title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: The 1973 model year introduced a hatchback body style based on the 2-door coupe. The front and rear of the Nova were restyled, following a government mandate for vehicles to be fitted with front bumpers capable of withstanding impacts and rear bumpers capable of absorbing impacts. To go along with the bigger bumpers, stylists gave the Nova a new grille with a loosely patterned crosshatch insert and parking lights located inboard of the headlights. In 1974, the rear bumper could absorb 5 mph impacts. Fuel tank capacity increased to 21 gallons, which required a redesigned trunk pan where a circular section was stamped to house the space-saver spare tire used on hatchback models.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: An SS option remained available, but it was merely a $123 dress-up package that included a blackout grille and Rally wheels. It could be ordered with any of the Nova engines. 35,542 SS packages were installed, making 1973 the best-selling year for the option. A modified rear side window shape was also introduced, eliminating the vent windows on both two- and four-door models. A revised rear suspension was adapted from the second generation Camaro with multi-leaf springs replacing the mono-leaf springs used on Novas since the original 1962 model. By this time, six-cylinder and V8 engines were "de rigueur" for American compact cars, with the and V8s becoming fairly common. The 1973 Nova with a six-cylinder engine or 307 cu. in. (5.0 L) V8 were among the last Chevrolets to be offered with the two-speed Powerglide automatic transmission, which was in its final year. A dressy Custom series (which became a mid-level trim package in 1975) joined the Nova line and a Custom hatchback listed for $2,701 with a six-cylinder engine. That was $173 more than the six-cylinder base-model two-door hatchback. Air conditioning added $381. Every 1973 Chevrolet Nova got side guard door beams and additional sound insulation, as well as flow-through ventilation systems. A sunroof could be installed, and fold-down rear seats were available.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: For 1974, the Chevrolet Nova got a centered bow-tie grille emblem, as well as modified bumpers that added two inches to the length and helped cushion minor impacts. The Powerglide was replaced by a lightweight version of the three-speed Turbo-Hydramatic 350 ( THM 250 ) already offered with the V8, which was the only V8 offered for 1974. Nova sales continued the surge they had enjoyed since 1972 and approached 400,000 cars for 1974. Six-cylinder Novas were the fastest gainers, as sales of V-8 Novas declined. These were the years of the first energy crisis as Middle Eastern countries cut back on oil exports. After waiting for hours in gas lines and fretting about the prospect of fuel rationing, thrifty compacts looked pretty good to plenty of Americans and it fit the bill.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: The 'Spirit of America' Nova was introduced in 1974. In anticipation of the US bicentennial in 1976, the limited edition Nova Coupes were painted white and featured blue and red accent stripes as well as red and blue interior carpets and fabrics. Oldsmobile and Buick entered the compact car market; both the Apollo and Omega debuted, using the same body styles from the Nova lineup. Additional options were included on these Nova-like models, such as lighting under the dashboard and in the glove compartment. Pontiac's final GTO of this era was based on a facelifted 1974 Ventura coupe, itself based on the Nova, but fitted with a shaker hood scoop from the Trans Am.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: Novas and all 1974 cars were fitted with a weight-sensitive relay within the front seat that prevented the vehicle from being started until the driver's seatbelt had been fastened, following a safety mandate from the NHTSA. Later, Congress repealed the mandate requiring this type of device, declaring that it infringed on a driver's freedom of choice, and allowed owners of 1974-model cars to have the seat belt interlock bypassed. The devices were not included in future Nova models. Along with this controversial seat belt interlock, a new, more convenient "inertial reel" one-piece lap/shoulder safety belt assembly was standard for both front outboard passengers, along with a plastic clip attached to the headrest to guide the belt across the wearer's shoulder.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: The 1975 Chevrolet Nova was the most-changed Chevy car for that model year. "Now it's beautiful," said the brochure of Nova's all-new sheet metal, "refined along the lines of elegant European sedans." Chevrolet wisely maintained a visual kinship with the 1968–1974 design, and also retained Nova's efficiently sized 111-inch wheelbase. Front tread grew by an inch and a half, and the front stabilizer bar had a larger diameter. Novas now had standard front disc brakes and steel-belted radial tires. The front suspension and subframe assembly was similar to the one used in the second generation GM F-body cars (the Camaro and Pontiac Firebird), whereas the rear axle and suspension were carried over from the previous generation. Coupes, including the hatchback, had fixed side windows (or optional flip-out windows) - the first for a GM vehicle later optioned throughout the 1980s with its light duty trucks (S10, Astro/Safari, and GMT400 trucks to the K2XX series) and vertical vents on the B-pillar. All Novas now had cut-pile carpeting, formerly installed only in the Custom series. Speedometers had larger, easier-to-read graphics. Windshields offered greater glass area. Front-door armrests were redesigned with integral pull bars. The base model carried the inline six-cylinder , , three V8 engines (, a 1975-only option, a and a ) for 1976 only, were offered. Mated to a three-speed automatic, 3-speed manual or 4-speed – V8s only – Which remained the norm through the end of the decade (and the end of the rear-wheel drive X platform). By then, Cadillac had developed its own version of the X-body, called the K-body which was named the Seville, whose styling was distinct from those of its corporate cousins, and Buick replaced the Apollo with the Skylark name that had been inactive since the previous incarnation ended production at the end of the 1972 model year.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: The LN (Luxury Nova) package (which was the top luxury trim similar to the Caprice and Malibu Classic) sent Nova into the luxury portion of the compact market; some actually thought of it as competing against a few high-end European imports. The Nova LN was called "the most luxurious compact in Chevrolet's history," with wide-back reclining front seats that "look and feel like big, soft lounge chairs." LN equipment included additional sound insulation, map pockets, an electric clock, a smoked instrument lens, floor shifter and center console, and a day/night mirror. Taillight lenses have additional white accents unavailable with the base model and a chrome plated grille. Above the front marker lenses, the LN had 4.3 LITER (or 5.7 LITER) decals - making it the first Chevrolet product with metric displacement badges sold in the Americas. Swing-out quarter windows could be ordered for the coupe. "Thanks to LN," the sales brochure announced, "Nova's image will never be the same again." The LN was more Eurocentric as opposed to the Custom which became the mid-level trim option.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: For 1976 the Nova LN was rebranded Concours to rival the Ford Granada and the Mercury Monarch, as well as upscale versions of the Dodge Dart and Plymouth Valiant. Like regular versions of the 1976 Nova, the Concours came in three body styles: coupe, hatchback coupe, and four-door sedan. Concours was the most luxurious Chevrolet compact to date. Rosewood vinyl decorated the upper door panels, instrument panel, and steering wheel. Concours models had an upright hood ornament, bumper guards, bright trim moldings, black bumper impact strips, and full wheel covers; more-basic Novas came with hubcaps. The Concours coupe also was the first Chevrolet coupe with a fold-down front center armrest. A V-8 Concours coupe sold for $547 more than the comparable base Nova. Engines for the 1976 Chevrolet Nova were a 105-horsepower inline-six, a 165-horsepower 350-cubic-inch V-8, or a 140-horse 305-cubic-inch V-8. 1976 GM vehicles first saw use of the THM200 — from the GM T platform to GM X-Bodies (Chevrolet Nova et al.). A lighter duty 10 bolt rear differential with a 7.5" ring gear (also used with the Vega/Monza) was phased into production (last produced in 2005) - which was standard equipment with the base inline six. A Cabriolet padded vinyl top was available for Nova coupes. Modest revisions were made to the brakes, and also to fuel and exhaust system mountings. Dashboards contained new knobs. After testing the 1976 Chevrolet Nova, the Los Angeles Sheriff's Department placed the largest order for compact police cars ever seen in the U.S.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: The $187 Nova SS option group included a black grille with unique diamond-mesh pattern, Rally wheels, four-spoke steering wheel, and heavy-duty suspension.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: Minor changes for the 1977 model year included a more modern round gauge cluster to replace the long sweeping speedometer, and a revised dash panel which changed to a flatter design. Some new colors were offered (as with the rest of the divisions) and some small trim added. A separate brochure was printed for the Concours while the "1977 Nova" brochure detailed only base and Custom versions.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: The Nova SS previously offered for 1975 and 1976 was discontinued, the option code for the SS — RPO Z26 — continued as the Nova Rally from 1977 through 1979. A badged-engineered Nova Malibu Rallye (1977 and 1978 model years – not related to the USA market Chevelle-based model and based on the Nova hatchback coupe) was sold in Mexico using the RPO Z26 package but fitted with 'Malibu Rallye' graphics and a front grille emblem.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: Three engines and four transmissions were available for every 1977 Chevrolet Nova, including Concours. Buyers could choose from a 110-horsepower 250-cubic-inch inline six, a 145-horsepower 305 cubic-inch two-barrel V-8, or 170-horsepower 350 cubic-inch four-barrel V-8. Shifting was accomplished by three-speed (column or floor shift) and four-speed manuals or Turbo Hydra-Matic. Novas might also be equipped with a heavy-duty suspension or the F41 sport suspension. A surprising number of police departments ordered Novas with either a 305- or 350-cubic-inch V-8 engine, following the lead of the Los Angeles Sheriff's Department, which had given the compacts an exhaustive evaluation.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: Promoted as "Concours by Chevrolet", the 1977 Concours featured a new vertical bar grille and a revised stand-up hood ornament. The rear of the Concours also got new triple unit taillamps reminiscent of the Caprice. It also boasted newly designed wheel covers and wider bright wheel-opening moldings. "International in style, it is American in function," the sales brochure insisted of the Concours. The brochure went on to note that Concours offered a "very special blending of classic style and good sense." That last comment referenced Nova's sensible size. Novas themselves, the marketing materials said, were "not too small, not too big, not too expensive."


