text: Clinton nominated Louis Freeh to be FBI Director on July 20. Then-FBI Deputy Director, Floyd I. Clarke, who Sessions suggested had led a coup to force his removal, served as Acting Director until September 1, 1993, when Freeh was sworn in.


title: Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation

text: On May 9, 2017, President Trump dismissed Comey after the recommendation of United States Attorney General Jeff Sessions and Deputy Attorney General Rod Rosenstein. Rosenstein's memorandum to Sessions objected to Comey's conduct in the investigation into Hillary Clinton's emails. This was contradicted by multiple unnamed sources to news outlets, who said that Trump and high-level officials personally asked for Comey to be fired. Comey was fired after he asked for more money for the investigations into Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections. Many members of Congress, mostly Democrats, expressed concern over the firing and argued that it would put the integrity of the investigation into jeopardy.


text: Comey's termination was immediately controversial, even being characterized as corrupt by news commentators. It was compared, by the aforementioned news outlets, to the Saturday Night Massacre, President Richard Nixon's termination of special prosecutor Archibald Cox, who had been investigating the Watergate scandal, and to the firing of Acting Attorney General Sally Yates in January 2017.


text: In the dismissal letter Trump stated that Comey had asserted “on three separate occasions that I am not under investigation" which was later confirmed by Comey to the Senate while under oath. This is disputed by reporting from multiple news agencies with multiple sources. According to the reporting, Trump had been openly talking about firing Mr. Comey for at least a week before his dismissal. Trump and Democratic leaders had long questioned Comey's judgment. Moreover, Trump was angry that Comey would not support his claim that President Barack Obama had his campaign offices wiretapped, frustrated when Comey revealed in Senate testimony the breadth of the counterintelligence investigation into Russia's effort to sway the 2016 U.S. presidential election and that Comey was giving too much attention to the Russia probe and not to internal leaks within the government. On May 8, 2017, he gave Attorney General Jeff Sessions and Deputy Attorney General Rosenstein a directive to explain in writing a case against Comey. That directive was forwarded to Trump as a recommendation to dismiss Comey the following day, which Trump did.


text: Comey first learned of his termination from television news reports that flashed on screen while he was delivering a speech to agents at the Los Angeles Field Office. Sources said he was surprised and caught off guard by the termination. Comey immediately departed for Washington, D.C., and was forced to cancel his scheduled speech that night at an FBI recruitment event at the Directors Guild of America in Hollywood, California.


text: In the absence of a Senate-confirmed FBI Director, Deputy Director Andrew McCabe automatically became the acting director, serving until the confirmation of Christopher Wray.


title: Siphon

text: A siphon (from , "pipe, tube", also spelled nonetymologically syphon) is any of a wide variety of devices that involve the flow of liquids through tubes. In a narrower sense, the word refers particularly to a tube in an inverted "U" shape, which causes a liquid to flow upward, above the surface of a reservoir, with no pump, but powered by the fall of the liquid as it flows down the tube under the pull of gravity, then discharging at a level lower than the surface of the reservoir from which it came.


title: Siphon

text: There are two leading theories about how siphons cause liquid to flow uphill, against gravity, without being pumped, and powered only by gravity. The traditional theory for centuries was that gravity pulling the liquid down on the exit side of the siphon resulted in reduced pressure at the top of the siphon. Then atmospheric pressure was able to push the liquid from the upper reservoir, up into the reduced pressure at the top of the siphon, like in a barometer or drinking straw, and then over. However, it has been demonstrated that siphons can operate in a vacuum and to heights exceeding the barometric height of the liquid. Consequently, the cohesion tension theory of siphon operation has been advocated, where the liquid is pulled over the siphon in a way similar to the chain fountain. It need not be one theory or the other that is correct, but rather both theories may be correct in different circumstances of ambient pressure. The atmospheric pressure with gravity theory obviously cannot explain siphons in vacuum, where there is no significant atmospheric pressure. But the cohesion tension with gravity theory cannot explain gas siphons, siphons working despite bubbles, and the flying droplet siphon, where gases do not exert significant pulling forces, and liquids not in contact cannot exert a cohesive tension force.


title: Siphon

text: All known published theories in modern times recognize Bernoulli’s equation as a decent approximation to idealized, friction-free siphon operation.


title: Siphon

text: Physical evidence for the use of siphons by Greeks are the Justice cup of Pythagoras in Samos in the 6th century BC and usage by Greek engineers in the 3rd century BC at Pergamon.


title: Siphon

text: The Banu Musa brothers of 9th-century Baghdad invented a double-concentric siphon, which they described in their "Book of Ingenious Devices". The edition edited by Hill includes an analysis of the double-concentric siphon.


title: Siphon

text: Siphons were studied further in the 17th century, in the context of suction pumps (and the recently developed vacuum pumps), particularly with an eye to understanding the maximum height of pumps (and siphons) and the apparent vacuum at the top of early barometers. This was initially explained by Galileo Galilei via the theory of ("nature abhors a vacuum"), which dates to Aristotle, and which Galileo restated as , but this was subsequently disproved by later workers, notably Evangelista Torricelli and Blaise Pascal – see barometer: history.


title: Siphon

text: A practical siphon, operating at typical atmospheric pressures and tube heights, works because gravity pulling down on the taller column of liquid leaves reduced pressure at the top of the siphon (formally, hydrostatic pressure when the liquid is not moving). This reduced pressure at the top means gravity pulling down on the shorter column of liquid is not sufficient to keep the liquid stationary against the atmospheric pressure pushing it up into the reduced-pressure zone at the top of the siphon. So the liquid flows from the higher-pressure area of the upper reservoir up to the lower-pressure zone at the top of the siphon, over the top, and then, with the help of gravity and a taller column of liquid, down to the higher-pressure zone at the exit.


title: Siphon

text: The chain model is a useful but not completely accurate conceptual model of a siphon. The chain model helps to understand how a siphon can cause liquid to flow uphill, powered only by the downward force of gravity. A siphon can sometimes be thought of like a chain hanging over a pulley, with one end of the chain piled on a higher surface than the other. Since the length of chain on the shorter side is lighter than the length of chain on the taller side, the heavier chain on the taller side will move down and pull up the chain on the lighter side. Similar to a siphon, the chain model is obviously just powered by gravity acting on the heavier side, and there is clearly no violation of conservation of energy, because the chain is ultimately just moving from a higher to a lower location, as the liquid does in a siphon.


title: Siphon

text: There are a number of problems with the chain model of a siphon, and understanding these differences helps to explain the actual workings of siphons. First, unlike in the chain model of the siphon, it is not actually the "weight" on the taller side compared to the shorter side that matters. Rather it is the difference in "height" from the reservoir surfaces to the top of the siphon, that determines the balance of "pressure". For example, if the tube from the upper reservoir to the top of the siphon has a much larger diameter than the taller section of tube from the lower reservoir to the top of the siphon, the shorter upper section of the siphon may have a much larger weight of liquid in it, and yet the lighter volume of liquid in the down tube can pull liquid up the fatter up tube, and the siphon can function normally.


title: Siphon

text: Another difference is that under most practical circumstances, dissolved gases, vapor pressure, and (sometimes) lack of adhesion with tube walls, conspire to render the tensile strength within the liquid ineffective for siphoning. Thus, unlike a chain, which has significant tensile strength, liquids usually have little tensile strength under typical siphon conditions, and therefore the liquid on the rising side cannot be pulled up in the way the chain is pulled up on the rising side.


title: Siphon

text: An occasional misunderstanding of siphons is that they rely on the tensile strength of the liquid to pull the liquid up and over the rise. While water has been found to have a significant tensile strength in some experiments (such as with the z-tube), and siphons in vacuum rely on such cohesion, common siphons can easily be demonstrated to need no liquid tensile strength at all to function. Furthermore, since common siphons operate at positive pressures throughout the siphon, there is no contribution from liquid tensile strength, because the molecules are actually repelling each other in order to resist the pressure, rather than pulling on each other.


title: Siphon

text: To demonstrate, the longer lower leg of a common siphon can be plugged at the bottom and filled almost to the crest with liquid as in the figure, leaving the top and the shorter upper leg completely dry and containing only air. When the plug is removed and the liquid in the longer lower leg is allowed to fall, the liquid in the upper reservoir will then typically sweep the air bubble down and out of the tube. The apparatus will then continue to operate as a normal siphon. As there is no contact between the liquid on either side of the siphon at the beginning of this experiment, there can be no cohesion between the liquid molecules to pull the liquid over the rise. It has been suggested by advocates of the liquid tensile strength theory, that the air start siphon only demonstrates the effect as the siphon starts, but that the situation changes after the bubble is swept out and the siphon achieves steady flow. But a similar effect can be seen in the flying-droplet siphon (see above). The flying-droplet siphon works continuously without liquid tensile strength pulling the liquid up.


title: Siphon

text: The siphon in the video demonstration operated steadily for more than 28 minutes until the upper reservoir was empty. Another simple demonstration that liquid tensile strength isn't needed in the siphon is to simply introduce a bubble into the siphon during operation. The bubble can be large enough to entirely disconnect the liquids in the tube before and after the bubble, defeating any liquid tensile strength, and yet if the bubble isn't too big, the siphon will continue to operate with little change as it sweeps the bubble out.


title: Siphon

text: Another common misconception about siphons is that because the atmospheric pressure is virtually identical at the entrance and exit, the atmospheric pressure cancels, and therefore atmospheric pressure can't be pushing the liquid up the siphon. But equal and opposite forces may not completely cancel if there is an intervening force that counters some or all of one of the forces. In the siphon, the atmospheric pressure at the entrance and exit are both lessened by the force of gravity pulling down the liquid in each tube, but the pressure on the down side is lessened more by the taller column of liquid on the down side. In effect, the atmospheric pressure coming up the down side doesn't entirely "make it" to the top to cancel all of the atmospheric pressure pushing up the up side. This effect can be seen more easily in the example of two carts being pushed up opposite sides of a hill. As shown in the diagram, even though the person on the left seems to have his push canceled entirely by the equal and opposite push from the person on the right, the person on the left's seemingly canceled push is still the source of the force to push the left cart up.


