RUNY announced the signing of French international Mathieu Bastareaud on a loan deal from Toulon for the 2020 season. In October 2019, another major signing was made when it was announced that All Blacks international and multiple World Cup winner Ma'a Nonu would join the San Diego Legion for the 2020 season. The following December saw another World Cup winner sign with the league, namely South Africa prop Tendai Mtawarira with Old Glory DC.


title: Major League Rugby

text: On March 12, 2020, MLR initially suspended its 2020 season for 30 days due to the coronavirus pandemic but then cancelled the remainder of the entire season on March 18. On April 9, the Colorado Raptors announced they were leaving the league.


title: Major League Rugby

text: On May 28, 2020, the LA Giltinis were added as an expansion team based in Los Angeles to begin competition in the 2021 season. The name is a combination of the word "martini" and the last name of owner Adam Gilchrist. This was followed on June 4, 2020, with the addition of Dallas Jackals based in Dallas, Texas for the 2021 season. However, on January 19, 2021, Dallas announced that the team would postpone their inaugural season to 2022.


title: Major League Rugby

text: The MLR announced on November 17, 2022 that the new expansion team will be the Chicago Hounds who will compete as 12th MLR team in the 2023 season. MLR unveiled the team name, logo, and color scheme for their newest franchise. A press conference was held to officially announce MLR's latest expansion team. Commissioner George Killebrew was joined by Chicago Hounds Head Coach Sam Harris and current players Mike Mattarazzo, Sydney Shoop, and Caleb Strum, all of whom were selected by Chicago in the MLR expansion draft on November 10. The Hounds will compete in MLR's Western Conference, donning the team colors of green and sky blue. The team will play their inaugural match on the road at Old Glory DC on Saturday, February 18, 2023. The Hounds home opener will be against the Utah Warriors at SeatGeek Stadium in Bridgeview, Illinois on Sunday, March 4th.


title: Major League Rugby

text: Major League Rugby spans five months from March through to August. The 2019 regular season was a double round-robin with all clubs playing each other home and away. Each team played sixteen games, half of them at home. This was followed by a postseason for the top four teams consisting of two semi-final matches and the Championship Game to determine the season's MLR champion team.


title: Major League Rugby

text: For the 2020 season, MLR changed to a conference format. Both conferences, the Western Conference and the Eastern Conference, consisted of six teams: Seattle, San Diego, Utah, Colorado, Austin and Houston in the west and existing teams New Orleans, New York, and Toronto to be joined by 2020 newcomers Atlanta, Washington, D.C., and New England in the east. Each team played a double round-robin within their conference in addition to playing six games against teams from the other conference, for a total of 16 regular-season games. The postseason would consist of the top three teams from each conference: a wildcard game between the second and third ranked teams, followed by a playoff game between the wildcard winner and the first ranked team in the conference. The resulting playoff winners from each conference would then face off in the league championship. The season started on February 8 and ended on March 8.


title: Major League Rugby

text: The league is structured as a closed system and, similar to other American sports leagues, does not have promotion and relegation. It operates as a single entity similar to Major League Soccer and other major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada, with each team or "franchise" owned by the league and the franchise operators owning a share of the league.


title: Major League Rugby

text: On September 22, 2020, the MLR announced the 2021 season (fourth season) would start with matches on March 20, 2021, and continue for 18 weeks. Twelve teams across North America competed to make the MLR playoffs. At the end of the regular season, the playoffs were played over two weeks of the Eastern Conference and Western Conference finals with the Championship Final be held on August 1, 2021.


title: Major League Rugby

text: Training camps for all MLR teams began on February 15, 2021. There were a variety of pre-season activities in each market as well as national media day where each team provided national and international media access to standout players.


title: Major League Rugby

text: The twelve teams competing in the 2023 Major League Rugby season are divided into two conferences. The twelfth team, Chicago Hounds, was announced to be joining the Western Conference on November 17th, 2022.


title: Major League Rugby

text: The expansion franchise fee is US$4 million as of 2019. The first 2021 expansion team was based in Dallas, which was later named the Dallas Jackals, but postponed their inaugural season to 2022. The Dallas Jackals will be competing in the Western Conference. It has also been rumored in February 2022 that a new expansion team may be added in St. Louis in the near future, with trademarks for a "St. Louis Knights" being filed, but the league has yet to say whether or not this is a possibility.