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: For 1978 the Concours was discontinued to clear the way for the newly downsized Malibu, and the Nova Custom inherited much of the Concours' exterior finery but lacked the stand-up hood ornament displayed by the Concours. Upholstery choices included all-vinyl or Edinburgh woven sport cloth/vinyl. More basic versions of the 1978 Chevrolet Nova had the same grille used in '76-77 and added a gold-tinted Chevy bowtie emblem at the leading edge of the hood. For '78 Nova was also available with Rally equipment, which included yet another front-end layout: a diamond-pattern grille with horizontal parking lights and black headlight bezels (basically the '76-77 SS grille), plus triple band striping and color-keyed Rally wheels. All Nova drivers faced a new dual-spoke, soft vinyl-covered steering wheel; the same one found in the Caprice and Malibu.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: Any 1978 Chevrolet Nova could be ordered with a 250-cubic-inch six-cylinder engine, a 145-horsepower 305-cubic-inch V-8, or a 170-horsepower 350-cubic-inch V-8. Law enforcement agencies in 48 states were driving Novas by now, as the sales brochure boasted. Production dropped almost 100,000 for the model, to 288,000, making Nova the only Chevrolet series to show a sales decline for 1978. Sales of the Nova hatchback body style lagged well behind regular coupes and sedans, and base models handily outsold Customs.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: Upon introduction of the downsized GM A-body (later G-body) mid-size cars in 1978, the X-body and downsized A-platform had similar exterior dimensions. The roomier and more modern downsized A-bodies outsold their X-body counterparts.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: The 1979 Chevrolet Nova marked the end of the line for the rear-wheel-drive Nova. The front end was revised with rectangular headlights and a new grille for the short run (matching that of its Pontiac Phoenix cousin, which replaced the Ventura for 1977); a modified horizontal-bar grille contained vertical parking lights. New chromed hood and fender moldings were installed, and new front-bumper filler panels gave the front end a more finished look. The Custom went back to the base dual section taillights since the triple section taillights were discontinued. The lineup was the same as in 1978; the base-level hatchback, coupe, and sedan, plus the Custom coupe and sedan. As usual, base coupe and sedan proved to be the best sellers. Nova Customs had a special acoustical package including improved headlining and full hood insulation, along with other luxury extras, while the Rally Package returned, this time using the same grille as other '79 Novas. These final Novas were promoted for their "solid value" and "reputation for dependability," capitalizing upon a 17-year heritage that had begun with the Chevy II. Fewer than 98,000 examples were produced. Regular production ended on December 22, 1978, but some cars badged "Nova Custom" were built on special order with luxury amenities in early 1979. The final Chevrolet Nova (Custom) built on special order would roll off the line on March 15, 1979, and this would be the end of the rear-drive Nova for good. Chevrolet's compact models were headed into the front-wheel-drive age and for 1980, Nova's place in the lineup would be taken over by the new and very different Chevrolet Citation (the Phoenix, Omega and Skylark carried over to this platform as well, and the Seville was reassigned to another front-drive platform).


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: The Chevrolet Nova nameplate returned in spring 1984 as a front-wheel drive subcompact vehicle for the 1985 to 1988 model years. It was assembled in Fremont, California, by NUMMI, a joint venture between General Motors in the U.S. and Toyota of Japan, resulting in various Corolla-based cars sold under General Motors brands, also referred to as the S-car within GM. It resurrected a name last used on the compact-sized rear-wheel drive 1979 Chevrolet Nova. The new Nova was a rebadged and mildly restyled Japanese market Toyota Sprinter, a model sold in Japan as a badge engineered version of the Toyota Corolla. Nova shared the Corolla's AE82 platform, 4-cylinder engines and was available with 5-speed manual, 3-speed or 4-speed automatic transmissions. For the first time ever, quad headlights were used on the Nova (mimicking most other models at the time, such as the slightly-larger Chevrolet Cavalier). It was designed for manufacturability and reached an unusually high level of quality and production speed at NUMMI, compared to other US factories.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: The 1985 Chevrolet Nova was initially offered only in a four-door three-box, notchback sedan body style and in the Midwestern states. A five-door hatchback was added shortly after its introduction, and the line was distributed throughout the US and Canada beginning around traditional new-model introduction time in the fall (as were the other Chevy imports, the Suzuki-based Sprint which had been first launched on the West Coast and the Isuzu-based Spectrum which had initially been available on the Eastern Seaboard and throughout New England and New York State). The only engine was a carbureted 1.6-liter four-cylinder with . It teamed with either a five-speed manual or three-speed automatic transmission. This was the same powertrain as offered in the Corolla. The four-door sedan listed for $7,435, a rather stiff tariff by Chevrolet standards. The five-door, which added a split-folding rear seat, started at $7,669. All Nova options were grouped into seven packages, which did away with the long list of optional equipment that accompanied such cars as the Chevrolet Chevette. (Simple though it was, the subcompact Chevette offered nearly 30 options). However, adding one of the costlier packages could easily push the Nova's sticker to over $10,000.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: The 1987 Chevrolet Nova saw only minor changes after its introduction two years earlier as a near-twin to the front-wheel-drive Toyota Corolla. A rear-window defogger was added to the list of standard equipment, while visual changes were limited to lighter silver highlights on the vertical grille bars and a change of turn signal lens colors from amber to clear/white front and red rear. CL models also got red reflex panels carrying the taillights onto the trunk/hatch, body-colored bumpers, and new aluminum wheels. The 1987 Chevrolet Nova continued in two body styles, a four-door sedan and five-door hatchback. The four-door proved by far the more popular – by about three to one. Nova's only engine was again a 74-horsepower 1.6-liter four designed by Toyota, mated to either a five-speed manual transmission or four-speed automatic. Though Corollas were priced slightly below competing Novas, Chevy's version of the car could often be bought for less because slow sales encouraged dealers to discount prices. "Slow sales," however, meant slow by Chevy standards, for the Nova sold about as well as the Corolla, and buyers would find that their discounted Nova in turn had a lower resale value than the equivalent Toyota, a pattern that would persist for GM-branded NUMMI cars. Aside from some minor interior and exterior trim differences, the cars were much the same, though Novas had a slightly softer suspension that favored ride over handling.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: The 1988 Chevrolet Nova added a sporty model to its lineup of subcompact front-wheel-drive cars. This new 1988 Chevrolet Nova Twin-Cam got its name from a double-overhead-cam version of the Toyota-built 1.6-liter four-cylinder. Novas continued to share their basic design with the Corolla, and this engine had previously been used in the Toyota FX-16, a performance version of the Corolla. The twin-cam produced , 36 more than its single-cam sibling. A five-speed manual transmission was standard, as in the regular Novas, but the Twin-Cam offered a four-speed automatic as an option versus the three-speed offered on other models. The more potent engine elevated the 1988 Chevrolet Nova Twin-Cam into junior sport-sedan territory, but the advancement didn't come cheaply. The base Nova listed at about $8,800, the Twin-Cam went for $11,395. That price included fuel injection, sport suspension, power steering, leather-covered steering wheel, tachometer, four-wheel disc brakes, and wider tires on aluminum wheels, but it was a stiff tariff, and few were ordered (approximately 3,300 Twin-Cam models were built). There were no color choices; all 1988 Chevrolet Nova Twin-Cams wore black metallic paint with a grey interior; and there was no hatchback version offered. Every 1988 Chevrolet Nova got rear shoulder belts, rear window defogger, and AM/FM stereo radio as standard equipment. This was the last model year for the Nova name at Chevrolet. Starting with 1989, Chevrolet pushed this car into its new Geo division and renamed it the Prizm. Geo was Chevy's effort to come up with an import-sounding label to attract buyers who were not inclined to shop American.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: The reaction to the 1962 Chevrolet Chevy II was mainly positive. Veteran "Mechanics Illustrated" tester Tom McCahill was favorably impressed with a Chevy II 400 Series Nova convertible he drove at a press preview for Chevy's 1962 models, held at GM's Milford, Michigan, test track. "Flat out, which with Powerglide was 91 mph, this little car never wavered and even over some rough strips it was one of the safest feeling 91's I have ever driven." The styling reminded "Uncle" Tom of a "small Mercedes-Benz", and he concluded that "with a little hopping up, a stick shift and its low price, it should sell like cold beer on a hot Fourth of July."


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: "Car Life" was even more enthusiastic, honoring the Chevy II with its "Award for Engineering Excellence". "We think the Chevy II, in either 4- or 6-cylinder form, represents an important development in the American automotive field," reported the magazine. "We think it represents a return to sensibility in terms of basic transportation; it is a car of reasonable size, adequate performance and simple elegance." The award was mentioned in a 1962 Chevrolet Nova advertisement. (see right)


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: "Consumer Reports" described the six-cylinder Chevy II as an "ultra-sensible, conventional car with outstanding interior space," but also reported "higher than average" interior noise levels. There were also complaints about the four-cylinder version's lack of refinement. "CR hesitates to recommend the Four for normal use. The Four is an excellent hackabout for specialized local use – if you can stand the vibration." McCahill put it this way: "The four wasn't the smoothest four I have ever driven, but it had nice response and will probably still be running long after Castro shaves his beard off." "Consumer Reports" in 1963: "New last year, the Chevy II has not yet developed into a smooth-riding, quiet, or in any sense luxurious car. It is an easy driving, agile one. By far its most important asset is a body with substantially the room of intermediate cars, but with a very compact silhouette and especially good entrance height."


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: "Motor Trend" called the new Chevy II "a most straightforward car – simple, honest and conventional." Editor Jerry Titus was fascinated with the new rear single-leaf suspension: "How it actually works seems almost contradictory. There is a great deal of body roll, but the car does not feel unstable. The ride is soft and pleasing, but not seasick-soft with the constant pitching and rolling that some cars have." Interior room, steering, and brakes were commended. Performance was rated as "moderate" for a six-cylinder Nova convertible with Powerglide: 0-60 came up "a shade under 16 seconds," and the top speed was reported to be 98 mph, but Titus felt that "the car seems at its best below 75, where it did not feel as though it was working hard." The four, meanwhile, took 20 seconds to make it from 0 to 60 mph. In comparison, a 1960 90 bhp Falcon with stick shift took 21 seconds 0 to 60, also according to Motor Trend, while the 101 bhp six introduced for 1961 required 14.3 seconds with stick and 15.2 with the two-speed Fordomatic.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: "Motor Trend" tested a 1964 195-bhp, two-barrel SS with Powerglide, recording 0 to 60 in 11.3 seconds, 18.0 seconds and 75 mph in the quarter-mile, and 100 mph all out. Fuel economy ranged from 12.3 mpg in heavy traffic to 19.6 on the highway. "Motor Trend" concluded that "By adding a V-8 and bigger brakes, plus detail changes, Chevrolet has made a nice compact even more desirable and a much better performer."