title: Siphon

text: In some situations siphons do function in the absence of atmospheric pressure and due to tensile strength – see vacuum siphons – and in these situations the chain model can be instructive. Further, in other settings water transport does occur due to tension, most significantly in transpirational pull in the xylem of vascular plants. Water and other liquids may seem to have no tensile strength because when a handful is scooped up and pulled on, the liquids narrow and pull apart effortlessly. But liquid tensile strength in a siphon is possible when the liquid adheres to the tube walls and thereby resists narrowing. Any contamination on the tube walls, such as grease or air bubbles, or other minor influences such as turbulence or vibration, can cause the liquid to detach from the walls and lose all tensile strength.


title: Siphon

text: In more detail, one can look at how the hydrostatic pressure varies through a static siphon, considering in turn the vertical tube from the top reservoir, the vertical tube from the bottom reservoir, and the horizontal tube connecting them (assuming a U-shape). At liquid level in the top reservoir, the liquid is under atmospheric pressure, and as one goes up the siphon, the hydrostatic pressure decreases (under vertical pressure variation), since the weight of atmospheric pressure pushing the water up is counterbalanced by the column of water in the siphon pushing down (until one reaches the maximal height of a barometer/siphon, at which point the liquid cannot be pushed higher) – the hydrostatic pressure at the top of the tube is then lower than atmospheric pressure by an amount proportional to the height of the tube. Doing the same analysis on the tube rising from the lower reservoir yields the pressure at the top of that (vertical) tube; this pressure is lower because the tube is longer (there is more water pushing down), and requires that the lower reservoir is lower than the upper reservoir, or more generally that the discharge outlet simply be lower than the surface of the upper reservoir. Considering now the horizontal tube connecting them, one sees that the pressure at the top of the tube from the top reservoir is higher (since less water is being lifted), while the pressure at the top of the tube from the bottom reservoir is lower (since more water is being lifted), and since liquids move from high pressure to low pressure, the liquid flows across the horizontal tube from the top basin to the bottom basin. The liquid is under positive pressure (compression) throughout the tube, not tension.


title: Siphon

text: Bernoulli's equation is considered in the scientific literature to be a fair approximation to the operation of the siphon. In non-ideal fluids, compressibility, tensile strength and other characteristics of the working fluid (or multiple fluids) complicate Bernoulli's equation.


title: Siphon

text: Once started, a siphon requires no additional energy to keep the liquid flowing up and out of the reservoir. The siphon will draw liquid out of the reservoir until the level falls below the intake, allowing air or other surrounding gas to break the siphon, or until the outlet of the siphon equals the level of the reservoir, whichever comes first.


title: Siphon

text: In addition to atmospheric pressure, the density of the liquid, and gravity, the maximal height of the crest in practical siphons is limited by the vapour pressure of the liquid. When the pressure within the liquid drops to below the liquid's vapor pressure, tiny vapor bubbles can begin to form at the high point, and the siphon effect will end. This effect depends on how efficiently the liquid can nucleate bubbles; in the absence of impurities or rough surfaces to act as easy nucleation sites for bubbles, siphons can temporarily exceed their standard maximal height during the extended time it takes bubbles to nucleate. One siphon of degassed water was demonstrated to for an extended period of time and other controlled experiments to . For water at standard atmospheric pressure, the maximal siphon height is approximately ; for mercury it is , which is the definition of standard pressure. This equals the maximal height of a suction pump, which operates by the same principle. The ratio of heights (about 13.6) equals the ratio of densities of water and mercury (at a given temperature), since the column of water (resp. mercury) is balancing with the column of air yielding atmospheric pressure, and indeed maximal height is (neglecting vapor pressure and velocity of liquid) inversely proportional to density of liquid.


title: Siphon

text: In 1948, Malcolm Nokes investigated siphons working in both air pressure and in a partial vacuum, for siphons in vacuum he concluded that: "The gravitational force on the column of liquid in the downtake tube less the gravitational force in the uptake tube causes the liquid to move. The liquid is therefore in tension and sustains a longitudinal strain which, in the absence of disturbing factors, is insufficient to break the column of liquid". But for siphons of small uptake height working at atmospheric pressure, he concluded that: "... the tension of the liquid column is neutralized and "reversed" by the compressive effect of the atmosphere on the opposite ends of the liquid column."


title: Siphon

text: Potter and Barnes at the University of Edinburgh revisited siphons in 1971. They re-examined the theories of the siphon and ran experiments on siphons in air pressure. Their conclusion was that; "By now it should be clear that, despite a wealth of tradition, the basic mechanism of a siphon does not depend upon atmospheric pressure."


title: Siphon

text: Gravity, pressure and molecular cohesion were the focus of work in 2010 by Hughes at the Queensland University of Technology. He used siphons at air pressure and his conclusion was that: "The flow of water out of the bottom of a siphon depends on the difference in height between the inflow and outflow, and therefore cannot be dependent on atmospheric pressure…"


title: Siphon

text: Hughes did further work on siphons at air pressure in 2011 and concluded that: "The experiments described above demonstrate that ordinary siphons at atmospheric pressure operate through gravity and not atmospheric pressure".


title: Siphon

text: The father and son researchers, Ramette and Ramette, successfully siphoned carbon dioxide under air pressure in 2011 and concluded that molecular cohesion is not required for the operation of a siphon but that: "The basic explanation of siphon action is that, once the tube is filled, the flow is initiated by the greater pull of gravity on the fluid on the longer side compared with that on the short side. This creates a pressure drop throughout the siphon tube, in the same sense that 'sucking' on a straw reduces the pressure along its length all the way to the intake point. The ambient atmospheric pressure at the intake point responds to the reduced pressure by forcing the fluid upwards, sustaining the flow, just as in a steadily sucked straw in a milkshake."


title: Siphon

text: Again in 2011, Richert and Binder (at the University of Hawaii) examined the siphon and concluded that molecular cohesion is not required for the operation of a siphon but relies upon gravity and a pressure differential, writing: "As the fluid initially primed on the long leg of the siphon rushes down due to gravity, it leaves behind a partial vacuum that allows pressure on the entrance point of the higher container to push fluid up the leg on that side".


title: Siphon

text: The research team of Boatwright, Puttick, and Licence, all at the University of Nottingham, succeeded in running a siphon in high vacuum, also in 2011. They wrote that: "It is widely believed that the siphon is principally driven by the force of atmospheric pressure. An experiment is described that shows that a siphon can function even under high-vacuum conditions. Molecular cohesion and gravity are shown to be contributing factors in the operation of a siphon; the presence of a positive atmospheric pressure is not required".


title: Siphon

text: Writing in Physics Today in 2011, J. Dooley from Millersville University stated that both a pressure differential within the siphon tube and the tensile strength of the liquid are required for a siphon to operate.


title: Siphon

text: A researcher at Humboldt State University, A. McGuire, examined flow in siphons in 2012. Using the advanced general-purpose multiphysics simulation software package LS-DYNA he examined pressure initialisation, flow, and pressure propagation within a siphon. He concluded that: "Pressure, gravity and molecular cohesion can all be driving forces in the operation of siphons".


title: Siphon

text: In 2014, Hughes and Gurung (at the Queensland University of Technology), ran a water siphon under varying air pressures ranging from sea level to 11.9 km () altitude. They noted that: "Flow remained more or less constant during ascension indicating that siphon flow is independent of ambient barometric pressure". They used Bernoulli's equation and the Poiseuille equation to examine pressure differentials and fluid flow within a siphon. Their conclusion was that: "It follows from the above analysis that there must be a direct cohesive connection between water molecules flowing in and out of a siphon. This is true at all atmospheric pressures in which the pressure in the apex of the siphon is above the vapour pressure of water, an exception being ionic liquids".


title: Siphon

text: A plain tube can be used as a siphon. An external pump has to be applied to start the liquid flowing and "prime" the siphon (in home use this is often done by a person inhaling through the tube until enough of it has filled with liquid; this may pose danger to the user, depending on the liquid that is being siphoned). This is sometimes done with any leak-free hose to siphon gasoline from a motor vehicle's gasoline tank to an external tank. (Siphoning gasoline by mouth often results in the accidental swallowing of gasoline, or aspirating it into the lungs, which can cause death or lung damage.) If the tube is flooded with liquid before part of the tube is raised over the intermediate high point and care is taken to keep the tube flooded while it is being raised, no pump is required. Devices sold as siphons often come with a "siphon pump" to start the siphon process.


title: Siphon

text: In some applications it can be helpful to use siphon tubing that is not much larger than necessary. Using piping of too great a diameter and then throttling the flow using valves or constrictive piping appears to increase the effect of previously cited concerns over gases or vapor collecting in the crest which serve to break the vacuum. If the vacuum is reduced too much, the siphon effect can be lost. Reducing the size of pipe used closer to requirements appears to reduce this effect and creates a more functional siphon that does not require constant re-priming and restarting. In this respect, where the requirement is to match a flow into a container with a flow out of said container (to maintain a constant level in a pond fed by a stream, for example) it would be preferable to utilize two or three smaller separate parallel pipes that can be started as required rather than attempting to use a single large pipe and attempting to throttle it.


title: Siphon

text: Siphons are sometimes employed as automatic machines, in situations where it is desirable to turn a continuous trickling flow or an irregular small surge flow into a large surge volume. A common example of this is a public restroom with urinals regularly flushed by an automatic siphon in a small water tank overhead. When the container is filled, all the stored liquid is released, emerging as a large surge volume that then resets and fills again. One way to do this intermittent action involves complex machinery such as floats, chains, levers, and valves, but these can corrode, wear out, or jam over time. An alternate method is with rigid pipes and chambers, using only the water itself in a siphon as the operating mechanism.