title: Major League Rugby

text: In July 2018, an ownership group in Los Angeles announced its intentions to join in the 2019 season as LA Coast Rugby, but the bid was ultimately rejected. Instead, an Australian ownership group has been approved to field a team in Los Angeles with a 2021 start date called the Los Angeles Loyals. An owner in Vancouver, British Columbia, announced intentions to add a team to MLR for the 2019 season, but also never went further. Columbus, Ohio, which previously had a team in PRO Rugby, nearly became home to a relocated Austin Herd in the 2020 season. The owner of the HFX Wanderers FC soccer team also stated he had been in talks with the league for an expansion team. In December 2019, former RC Toulon majority owner Mourad Boudjellal apparently discussed making a bid for a team in Miami. MLR had confirmed that a team from Hawaii was being considered for 2021, but negotiations expired.


title: Major League Rugby

text: In July 2020, Commissioner George Killebrew said it is possible a team in Chicago will enter the league in 2023. This was confirmed when the 2023 schedule was released on November 15, 2022.


title: Major League Rugby

text: On April 9, 2020, the Colorado Raptors announced that they would withdraw from Major League Rugby after three seasons in the league, effective May 2, 2020, the first team to do so. Their announcement explained their withdrawal by saying that "our greater responsibility lies in the development of American players who can win the World Cup for the United States." Asked to explain how withdrawing from the league would help to develop American rugby players, the Raptors referred the question to Glendale City Manager Linda Cassaday, who said on April 10, 2020, that MLR had been founded with a core mission of developing American rugby players and originally had limited teams to three foreign players, although this expanded to five players before the first season began in 2018. MLR had expanded from seven teams in 2018 to 12 in 2020 without having enough American players to fill out rosters and had raised the ceiling on foreign players to 10 per team. The Raptors believed that both this overall number of foreign players and the higher proportion of foreign to American players no longer best served the goal of developing American players who could compete successfully in the Rugby World Cup, and therefore chose to withdraw from the league to better focus their efforts on the development of American players who could compete on an international stage.


title: Major League Rugby

text: On October 25, 2022, Major League Rugby announced that 12 teams would compete in the 2023 season, but that neither the Austin Gilgronis, nor the LA Giltinis will participate. With the uncertainties surrounding Austin and Los Angeles' team ownership, it was determined to suspend operations of the two teams to ensure a successful 2023 season, and protect the long-term strength and continued growth of the league.


title: Major League Rugby

text: In Major League Rugby, several teams annually compete for secondary rivalry cups. Most cups are deliberately conceived as local derbies between teams in the same region.


title: Major League Rugby

text: Each win is counted as an official title. Only official MLR games are considered as official rivalry games unless an exhibition game is specifically marked as a Rivalry game. Several teams now participating in cups played matches before the creation of the cups.


title: Major League Rugby

text: Major League Rugby players include those drawn from North American clubs, as well as foreign signings. Although the original concept was to limit club to three foreign players, the limit grew to five before the start of the first season, before then being increased to ten. This increased allotment of foreign players led to some criticism that MLR was not providing enough opportunities for American players to develop.


title: Major League Rugby

text: For the 2022 season, MLR and FOX Sports have partnered up once again to broadcast the matches. MLR Commissioner George Killebrew said, "Having FOX Sports involved as the national television broadcaster for Major League Rugby this season is an amazing opportunity for the league. FOX Sports' reach and audience will not only bring our fans the rugby coverage they expect but also introduce our sport to entirely new rugby fans."


title: Major League Rugby

text: Major League Rugby programming runs in prime weekend time slots on Saturday afternoons and Sunday evenings.


title: Major League Rugby

text: The CBS Sports Network televises 13 matches nationally over the course of the season. This includes a Game of the Week during each of the 10 rounds of the MLR regular season along with all three post-season matches. Live streaming is also available through the CBS Sports Network streaming platforms. Dan Power (Play By Play), Brian Hightower (Color Analyst) and Stacy Paetz (Sideline) were the CBS Sports commentators for the 2019 season. The remaining games are available on ESPN properties and regional sports networks.


title: Major League Rugby

text: ESPN has the national and international rights to an 18-game package covering regular season matches to audiences across its various platforms.


title: Major League Rugby

text: AT&T Sports Networks have a 17-game package covering six of the seven MLR teams for games not broadcast on the CBS Sports Network. Home-and-away matches for Austin, Houston and New Orleans are carried on AT&T SportsNet Southwest. Seattle's matches are carried on Root Sports Northwest and all Colorado and Utah games are hosted on AT&T SportsNet Rocky Mountain.


title: Major League Rugby

text: San Diego has a separate local rights agreement for their market with all the Legion's home-and-away MLR games that are not on the CBS Sports Network being televised locally on Channel 4 YurView California.