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: The mid-1980s Nova made no attempt to recapture the former "Muscle" glory that it once had, with the Twin Cam performance variant appearing only in the final year of the nameplate after Toyota had already moved on to the next generation of the platform.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: While the Chevy II and Nova were also sold in Canada, from the beginning a mildly re-trimmed version was also sold by Pontiac-Buick dealers as the Acadian.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: The Acadian was produced between the years 1962 and 1971. It was a stand-alone make based upon the Chevy II, which was produced in both the U.S. and Canada and sold exclusively through Canadian Pontiac – Buick – GMC dealerships. Due to the Canadian tariffs on imports put into place many years before, there was no compact car available to the Canadian Pontiac dealer. The U.S. built Pontiac Tempest, which started production in 1961 was not available initially to the Canadian buyer – import duties would have made it too expensive to compete in the thrifty Canadian compact market. The Acadian was introduced to give the unhappy Canadian Pontiac – Buick dealer a car he could sell in the growing compact market. During its entire run, the Acadian offered the same body styles as were offered in the Chevy II/Nova, and the cars were virtually the same, save minor trim and badging details.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: Originally offered in top-line Beaumont and base Invader trim, the top trim line was renamed Canso in anticipation of the Chevelle-based Acadian Beaumont which would arrive for 1964. A sporty model, the Sport Deluxe (or "SD"), was equivalent to the U.S.-market Nova SS, and it also featured bucket seats, deluxe exterior trim, and special badging.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: Base price for the 1966 Acadian was $2,507. The 327-350 hp (L79) was available; 85 were produced. The Acadian line was now down to six models; 7,366 Acadians were sold in 1966. It survived until mid-1971, after which it was replaced by the Pontiac Ventura II.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: In 1962 Argentina offered the 1962-64-style Chevy II as the Chevrolet 400 through 1974, and the 1968–72 Nova as the Chevrolet Chevy from late 1969 through 1978, both models overlapping for several years. An upscale model (Chevy Super) was produced from about 1973 with different trim, front turn indicators and taillights, a much better appointed interior with plastic "wood" trim, named Malibu with no relation to the American Chevelle. All engines were inline-sixes. The first and second generations were available, depending on year and model, with the , and engines.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: The third generation ("Chevys") were produced with the and engines with specially tuned carburetors for sporting models. The "Chevy" metal emblem for the third generation had the same font as the "Nova" emblem of 1968–1974 American Novas, and was, for the first few years, in the rearmost section of both rear fenders. Later, it was moved to the rearmost section of both front fenders, as it was in the American cars from 1969. Sidemarker lights were not mandatory and changed much during the production run, from being deleted, to leaving a small chrome plate, to the same light as in the American cars. Rear deck emblems just said "" in chrome letters, obviating the typical "Model by Chevrolet" used in the American cars at the time. The hood emblem was similar to the 1969 American Novas: the bow tie, either in blue or just chrome.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: Initially, the Argentinian Chevy used very similar trim to the American counterpart, while more luxurious – a "big" car by local standards. They there standard models without accessories and were often used for taxi service. The interior layout remained the American 1968 version for the entire run. The ignition switch remained dash mounted as the U.S.-mandated steering lock was not required in Argentina. Power steering became available at the end of the production run. V8s versions weren't produced: Power windows were not available, tinted windows were darker than American versions, and the darker band on the upper edge of the windshield was not present.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: Very popular accessories were vinyl roofs, rally wheels, sport steering wheels, bucket seats with high backs, and tufted leatherette upholstery (many sedans were produced this way). Interiors were usually black. Steering wheels and instrument panels were only black for many years, as were seatbelts. American style interior color coordination was absent. The last year of the Nova in Argentina is called locally "Opus 78" (because the slogan of the publicity) and it was the most equipped, adding simil-leather bucket seats, air-conditioning, power steering, electric antenna, and a new dashboard with integrated central console. During its run on certain models, the "Chevy" was also available with the 3-speed Turbo Hydra-Matic automatic transmission as an option. It was marketed with the name "Chevromatic."


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: Their Super Sports, "SS" counterparts were both coupés and 4-door sedans, the latter of which was unheard of in the US prior to the introduction of the 1994 Impala SS. In fact, a majority were fitted with inline-sixes coupled to a ZF manual transmission with floor lever 4 speeds, a single two-barrel Holey 2300 RX 7214-A carburetor giving out and a sporting exhaust note. Corsa, a local auto publication magazine tested a Chevy Coupé SS Serie 2 and obtained a 0–100 km/h (0–62 mph) time of 11.1 seconds.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: A popular but false urban legend claims that the vehicle sold poorly in Spanish-speaking countries because "no va" translates to "doesn't go". This has since been debunked, however, as "Nova" (one word) means "nova" in Spanish just as in English. In fact, the car actually sold quite well in Mexico, as well as many Central and South American countries. Nova was also the name of a successful brand of gasoline sold in Mexico at the time, further proving that the name confusion was not a problem.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: A similar story has been told of the British Vauxhall Nova (a small car that was completely unrelated to the Chevrolet Nova aside from both being built by GM). According to the story, it had to be sold as an Opel Corsa in Spain due to the same alleged language confusion. This version of the story is also a myth, as the Spanish-market version of the car was known as a Corsa from the outset. In fact, the car was called the Corsa in all markets except the United Kingdom.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: There was also a Nova kit car designed and built by A.D.D. from 1971. It lost a court case with GM Vauxhall over the use of the name, after it was shown that GM's Chevrolet had a prior claim.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: From its introduction in 1962, the Chevy II/Nova was a big seller and the '62 was available in scale as a promotional model, as well an assembly kit, from AMT. Both the hardtop and convertible were available. AMT continued to offer kits of the Nova in later years, and some of these are still current and available at reasonable prices including the 1966, 1972, and 1976 models. The original '63 Nova wagon was available as a Craftsman promo kit. It was molded in grey and had a fixed hood and no engine. They also offered the '75 as the "Nova Pro Stock", featuring a large hood scoop and custom wheels. The '76, and more recently, the '79 Nova models have been re-issued. The '79 kit is current, molded in black plastic, and can be built either stock, or as a souped-up police cruiser.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: Other model manufacturers offer Novas from other years, including Revell, which offers both a '69 Nova SS, and COPO coupe. Trumpeter offers a 1963 Nova Super Sport in scale. Both the hardtop and convertible are available, and these kits are extremely detailed. , the 1963 Nova wagon has been re-released by AMT in scale, as both a promo-style kit without an engine (but with opening hood) in their "Craftsman Plus" series, as well as a more detailed customizing kit with many engine options (including the original factory inline six), custom grille and wheels, and as a bonus, a trailer.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: In diecast, the '63 Nova SS was modelled in 1:18 scale by Sun Star. These came in a variety of colors and were available in both hardtop and convertible body styles. Some wore whitewall tires. In the same diecast 1:18 scale, ERTL offered a '66 Nova SS hardtop with a 327 V8, '69 Nova SS396 and '70 Nova SS396, in a variety of colors and wheels. Peachtree made '68 and '69 Novas in detailed 1:18 scale. Although detailed, these do not feature opening doors or trunk. The hood does open, however, to reveal a detailed Chevrolet V8 engine.


title: Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova

text: Pro-Line Racing currently offers a '69 Nova body for the Traxxas Slash, a popular radio-controlled car platform. The body is roughly scale, and like most Slash bodies, is made of vacuum-formed clear Lexan, intended to be painted from the inside to prevent scratches. (Several companies offer specialized spray paints for this purpose, as traditional spray paint does not stick to Lexan.) Although the Slash is primarily an off-road vehicle, the Pro-Line body is intended to fit a Slash that has been heavily modified for miniature drag racing. However, it can also be made to fit other Slash setups, or other R/C vehicle platforms with the same wheelbase and body mounting system as the Slash.


title: Cyclotron

text: A cyclotron is a type of particle accelerator invented by Ernest O. Lawrence in 1929–1930 at the University of California, Berkeley, and patented in 1932. A cyclotron accelerates charged particles outwards from the center of a flat cylindrical vacuum chamber along a spiral path. The particles are held to a spiral trajectory by a static magnetic field and accelerated by a rapidly varying electric field. Lawrence was awarded the 1939 Nobel Prize in Physics for this invention.


title: Cyclotron

text: The cyclotron was the first "cyclical" accelerator. The primary accelerators before the development of the cyclotron were electrostatic accelerators, such as the Cockcroft–Walton accelerator and Van de Graaff generator. In these accelerators, particles would cross an accelerating electric field only once. Thus, the energy gained by the particles was limited by the maximum electrical potential that could be achieved across the accelerating region. This potential was in turn limited by electrostatic breakdown to a few million volts. In a cyclotron, by contrast, the particles encounter the accelerating region many times by following a spiral path, so the output energy can be many times the energy gained in a single accelerating step.


title: Cyclotron

text: Cyclotrons were the most powerful particle accelerator technology until the 1950s, when they were superseded by the synchrotron. Despite no longer being the highest-energy accelerator, they are still widely used to produce particle beams for basic research and nuclear medicine. Close to 1500 cyclotrons are used in nuclear medicine worldwide for the production of medical radionuclides. In addition, cyclotrons can be used for particle therapy, where particle beams are directly applied to patients.