title: Siphon

text: A siphon used in an automatic unattended device needs to be able to function reliably without failure. This is different from the common demonstration "self-starting siphons" in that there are ways the siphon can fail to function which require manual intervention to return to normal surge flow operation. A video demonstration of a self-starting siphon can be found here, courtesy of "The Curiosity Show".


title: Siphon

text: The most common failure is for the liquid to dribble out slowly, matching the rate that the container is filling, and the siphon enters an undesired steady-state condition. Preventing dribbling typically involves pneumatic principles to trap one or more large air bubbles in various pipes, which are sealed by water traps. This method can fail if it can't start working intermittently without water already present in parts of the mechanism, and which will not be filled if the mechanism starts from a dry state.


title: Siphon

text: A second problem is that the trapped air pockets will shrink over time if the siphon is not operating due to no inflow. The air in pockets is absorbed by the liquid, which pulls liquid up into the piping until the air pocket disappears, and can cause activation of water flow outside the normal range of operating when the storage tank is not full, leading to loss of the liquid seal in lower parts of the mechanism.


title: Siphon

text: A third problem is where the lower end of the liquid seal is simply a U-trap bend in an outflow pipe. During vigorous emptying, the kinetic motion of the liquid out the outflow can propel too much liquid out, causing a loss of the sealing volume in the outflow trap and loss of the trapped air bubble to maintain intermittent operation.


title: Siphon

text: A fourth problem involves seep holes in the mechanism, intended to slowly refill these various sealing chambers when the siphon is dry. The seep holes can be plugged by debris and corrosion, requiring manual cleaning and intervention. To prevent this, the siphon may be restricted to pure liquid sources, free of solids or precipitate.


title: Siphon

text: Many automatic siphons have been invented going back to at least the 1850s, for automatic siphon mechanisms that attempt to overcome these problems using various pneumatic and hydrodynamic principles.


title: Siphon

text: When certain liquids needs to be purified, siphoning can help prevent either the bottom (dregs) or the top (foam and floaties) from being transferred out of one container into a new container. Siphoning is thus useful in the fermentation of wine and beer for this reason, since it can keep unwanted impurities out of the new container.


title: Siphon

text: Self-constructed siphons, made of pipes or tubes, can be used to evacuate water from cellars after floodings. Between the flooded cellar and a deeper place outside a connection is built, using a tube or some pipes. They are filled with water through an intake valve (at the highest end of the construction). When the ends are opened, the water flows through the pipe into the sewer or the river.


title: Siphon

text: Siphoning is common in irrigated fields to transfer a controlled amount of water from a ditch, over the ditch wall, into furrows.


title: Siphon

text: Large siphons may be used in municipal waterworks and industry. Their size requires control via valves at the intake, outlet and crest of the siphon. The siphon may be primed by closing the intake and outlets and filling the siphon at the crest. If intakes and outlets are submerged, a vacuum pump may be applied at the crest to prime the siphon. Alternatively the siphon may be primed by a pump at either the intake or outlet. Gas in the liquid is a concern in large siphons. The gas tends to accumulate at the crest and if enough accumulates to break the flow of liquid, the siphon stops working. The siphon itself will exacerbate the problem because as the liquid is raised through the siphon, the pressure drops, causing dissolved gases within the liquid to come out of solution. Higher temperature accelerates the release of gas from liquids so maintaining a constant, low temperature helps. The longer the liquid is in the siphon, the more gas is released, so a shorter siphon overall helps. Local high points will trap gas so the intake and outlet legs should have continuous slopes without intermediate high points. The flow of the liquid moves bubbles thus the intake leg can have a shallow slope as the flow will push the gas bubbles to the crest. Conversely, the outlet leg needs to have a steep slope to allow the bubbles to move against the liquid flow; though other designs call for a shallow slope in the outlet leg as well to allow the bubbles to be carried out of the siphon. At the crest the gas can be trapped in a chamber above the crest. The chamber needs to be occasionally primed again with liquid to remove the gas.


title: Siphon

text: A "siphon rain gauge" is a rain gauge that can record rainfall over an extended period. A siphon is used to automatically empty the gauge. It is often simply called a "siphon gauge" and is not to be confused with a siphon pressure gauge.


title: Siphon

text: A siphon spillway in a dam is usually not technically a siphon, as it is generally used to drain elevated water levels. However, a siphon spillway operates as an actual siphon if it raises the flow higher than the surface of the source reservoir, as sometimes is the case when used in irrigation. In operation, a siphon spillway is considered to be "pipe flow" or "closed-duct flow". A normal spillway flow is pressurized by the height of the reservoir above the spillway, whereas a siphon flow rate is governed by the difference in height of the inlet and outlet. Some designs make use of an automatic system that uses the flow of water in a spiral vortex to remove the air above to prime the siphon. Such a design includes the volute siphon.


title: Siphon

text: Some toilets also use the siphon principle to obtain the actual flush from the cistern. The flush is triggered by a lever or handle that operates a simple diaphragm-like piston pump that lifts enough water to the crest of the siphon to start the flow of water which then completely empties the contents of the cistern into the toilet bowl. The advantage of this system was that no water would leak from the cistern excepting when flushed. These were mandatory in the UK until 2011.


title: Siphon

text: Early urinals incorporated a siphon in the cistern which would flush automatically on a regular cycle because there was a constant trickle of clean water being fed to the cistern by a slightly open valve.


title: Siphon

text: While if both ends of a siphon are at atmospheric pressure, liquid flows from high to low, if the bottom end of a siphon is pressurized, liquid can flow from low to high. If pressure is removed from the bottom end, the liquid flow will reverse, illustrating that it is pressure driving the siphon. An everyday illustration of this is the siphon coffee brewer, which works as follows (designs vary; this is a standard design, omitting coffee grounds):


title: Siphon

text: In practice, the top vessel is filled with coffee grounds, and the heat is removed from the bottom vessel when the coffee has finished brewing. What vapor pressure means concretely is that the boiling water converts high-density water (a liquid) into low-density steam (a gas), which thus expands to take up more volume (in other words, the pressure increases). This pressure from the expanding steam then forces the liquid up the siphon; when the steam then condenses down to water the pressure decreases and the liquid flows back down.


title: Siphon

text: While a simple siphon cannot output liquid at a level higher than the source reservoir, a more complicated device utilizing an airtight metering chamber at the crest and a system of automatic valves, may discharge liquid on an ongoing basis, at a level higher than the source reservoir, without outside pumping energy being added. It can accomplish this despite what initially appears to be a violation of conservation of energy because it can take advantage of the energy of a large volume of liquid dropping some distance, to raise and discharge a small volume of liquid above the source reservoir. Thus it might be said to "require" a large quantity of falling liquid to power the dispensing of a small quantity. Such a system typically operates in a cyclical or start/stop but ongoing and self-powered manner. Ram pumps do not work in this way. These metering pumps are true siphon pumping devices which use siphons as their power source.


title: Siphon

text: An "inverted siphon" is not a siphon but a term applied to pipes that must dip below an obstruction to form a "U" shaped flow path.


title: Siphon

text: Large inverted siphons are used to convey water being carried in canals or flumes across valleys, for irrigation or gold mining. The Romans used inverted siphons of lead pipes to cross valleys that were too big to construct an aqueduct.


title: Siphon

text: "Inverted siphons" are commonly called traps for their function in preventing sewer gases from coming back out of sewers and sometimes making dense objects like rings and electronic components retrievable after falling into a drain. Liquid flowing in one end simply forces liquid up and out the other end, but solids like sand will accumulate. This is especially important in sewerage systems or culverts which must be routed under rivers or other deep obstructions where the better term is "depressed sewer".


title: Siphon

text: "Back siphonage" is a plumbing term applied to the reversal of normal water flow in a plumbing system due to sharply reduced or negative pressure on the water supply side, such as high demand on water supply by fire-fighting; it is not an actual siphon as it is suction. Back siphonage is rare as it depends on submerged inlets at the outlet (home) end and these are uncommon. Back siphonage is not to be confused with backflow; which is the reversed flow of water from the outlet end to the supply end caused by pressure occurring at the outlet end. Also, building codes usually demand a check valve where the water supply enters a building to prevent backflow into the drinking water system.


title: Siphon

text: Building codes often contain specific sections on back siphonage and especially for external faucets (See the sample building code quote, below). Backflow prevention devices such as "anti-siphon valves" are required in such designs. The reason is that external faucets may be attached to hoses which may be immersed in an external body of water, such as a garden pond, swimming pool, aquarium or washing machine. In these situations the flow is not actually a siphon but suction due to reduced pressure on the water supply side. Should the pressure within the water supply system fall, the external water may be returned by back pressure into the drinking water system through the faucet. Another possible contamination point is the water intake in the toilet tank. An anti-siphon valve is also required here to prevent pressure drops in the water supply line from suctioning water out of the toilet tank (which may contain additives such as "toilet blue") and contaminating the water system. Anti-siphon valves function as a one-direction check valve.


title: Siphon

text: Anti-siphon valves are also used medically. Hydrocephalus, or excess fluid in the brain, may be treated with a shunt which drains cerebrospinal fluid from the brain. All shunts have a valve to relieve excess pressure in the brain. The shunt may lead into the abdominal cavity such that the shunt outlet is significantly lower than the shunt intake when the patient is standing. Thus a siphon effect may take place and instead of simply relieving excess pressure, the shunt may act as a siphon, completely draining cerebrospinal fluid from the brain. The valve in the shunt may be designed to prevent this siphon action so that negative pressure on the drain of the shunt does not result in excess drainage. Only excess positive pressure from within the brain should result in drainage.


title: Siphon

text: The anti-siphon valve in medical shunts is preventing excess forward flow of liquid. In plumbing systems, the anti-siphon valve is preventing backflow.


title: Siphon

text: Along with anti-siphon valves, "anti-siphoning devices" also exist. The two are unrelated in application. Siphoning can be used to remove fuel from tanks. With the cost of fuel increasing, it has been linked in several countries to the rise in fuel theft. Trucks, with their large fuel tanks, are most vulnerable. The anti-siphon device prevents thieves from inserting a tube into the fuel tank.