title: Major League Rugby

text: Austin Elite Rugby partnered with Facebook Watch for their Texas-based viewers during the 2019 season.


title: Major League Rugby

text: Rugby United New York announced regional television partnership with SNY, which will televise nine games of RUNY's inaugural season (2019), with the premiere game airing LIVE Sunday, January 27 at 5:00 PM EST. Also, NBC Sports Washington and NBC Sports Philadelphia+ will join SNY in televising match coverage of eight remaining games, beginning Saturday February 16 at 3 PM EST when RUNY travels to face the NOLA Gold. The partnership with the NBC Sports Regional Networks expands RUNY's TV market into two key East Coast markets.


title: Major League Rugby

text: The 2019 Championship game was broadcast on CBS, the first MLR game to be televised on free-to-air TV. It gained a 0.32 Sports TV rating which equated to 510,000 two-plus-person households.


title: Major League Rugby

text: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, MLR adjusted its 2020 season schedule and turned its attention to ensuring the league would rebound with a strong showing in 2021. League and team officials have been "diligently working to build strong rosters and enhance the fan experience" for the season. Matches were televised on CBS Sports Network and Fox Sports 2, among other national and local market platforms. The MLR Championship was broadcast on CBS on Sunday, August 1, 2021.


title: Major League Rugby

text: On March 16, 2021, MLR launched The Rugby Network/RugbyPass, a free streaming platform in conjunction with RugbyPass which will stream all MLR content, including matches and highlights. This digital network is the first of its kind in North America, providing rugby fans with a single destination for all their rugby needs. It includes live streaming of select MLR matches, international rugby matches, game highlights, and exclusive behind-the-scenes content.


title: Major League Rugby

text: On March 17, 2021, MLR launched its official mobile app. This fan oriented app is where MLR fans come together for breaking MLR news, schedules, match scores, team profiles, statistics, and exclusive video content. The app is part of a multi-platform deal with digital sport innovators PT SportSuite who transforms all MLR's digital media capabilities. The MLR app is available to download on iPhone App Store and Android Google Play.


title: Major League Rugby

text: Attendance for the inaugural season was approximately 1,800 per match. That average increased by about 300 per game in 2019 with an average of 2,133 per game and a total of 159,000 attendees. George Killebrew reported that in 2022 an additional 70,000 tickets were sold compared to the 2021 season, with crowd averages remaining around 2,000 per game.


title: Major League Rugby

text: The league signed a multi-year partnership deal with XBlades in 2017 to supply all jersey/kit apparel for each MLR team and all match officials. MLR also announced Ram Rugby as the official ball supplier. In May 2018, via Instagram, MLR announced Impact Custom Mouth Guards as the official mouth guard of the league. The Gem Garden in San Marcos, California, makes all MLR Championship rings.


title: Major League Rugby

text: On October 28, 2019, Major League Rugby announced that, starting for the 2020 season, Paladin Sports will be the new supplier of all uniforms/kit for the league.


title: Major League Rugby

text: On January 2, 2020, MLR partnered with Rhino Rugby for the 2020 season. Rhino Rugby is the official ball and technical training equipment supplier for the 2020 MLR season. The Rhino Rugby "Vortex Elite" ball is the official MLR match ball for all 12 teams. The Vortex Elite is currently the official ball of Rugby Europe, and Asia Rugby, and has been used in the Penn Mutual Collegiate Rugby Championship (CRC) the past several years