title: Cyclotron

text: In late 1928 and early 1929 Hungarian physicist Leo Szilárd filed patent applications in Germany (later abandoned) for the linear accelerator, cyclotron, and betatron. In these applications, Szilárd became the first person to discuss the resonance condition (what is now called the cyclotron frequency) for a circular accelerating apparatus. Several months later, in the early summer of 1929, Ernest Lawrence independently conceived the cyclotron concept after reading a paper by Rolf Widerøe describing a drift tube accelerator. He published a paper in "Science" in 1930,


title: Cyclotron

text: To construct the first such device, Lawrence used large electromagnets recycled from obsolete arc converters provided by the Federal Telegraph Company.


title: Cyclotron

text: He was assisted by a graduate student, M. Stanley Livingston Their first working cyclotron became operational in January 1931. This machine had a radius of , and accelerated protons to an energy up to 80 keV.


title: Cyclotron

text: At the Radiation Laboratory on the campus of the University of California, Berkeley (now the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory), Lawrence and his collaborators went on to construct a series of cyclotrons which were the most powerful accelerators in the world at the time; a 4.8 MeV machine (1932), a 8 MeV machine (1937), and a 16 MeV machine (1939). Lawrence received the 1939 Nobel Prize in Physics for the invention and development of the cyclotron and for results obtained with it.


title: Cyclotron

text: The first European cyclotron was constructed in the Soviet Union in the physics department of the V.G. Khlopin Radium Institute in Leningrad, headed by . This Leningrad instrument was first proposed in 1932 by George Gamow and and was installed and became operative by 1937.


title: Cyclotron

text: Two cyclotrons were built in Nazi Germany. The first was constructed in 1937, in Otto Hahn's laboratory at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin, and was also used by Rudolf Fleischmann. It was the first cyclotron with a Greinacher multiplier to increase the voltage to 2.8 MV and 3 mA current. A second cyclotron was built in Heidelberg under the supervision of Walther Bothe and Wolfgang Gentner, with support from the Heereswaffenamt, and became operative in 1943.


title: Cyclotron

text: By the late 1930s it had become clear that there was a practical limit on the beam energy that could be achieved with the traditional cyclotron design, due to the effects of special relativity. As particles reach relativistic speeds, their effective mass increases, which causes the resonant frequency for a given magnetic field to change. To address this issue and reach higher beam energies using cyclotrons, two primary approaches were taken, synchrocyclotrons (which hold the magnetic field constant, but increase the accelerating frequency) and isochronous cyclotrons (which hold the accelerating frequency constant, but alter the magnetic field).


title: Cyclotron

text: Lawrence's team built one of the first synchrocyclotrons in 1946. This machine eventually achieved a maximum beam energy of 350 MeV for protons. However, synchrocyclotrons suffer from low beam intensities (< 1 µA), and must be operated in a "pulsed" mode, further decreasing the available total beam. As such, they were quickly overtaken in popularity by isochronous cyclotrons.


title: Cyclotron

text: The first isochronous cyclotron (other than classified prototypes) was built by F. Heyn and K.T. Khoe in Delft, the Netherlands, in 1956. Early isochronous cyclotrons were limited to energies of ~50 MeV per nucleon, but as manufacturing and design techniques gradually improved, the construction of "spiral-sector" cyclotrons allowed the acceleration and control of more powerful beams. Later developments included the use of more powerful superconducting magnets and the separation of the magnets into discrete sectors, as opposed to a single large magnet.


title: Cyclotron

text: In a particle accelerator, charged particles are accelerated by applying an electric field across a gap. The force on a particle crossing this gap is given by the Lorentz force law:


title: Cyclotron

text: where is the charge on the particle, is the electric field, is the particle velocity, and is the magnetic flux density. It is not possible to accelerate particles using only a static magnetic field, as the magnetic force always acts perpendicularly to the direction of motion, and therefore can only change the direction of the particle, not the speed.


title: Cyclotron

text: In practice, the magnitude of an unchanging electric field which can be applied across a gap is limited by the need to avoid electrostatic breakdown. As such, modern particle accelerators use alternating (radio frequency) electric fields for acceleration. Since an alternating field across a gap only provides an acceleration in the forward direction for a portion of its cycle, particles in RF accelerators travel in bunches, rather than a continuous stream. In a linear particle accelerator, in order for a bunch to "see" a forward voltage every time it crosses a gap, the gaps must be placed further and further apart, in order to compensate for the increasing speed of the particle.


title: Cyclotron

text: A cyclotron, by contrast, uses a magnetic field to bend the particle trajectories into a spiral, thus allowing the same gap to be used many times to accelerate a single bunch. As the bunch spirals outward, the increasing distance between transits of the gap is exactly balanced by the increase in speed, so a bunch will reach the gap at the same point in the RF cycle every time.


title: Cyclotron

text: The frequency at which a particle will orbit in a perpendicular magnetic field is known as the cyclotron frequency, and depends, in the non-relativistic case, solely on the charge and mass of the particle, and the strength of the magnetic field:


title: Cyclotron

text: where is the (linear) frequency, is the charge of the particle, is the magnitude of the magnetic field that is perpendicular to the plane in which the particle is travelling, and is the particle mass. The property that the frequency is independent of particle velocity is what allows a single, fixed gap to be used to accelerate a particle travelling in a spiral.


title: Cyclotron

text: Each time a particle crosses the accelerating gap in a cyclotron, it is given an accelerating force by the electric field across the gap, and the total particle energy gain can be calculated by multiplying the increase per crossing by the number of times the particle crosses the gap.


title: Cyclotron

text: However, given the typically high number of revolutions, it is usually simpler to estimate the energy by combining the equation for frequency in circular motion:


title: Cyclotron

text: where is the radius at which the energy is to be determined. The limit on the beam energy which can be produced by a given cyclotron thus depends on the maximum radius which can be reached by the magnetic field and the accelerating structures, and on the maximum strength of the magnetic field which can be achieved.


title: Cyclotron

text: In the nonrelativistic approximation, the maximum kinetic energy per atomic mass for a given cyclotron is given by:


title: Cyclotron

text: where formula_7 is the elementary charge, formula_8 is the strength of the magnet, formula_9 is the maximum radius of the beam, formula_10 is an atomic mass unit, formula_11 is the charge of the beam particles, and formula_12 is the atomic mass of the beam particles. The value of "K"


title: Cyclotron

text: is known as the "K-factor", and is used to characterize the maximum beam energy of a cyclotron. It represents the theoretical maximum energy of protons (with "Q" and "A" equal to 1) accelerated in a given machine.


title: Cyclotron

text: While the trajectory followed by a particle in the cyclotron is conventionally referred to as a "spiral", it is more accurately described as a series of arcs of constant radius. The particle speed, and therefore orbital radius, only increases at the accelerating gaps. Away from those regions, the particle will orbit (to a first approximation) at a fixed radius.


title: Cyclotron

text: Still, a simple spiral may be a useful approximation. Considering that the particle gains energy in each turn, its energy after turns will be:


title: Cyclotron

text: As a particle bunch travels around a cyclotron, two effects tend to make its particles spread out. The first is simply the particles injected from the ion source having some initial spread of positions and velocities. This spread tends to get amplified over time, making the particles move away from the bunch center. The second is the mutual repulsion of the beam particles due to their electrostatic charges. Keeping the particles focused for acceleration requires confining the particles to the plane of acceleration (in-plane or "vertical" focusing), preventing them from moving inward or outward from their correct orbit ("horizontal" focusing), and keeping them synchronized with the accelerating RF field cycle (longitudinal focusing).


title: Cyclotron

text: The in-plane or "vertical" focusing is typically achieved by varying the magnetic field around the orbit, i.e. with azimuth. A cyclotron using this focusing method is thus called an azimuthally-varying field (AVF) cyclotron. The variation in field strength is provided by shaping the steel core of the magnet into sectors. This solution for focusing the particle beam was proposed by L. H. Thomas in 1938 and almost all modern cyclotrons use azimuthally-varying fields.


title: Cyclotron

text: The "horizontal" focusing happens as a natural result of cyclotron motion. Since for identical particles travelling perpendicularly to a constant magnetic field the trajectory curvature radius is only a function of their speed, all particles with the same speed will travel in circular orbits of the same radius, and a particle with a slightly incorrect trajectory will simply travel in a circle with a slightly offset center. Relative to a particle with a centered orbit, such a particle will appear to undergo a horizontal oscillation relative to the centered particle. This oscillation is stable for particles with a small deviation from the reference energy.


title: Cyclotron

text: The instantaneous level of synchronization between a particle and the RF field is expressed by phase difference between the RF field and the particle. In the first harmonic mode (i.e. particles make one revolution per RF cycle) it is the difference between the instantaneous phase of the RF field and the instantaneous azimuth of the particle. Fastest acceleration is achieved when the phase difference equals 90° (modulo 360°). Poor synchronization, i.e. phase difference far from this value, leads to the particle being accelerated slowly or even decelerated (outside of the 0–180° range).


title: Cyclotron

text: As the time taken by a particle to complete an orbit depends only on particle's type, magnetic field (which may vary with the radius), and Lorentz factor (see ), cyclotrons have no longitudinal focusing mechanism which would keep the particles synchronized to the RF field. The phase difference, that the particle had at the moment of its injection into the cyclotron, is preserved throughout the acceleration process, but errors from imperfect match between the RF field frequency and the cyclotron frequency at a given radius accumulate on top of it. Failure of the particle to be injected with phase difference within about ±20° from the optimum may make its acceleration too slow and its stay in the cyclotron too long. As a consequence, half-way through the process the phase difference escapes the 0–180° range, the acceleration turns into deceleration, and the particle fails to reach the target energy. Grouping of the particles into correctly synchronized bunches before their injection into the cyclotron thus greatly increases the injection efficiency.


title: Cyclotron

text: In the non-relativistic approximation, the cyclotron frequency does not depend upon the particle's speed or the radius of the particle's orbit. As the beam spirals outward, the rotation frequency stays constant, and the beam continues to accelerate as it travels a greater distance in the same time period. In contrast to this approximation, as particles approach the speed of light, the cyclotron frequency decreases due to the change in relativistic mass. This change is proportional to the particle's Lorentz factor.