title: Siphon

text: A "siphon barometer" is the term sometimes applied to the simplest of mercury barometers. A continuous U-shaped tube of the same diameter throughout is sealed on one end and filled with mercury. When placed into the upright, "U", position, mercury will flow away from the sealed end, forming a partial vacuum, until balanced by atmospheric pressure on the other end. The term "siphon" derives from the belief that air pressure is involved in the operation of a siphon. The difference in height of the fluid between the two arms of the U-shaped tube is the same as the maximum intermediate height of a siphon. When used to measure pressures other than atmospheric pressure, a siphon barometer is sometimes called a "siphon gauge"; these are not siphons but follow a standard 'U'-shaped design leading to the term. Siphon barometers are still produced as precision instruments. Siphon barometers should not be confused with a siphon rain gauge.,


title: Siphon

text: A "siphon bottle" (also called a "soda syphon" or, archaically, a "siphoid") is a pressurized bottle with a vent and a valve. It is not a siphon as pressure within the bottle drives the liquid up and out a tube. A special form was the "gasogene".


title: Siphon

text: A "siphon cup" is the (hanging) reservoir of paint attached to a spray gun, it is not a siphon as a vacuum pump extracts the paint. This name is to distinguish it from gravity-fed reservoirs. An archaic use of the term is a cup of oil in which the oil is transported out of the cup via a cotton wick or tube to a surface to be lubricated, this is not a siphon but an example of capillary action.


title: Siphon

text: "Heron's siphon" is not a siphon as it works as a gravity driven pressure pump, at first glance it appears to be a perpetual motion machine but will stop when the air in the priming pump is depleted. In a slightly differently configuration, it is also known as Heron's fountain.


title: Siphon

text: A venturi siphon, also known as an eductor, is not a siphon but a form of vacuum pump using the Venturi effect of fast flowing fluids (e.g. air), to produce low pressures to suction other fluids; a common example is the carburetor. See pressure head. The low pressure at the throat of the venturi is called a siphon when a second fluid is introduced, or an aspirator when the fluid is air, this is an example of the misconception that air pressure is the operating force for siphons.


title: Siphon

text: Despite the name, siphonic roof drainage does not work as a siphon; the technology makes use of gravity induced vacuum pumping to carry water horizontally from multiple roof drains to a single downpipe and to increase flow velocity. Metal baffles at the roof drain inlets reduce the injection of air which increases the efficiency of the system. One benefit to this drainage technique is reduced capital costs in construction compared to traditional roof drainage. Another benefit is the elimination of pipe pitch or gradient required for conventional roof drainage piping. However this system of gravity pumping is mainly suitable for large buildings and is not usually suitable for residential properties.


title: Siphon

text: The term "self-siphon" is used in a number of ways. Liquids that are composed of long polymers can "self-siphon" and these liquids do not depend on atmospheric pressure. Self-siphoning polymer liquids work the same as the siphon-chain model where the lower part of the chain pulls the rest of the chain up and over the crest. This phenomenon is also called a "tubeless siphon".


title: Siphon

text: "Self-siphon" is also often used in sales literature by siphon manufacturers to describe portable siphons that contain a pump. With the pump, no external suction (e.g. from a person's mouth/lungs) is required to start the siphon and thus the product is described as a "self-siphon".


title: Siphon

text: If the upper reservoir is such that the liquid there can rise above the height of the siphon crest, the rising liquid in the reservoir can "self-prime" the siphon and the whole apparatus be described as a "self-siphon". Once primed, such a siphon will continue to operate until the level of the upper reservoir falls below the intake of the siphon. Such self-priming siphons are useful in some rain gauges and dams.


title: Siphon

text: The term "siphon" is used for a number of structures in human and animal anatomy, either because flowing liquids are involved or because the structure is shaped like a siphon, but in which no actual siphon effect is occurring: see Siphon (disambiguation).


title: Siphon

text: There has been a debate if whether the siphon mechanism plays a role in blood circulation. However, in the 'closed loop' of circulation this was discounted; "In contrast, in 'closed' systems, like the circulation, gravity does not hinder uphill flow nor does it cause downhill flow, because gravity acts equally on the ascending and descending limbs of the circuit", but for "historical reasons", the term is used. One hypothesis (in 1989) was that a siphon existed in the circulation of the giraffe. But further research in 2004 found that, "There is no hydrostatic gradient and since the 'fall' of fluid does not assist the ascending arm, there is no siphon. The giraffe’s high arterial pressure, which is sufficient to raise the blood 2 m from heart to head with sufficient remaining pressure to perfuse the brain, supports this concept." However, a paper written in 2005 urged more research on the hypothesis:


title: Siphon

text: The principle of the siphon is not species specific and should be a fundamental principle of closed circulatory systems. Therefore, the controversy surrounding the role of the siphon principle may best be resolved by a comparative approach. Analyses of blood pressure on a variety of long-necked and long-bodied animals, which take into account phylogenetic relatedness, will be important. In addition experimental studies that combined measurements of arterial and venous blood pressures, with cerebral blood flow, under a variety of gravitational stresses (different head positions), will ultimately resolve this controversy.


title: Siphon

text: Some species are named after siphons because they resemble siphons in whole or in part. Geosiphons are fungi. There are species of alga belonging to the family Siphonocladaceae in the phylum Chlorophyta which have tube-like structures. "Ruellia villosa" is a tropical plant in the family Acanthaceae that is also known by the botanical synonym, "'Siphonacanthus villosus" Nees'.


title: Siphon

text: In speleology, a siphon or a sump is that part of a cave passage that lies under water and through which cavers have to dive to progress further into the cave system, but it is not an actual siphon.


title: Siphon

text: A river siphon occurs when part of the water flow passes under a submerged object like a rock or tree trunk. The water flowing under the obstruction can be very powerful, and as such can be very dangerous for kayaking, canyoning, and other river-based watersports.


title: Siphon

text: Bernoulli's equation may be applied to a siphon to derive the flow rate and maximum height of the siphon.


title: Siphon

text: Apply Bernoulli's equation to the surface of the upper reservoir. The surface is technically falling as the upper reservoir is being drained. However, for this example we will assume the reservoir to be infinite and the velocity of the surface may be set to zero. Furthermore, the pressure at both the surface and the exit point C is atmospheric pressure. Thus:


title: Siphon

text: Apply Bernoulli's equation to point A at the start of the siphon tube in the upper reservoir where "P" = "P", "v" = "v" and "y" = −"d"


title: Siphon

text: Apply Bernoulli's equation to point B at the intermediate high point of the siphon tube where "P" = "P", "v" = "v" and "y" = "h"


title: Siphon

text: Apply Bernoulli's equation to point C where the siphon empties. Where "v" = "v" and "y" = −"h". Furthermore, the pressure at the exit point is atmospheric pressure. Thus:


title: Siphon

text: As the siphon is a single system, the constant in all four equations is the same. Setting equations 1 and 4 equal to each other gives:


title: Siphon

text: The velocity of the siphon is thus driven solely by the height difference between the surface of the upper reservoir and the drain point. The height of the intermediate high point, "h", does not affect the velocity of the siphon. However, as the siphon is a single system, "v" = "v" and the intermediate high point does limit the maximum velocity. The drain point cannot be lowered indefinitely to increase the velocity. Equation 3 will limit the velocity to retain a positive pressure at the intermediate high point to prevent cavitation. The maximum velocity may be calculated by combining equations 1 and 3:


title: Siphon

text: The depth, −"d", of the initial entry point of the siphon in the upper reservoir, does not affect the velocity of the siphon. No limit to the depth of the siphon start point is implied by Equation 2 as pressure "P" increases with depth "d". Both these facts imply the operator of the siphon may bottom skim or top skim the upper reservoir without impacting the siphon's performance.


title: Siphon

text: This equation for the velocity is the same as that of any object falling height "h". This equation assumes "P" is atmospheric pressure. If the end of the siphon is below the surface, the height to the end of the siphon cannot be used; rather the height difference between the reservoirs should be used.


title: Siphon

text: Although siphons can exceed the barometric height of the liquid in special circumstances, e.g. when the liquid is degassed and the tube is clean and smooth, in general the practical maximum height can be found as follows.


title: Siphon

text: Maximum height of the intermediate high point occurs when it is so high that the pressure at the intermediate high point is zero; in typical scenarios this will cause the liquid to form bubbles and if the bubbles enlarge to fill the pipe then the siphon will "break". Setting "P" = 0:


title: Siphon

text: This means that the height of the intermediate high point is limited by pressure along the streamline being always greater than zero.


title: Siphon

text: This is the maximum height that a siphon will work. Substituting values will give approximately for water and, by definition of standard pressure, for mercury. The ratio of heights (about 13.6) equals the ratio of densities of water and mercury (at a given temperature). As long as this condition is satisfied (pressure greater than zero), the flow at the output of the siphon is still only governed by the height difference between the source surface and the outlet. Volume of fluid in the apparatus is not relevant as long as the pressure head remains above zero in every section. Because pressure drops when velocity is increased, a static siphon (or manometer) can have a slightly higher height than a flowing siphon.


title: Siphon

text: Experiments have shown that siphons can operate in a vacuum, via cohesion and tensile strength between molecules, provided that the liquids are pure and degassed and surfaces are very clean.


title: Siphon

text: The "Oxford English Dictionary" (OED) entry on "siphon", published in 1911, states that a siphon works by atmospheric pressure. Stephen Hughes of Queensland University of Technology criticized this in a 2010 article which was widely reported in the media. The OED editors stated, "there is continuing debate among scientists as to which view is correct. ... We would expect to reflect this debate in the fully updated entry for siphon, due to be published later this year." Dr. Hughes continued to defend his view of the siphon in a late September post at the Oxford blog. The 2015 definition by the OED is:


title: Siphon

text: A tube used to convey liquid upwards from a reservoir and then down to a lower level of its own accord. Once the liquid has been forced into the tube, typically by suction or immersion, flow continues unaided.