title: Major League Rugby

text: Also for 2021, The Rugby Shop became the official merchandising partner of the MLR. They developed an online MLR apparel shop for fans.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: The Northrop P-61 Black Widow is a twin-engine United States Army Air Forces fighter aircraft of World War II. It was the first operational U.S. warplane designed as a night fighter, and the first aircraft designed specifically as a night fighter.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: Named for the North American spider "Latrodectus mactans", it was an all-metal, twin-engine, twin-boom design armed with four forward-firing 20 mm (.79 in) Hispano M2 autocannon in the lower fuselage, and four M2 Browning machine guns in a dorsal gun turret. Developed during the war, the first test flight was made on May 26, 1942, with the first production aircraft rolling off the assembly line in October 1943.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: Although not produced in the large numbers of its contemporaries, the Black Widow was operated effectively as a night fighter by United States Army Air Forces squadrons in the European Theater, Pacific Theater, China Burma India Theater, and Mediterranean Theater during World War II. It replaced earlier British-designed night-fighter aircraft that had been updated to incorporate radar when it became available. After the war, the P-61 was redesignated as the F-61 and served in the United States Air Force as a long-range, all-weather, day/night interceptor for Air Defense Command until 1948, and for the Fifth Air Force until 1950. The last aircraft was retired from government service in 1954.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: On the night of 14 August 1945, a P-61B of the 548th Night Fighter Squadron named "Lady in the Dark" was unofficially credited with the last Allied air victory before VJ Day. The P-61 was also modified to create the F-15 Reporter photo-reconnaissance aircraft for the United States Army Air Forces and subsequently the United States Air Force.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: In August 1940, 16 months before the United States entered the war, the U.S. Air Officer in London, Lieutenant General Delos C. Emmons, was briefed on British research in radar (RAdio Detection And Ranging), which had been underway since 1935 and had played an important role in the nation's defense against the "Luftwaffe" during the Battle of Britain. General Emmons was informed of the new Airborne Intercept radar (AI for short), a self-contained unit that could be installed in aircraft and operated independently of ground stations. In September 1940, the Tizard Mission traded British research, including the cavity magnetron, that would make self-contained interception radar installations practicable, for American production.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: Simultaneously, the British Purchasing Commission evaluating US aircraft declared their urgent need for a high-altitude, high-speed aircraft to intercept the "Luftwaffe" bombers attacking London at night. The aircraft would need to patrol continuously over the city throughout the night, requiring at least an eight-hour loiter capability. The aircraft would carry one of the early, heavy AI radar units, and mount its specified armament in "multiple-gun turrets". The British conveyed the requirements for a new fighter to all the aircraft designers and manufacturers they were working with. Jack Northrop was among them, and he realized that the speed, altitude, fuel load and multiple-turret requirements demanded a large aircraft with multiple engines.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: General Emmons returned to the U.S. with details of the British night-fighter requirements, and in his report said that the design departments of the American aviation industry's firms could possibly produce such an aircraft. The Emmons Board developed basic requirements and specifications, handing them over towards the end of 1940 to the Air Technical Service Command (ATSC) at Wright Field, Ohio. After considering the two biggest challenges—the heavy weight of the AI radar and the very long (by fighter standards) loiter time of eight hours minimum—the board, including Jack Northrop, realized the aircraft would need the considerable power and resulting size of twin engines, and recommended such parameters. The United States had two twin-row radials of at least 46 liters displacement in development since the late 1930s; the Double Wasp and the Duplex Cyclone. These engines had been airborne for their initial flight tests by the 1940/41 timeframe, and were each capable, with more development, of exceeding .


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: Vladimir Pavlecka, Northrop Chief of Research, was present on unrelated business at Wright Field. On 21 October 1940, Colonel Laurence Craigie of the ATSC phoned Pavlecka, explaining the U.S. Army Air Corps' specifications, but told him to "not take any notes, 'Just try and keep this in your memory! What Pavlecka did not learn was radar's part in the aircraft; Craigie described the then top-secret radar as a "device which would locate enemy aircraft in the dark" and which had the ability to "see and distinguish other airplanes." The mission, Craigie explained, was "the interception and destruction of hostile aircraft in flight during periods of darkness or under conditions of poor visibility."