title: Cyclotron

text: Since formula_24 increases as the particle reaches relativistic velocities, acceleration of relativistic particles requires modification of the cyclotron to ensure the particle crosses the gap at the same point in each RF cycle. If the frequency of the accelerating electric field is varied while the magnetic field is held constant, this leads to the "synchrocyclotron".


title: Cyclotron

text: In this type of cyclotron, the accelerating frequency is varied as a function of particle orbit radius such that:


title: Cyclotron

text: The decrease in accelerating frequency is tuned to match the increase in gamma for a constant magnetic field.


title: Cyclotron

text: If instead the magnetic field is varied with radius while the frequency of the accelerating field is held constant, this leads to the "isochronous cyclotron".


title: Cyclotron

text: Keeping the frequency constant allows isochronous cyclotrons to operate in a continuous mode, which makes them capable of producing much greater beam current than synchrocyclotrons. On the other hand, as precise matching of the orbital frequency to the accelerating field frequency is the responsibility of the magnetic field variation with radius, the variation must be precisely tuned.


title: Cyclotron

text: An approach which combines static magnetic fields (as in the synchrocyclotron) and alternating gradient focusing (as in a synchrotron) is the fixed-field alternating gradient accelerator (FFA). In an isochronous cyclotron, the magnetic field is shaped by using precisely machined steel magnet poles. This variation provides a focusing effect as the particles cross the edges of the poles. In an FFA, separate magnets with alternating directions are used to focus the beam using the principle of strong focusing. The field of the focusing and bending magnets in an FFA is not varied over time, so the beam chamber must still be wide enough to accommodate a changing beam radius within the field of the focusing magnets as the beam accelerates.


title: Cyclotron

text: For several decades, cyclotrons were the best source of high-energy beams for nuclear physics experiments. With the advent of strong focusing synchrotrons, cyclotrons were supplanted as the accelerators capable of producing the highest energies. However, due to their compactness, and therefore lower expense compared to high energy synchrotrons, cyclotrons are still used to create beams for research where the primary consideration is not achieving the maximum possible energy. Cyclotron based nuclear physics experiments are used to measure basic properties of isotopes (particularly short lived radioactive isotopes) including half life, mass, interaction cross sections, and decay schemes.


title: Cyclotron

text: Cyclotron beams can be used to bombard other atoms to produce short-lived isotopes with a variety of medical uses, including medical imaging and radiotherapy. Positron and gamma emitting isotopes, such as fluorine-18, carbon-11, and technetium-99m are used for PET and SPECT imaging. While cyclotron produced radioisotopes are widely used for diagnostic purposes, therapeutic uses are still largely in development. Proposed isotopes include astatine-211, palladium-103, rhenium-186, and bromine-77, among others.


title: Cyclotron

text: The first suggestion that energetic protons could be an effective treatment method was made by Robert R. Wilson in a paper published in 1946 while he was involved in the design of the Harvard Cyclotron Laboratory.


title: Cyclotron

text: Beams from cyclotrons can be used in particle therapy to treat cancer. Ion beams from cyclotrons can be used, as in proton therapy, to penetrate the body and kill tumors by radiation damage, while minimizing damage to healthy tissue along their path.


title: Cyclotron

text: As of 2020, there were approximately 80 facilities worldwide for radiotherapy using beams of protons and heavy ions, consisting of a mixture of cyclotrons and synchrotrons. Cyclotrons are primarily used for proton beams, while synchrotrons are used to produce heavier ions.


title: Cyclotron

text: The most obvious advantage of a cyclotron over a linear accelerator is that because the same accelerating gap is used many times, it is both more space efficient and more cost efficient; particles can be brought to higher energies in less space, and with less equipment. The compactness of the cyclotron reduces other costs as well, such as foundations, radiation shielding, and the enclosing building. Cyclotrons have a single electrical driver, which saves both equipment and power costs. Furthermore, cyclotrons are able to produce a continuous beam of particles at the target, so the average power passed from a particle beam into a target is relatively high compared to the pulsed beam of a synchrotron.


title: Cyclotron

text: However, as discussed above, a constant frequency acceleration method is only possible when the accelerated particles are approximately obeying Newton's laws of motion. If the particles become fast enough that relativistic effects become important, the beam becomes out of phase with the oscillating electric field, and cannot receive any additional acceleration. The classical cyclotron (constant field and frequency) is therefore only capable of accelerating particles up to a few percent of the speed of light. Synchro-, isochronous, and other types of cyclotrons can overcome this limitation, with the tradeoff of increased complexity and cost.


title: Cyclotron

text: An additional limitation of cyclotrons is due to space charge effects – the mutual repulsion of the particles in the beam. As the amount of particles (beam current) in a cyclotron beam is increased, the effects of electrostatic repulsion grow stronger until they disrupt the orbits of neighboring particles. This puts a functional limit on the beam intensity, or the "number" of particles which can be accelerated at one time, as distinct from their energy.


title: Cyclotron

text: The spiraling of electrons in a cylindrical vacuum chamber within a transverse magnetic field is also employed in the magnetron, a device for producing high frequency radio waves (microwaves). In the magnetron, electrons are bent into a circular path by a magnetic field, and their motion is used to excite resonant cavities, producing electromagnetic radiation.


title: Cyclotron

text: A betatron uses the "change" in the magnetic field to accelerate electrons in a circular path. While static magnetic fields cannot provide acceleration, as the force always acts perpendicularly to the direction of particle motion, changing fields can be used to induce an electromotive force in the same manner as in a transformer. The betatron was developed in 1940, although the idea had been proposed substantially earlier.


title: Cyclotron

text: A synchrotron is another type of particle accelerator that uses magnets to bend particles into a circular trajectory. Unlike in a cyclotron, the particle path in a synchrotron has a fixed radius. Particles in a synchrotron pass accelerating stations at increasing frequency as they get faster. To compensate for this frequency increase, both the frequency of the applied accelerating electric field and the magnetic field must be increased in tandem, leading to the "synchro" portion of the name.


title: Cyclotron

text: The United States Department of War famously asked for dailies of the "Superman" comic strip to be pulled in April 1945 for having Superman bombarded with the radiation from a cyclotron.


title: Cyclotron

text: In the 1984 film "Ghostbusters," a miniature cyclotron forms part of the proton pack used for catching ghosts.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: The ecumenical patriarch () is the archbishop of Constantinople (Istanbul), New Rome and "primus inter pares" (first among equals) among the heads of the several autocephalous churches which compose the Eastern Orthodox Church. The ecumenical patriarch is regarded as the representative and spiritual leader of many Orthodox Christians worldwide. The term "ecumenical" in the title is a historical reference to the Ecumene, a Greek designation for the civilised world, i.e. the Roman Empire, and it stems from Canon 28 of the Council of Chalcedon.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in world history. The ecumenical patriarchs in ancient times helped in the spread of Christianity and the resolution of various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages they played a major role in the affairs of the Eastern Orthodox Church, as well as in the politics of the Orthodox world, and in spreading Christianity among the Slavs. Currently, in addition to the expansion of the Christian faith and the Eastern Orthodox doctrine, the patriarchs are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue, charitable work, and the defense of Orthodox Christian traditions.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: Within the five apostolic sees of the Pentarchy, the ecumenical patriarch is regarded as the successor of Andrew the Apostle. The current holder of the office is Bartholomew I, the 270th bishop of that see.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: The ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople is first among equals, or first in honor among all Eastern Orthodox bishops, who presides in person—or through a delegate—over any council of Orthodox primates or bishops in which he takes part and serves as primary spokesman for the Orthodox communion especially in ecumenical contacts with other Christian denominations. He has no direct jurisdiction over the other patriarchs or the other autocephalous Orthodox churches, but he, alone among his fellow primates, enjoys the right of convening extraordinary synods consisting of them or their delegates to deal with "ad hoc" situations and has also convened well-attended pan-Orthodox synods in the last 40 years. His unique role often sees the ecumenical patriarch referred to as the spiritual leader of the Orthodox Church in some sources, though this is not an official title of the patriarch nor is it usually used in scholarly sources on the patriarchate. The Orthodox Church is entirely decentralized: it has no central authority, earthly head, or single bishop in a leadership role. Because it has a synodical system canonically, it is significantly distinguished from the hierarchically organized Catholic Church, whose doctrine is papal supremacy and whose head is the pope. His titles "primus inter pares". 'first among equals', and "ecumenical patriarch" are of honor rather than authority, and in fact the ecumenical patriarch has no real authority over churches other than the Constantinopolitan.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: The ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople is the direct administrative superior of dioceses and archdioceses serving millions of Greek, Ukrainian, Rusyn and Albanian believers in North and South America, Western Europe, Australia and New Zealand, South Korea, as well as parts of modern Greece which, for historical reasons, do not fall under the jurisdiction of the Church of Greece.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: His actual position is patriarch of the Orthodox Church of Constantinople, one of the fourteen autocephalous and several autonomous churches and the most senior (though not oldest) of the four orthodox ancient primatial sees among the five patriarchal Christian centers comprising the ancient Pentarchy of the undivided Church. In his role as head of the Orthodox Church of Constantinople, he is known as the "archbishop of Constantinople, New Rome".