title: Siphon

text: Siphon, also spelled syphon, instrument, usually in the form of a tube bent to form two legs of unequal length, for conveying liquid over the edge of a vessel and delivering it at a lower level. Siphons may be of any size. The action depends upon the influence of gravity (not, as sometimes thought, on the difference in atmospheric pressure; a siphon will work in a vacuum) and upon the cohesive forces that prevent the columns of liquid in the legs of the siphon from breaking under their own weight. At sea level, water can be lifted a little more than 10 metres (33 feet) by a siphon.


title: Siphon

text: In civil engineering, pipelines called inverted siphons are used to carry sewage or stormwater under streams, highway cuts, or other depressions in the ground. In an inverted siphon the liquid completely fills the pipe and flows under pressure, as opposed to the open-channel gravity flow that occurs in most sanitary or storm sewers.


title: Printmaking

text: Printmaking is the process of creating artworks by printing, normally on paper, but also on fabric, wood, metal, and other surfaces. "Traditional printmaking" normally covers only the process of creating prints using a hand processed technique, rather than a photographic reproduction of a visual artwork which would be printed using an electronic machine (a printer); however, there is some cross-over between traditional and digital printmaking, including risograph. Except in the case of monotyping, all printmaking processes have the capacity to produce identical multiples of the same artwork, which is called a print. Each print produced is considered an "original" work of art, and is correctly referred to as an "impression", not a "copy" (that means a different print copying the first, common in early printmaking). However, impressions can vary considerably, whether intentionally or not. Master printmakers are technicians who are capable of printing identical "impressions" by hand. Historically, many printed images were created as a preparatory study, such as a drawing. A print that copies another work of art, especially a painting, is known as a "reproductive print".


title: Printmaking

text: Prints are created by transferring ink from a matrix to a sheet of paper or other material, by a variety of techniques. Common types of matrices include: metal etching plates, usually copper or zinc, or polymer plates and other thicker plastic sheets for engraving or etching; stone, aluminum, or polymer for lithography; blocks of wood for woodcuts and wood engravings; and linoleum for linocuts. Screens made of silk or synthetic fabrics are used for the screen printing process. Other types of matrix substrates and related processes are discussed below.


title: Printmaking

text: Multiple impressions printed from the same matrix form an edition. Since the late 19th century, artists have generally signed individual impressions from an edition and often number the impressions to form a limited edition; the matrix is then destroyed so that no more prints can be produced. Prints may also be printed in book form, such as illustrated books or artist's books.


title: Printmaking

text: A type of printmaking outside of this group is viscosity printing. Contemporary printmaking may include digital printing, photographic mediums, or a combination of digital, photographic, and traditional processes.


title: Printmaking

text: Many of these techniques can also be combined, especially within the same family. For example, Rembrandt's prints are usually referred to as "etchings" for convenience, but very often include work in engraving and drypoint as well, and sometimes have no etching at all.


title: Printmaking

text: Woodcut, a type of relief print, is the earliest printmaking technique. It was probably first developed as a means of printing patterns on cloth, and by the 5th century was used in China for printing text and images on paper. Woodcuts of images on paper developed around 1400 in Japan, and slightly later in Europe. These are the two areas where woodcut has been most extensively used purely as a process for making images without text.


title: Printmaking

text: The artist either draws a design directly on a plank of wood, or transfers an drawing done on paper to a plank of wood. Traditionally, the artist then handed the work to a technician, who then uses sharp carving tools to carve away the parts of the block that will not receive ink. In the Western tradition, the surface of the block is then inked with the use of a brayer; however in the Japanese tradition, woodblocks were inked with a brush. Then a sheet of paper, perhaps slightly damp, is placed over the block. The block is then rubbed with a baren or spoon, or is run through a printing press. If the print is in color, separate blocks can be used for each color, or a technique called reduction printing can be used.


title: Printmaking

text: Reduction printing is a name used to describe the process of using one block to print several layers of color on one print. Both woodcuts and linocuts can employ reduction printing. This usually involves cutting a small amount of the block away, and then printing the block many times over on different sheets before washing the block, cutting more away and printing the next color on top. This allows the previous color to show through. This process can be repeated many times over. The advantages of this process is that only one block is needed, and that different components of an intricate design will line up perfectly. The disadvantage is that once the artist moves on to the next layer, no more prints can be made.


title: Printmaking

text: Another variation of woodcut printmaking is the cukil technique, made famous by the Taring Padi underground community in Java, Indonesia. Taring Padi Posters usually resemble intricately printed cartoon posters embedded with political messages. Images—usually resembling a visually complex scenario—are carved unto a wooden surface called cukilan, then smothered with printer's ink before pressing it unto media such as paper or canvas.


title: Printmaking

text: The process was developed in Germany in the 1430s from the engraving used by goldsmiths to decorate metalwork. Engravers use a hardened steel tool called a burin to cut the design into the surface of a metal plate, traditionally made of copper. Engraving using a burin is generally a difficult skill to learn.


title: Printmaking

text: Gravers come in a variety of shapes and sizes that yield different line types. The burin produces a unique and recognizable quality of line that is characterized by its steady, deliberate appearance and clean edges. Other tools such as mezzotint rockers, roulettes (a tool with a fine-toothed wheel) and burnishers (a tool used for making an object smooth or shiny by rubbing) are used for texturing effects.


title: Printmaking

text: To make a print, the engraved plate is inked all over, then the ink is wiped off the surface, leaving only ink in the engraved lines. The plate is then put through a high-pressure printing press together with a sheet of paper (often moistened to soften it). The paper picks up the ink from the engraved lines, making a print. The process can be repeated many times; typically several hundred impressions (copies) could be printed before the printing plate shows much sign of wear, except when drypoint, which gives much shallower lines, is used.


title: Printmaking

text: In the 20th century, true engraving was revived as a serious art form by artists including Stanley William Hayter whose Atelier 17 in Paris and New York City became the magnet for such artists as Pablo Picasso, Alberto Giacometti, Mauricio Lasansky and Joan Miró.


title: Printmaking

text: Etching is part of the intaglio family. In pure etching, a metal plate (usually copper, zinc, or steel) is covered with a waxy or acrylic ground. The artist then draws through the ground with a pointed etching needle, exposing the metal. The plate is then etched by dipping it in a bath of etchant (e.g. nitric acid or ferric chloride). The etchant "bites" into the exposed metal, leaving behind lines in the plate. The remaining ground is then cleaned off the plate, and the printing process is then just the same as for engraving.


title: Printmaking

text: Although the first dated etching is by Albrecht Dürer in 1515, the process is believed to have been invented by Daniel Hopfer (c.1470–1536) of Augsburg, Germany, who decorated armor in this way, and applied the method to printmaking. Etching soon came to challenge engraving as the most popular printmaking medium. Its great advantage was that, unlike engraving which requires special skill in metalworking, etching is relatively easy to learn for an artist trained in drawing.


title: Printmaking

text: Etching prints are generally linear and often contain fine detail and contours. Lines can vary from smooth to sketchy. An etching is opposite of a woodcut in that the raised portions of an etching remain blank while the crevices hold ink.


title: Printmaking

text: An intaglio variant of engraving in which the image is formed from subtle gradations of light and shade. Mezzotint—from the Italian mezzo ("half") and tinta ("tone")—is a "dark manner" form of printmaking, which requires artists to work from dark to light. To create a mezzotint, the surface of a copper printing plate is roughened evenly all over with the aid of a tool known as a rocker; the image is then formed by smoothing the surface with a tool known as a burnisher. When inked, the roughened areas of the plate will hold more ink and print more darkly, while smoother areas of the plate hold less or no ink, and will print more lightly or not at all. It is, however, possible to create the image by only roughening the plate selectively, so working from light to dark.


title: Printmaking

text: Mezzotint is known for the luxurious quality of its tones: first, because an evenly, finely roughened surface holds a lot of ink, allowing deep solid colors to be printed; secondly because the process of smoothing the texture with burin, burnisher and scraper allows fine gradations in tone to be developed.


title: Printmaking

text: The mezzotint printmaking method was invented by Ludwig von Siegen (1609–1680). The process was used widely in England from the mid-eighteenth century, to reproduce oil paintings and in particular portraits.


title: Printmaking

text: A technique used in Intaglio etchings. Like etching, aquatint technique involves the application of acid to make marks in a metal plate. Where the etching technique uses a needle to make lines that retain ink, traditional aquatint relies on powdered rosin which is acid resistant in the ground to create a tonal effect. The rosin is applied in a light dusting by a fan booth, the rosin is then cooked until set on the plate. At this time the rosin can be burnished or scratched out to affect its tonal qualities. The tonal variation is controlled by the level of acid exposure over large areas, and thus the image is shaped by large sections at a time.


title: Printmaking

text: Contemporary printmakers also sometimes using airbrushed asphaltum or spray paint, as well as other non toxic techniques, to achieve aquatint due to rosin boxes posing a fire hazard.


title: Printmaking

text: A variant of engraving, done with a sharp point, rather than a v-shaped burin. While engraved lines are very smooth and hard-edged, drypoint scratching leaves a rough burr at the edges of each line. This burr gives drypoint prints a characteristically soft, and sometimes blurry, line quality. Because the pressure of printing quickly destroys the burr, drypoint is useful only for very small editions; as few as ten or twenty impressions. To counter this, and allow for longer print runs, electro-plating (here called steelfacing) has been used since the nineteenth century to harden the surface of a plate.


title: Printmaking

text: The technique appears to have been invented by the Housebook Master, a south German fifteenth-century artist, all of whose prints are in drypoint only. Among the most famous artists of the old master print, Albrecht Dürer produced three drypoints before abandoning the technique; Rembrandt used it frequently, but usually in conjunction with etching and engraving.


title: Printmaking

text: Lithography is a technique invented in 1798 by Alois Senefelder and based on the chemical repulsion of oil and water.