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: Pavlecka met with Jack Northrop the next day, and gave him the USAAC specifications. Northrop compared his notes with those of Pavlecka, saw the similarity between the USAAC's requirements and those issued by the RAF, and pulled out the work he had been doing on the British aircraft's requirements. He was already a month along, and a week later, Northrop pounced on the USAAC proposal.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: On 5 November, Northrop and Pavlecka met at Wright Field with Air Materiel Command officers and presented them with Northrop's preliminary design. The Douglas XA-26A night fighter proposal was the only competition; Northrop's design was selected.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: Following the USAAC acceptance, Northrop began comprehensive design work on what would become the first dedicated night fighter. The result was the largest pursuit-class aircraft flown by the U.S. during the war.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: Jack Northrop's first proposal was a long fuselage gondola between two engine nacelles and tail booms. Engines were Pratt & Whitney R-2800-10 Double Wasp 18-cylinder radials, producing each. The fuselage housed the three-man crew, the radar, and two four-gun turrets. The AN/M2 Browning machine guns were fitted with long, lightweight "aircraft" barrels with perforated sleeves. The turrets were located in the nose and rear of the fuselage. It stood on tricycle landing gear and featured full-span retractable flaps, or "Zap flaps" (named after aircraft engineer Edward Zaparka) in the wings.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: The aircraft was huge, as Northrop had anticipated. While far larger and heavier multi-engine bombers existed, its length, wingspan and projected full-load weight were unheard of for a fighter, making the P-61 hard for many to accept as a feasible fighter aircraft.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: Some alternative design features were investigated before finalization. Among them were conversion to a single vertical stabilizer/rudder and the shifting of the nose and tail gun turrets to the top and bottom of the fuselage along with the incorporation of a second gunner.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: Late in November 1940, Jack Northrop returned to the crew of three and twin tail/rudder assembly. To meet USAAC's request for more firepower, designers abandoned the ventral turret and mounted four 20 mm (.79 in) Hispano M2 cannon in the wings. As the design evolved, the cannon were repositioned in the belly of the aircraft. The P-61 therefore became one of the few U.S.-designed fighter aircraft to have a quartet of 20 mm (.79 in) cannon—along with the NA-91 version of the Mustang and the U.S. Navy's uprated F4U-1C Corsair—as factory-standard in World War II.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: Northrop Specification 8A was formally submitted to Army Air Materiel Command at Wright Field, on 5 December 1940. Following a few small changes, Northrop's NS-8A fulfilled all USAAC requirements, and the Air Corps issued Northrop a Letter of Authority For Purchase on 17 December. A contract for two prototypes and two scale models to be used for wind tunnel testing (costs not to exceed $1,367,000), was awarded on 10 January 1941. Northrop Specification 8A became, by designation of the War Department, the XP-61.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: In March 1941, the Army/Navy Standardization Committee decided to standardize use of updraft carburetors across all U.S. military branches. The XP-61, designed with downdraft carburetors, faced an estimated minimum two-month redesign of the engine nacelle to bring the design into compliance. The committee later reversed the updraft carburetor standardization decision (the XP-61 program's predicament likely having little influence), preventing a potential setback in the XP-61's development.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: The Air Corps Mockup Board met at Northrop on 2 April 1941, to inspect the XP-61 mock-up. They recommended several changes following this review. Most prominently, the four 20 mm (.79 in) M2 cannon were relocated from the outer wings to the belly of the aircraft, clustered tightly with the forward-facing ventral "step" in the fuselage to accommodate them placed just behind the rear edge of the nose gear well. The closely spaced, centered installation, with two cannon stacked vertically, slightly outboard of the aircraft's centerline on each side, and the top cannon in each pair only a few inches farther outboard, eliminated the inherent drawbacks of the convergence of wing-mounted guns. Without convergence, aiming was considerably easier and faster, and the tightly grouped cannon created a thick stream of 20 mm (.79 in) projectiles. The removal of the guns and ammunition from the wings also cleaned up the wings' airfoil and increased internal fuel capacity from .