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: The Ecumenical Patriarchate is also sometimes called the Greek Patriarchate of Constantinople to distinguish him from the Armenian Patriarchate and the extinct Latin Patriarchate, which was created after the Latin capture of Constantinople in 1204, during the Fourth Crusade.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: The see of Byzantium, whose foundation was later ascribed to Andrew the Apostle, was originally a common bishopric. It gained importance when Emperor Constantine elevated Byzantium to a second capital alongside Rome and named it Constantinople. The see's ecclesiastical status as the second of five patriarchates were developed by the Ecumenical Councils of Constantinople in 381 and Chalcedon in 451.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: The Turkish government recognizes him as the spiritual leader of the Greek minority in Turkey, and refer to him as the Roman/Greek (literally "Rûm") Orthodox patriarch of Fener (). The patriarch was subject to the authority of the Ottoman Empire after the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, until the declaration of Turkish Republic in 1923. Today, according to Turkish law, he is subject to the authority of the state of Turkey and is required to be a citizen of Turkey to be patriarch.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: The patriarch of Constantinople has been dubbed the ecumenical patriarch since the sixth century. The exact significance of the style, which has been used occasionally for other prelates since the middle of the fifth century, is nowhere officially defined but, according to the Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, the title has been criticized in the Catholic Church as incompatible with the claims of the Holy See.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: The monastic communities of Mount Athos are stauropegic and they are directly under the jurisdiction of the ecumenical patriarch, the only bishop who has jurisdiction over them. Athos, officially the "Autonomous Monastic State of the Holy Mountain” (), is a self-governed polity within the Greek state subject to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in its political aspect and to the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinopole as regards to its religious aspect and is home to 20 monasteries and numerous other monastic communities.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: The ecumenical patriarch has a unique role among Eastern Orthodox bishops, though it is not without its controversy. He is "primus inter pares" ("first among equals"), as he is senior among all Orthodox bishops. This primacy, expressed in canonical literature as "presbeia" ("prerogatives", literally: "seniorities"), grants to the ecumenical patriarch the right to preside at pan-Orthodox synods.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: Additionally, the canonical literature of the Orthodox Church grants to the ecumenical patriarch the right to hear appeals in cases of dispute between bishops. However, whether these canonical rights are limited only to his own patriarchate or are universal throughout the Orthodox Church is the subject of debate, especially between the Ecumenical Patriarchate and the Russian Orthodox Church.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: Historically, the ecumenical patriarch has heard such appeals and sometimes was invited to intervene in other churches' disputes and difficulties. Even as early as the fourth century, Constantinople was instrumental in the deposition of multiple bishops outside its traditional jurisdiction. This still occurs today, as when in 2006 the patriarchate was invited to assist in declaring the archbishop of the Church of Cyprus incompetent due to his having Alzheimer's disease. Additionally, in 2005, the Ecumenical Patriarchate convoked a pan-Orthodox synod to express the Orthodox world's confirmation of the deposition of Patriarch Irenaios of Jerusalem. In 2006, the patriarchate was invited to hear the appeal of a Russian Orthodox bishop in the United Kingdom in a dispute with his superior in Moscow, though the result of that appeal – and the right to make it – were both rejected by the latter.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: The ecumenical patriarch has no direct jurisdiction outside the Patriarchate of Constantinople granted to him in Orthodox canonical literature, but his primary function regarding the whole Orthodox Church is one of dealing with relations between autocephalous and autonomous churches. That is, his primary role is one of promoting and sustaining Church unity.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: This unique role often sees the ecumenical patriarch referred to as the "spiritual leader" of the Orthodox Church in some sources, though this is not an official title of the patriarch nor is it usually used in scholarly sources on the patriarchate. Such a title is acceptable if it refers to this unique role, but it sometimes leads to the mistaken belief that the office is thus the equivalent of an Orthodox pope. There is, however, no Orthodox notion equivalent to the papacy: the Orthodox churches operate in the synodical system, whereby ecclesiastical matters are settled by the competent synod of bishops, in which each bishop has one vote. The five patriarchs of the ancient Pentarchy (Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, in that order) are to be given seniority of honour, but have no actual power over other bishops other than the power of the synod they are chairing (and in which they also wield one vote).


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: In 2007, the patriarch gave his approval to the Ravenna Document, a Catholic–Orthodox document re-asserting that the bishop of Rome is indeed the "prōtos" ("first") of the Church, as in "first among equals" and not supreme, although future discussions are to be held on the concrete ecclesiological exercise of papal primacy. According to "Lumen Gentium", the patriarch is a validly consecrated bishop in Roman ecclesiology, and there is merely an imperfect ecclesial communion between Constantinople and Rome, which exists nevertheless and which may be improved at some point in history.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: The Ecumenical Patriarch bears the name: "(name), by the grace of God Archbishop of Constantinople, New Rome and Ecumenical Patriarch"


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: Because of the work of Ecumenical Patriarch Dimitrios, who established September 1 as the day for the protection of the environment, and especially the ongoing work of the current patriarch, Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew has been given the title, "Green Patriarch". Thus, the person of Bartholomew and by extension the position of the ecumenical patriarch is now being viewed as a religious spokesperson on environmental issues and the "green" spiritual leader in the world.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: The (arch)bishopric of Constantinople has had a continuous history since the founding of the city in AD 330 by Constantine the Great. After Constantine the Great had enlarged Byzantium to make it into a second capital city in 330, it was thought appropriate that its bishop, once a suffragan of the Exarch of Thrace and Macedonia, the Metropolitan of Heraclea, should be elevated to an archbishopric. For many decades the heads of the church of Rome opposed this ambition, not because anyone thought of disputing their first place, but because they defended the 'Petrine principle' by which all Patriarchates were derived from Saint Peter and were unwilling to violate the old order of the hierarchy for political reasons.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: In 381, the First Council of Constantinople declared that "The Bishop of Constantinople shall have the primacy of honour after the Bishop of Rome, because it is New Rome" (canon iii). The prestige of the office continued to grow not only because of the obvious patronage of the Byzantine Emperor but because of its overwhelming geographical importance.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: The Council of Chalcedon in 451 established Constantinople as a patriarchate with ecclesiastical jurisdiction over Asia Minor (the dioceses of Asiane and Pontus) and Thrace as well as over the barbaric territories, non-converted lands outside the defined area of the Western Patriarchate (Old Rome) and the other three patriarchates, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem, gave it appellate jurisdiction extraterritorially over canon law decisions by the other patriarchs and granted it honours equal to those belonging to the first Christian see, Rome, in terms of primacy, Rome retaining however its seniority (canon xxviii). Leo I refused to accept this canon, basing himself on the fact that it was made in the absence of his legates. In the sixth century, the official title became that of "archbishop of Constantinople, New Rome, and ecumenical patriarch".


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: The current patriarch (since 1991) is Bartholomew I who has become better-known than any of his predecessors in modern times as a result of his numerous pastoral and other visits to numerous countries in five continents and his setting up of a permanent bureau at the EU headquarters, in addition to enhancing the long-established Patriarchal Centre in Pregny-Chambésy, Switzerland, and also his ecological pursuits which have won him the epithet of "the Green Patriarch".


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: When the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople in 1453, the patriarchate ceased to function. The Patriarchate was restored by the conquering ruler, Sultan Mehmed II, who wished to establish his dynasty as the direct heirs of the Eastern Roman emperors, and who adopted the imperial title "Kayser-i-Rûm" "caesar of the Romans", one of his subsidiary titles but a significant one. In 1454 he bestowed the office upon an illustrious Byzantine scholar-monk who was well known for his opposition to union with the Latin West, Gennadius Scholarius, who became Patriarch Gennadius II.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: The patriarch was designated "millet-başı" (ethnarch) of the Millet of "Rum", which included all Orthodox Christians under Ottoman rule, regardless of their ethnicity in the modern sense. This role was carried out by ethnic Greeks at their great peril, in the midst of enormous difficulties and traps and inevitably with mixed success. Several patriarchs were summarily executed by the Ottoman authorities, most notably Gregory V, who was lynched on Easter Monday 1821 in revenge for the outbreak of the Greek Revolution.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: In the 19th century, the rising tide of nationalism and secularism among the Balkan Christian nations led to the establishment of several autocephalous national churches, generally under autonomous patriarchs or archbishops, leaving the ecumenical patriarch only direct control over the ethnically Greek-originated Orthodox Christians of Turkey, parts of Greece and the archdioceses in North America, Asia, Africa and Oceania where growing Greek and other migrant communities have gradually constituted a significant orthodox diaspora. Turkish and Armenian Orthodox Christians in Turkey have independent churches.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: After the proclamation of the Republic of Turkey on 29 October 1923, the Turkish state only recognises the patriarch as the spiritual leader of the Greek minority in Turkey, and officially refers to him as the "Greek Orthodox Patriarch of the Phanar" or "Roman Orthodox Patriarch of Constantinople" (; Phanar is the neighbourhood in Istanbul where the patriarchate is located). According to Turkish law, still in force today, he is subject to the authority of the Republic of Turkey; however, Turkey allows the Standing Synod of Metropolitan Bishops to elect the patriarch. To be electable, Turkish law requires the candidates to be Turkish citizens by birth. Since the establishment of modern Turkey, the position of the ecumenical patriarch has been filled by Turkish-born citizens of Greek ethnicity. As nearly all Greek Orthodox have left Turkey (see Population exchange between Greece and Turkey and Istanbul Pogrom), this considerably narrows the field of candidates for succession.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: Human rights groups have long protested against conditions placed by the secular government of Turkey on the ecumenical patriarch, a religious office. The same policy also applied to the institution of the Islamic Caliphate, which was abolished by Turkey. For example, the ecumenical status accorded him traditionally within Eastern Orthodoxy, and recognized previously by the Ottoman governments, has on occasion been a source of controversy within the Republic of Turkey. This policy results in problems in the function of the patriarchate, since clergy coming from abroad are not eligible to apply for residence and work permits. In its early days the Turkish state promoted a rival Turkish Orthodox Patriarchate, whose congregation, however, has remained limited.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: Expropriation of Church property and the conditions of state control imposed on the Orthodox Theological School of Halki that have led to its closure by the Patriarchate, are also cited by human rights groups. However, in 2004 Patriarch Bartholomew, with the help of the Turkish government, succeeded, after eighty years, in altering the composition of the twelve-member Standing Synod of Metropolitan Bishops in Constantinople so that it can include six bishops from outside Turkey. He has also been convening biennially in Constantinople convocations of all bishops in his jurisdiction.


title: Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople

text: The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople has suffered attacks from 1993 to 2004, including desecration of patriarchal cemeteries as well as assaults on the ecumenical patriarch.


title: Alexander Haig

text: Alexander Meigs Haig Jr. (; December 2, 1924February 20, 2010) was United States Secretary of State under President Ronald Reagan and White House Chief of Staff under Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. Prior to and in between these cabinet-level positions, he was a general in the United States Army, serving first as the vice chief of staff of the Army and then as Supreme Allied Commander Europe. In 1973, Haig became the youngest four-star general in the U.S. Army's history.