title: Printmaking

text: A porous surface, normally limestone, is used; the image is drawn on the limestone with a greasy medium.


title: Printmaking

text: Acid is applied, transferring the grease-protected design to the limestone, leaving the image 'burned' into the surface. Gum arabic, a water-soluble substance, is then applied, sealing the surface of the stone not covered with the drawing medium.


title: Printmaking

text: The stone is wetted, with water staying only on the surface not covered in grease-based residue of the drawing; the stone is then 'rolled up', meaning oil ink is applied with a roller covering the entire surface; since water repels the oil in the ink, the ink adheres only to the greasy parts, perfectly inking the image.


title: Printmaking

text: A sheet of dry paper is placed on the surface, and the image is transferred to the paper by the pressure of the printing press. Lithography is known for its ability to capture fine gradations in shading and very small detail.


title: Printmaking

text: Photo-lithography captures an image by photographic processes on metal plates; printing is more or less carried out in the same way as stone lithography.


title: Printmaking

text: Mokulito is a form of lithography on wood instead of limestone. It was invented by Seishi Ozaku in the 1970s in Japan and was originally called Mokurito.


title: Printmaking

text: Screen printing (occasionally known as "silkscreen", or "serigraphy") creates prints by using a fabric stencil technique; ink is simply pushed through the stencil against the surface of the paper, most often with the aid of a squeegee. Generally, the technique uses a natural or synthetic 'mesh' fabric stretched tightly across a rectangular 'frame,' much like a stretched canvas. The fabric can be silk, nylon monofilament, multifilament polyester, or even stainless steel. While commercial screen printing often requires high-tech, mechanical apparatuses and calibrated materials, printmakers value it for the "Do It Yourself" approach, and the low technical requirements, high quality results. The essential tools required are a squeegee, a mesh fabric, a frame, and a stencil. Unlike many other printmaking processes, a printing press is not required, as screen printing is essentially stencil printing.


title: Printmaking

text: Screen printing may be adapted to printing on a variety of materials, from paper, cloth, and canvas to rubber, glass, and metal. Artists have used the technique to print on bottles, on slabs of granite, directly onto walls, and to reproduce images on textiles which would distort under pressure from printing presses.


title: Printmaking

text: Monotyping is a type of printmaking made by drawing or painting on a smooth, non-absorbent surface. The surface, or matrix, was historically a copper etching plate, but in contemporary work it can vary from zinc or glass to acrylic glass. The image is then transferred onto a sheet of paper by pressing the two together, usually using a printing-press. Monotypes can also be created by inking an entire surface and then, using brushes or rags, removing ink to create a subtractive image, e.g. creating lights from a field of opaque color. The inks used may be oil based or water based. With oil based inks, the paper may be dry, in which case the image has more contrast, or the paper may be damp, in which case the image has a 10 percent greater range of tones.


title: Printmaking

text: Unlike monoprinting, monotyping produces a unique print, or monotype, because most of the ink is removed during the initial pressing. Although subsequent reprintings are sometimes possible, they differ greatly from the first print and are generally considered inferior. A second print from the original plate is called a "ghost print" or "cognate". Stencils, watercolor, solvents, brushes, and other tools are often used to embellish a monotype print. Monotypes are often spontaneously executed and with no preliminary sketch.


title: Printmaking

text: Monotypes are the most painterly method among the printmaking techniques, a unique print that is essentially a printed painting. The principal characteristic of this medium is found in its spontaneity and its combination of printmaking, painting, and drawing media.


title: Printmaking

text: Monoprinting is a form of printmaking that uses a matrix such as a woodblock, litho stone, or copper plate, but produces impressions that are unique. Multiple unique impressions printed from a single matrix are sometimes known as a variable edition. There are many techniques used in monoprinting, including collagraph, collage, hand-painted additions, and a form of tracing by which thick ink is laid down on a table, paper is placed on the ink, and the back of the paper is drawn on, transferring the ink to the paper. Monoprints can also be made by altering the type, color, and viscosity of the ink used to create different prints. Traditional printmaking techniques, such as lithography, woodcut, and intaglio, can be used to make monoprints.


title: Printmaking

text: Mixed-media prints may use multiple traditional printmaking processes such as etching, woodcut, letterpress, silkscreen, or even monoprinting in the creation of the print. They may also incorporate elements of chine colle, collage, or painted areas, and may be unique, i.e. one-off, non-editioned, prints. Mixed-media prints are often experimental prints and may be printed on unusual, non-traditional surfaces.


title: Printmaking

text: Digital prints refers to images printed using digital printers such as inkjet printers instead of a traditional printing press. Images can be printed to a variety of substrates including paper, cloth, or plastic canvas.


title: Printmaking

text: Dye-based inks are organic (not mineral) dissolved and mixed into a liquid. Although most are synthetic, derived from petroleum, they can be made from vegetable or animal sources. Dyes are well suited for textiles where the liquid dye penetrates and chemically bonds to the fiber. Because of the deep penetration, more layers of material must lose their color before the fading is apparent. Dyes, however, are not suitable for the relatively thin layers of ink laid out on the surface of a print.


title: Printmaking

text: Pigment is a finely ground, particulate substance which, when mixed or ground into a liquid to make ink or paint, does not dissolve, but remains dispersed or suspended in the liquid. Pigments are categorized as either inorganic (mineral) or organic (synthetic). Pigment-based inks have a much longer permanence than dye-based inks.


title: Printmaking

text: Giclée (pron.: /ʒiːˈkleɪ/ zhee-KLAY or /dʒiːˈkleɪ/), is a neologism coined in 1991 by printmaker Jack Duganne for digital prints made on inkjet printers. Originally associated with early dye-based printers it is now more often refers to pigment-based prints. The word is based on the French word gicleur, which means "nozzle". Today fine art prints produced on large format ink-jet machines using the CcMmYK color model are generally called "Giclée".


title: Printmaking

text: In art, foil imaging is a printmaking technique made using the Iowa Foil Printer, developed by Virginia A. Myers from the commercial foil stamping process. This uses gold leaf and acrylic foil in the printmaking process.


title: Printmaking

text: Printmakers apply color to their prints in many different ways. Some coloring techniques include positive surface roll, negative surface roll, and A la poupée. Often color in printmaking that involves etching, screen printing, woodcut, or linocut is applied by either using separate plates, blocks or screens or by using a reductionist approach. In multiple plate color techniques, a number of plates, screens or blocks are produced, each providing a different color. Each separate plate, screen, or block will be inked up in a different color and applied in a particular sequence to produce the entire picture. On average about three to four plates are produced, but there are occasions where a printmaker may use up to seven plates. Every application of another plate of color will interact with the color already applied to the paper, and this must be kept in mind when producing the separation of colors. The lightest colors are often applied first, and then darker colors successively until the darkest.


title: Printmaking

text: The reductionist approach to producing color is to start with a lino or wood block that is either blank or with a simple etching. Upon each printing of color the printmaker will then further cut into the lino or woodblock removing more material and then apply another color and reprint. Each successive removal of lino or wood from the block will expose the already printed color to the viewer of the print. Picasso is often cited as the inventor of reduction printmaking, although there is evidence of this method in use 25 years before Picasso's linocuts.


title: Printmaking

text: The subtractive color concept is also used in offset or digital print and is present in bitmap or vectorial software in CMYK or other color spaces.


title: Printmaking

text: In printmaking processes requiring more than one application of ink or other medium, the problem exists as to how to line up properly areas of an image to receive ink in each application. The most obvious example of this would be a multi-color image in which each color is applied in a separate step. The lining up of the results of each step in a multistep printmaking process is called "registration." Proper registration results in the various components of an image being in their proper place. But, for artistic reasons, improper registration is not necessarily the ruination of an image. Andy Warhol was known to intentionally employ improper registration.


title: Printmaking

text: This can vary considerably from process to process. It generally involves placing the substrate, generally paper, in correct alignment with the printmaking element that will be supplying it with coloration.


title: Printmaking

text: Protective clothing is very important for printmakers who engage in etching and lithography (closed toed shoes and long pants). Whereas in the past printmakers put their plates in and out of acid baths with their bare hands, today printmakers use rubber gloves. They also wear industrial respirators for protection from caustic vapors. Most acid baths are built with ventilation hoods above them.


title: Printmaking

text: Protective respirators and masks should have particle filters, particularly for aquatinting. As a part of the aquatinting process, a printmaker is often exposed to rosin powder. Rosin is a serious health hazard, especially to printmakers who, in the past, simply used to hold their breath using an aquatinting booth.


title: Printmaking

text: Modern prints onto paper protected from the sun and moisture will last an incredibly long time. Prints made using newer alkaline and acid-free paper have a life expectancy of over 1,000 years for the best paper and 500 years for average grades. When it comes to older prints, the condition of a print largely depends on the technique used to make the paper. Prints that are several hundred years old may be in better condition than prints that are less than 50 years old . Many older prints will yellow or brown over time owing to acids in the paper and any matting or backing papers. To preserve/restore older prints, washing, deacidification and treatment with stain reducing agents may be in order. Further, if the print is framed, "archival" or "conservation" grade picture mats are essential since acids within older or inexpensive matting will attack a print even if the print was produced using acid-free paper. Color prints can be susceptible to fading depending on the type of inks used. Lighting of sensitive prints should be limited to 50 lux (5 foot-candles) or less and artificial lights can be equipped with UV-filtering sleeves or tubes.


title: Printmaking

text: Prints onto animal skins (vellum) should also be maintained at a humidity level between 25% and 40%. Prints onto silk are particularly sensitive to any light including camera flashes.


title: Argan oil

text: Argan oil is a plant oil produced from the kernels of the argan tree ("Argania spinosa" L.), which is indigenous to Morocco. In Morocco, argan oil is used to dip bread in at breakfast or to drizzle on couscous or pasta. It is also used for cosmetic purposes.