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: Other changes included the provision for external fuel carriage in drop tanks, flame arrestors/dampers on engine exhausts, and redistribution of some radio equipment. While all beneficial from a performance standpoint (especially the relocation of the cannon) the modifications required over a month of redesign work, and the XP-61 was already behind schedule.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: In mid-1941, the dorsal turret mount finally proved too difficult to install in the aircraft, and was changed from the General Electric ring mount to a pedestal mount like that used for the upper turrets in Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresss, Consolidated B-24 Liberators, North American B-25 Mitchells, Douglas A-20s, and other American bombers. Following this modification, the turret itself became unavailable, as operational aircraft, in this case the Boeing B-29 Superfortress, were ahead of experimental aircraft in line for the high-demand component. For flight testing, engineers used a dummy turret.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: During February 1942, subcontracting manufacturer Curtiss notified Northrop that the C5424-A10 four-bladed, automatic, full-feathering propeller Northrop had planned for use in the XP-61 would not be ready for the prototype rollout or the beginning of flight tests. Hamilton Standard propellers were used in lieu of the Curtiss props until the originally planned component became available.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: The XP-61's weight rose during construction of the prototype, to empty and at takeoff. Engines were R-2800-25S Double Wasp radials, turning diameter Curtiss C5425-A10 four-blade propellers, both rotating counterclockwise when viewed from the front. Radios included two command radios, SCR-522As, and three other radio sets, the SCR-695A, AN/APG-1, and AN/APG-2. Central fire control for the gun turret was similar to that used on the B-29, the General Electric GE2CFR12A3.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: The P-61C was a high-performance variant designed to rectify some of the combat deficiencies encountered with the A and B variants. Work on the P-61C proceeded quite slowly at Northrop because of the higher priority of the Northrop XB-35 flying wing strategic bomber project. In fact, much of the work on the P-61C was farmed out to Goodyear, which had been a subcontractor for production of Black Widow components. It was not until early 1945 that the first production P-61C-1-NO rolled off the production lines. As promised, the performance was substantially improved in spite of a increase in empty weight. This increase in performance came as a result of the new Pratt and Whitney R-2800-57. This was a new compound charged engine. It increased in power from 2200 HP per engine to 2800 HP per engine a total of 5600 HP. The supercharger and turbocharger combined with this engine also helped climbing rates and high altitude power and efficiency as well as well as allowing the P-61C to achieve higher altitudes. Maximum speed was at , service ceiling was , and an altitude of could be attained in 14.6 minutes.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: The P-61C was equipped with perforated fighter airbrakes located both below and above the wing surfaces. These were to provide a means of preventing the pilot from overshooting his target during an intercept. For added fuel capacity, the P-61C was equipped with four underwing pylons (two inboard of the nacelles, two outboard) which could carry four drop tanks. The first P-61C aircraft was accepted by the USAAF in July 1945. However, the war in the Pacific ended before any P-61Cs could see combat. The 41st and last P-61C-1-NO was accepted on 28 January 1946. At least 13 more were completed by Northrop, but were scrapped before they could be delivered to the USAAF.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: Service life of the P-61C was quite brief, since its performance was being outclassed by newer jet aircraft. Most were used for test and research purposes. By the end of March 1949 most P-61Cs had been scrapped. Two entered the civilian market and two others went to museums.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: In mid-1945, the surviving XP-61E was modified into an unarmed photographic reconnaissance aircraft. All the guns were removed, and a new nose was fitted, capable of holding an assortment of aerial cameras. The aircraft, redesignated XF-15, flew for the first time on 3 July 1945. A P-61C was also modified to XF-15 standards. Apart from the turbosupercharged R-2800-C engines, it was identical to the XF-15 and flew for the first time on 17 October 1945. The nose for the F-15A was subcontracted to the Hughes Tool Company of Culver City, California. The F-15A was basically the P-61C with the new bubble-canopy fuselage and the camera-carrying nose, but without the fighter brakes on the wing.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: The United States Marine Corps had planned to acquire 75 Black Widows, but these were canceled in 1944 in favor of the Grumman F7F Tigercat. In September 1945, however, the Marines received a dozen former Air Force P-61Bs to serve as radar trainers until the Tigercats would be available in squadron strength. Designated F2T-1N these aircraft were assigned to shore-based Marine units and served briefly, the last two F2T-1s being withdrawn on 30 August 1947.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: The P-61 featured a crew of three: pilot, gunner, and radar operator. It was armed with four 20 mm (.79 in) Hispano M2 forward-firing cannon mounted in the lower fuselage, and four M2 Browning machine guns lined up horizontally with the two middle guns slightly offset upwards in a remotely aimed dorsally mounted turret, a similar arrangement to that used with the B-29 Superfortress using four-gun upper forward remote turrets. The turret was driven by the General Electric GE2CFR12A3 gyroscopic fire control computer, and could be directed by either the gunner or radar operator, who both had aiming control and gyroscopic collimator sight assembly posts attached to their swiveling seats.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: The two Pratt & Whitney R-2800-25S Double Wasp engines were each mounted approximately one-sixth out on the wing's span. Two-stage, two-speed mechanical superchargers were fitted. In an effort to save space and weight, no turbo-superchargers were fitted, despite the expected speed and ceiling increases.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: Main landing gear bays were located at the bottom of each nacelle, directly behind the engine. The two main gear legs were each offset significantly outboard in their nacelles, and retracted towards the tail; oleo scissors faced forwards. Each main wheel was inboard of its gear leg and oleo. Main gear doors were two pieces, split evenly, longitudinally, hinged at inner door's inboard edge and the outer door's outboard edge.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: Each engine cowling and nacelle drew back into tail booms that terminated upwards in large vertical stabilizers and their component rudders, each of a shape similar to a rounded right triangle. The leading edge of each vertical stabilizer was faired smoothly from the surface of the tail boom upwards, swept back to 37°. The horizontal stabilizer extended between the inner surfaces of the two vertical stabilizers, and was approximately the chord of the wing root, including the elevator. The elevator spanned approximately of the horizontal stabilizer's width, and in overhead plan view, angled inwards in the horizontal from both corners of leading edge towards the trailing edge approximately 15°, forming the elevator into a wide, short trapezoid. The horizontal stabilizer and elevator assembly possessed a slight airfoil cross-section.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: The engines and nacelles were outboard of the wing root and a short "shoulder" section of the wing that possessed a 4° dihedral, and were followed by the remainder of the wing which had a dihedral of 2°. The leading edge of the wing was straight and perpendicular to the aircraft's centerline. The trailing edge was straight and parallel to the leading edge in the shoulder, and tapered forward 15° outboard of the nacelle. Leading edge updraft carburetor intakes were present on the wing shoulder and the root of the outer wing, with a few inches of separation from the engine nacelle itself. They were very similar in appearance to those on the F4U Corsair—thin horizontal rectangles with the ends rounded out to nearly a half-circle, with multiple vertical vanes inside to direct the airstream properly.