title: Alexander Haig

text: Born in Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania, Haig served in the Korean War after graduating from the United States Military Academy. In the Korean War, he served as an aide to General Alonzo Patrick Fox and General Edward Almond. After the war, he served as an aide to Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara. During the Vietnam War, Haig commanded a battalion and later a brigade of the 1st Infantry Division. For his service, Haig was a recipient of the Distinguished Service Cross, the Silver Star with oak leaf cluster and the Purple Heart.


title: Alexander Haig

text: In 1969 Haig became an assistant to National Security Adviser Henry Kissinger. He became vice chief of staff of the Army, the second-highest-ranking position in the Army, in 1972. After the 1973 resignation of H. R. Haldeman, Haig became President Nixon's chief of staff. Serving in the wake of the Watergate scandal, he became especially influential in the final months of Nixon's tenure; he played a role in persuading Nixon to resign in August 1974. Haig continued to serve as chief of staff for the first month of President Ford's tenure. From 1974 to 1979, Haig served as Supreme Allied Commander Europe, commanding all NATO forces in Europe. He retired from the army in 1979 and pursued a career in business.


title: Alexander Haig

text: After Reagan won the 1980 United States presidential election, he nominated Haig to be his secretary of state. After the attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan, Haig said "I am in control here", allegedly suggesting (erroneously since the Presidential Succession Act of 1947, when the Speaker of the House of Representatives was designated the second in the line of succession after the vice president) that he served as acting U.S. president in Reagan's and Bush's absence, later iterating that he meant that he was functionally in control of the government. During the Falklands War, Haig sought to broker peace between the United Kingdom and Argentina. He resigned from Reagan's cabinet in July 1982. After leaving office, he unsuccessfully sought the presidential nomination in the 1988 Republican Party presidential primaries. He also served as the head of a consulting firm and hosted the television program "World Business Review".


title: Alexander Haig

text: Haig was born in Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania, the middle of three children of Alexander Meigs Haig, a Republican lawyer of Scottish descent, and his wife, Regina Anne (née Murphy). When Haig was 9, his father, aged 41, died of cancer. His Irish American mother raised her children in the Catholic faith. Haig initially attended Saint Joseph's Preparatory School in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on scholarship; when it was withdrawn due to poor academic performance, he transferred to Lower Merion High School in Ardmore, Pennsylvania, from which he graduated in 1942.


title: Alexander Haig

text: Initially unable to secure his desired appointment to the United States Military Academy (with one teacher opining that "Al is definitely not West Point material"), Haig studied at the University of Notre Dame (where he reportedly earned a "string of A's" in an "intellectual awakening") for two years before securing a congressional appointment to the academy in 1944 at the behest of his uncle, who served as the Philadelphia municipal government's director of public works.


title: Alexander Haig

text: Enrolled in an accelerated wartime curriculum that deemphasized the humanities and social sciences, Haig graduated in the bottom third of his class (ranked 214 of 310) in 1947. Although a West Point superintendent characterized Haig as "the last man in his class anyone expected to become the first general", other classmates acknowledged his "strong convictions and even stronger ambitions". Haig later earned an M.B.A. from the Columbia Business School in 1955 and an M.A. in international relations from Georgetown University in 1961. His thesis for the latter degree examined the role of military officers in making national policy.


title: Alexander Haig

text: As a young officer, Haig served as an aide to Lieutenant General Alonzo Patrick Fox, a deputy chief of staff to General Douglas MacArthur. In 1950 Haig married Fox's daughter, Patricia. In the early days of the Korean War, Haig was responsible for maintaining General MacArthur's situation map and briefing MacArthur each evening on the day's battlefield events. Haig later served (1950–51) with the X Corps, as aide to MacArthur's chief of staff, General Edward Almond, who awarded Haig two Silver Stars and a Bronze Star with Valor device. Haig participated in four Korean War campaigns, including the Battle of Inchon, the Battle of Chosin Reservoir and the evacuation of Hŭngnam, as Almond's aide.


title: Alexander Haig

text: Haig served as a staff officer in the Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations at the Pentagon (1962–64), and then was appointed military assistant to Secretary of the Army Stephen Ailes in 1964. He then was appointed military assistant to Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, continuing in that service until the end of 1965. In 1966, Haig graduated from the United States Army War College.


title: Alexander Haig

text: In 1966 Haig took command of a battalion of the 1st Infantry Division during the Vietnam War. On May 22, 1967, Lieutenant Colonel Haig was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross, the U.S. Army's second highest medal for valor, by General William Westmoreland as a result of his actions during the Battle of Ap Gu in March 1967. During the battle, Haig's troops (of the 1st Battalion, 26th Infantry Regiment) became pinned down by a Viet Cong force that outnumbered U.S. forces by three to one. In an attempt to survey the battlefield, Haig boarded a helicopter and flew to the point of contact. His helicopter was subsequently shot down. Two days of bloody hand-to-hand combat ensued. An excerpt from Haig's official Army citation follows:


title: Alexander Haig

text: Haig was also awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and the Purple Heart during his tour in Vietnam and was eventually promoted to colonel as commander of 2nd Brigade, 1st Infantry Division in Vietnam.


title: Alexander Haig

text: Following his one-year Vietnam tour, Haig returned to the United States to become regimental commander of the Third Regiment of the Corps of Cadets at West Point under the newly appointed commandant, Brigadier General Bernard W. Rogers. Both had previously served together in the 1st Infantry Division, Rogers as assistant division commander and Haig as brigade commander.


title: Alexander Haig

text: In 1969, he was appointed military assistant to the assistant to the president for national security affairs, Henry Kissinger. A year later, he replaced Richard V. Allen as deputy assistant to the president for national security affairs. During this period, he was promoted to brigadier general (September 1969) and major general (March 1972).


title: Alexander Haig

text: In this position, Haig helped South Vietnamese president Nguyen Van Thieu negotiate the final cease-fire talks in 1972. Haig continued in the role until January 4, 1973, when he became vice chief of staff of the Army. Nixon planned to appoint Haig as chief of staff over Creighton Abrams, who he personally disliked, but secretary of defense Melvin Laird resisted as Haig lacked the relevant upper-level command experience. He was confirmed by the U.S. Senate in October 1972, thus skipping the rank of lieutenant general. By appointing him to this billet, Nixon "passed over 240 generals" who were senior to Haig.


title: Alexander Haig

text: After only four months as VCSA, Haig returned to the Nixon administration at the height of the Watergate affair as White House chief of staff in May 1973. Retaining his Army commission, he remained in the position until September 21, 1974, ultimately overseeing the transition to the presidency of Gerald Ford following Nixon's resignation on August 9, 1974.


title: Alexander Haig

text: Haig has been largely credited with keeping the government running while President Nixon was preoccupied with Watergate and was essentially seen as the "acting president" during Nixon's last few months in office. During July and early August 1974, Haig played an instrumental role in finally persuading Nixon to resign. Haig presented several pardon options to Ford a few days before Nixon eventually resigned. In this regard, in his 1999 book "Shadow", author Bob Woodward describes Haig's role as the point man between Nixon and Ford during the final days of Nixon's presidency. According to Woodward, Haig played a major behind-the-scenes role in the delicate negotiations of the transfer of power from President Nixon to President Ford. Indeed, about one month after taking office, Ford did pardon Nixon, resulting in much controversy.


title: Alexander Haig

text: However, Haig denied the allegation that he played a key role in arbitrating Nixon's resignation by offering Ford's pardon to Nixon. One of the most crucial moments occurred a day before Haig's departure to Europe to begin his tenure as NATO Supreme Allied Commander. Haig was telephoned by J. Fred Buzhardt who once served as special White House counsel for Watergate matters. In the call, Buzhardt discussed with Haig President Ford's upcoming speech to address the nation about pardoning former president Richard Nixon, informing Haig that the speech contained something indicating Haig's role in Nixon's resignation and Ford's pardon of Nixon. According to his autobiography ("Inner Circles: How America Changed the World"), Haig was furious and immediately drove straight to the White House to determine the veracity of Buzhardt's claims. This was due to his concern that Ford's speech would expose his role in negotiating Nixon's resignation supposedly in exchange for a pardon issued by the newly sworn in president.


title: Alexander Haig

text: On August 7, 1974, two days before Nixon's resignation, Haig met with Nixon in the Oval Office to discuss the transition. Following their conversation, Nixon told Haig "You fellows, in your business, have a way of handling problems like this. Give them a pistol and leave the room.


title: Alexander Haig

text: Following Nixon's resignation, Haig remained briefly as White House Chief of Staff under President Ford. Haig aided in the transition by advising the new president mostly on policy matters on which he had been working under the Nixon presidency and introducing Ford to the White House staff and their daily activities. Haig recommended that Ford retain several of Nixon's White House staff for 30 days to provide an orderly transition from the old administration to the new. Haig and Kissinger also advised President Ford on Nixon's détente policy with the Soviet Union following the SALT I treaty in 1972.


title: Alexander Haig

text: Haig found it difficult to get along with the new administration and wanted to return to the Army for his last command. It had also been rumored that Ford wanted to be his own chief of staff. At first Ford decided to replace Haig with Robert T. Hartmann, Ford's chief of staff during his tenure as vice president. Ford soon replaced Hartmann with United States Permanent Ambassador to NATO Donald Rumsfeld. Author and Haig biographer Roger Morris, a former colleague of Haig's on the National Security Council early in Nixon's first term, wrote that when Ford pardoned Nixon, he in effect pardoned Haig as well.


title: Alexander Haig

text: Haig resigned from his position as White House Chief of Staff and returned to active-duty in the United States Army in September 1974.