title: Argan oil

text: 99% of argan oil consists of triglycerides and related derivatives. These are derived from the following fatty acids:


title: Argan oil

text: Argan oil also contains traces of tocopherols (vitamin E), phenols, carotenes, squalene. Some trace phenols in argan oil include caffeic acid, oleuropein, vanillic acid, tyrosol, catechol, resorcinol, (−)-epicatechin and (+)-catechin.


title: Argan oil

text: In Morocco, the oil is used for culinary purposes e.g, dipping bread, salad dressings or on couscous. Amlu, a thick brown paste with a consistency similar to peanut butter, is used locally as a bread dip. It is produced by grinding roasted almond and argan oil using stones, and then mixing the argan oil and almonds in honey.


title: Argan oil

text: Since the early 2000s argan oil has been increasingly used in cosmetics and hair care preparations. , the main cosmetics products containing argan oil are face creams, lip glosses, shampoos, moisturizers, and soaps.


title: Argan oil

text: The argan nut contains one to three oil-rich argan kernels. Extraction yields from 30% to 50% of the oil in the kernels, depending on the method. It takes about of dried argan fruit to produce only one litre of oil.


title: Argan oil

text: Extraction is key to the production process. To extract the kernels, workers first dry argan fruit in the open air and then remove the fleshy pulp. Some producers remove the flesh mechanically without drying the fruit. Moroccans usually use the flesh as animal feed. A tradition in some areas of Morocco allows goats to climb argan trees to feed freely on the fruits. The kernels are then later retrieved from the goat droppings, considerably reducing the labour involved in extraction at the expense of some potential gustatory aversion. In modern practice, the peels are removed by hand.


title: Argan oil

text: Workers gently roast kernels they will use to make culinary argan oil. After the argan kernels cool, workers grind and press them. The brown-coloured mash expels pure, unfiltered argan oil. Finally, they decant unfiltered argan oil into vessels. The remaining press cake is protein-rich and frequently used as cattle feed.


title: Argan oil

text: After the first sales in the US of the cosmetic product in 2003, demand soared and production increased. In 2012 the Moroccan government planned for increased production, then around 2,500 tonnes, to 4,000 tonnes by 2020.


title: Argan oil

text: It was found that stocks of argan oil were being diluted with oils such as sunflower, as the extraction process for pure argan oil can be difficult, and is costly. In 2012, the Moroccan government started to randomly pull argan shipments and test for purity before exporting.


title: Argan oil

text: By 2020, production had greatly increased, especially after studies had suggested health benefits. Almost all of the oil is sourced in Morocco, and is forecast to reach 19,623 US tons (17,802 tonnes) in 2022, up from 4,836 (4387 tonnes) in 2014; in value terms, billion (£1.4 billion stg).


title: Argan oil

text: The area of producing the oil is expanding: in 2020 it had started near the city of Agadir, south of the traditional argan-producing area of Essaouira, and is due to expand north.


title: Argan oil

text: The argan tree provides food, shelter and protection from desertification. The trees' deep roots help prevent desert encroachment. The canopy of argan trees also provides shade for other agricultural products, and the leaves and fruit provide feed for animals.


title: Argan oil

text: The argan tree also helps landscape stability, helping to prevent soil erosion, providing shade for pasture grasses, and helping to replenish aquifers.


title: Argan oil

text: Producing argan oil has helped to protect argan trees from being cut down. In addition, regeneration of the Arganeraie has also been carried out: in 2009 an operation to plant 4,300 argan plants was launched in Meskala in the province of Essaouira.


title: Argan oil

text: The Réseau des Associations de la Réserve de Biosphère Arganeraie (Network of Associations of the Argan Biosphere Reserve, RARBA) was founded in 2002 with the aim of ensuring sustainable development in the Arganeraie.


title: Argan oil

text: RARBA has been involved with several major projects, including the Moroccan national antidesertification programme (Programme National de Lutte contre la desertification, PAN/LCD). The project involved local populations and helped with improvements to basic infrastructure, management of natural resources, revenue-generating activities (including argan oil production), capacity reinforcement, and others.


title: Argan oil

text: The production of argan oil has always had a socioeconomic function. At present, its production supports about 2.2 million people in the main argan oil–producing region, the Arganeraie.


title: Argan oil

text: Much of the argan oil produced today is made by a number of women's co-operatives. Co-sponsored by the Social Development Agency with the support of the European Union, the UCFA (Union des Cooperatives des Femmes de l’Arganeraie) is the largest union of argan oil co-operatives in Morocco. It comprises 22 co-operatives that are found in other parts of the region.


title: Argan oil

text: Employment in the co-operatives provides women with an income, which many have used to fund education for themselves or their children. It has also provided them with a degree of autonomy in a traditionally male-dominated society and has helped many become more aware of their rights.


title: Argan oil

text: The success of the argan co-operatives has also encouraged other producers of agricultural products to adopt the co-operative model. The establishment of the co-operatives has been aided by support from within Morocco, notably the Foundation Mohamed VI pour la Recherche et la Sauvegarde de l’Arganier (Mohammed VI Foundation for Research and Protection of the Argan Tree), and from international organisations, including Canada's International Development Research Centre and the European Commission.


title: Argan oil

text: However, despite many working a very long day, the women usually make less than (£170 stg) a month (and even as low as ), which is below Morocco's recommended national minimum wage. Zoubida Charrouf, a chemistry professor at Mohammed V University of Rabat is an advocate for higher salaries, as well as the author of studies into its health benefits. She says that some companies pay drivers to bring tourists to their facilities, to sell them the oil, rather than pay their workers properly. Morocco's minister of agriculture has asked for Charrouf's help in forcing firms to join trade bodies and commit to paying staff the minimum wage.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: The Kerala Legislative Assembly, popularly known as the Kerala Niyamasabha, is the State Assembly of Kerala, one of the 28 states in India. The Assembly is formed by 140 elected representatives. Each elected member represents one of the 140 constituencies within the borders of Kerala and is referred to as Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA). The present Kerala Legislative Assembly consists of 140 elected members.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: In 1956, the State of Kerala was formed on linguistic basis, merging Cochin, Malabar, and Travancore regions, and the Kasaragod region of South Canara. The first assembly election in Kerala state was held in February–March 1957. The first "Kerala Legislative Assembly" was formed on 5 April 1957. The Assembly had 127 members including a nominated member.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: The State Assembly is known as Niyamasabha and is housed in New Legislature Complex. This 5 storied complex is one of the largest complexes in India. The Central Hall is described as most elegant and majestic hall with ornamental Teakwood-Rosewood panelling. The older Assembly was located within State Secretariat complex which was reconverted into Legislature museum, after commissioning new complex in 1998 May 22 (K. R. Narayanan).


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: The Assembly consists of 140 Members known as Members of Legislative Assembly- MLA representing each constituency.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: The qualifications needed to become an MLA are almost similar to the eligibility criteria for an MP. Besides being a citizen of India, the individual should not be less than 25 years of age. On a more fundamental note, a person, who is not a voter from any constituency of the state, is not eligible to become an MLA.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: It's to be noted that an MLA is elected by the people of a particular constituency, and the MLA represents those electorates in the Legislative Assembly. MLAs enjoy the same position in the state as MPs on a national level.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: The principal responsibility of an MLA is to represent the people's grievances and aspirations and take them up with the state government. An MLA has the power to utilise several legislative tools including 'calling attention motion' to raise issues concerning his/her constituency. It's also expected of the MLA to raise the issues with the relevant government agency and minister. As a legislator, his cardinal role will be to make optimum use of the Local Area Development (LAD) fund in a bid to develop his constituency.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: The Speaker is the primary official of the Assembly. The Assembly elects the Speaker from among its own members. While the Speaker still represents his constituency, he remains an impartial chair of the Assembly and refrains from debating.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: When a new assembly is formed, the political party/alliance which is invited by the Governor to form a government, nominates one among them as Pro-term Speaker. The Pro-Term speaker swears in front of Governor and opens the new assembly's first session.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: He oversees swearing-in ceremony of all legislators at the assembly hall and then becomes the returning officer for the Speaker Election.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: The Leader of the House, Chief Minister presents a motion for speaker election and nominates one among his party/alliance for Speaker position.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: The Leader of Opposition supports the motion and nominates one among them as speaker position. The Pro-term speaker then asks whether anyone else wish to contest for speaker post. If any application received, it shall also be enlisted for election.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: Based on motion, the pro-term speaker will order for an election and Legislative secretary will arrange an election at the floor of the assembly. The election will be closed affair with each member casting a secret vote on a ballot paper. The results will be counted by Legislative Secretary in front of representatives from both Ruling and Opposition parties.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: Accordingly, the pro-term speaker announces the new speaker and both leaders of assembly escort the new speaker to Speaker Dias to take charge of the post.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: A similar election is conducted to appoint Deputy Speaker who shall take the office in absence of the speaker.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: The speaker is assisted by Legislative Secretariat. The head of Secretariat is Legislative Secretary. The Legislative secretary is the Executive chief of the Assembly and reports only to Speaker and house directly.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: The Legislative secretary is supported by 2 Additional Secretaries, Joint Secretaries and Assistant Secretaries. There are under-secretaries for each committee topic and officers in charge.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: The Chief Curator manages the entire house activities including housekeeping, maintenance and safety measures. The Chief Editor manages an editorial team to draft questions raised by public and legislators as well as manages answers notes, legislative records, executive orders and archival matters. The Chief Librarian manages the Central Library and Legislative Research cell of Niyamasabha.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: From days of Monarchy Kerala Police were not allowed inside Niyamasabha as a matter of enforcing legislative independence. The Niyamasabha has its own security force called Watch and Ward, distinguished by its white uniforms who reports to the Hon'ble Speaker or the Secretary of the Assembly. Its headed by Chief Marshall who is in the rank of Superintendent of Police.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: The Watch and ward control the security of entire Assembly area as well as nearby Legislative Hostel.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: The Niyamasabha consists of following committees which are statutory in nature and cannot be disbanded, though the members do change.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: The BAC is the primary committee to decide the agendas to be listed in each session of the assembly. As a convention, the opposition leader will be the head of the committee with leaders of each parliamentary party subjected to a maximum of 8 members. Speaker of the house is a permanent invitee to this committee.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: Apart from the statutory committee, the assembly has a subject committee for each Department of Government. Though they are not statutory in nature, its established by the house on regular basis to monitor and control executive decisions of each department when a specific bill intended to make into a legislation comes before assembly. Normally when a bill is presented and amendments or disputes arise, the bills are sent to a subject committee specifically formed such departmental activity.