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: The P-61 did not have normal-sized ailerons. Instead, it had small ailerons which allowed wider span flaps and a very low landing speed. These ailerons, known as guide ailerons, gave some roll control and provided acceptable feel for the pilot in rolling manoeuvres. Control of the aircraft about the roll axis was augmented with circular-arc spoilerons which provided about half the roll control at low speeds and most of it at high speeds. The spoilers were located outboard of the nacelle in front of the flaps.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: The main fuselage, or gondola, was centered on the aircraft's centerline. It was, from the tip of the nose to the end of the Plexiglas tail-cone, approximately five-sixths the length of one wing (root to tip). The nose housed an evolved form of the SCR-268 Signal Corps Radar, the Western Electric Company's SCR-720A. Immediately behind the radar was the multi-framed "greenhouse" canopy, featuring two distinct levels, one for the pilot and a second for the gunner above and behind him, the latter elevated by approximately . Combined with the nearly flat upper surface of the aircraft's nose, the two-tiered canopy gave the aircraft's nose a distinct appearance of three wide, shallow steps. The forward canopy in the XP-61 featured contiguous, smooth-curved, blown-Plexiglas canopy sections facing forward, in front of the pilot and the gunner. The tops and sides were framed.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: Beneath the forward crew compartment was the nose gear wheel well, through which the pilot and gunner entered and exited the aircraft. The forward gear leg retracted to the rear, up against a contoured cover that when closed for flight formed part of the cockpit floor; the gear would not have space to retract with it open. The oleo scissor faced forwards. The nosewheel was centered, with the strut forking to the aircraft's left. The nosewheel was approximately the diameter of the main wheels. Nose gear doors were two pieces, split evenly longitudinally, and hinged at each outboard edge.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: The center of the gondola housed the main wing spar, fuel storage and piping and control mechanisms, control surface cable sections, propeller and engine controls, and radio/IFF (Identification Friend or Foe) equipment, but was predominantly occupied by the top turret mounting ring, rotation and elevation mechanisms, ammunition storage for the turret's machine guns, the GE2CFR12A3 gyroscopic fire control computer, and linkages to the gunner and radar operator's turret control columns, forward and aft, respectively.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: The radar operator's station was at the aft end of the gondola. The radar operator controlled the SRC-720 radar set and viewed its display scopes from the isolated rear compartment, which he entered by way of a small hatch with a built-in ladder on the underside of the aircraft. In addition to the radar systems themselves, the radar operator had intercom and radio controls, as well as the controls and sight for the remote turret. The compartment's canopy followed the curvature of the gondola's rear section, with only a single rounded step to the forward canopy's double step. The rear of the gondola was enclosed by a blown Plexiglas cap that tapered quickly in overhead plan view to a barely rounded point; the shape was somewhat taller in side profile than it was in overhead plan view, giving the end of the "cone" a rounded "blade" appearance when viewed in perspective.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: The cross-section of the gondola, front to back, was generally rectangular, vertically oriented. The tip of the nose was very rounded to accommodate the main AI radar's dish antenna, merging quickly to a rectangular cross-section that tapered slightly towards the bottom. This cross-section lost its taper but became clearly rounded at the bottom moving back through the forward crew compartment and nose gear well. Height increased at both steps in the forward canopy, with the second step being flush with the top of the aircraft (not counting the dorsal gun turret). At the rear of the forward crew compartment, the cross-section's bottom bulged downwards considerably and continued to do so until just past the midpoint between the rear of the forward crew compartment and the front of the rear crew compartment, where the lower curvature began to recede. Beginning at the front of the rear crew compartment, the top of the cross-section began to taper increasingly inwards above the aircraft's center of gravity when progressing towards the rear of the gondola. The cross-section rounded out considerably by the downward step in the rear canopy, and rapidly became a straight-sided oval, shrinking and terminating in the tip of the blown-Plexiglas "cone" described above.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: The cross-section of the nacelles was essentially circular throughout, growing then diminishing in size when moving from the engine cowlings past the wing and gear bay, towards the tail booms and the vertical stabilizers. A bulge on the top of the wing maintained the circular cross-section as the nacelles intersected the wing. The cross-section became slightly egg-shaped around the main gear bays, larger at the bottom but still round. An oblong bulge on the bottom of the main gear doors, oriented longitudinally, accommodated the main wheels when the gear was retracted.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: Wingtips, wing-to-nacelle joints, tips and edge of stabilizers and control surfaces (excluding the horizontal stabilizer and elevator) were all smoothly rounded, blended or filleted. The overall design was exceptionally clean and fluid as the aircraft possessed very few sharp corners or edges.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: The production model of the SCR-720A mounted a scanning radio transmitter in the aircraft nose; in Airborne Intercept mode, it had a range of nearly . The unit could also function as an airborne beacon / homing device, navigational aid, or in concert with interrogator-responder IFF units. The XP-61's radar operator located targets on his scope and steered the unit to track them, vectoring and steering the pilot to the radar target via oral instruction and correction. Once within range, the pilot used a smaller scope integrated into the main instrument panel to track and close on the target.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: The XP-61's spine-mounted dorsal remote turret could be aimed and fired by the gunner or radar operator, who both had aiming control and gyroscopic collimator sighting posts attached to their swiveling seats, or could be locked forward to be fired by the pilot in addition to the 20 mm (.79 in) cannon. The radar operator could rotate the turret to engage targets behind the aircraft. Capable of a full 360° rotation and 90° elevation, the turret could be used to engage any target in the hemisphere above and to the sides of the XP-61. A brief assessment of the turret by the British Aeroplane & Armament Experimental Establishment in 1944 found problems with the aiming and "jerky movement" of the guns.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: The first unit to receive production aircraft was the 348th Night Fighter Squadron at Orlando Army Air Base, Florida, which was responsible for training night fighter crews.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: P-61 crews trained in a variety of ways. Several existing night fighter squadrons operating in the Mediterranean and Pacific theaters were to transition directly into the P-61 from Bristol Beaufighters and Douglas P-70s, though most P-61 crews were to be made up of new recruits operating in newly commissioned squadrons. After receiving flight, gunnery or radar training in bases around the U.S., the crews were finally assembled and received their P-61 operational training in Florida for transfer to the European Theater, or California for operations in the Pacific Theater.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: The P-61 had an inauspicious start to its combat in the European theater. Some believed the P-61 was too slow to effectively engage German fighters and medium bombers, a view which the RAF shared, based on the performance of a single P-61 they had received in early May.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: The 422d Night Fighter Squadron was the first to complete their training in Florida and, in February 1944, the squadron was shipped to England aboard the RMS "Mauretania". The 425th NFS soon followed aboard the RMS "Queen Elizabeth".