title: Alexander Haig

text: In December 1974, Haig was appointed as the next Supreme Allied Commander Europe by President Gerald Ford replacing General Andrew Goodpaster and returning to active duty within the United States Army. General Haig also became the top runner to be the 27th U.S. Army Chief of Staff, following the death of Army Chief of Staff General Creighton Abrams from complications of surgery to remove lung cancer on September 4, 1974. However it was General Frederick C. Weyand who ultimately filled Abrams's position as Army Chief of Staff instead of General Haig. From 1974 to 1979 General Haig served as the Supreme Allied Commander Europe, the commander of NATO forces in Europe, as well as commander in chief of United States European Command. During his tenure as SACEUR, General Haig focused on transforming SACEUR in order to face the future global challenge following the end of the Vietnam War and the rise of Soviet influence within Eastern Europe.


title: Alexander Haig

text: Haig focused on strengthening the relationship between the United States and NATO member nations and their allies. As a result, several fleets of United States Air Force aircraft, such as the F-111 Aardvark from the Strategic Air Command, were relocated to U.S. Air Force bases located in Europe. Haig also stressed the importance of increasing the training of U.S. troops deployed in Europe following his tour of the Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean Sea, on which Haig saw poorly-disciplined and ill-trained troops. As a result, Haig conducted routine inspections during NATO troops' training and often went to the training site and participated in the training itself. Haig also recommended the revitalization of the equipment within the United States installations in Europe and U.S. troops deployed in Europe, in order to strengthen deterrence from possible attack within Western Europe.


title: Alexander Haig

text: Haig took the same route to SHAPE every day—a pattern of behavior that did not go unnoticed by terrorist organizations. On June 25, 1979, Haig was the target of an assassination attempt in Mons, Belgium. A land mine blew up under the bridge on which Haig's car was traveling, narrowly missing Haig's car and wounding three of his bodyguards in a following car. Authorities later attributed responsibility for the attack to the Red Army Faction (RAF). In 1993 a German court sentenced Rolf Clemens Wagner, a former RAF member, to life imprisonment for the assassination attempt. During Haig's last month of tenure as Supreme Allied Commander Europe, Haig oversaw the talks and negotiation between United States and NATO member nations of a new policy following the signing of SALT II Treaty on June 18, 1979, by President Jimmy Carter and Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev. However Haig also drew concern regarding the SALT II Treaty in which, in accordance to Haig it's only benefited the Soviet position and gave them a way to build up their military arsenal. Haig grew more concerned about the treaty following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, in which Haig argued that the invasion was part of the Soviet campaign to strengthen their military buildup expansion.


title: Alexander Haig

text: Haig retired from his position as the Supreme Allied Commander Europe in July 1979 and was succeeded by General Bernard W. Rogers whom previously served as Army Chief of Staff. Haig retirement ceremony took place on NATO Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe in Mons, Belgium on July 1, 1979, attended by Secretary of Defense Harold Brown, NATO Secretary General Joseph Luns and U.S. Ambassador to NATO William Tapley Bennett Jr.


title: Alexander Haig

text: Haig retired as a four-star general from the Army in 1979, and moved on to civilian employment. In 1979 he worked at the Philadelphia-based Foreign Policy Research Institute briefly and later served on that organization's board.


title: Alexander Haig

text: Later that year, he was named president and director of United Technologies Corporation under chief executive officer Harry J. Gray, a job he retained until 1981.


title: Alexander Haig

text: Haig was the second of three career military officers to become secretary of state (George C. Marshall and Colin Powell were the others). His speeches in this role in particular led to the coining of the neologism "Haigspeak," described in "a dictionary of neologisms" as "Language characterized by pompous obscurity resulting from redundancy, the semantically strained use of words, and verbosity," leading Ambassador Nicko Henderson to offer a prize for the best rendering of the Gettysburg Address in Haigspeak.


title: Alexander Haig

text: On December 11, 1980, president-elect Reagan was prepared to publicly announce nearly all of his candidates for the most important cabinet-level posts. Singularly absent from the list of top nominees was his choice for Secretary of State, presumed by many at the time to be Al Haig. Haig's prospects for Senate confirmation were clouded when Senate Democrats questioned his role in the Watergate scandal. In Haig's defense, North Carolina Senator Jesse Helms claimed to have phoned former president Nixon personally to inquire whether any material on Nixon's unreleased White House tapes could embarrass Haig. According to Helms, Nixon replied, "Not a thing." Haig was eventually confirmed after hearings he described as an "ordeal," during which he received no encouragement from Reagan or his staff.Several days earlier, on December 2, 1980, as Haig faced these initial challenges to the next step in his political career, four U.S. Catholic missionary women in El Salvador, two of whom were Maryknoll sisters, were beaten, raped and murdered by five Salvadoran national guardsmen ordered to follow them. Their bodies were exhumed from a remote shallow grave two days later in the presence of then-U.S. ambassador to El Salvador Robert E. White. Despite this diplomatically awkward atrocity, the Carter administration soon approved $5.9 million in lethal military assistance to El Salvador's oppressive right-wing government. The incoming Reagan administration expanded that aid to $25 million less than six weeks later.


title: Alexander Haig

text: In justifying the arms shipments, the new administration claimed that the Salvadoran government of Jose Napoleon Duarte had taken "positive steps" to investigate the murder of four American nuns, but this was disputed by U.S. Ambassador Robert E. White, who said that he could find no evidence the junta was "conducting a serious investigation." White was dismissed from the Foreign Service by Haig because of his complaints. White later asserted that the Reagan administration was determined to ignore and even conceal the complicity of the Salvadoran government and army in the murders.


title: Alexander Haig

text: Throughout the 1980 U.S. presidential campaign, Reagan and his foreign policy advisers faulted the Carter administration's perceived over-emphasis on the human rights abuses committed by authoritarian governments allied to the U.S., labeling it a "double standard" when compared with Carter's treatment of communist-bloc governments. Haig, who described himself as the "vicar" of U.S. foreign policy, believed the human rights violations of a U.S. ally such as El Salvador should be given less attention than the ally's successes against enemies of the U.S., and thus found himself diminishing the murders of the nuns before the House Foreign Affairs Committee in March 1981:


title: Alexander Haig

text: The outcry that immediately followed Haig's insinuation prompted him to emphatically withdraw his speculative suggestions the very next day before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. Similar public relations miscalculations, by Haig and others, continued to plague the Reagan administration's attempts to build popular support at home for its Central American policies.


title: Alexander Haig

text: In 1981, following the March 30 assassination attempt on Reagan, Haig asserted before reporters, "I am in control here" as a result of Reagan's hospitalization, indicating that, while President Reagan had not "transfer[red] the helm," Haig was in fact directing White House crisis management until Vice President George Bush arrived in Washington to assume that role.


title: Alexander Haig

text: The U.S. Constitution, including both the presidential line of succession and the 25th Amendment, dictates what happens when a president is incapacitated. The Speaker of the House (at the time, Tip O'Neill, Democrat) and the president pro tempore of the Senate (at the time, Strom Thurmond, Republican), precede the secretary of state in the line of succession. Haig later clarified,


title: Alexander Haig

text: In April 1982, Haig conducted shuttle diplomacy between the governments of Argentina in Buenos Aires and the United Kingdom in London after Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands. Negotiations collapsed and Haig returned to Washington on April 19. The British Naval fleet then entered the war zone. In December 2012 documents released under the United Kingdom's 30 Year Rule disclosed that Haig planned to reveal British classified military information to Argentina in advance of the recapture of South Georgia Island. The information, which contained the plans for Operation Paraquet, was intended to show the Argentine military junta in Buenos Aires that the United States was a neutral player and could be trusted to act impartially during negotiations to end the conflict. However, in 2012 it was revealed via declassified files from the Reagan Presidential Library that Haig attempted to persuade Reagan to side with Argentina in the war.


title: Alexander Haig

text: Haig's report to Reagan on January 30, 1982, shows that Haig feared the Israelis might start a war against Lebanon. Critics accused Haig of "greenlighting" the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in June 1982. Haig denied this and said he urged restraint.


title: Alexander Haig

text: Haig caused some alarm with his suggestion that a "nuclear warning shot" in Europe might be effective in deterring the Soviet Union. His tenure as secretary of state was often characterized by his clashes with the defense secretary, Caspar Weinberger. Haig, who repeatedly had difficulty with various members of the Reagan administration during his year-and-a-half in office, decided to resign his post on June 25, 1982. President Reagan accepted his resignation on July 5. Haig was succeeded by George P. Shultz, who was confirmed on July 16.


title: Alexander Haig

text: Haig ran unsuccessfully for the 1988 Republican Party presidential nomination. Although he enjoyed relatively high name recognition, Haig never broke out of single digits in national public opinion polls. He was a fierce critic of then–Vice President George H. W. Bush, often doubting Bush's leadership abilities, questioning his role in the Iran–Contra affair, and using the word "wimp" in relation to Bush in an October 1987 debate in Texas. Despite extensive personal campaigning and paid advertising in New Hampshire, Haig remained stuck in last place in the polls. After finishing with less than 1 percent of the vote in the Iowa caucuses and trailing badly in the New Hampshire primary polls, Haig withdrew his candidacy and endorsed Senator Bob Dole. Dole, steadily gaining on Bush after beating him handily a week earlier in the Iowa caucus, ended up losing to Bush in the New Hampshire primary by 10 percentage points. With his momentum regained, Bush easily won the nomination.


title: Alexander Haig

text: After leaving the Reagan White House, Haig took a seat on the MGM board of directors in an effort to cultivate a film career. He supervised the development of John Milius' "Red Dawn" (1984) and made significant changes to it. While heading a consulting firm in the 1980s and 1990s, he served as a director for various struggling businesses, including computer manufacturer Commodore International. He also served as a founding corporate director of America Online.


title: Alexander Haig

text: Haig was the host for several years of the television program "World Business Review". At the time of his death, he was the host of "21st Century Business", with each program a weekly business education forum that included business solutions, expert interview, commentary, and field reports. Haig was co-chairman of the American Committee for Peace in the Caucasus, along with Zbigniew Brzezinski and Stephen J. Solarz. He was also member of the Washington Institute for Near East Policy (WINEP) board of advisers.