title: Kerala Legislative Assembly

text: Time-to-time, the assembly can form an ad-hoc committee for business as laid by a motion passed by the house.


title: Steven Pasquale

text: Steven Pasquale (pronounced ; born November 18, 1976) is an American actor. He is best known for his role as the New York City Firefighter/Emergency Medical Technician Sean Garrity in the series "Rescue Me". He made his television debut on the HBO series "Six Feet Under", playing a love interest for David. He has also starred in the film "", and as Scott in "American Son", on both stage and screen.


title: Steven Pasquale

text: Pasquale was born in Hershey, Pennsylvania. He attended Bishop McDevitt High School, a Roman Catholic school in Harrisburg, PA. He attended the Meadows School of the Arts at Southern Methodist University as a theatre major for one semester before moving to New York, where he starred in numerous theatre productions. He originated the role of Fabrizio in the Seattle cast of "The Light in the Piazza." However, scheduling conflicts with "Rescue Me" prevented him from reprising the role on Broadway, a disappointment he described as "the most heartbreaking thing that I've ever experienced professionally."


title: Steven Pasquale

text: He played the role of Sheriff Joe Sutter in the musical "The Spitfire Grill," where he introduced the song "Forest For the Trees." He then landed the lead role of Chris in the 1998 American tour of "Miss Saigon." In 2002, he played Robbie Faye in the New York production of "A Man of No Importance" and Archibald Craven at the Joey DiPaolo AIDS Foundation's concert of "The Secret Garden" alongside Michael Arden, Jaclyn Nedenthal, Will Chase, Max von Essen, Celia Keenan-Bolger, and Tony Award-winning actress Laura Benanti, whom he later married.


title: Steven Pasquale

text: In April 2009, the record label PS Classics released Pasquale's first album, "Somethin' Like Love," a jazz record produced by Jessica Molaskey and John Pizzarelli. He launched his official website in February 2009 and starred in the Broadway play "Reasons to Be Pretty" by Neil LaBute.


title: Steven Pasquale

text: In 2011, Pasquale played the lead role of Paul Keller on the Fox Television Studios pilot "Over/Under." The pilot was rejected in 2012 but aired on the USA Network on January 4, 2013. He also starred in the U.S. miniseries "Coma".


title: Steven Pasquale

text: He was the lead actor for the NBC series "Do No Harm," which premiered on January 31, 2013, to the lowest debut rating in the history of prime-time television.


title: Steven Pasquale

text: In 2013, Pasquale starred in "The Bridges of Madison County" at the Williamstown Theatre Festival, alongside Kelli O'Hara. He also starred in the Broadway production of the musical at the Gerald Schoenfeld Theatre beginning in late January 2014, with Kelli O'Hara replacing Elena Shaddow. He had previously worked with O'Hara in 2013, in the world premiere of Richard Greenberg and Scott Frankel's musical "Far from Heaven," in which he portrayed Frank Whitaker.


title: Steven Pasquale

text: In 2014, Pasquale guest starred in Season 6, episode 4 of the CBS legal drama series "The Good Wife." He portrayed Jonathan Elfman, campaign manager for Alicia Florrick, who was played by Julianna Margulies.


title: Steven Pasquale

text: He starred alongside Laura Osnes in Lyric Opera of Chicago's musical "Carousel," which closed May 3, 2015.


title: Steven Pasquale

text: In 2016, he portrayed Mark Fuhrman in the FX limited series "American Crime Story: The People v. O.J. Simpson." He received the 2016 Lucille Lortel Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Musical for portraying Jamie Lockhart in the 2016 revival of "The Robber Bridegroom" at the Roundabout Theater Company.


title: Steven Pasquale

text: Pasquale has a daughter with his high-school sweetheart, she was born when Pasquale was twenty years old. He and Maddie's mother never married.


title: Steven Pasquale

text: Pasquale was married to actress and singer Laura Benanti from 2007 to 2013. In February 2016, he became engaged to actress and singer Phillipa Soo. They married on September 24, 2017. They practice Transcendental Meditation.


title: El-P

text: Jaime Meline (born March 2, 1975), better known by the stage name El-P (shortened from his previous stage name El Producto), is an American rapper, songwriter, and record producer. Starting his career as a member of Company Flow, he has been a driving force in alternative hip hop since the early 1990s, producing for rappers including Aesop Rock, Cage, and Mr. Lif. He was a member of The Weathermen and is the co-founder, owner, and CEO of the Definitive Jux record label.


title: El-P

text: After releasing four solo studio albums that were critically acclaimed by underground hip hop audiences"Fantastic Damage" (2002), "High Water" (2004), "I'll Sleep When You're Dead" (2007), and "Cancer 4 Cure" (2012)El-P began experiencing mainstream success in 2013 when he formed the hip hop duo Run the Jewels with fellow rapper Killer Mike. They have released four studio albums for free, all of which have received widespread acclaim: "Run the Jewels" (2013), "Run the Jewels 2" (2014), "Run the Jewels 3" (2016), and "RTJ4" (2020).


title: El-P

text: El-P was born Jaime Meline in Brooklyn, in 1975, the son of Nan Dillon and jazz pianist Harry Keyes (born Harry Meline). He is of Cajun, Irish, and Lithuanian-Jewish descent. While his mother was raised Catholic and his father was raised Jewish, they did not emphasize either faith to him, and he later joked that he "got none of it except a circumcision at birth".


title: El-P

text: El-P's parents divorced when he was seven years old, and he later wrote the song "Last Good Sleep" about once hearing his mother being assaulted by his drunken stepfather in the next room and not realizing what had happened until the next day. Although his mother responded to the beating by splitting up with his stepfather, reporting him to police, and changing their home's locks, El-P had recurring nightmares about the incident and once chased a stranger he mistook for his ex-stepfather through the New York subway.


title: El-P

text: El-P was expelled from two high schools for various issues, including his refusal to stop wearing his baseball cap backwards, but later got his GED. He went to musical engineering school at the Center for the Media Arts in Manhattan. After graduating, he enrolled at Hunter College, but dropped out because most of his courses did not relate to the career he wanted.


title: El-P

text: Getting involved with the hip hop culture of New York City at an early age, El-P met Mr. Len when he hired Len as the DJ for his 17th birthday party. The two quickly became friends and formed Company Flow in 1992. They released their first vinyl single, "Juvenile Technique", in 1994. Bigg Jus later joined the group and in 1996 the trio released its debut EP, "Funcrusher". Subject to a major-label bidding war after the success of the EP, Company Flow waited until it could get a contract on its own terms. The group eventually signed with Rawkus Records, and released its debut full-length album, "Funcrusher Plus" (1997).


title: El-P

text: After an instrumental album titled "" (1999), also on Rawkus, disagreements between El-P and the label led to Company Flow leaving Rawkus. El-P then decided to start his own record label, Definitive Jux (known informally as Def Jux, and extra-formally as Definitive Juxtapositions), and because of critically acclaimed albums such as Cannibal Ox's "The Cold Vein" (produced by El-P) and Aesop Rock's "Labor Days", the label quickly rose to prominence.


title: El-P

text: Company Flow dissolved amicably in 2001 and the following year El-P released his debut solo album "Fantastic Damage", to wide critical acclaim. In 2004, El-P collaborated with the Blue Series Continuum for a jazz-fusion album titled "High Water", which received favorable reviews from both the hip hop and jazz worlds, as well as from more mainstream critics independent of both scenes. 2005 saw the release of "Collecting the Kid", an odds-and-ends assortment including work from "High Water" and "Bomb the System", in addition to several songs of unknown provenance. El-P's second proper studio album, "I'll Sleep When You're Dead", was released on March 20, 2007. It generally received very favorable reviews and became El-P's most commercially successful album as a solo artist to date, peaking at No. 78 on the U.S. "Billboard" 200. In an interview about "I'll Sleep When You're Dead", he identifies himself as an atheist.


title: El-P

text: In October 2009, El-P announced that he was working on his third studio album, titled "Cancer 4 Cure". El-P also was a part of a group called Central Services, which consisted of El-P, Camu Tao, and Allysin Baker. In the fall of 2010, the EP "Forever Frozen in Television Time", was released exclusively on the Def Jux digital download service. In August 2011, it was announced that El-P signed with Fat Possum Records, which would release "Cancer 4 Cure". Later that month, El-P released a single off the upcoming album, via the Adult Swim Singles program, titled "Drones Over BKLYN". On February 22, 2012, El-P announced on his Facebook page that "Cancer 4 Cure" was officially complete. The album was later released to music retailers on May 22.


title: El-P

text: Run the Jewels, a current collaboration of El-P with Atlanta-based rapper Killer Mike, was formed in 2013. The two rappers were introduced to each other by Adult Swim executive Jason DeMarco in 2011. The meeting led to several collaborations, including Killer Mike being featured on the song "Tougher Colder Killer" from "Cancer 4 Cure" while El-P produced the entirety of Killer Mike's sixth album "R.A.P. Music". When "R.A.P. Music" and "Cancer 4 Cure" were released within weeks of each other, a joint tour was planned. The success of the tour eventually led to the formation of Run the Jewels. The duo released their self-titled debut album on June 26, 2013. They released "Run the Jewels 2" on October 28, 2014. "Run the Jewels 3" was released on December 24, 2016, three weeks prior to the previously announced release date of January 13, 2017. Fourth album "RTJ4" was released on June 3, 2020. All of their albums to date have been released for free.