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: The situation deteriorated in May 1944, when the squadrons learned that several USAAF generals – including General Hoyt Vandenberg – believed the P-61 lacked the capability to successfully engage German fighters and bombers, being too slow. General Spaatz asked for de Havilland Mosquito night fighters to equip two U.S. night fighter squadrons based in the UK. The request was denied due to insufficient supplies of Mosquitoes which were in demand for a number of roles.


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: At the end of May, the USAAF insisted on a competition between the Mosquito and the P-61 for operation in the European theater. RAF crews flew the Mosquito Mk XVII while crews from the 422nd NFS flew the P-61. In the end the USAAF determined that the P-61 had a slightly better rate of climb and could turn more tightly than the Mosquito. Colonel Winston Kratz, director of night fighter training in the USAAF, had organized a similar competition earlier. He said of the results:


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: However, on 5 July 1944, General Spaatz ordered a competition be held between the P-61 – using an example from the 422nd which had been "'tweaked' to get maximum performance" for the competition – against a Mosquito NF.XVII, and Lieutenant Colonel Kratz made a $500 bet in favor of the Mosquito being a faster and more maneuverable night fighting platform. The "tweaked" P-61 proved Kratz wrong, as according to the 422nd's squadron historian it "... proved faster at all altitudes, outturned the Mossie at every altitude and by a big margin and far surpassed the Mossie in rate of climb."


title: Northrop P-61 Black Widow

text: In England, the 422d NFS finally received their first P-61s in late June, and began flying operational missions over England in mid-July. These aircraft arrived without dorsal turrets, so the squadron's gunners were reassigned to another NFS that was to continue flying the P-70. The first P-61 engagement in the European Theater occurred on 15 July when a P-61 piloted by Lieutenant Herman Ernst was directed to intercept a V-1 flying bomb. Diving from above and behind to match the V-1's speed, the P-61's plastic rear cone imploded under the pressure and the attack was aborted. The tail cones failed on several early P-61A models before this problem was corrected. On 16 July, Lieutenant Ernst was again directed to attack a V-1 and, this time, was successful, giving the 422nd NFS and the European Theater its first P-61 kill.