title: Xiomara Castro

text: On 1 July 2012, Castro officially launched her presidential campaign at an event in the department of Santa Barbara. She then won her party's primary on 18 November 2012, and on 16 June 2013, she was officially chosen to represent Libre in the 2013 presidential election. She expressed opposition to neoliberalism and the militarization of society, and she campaigned for a constituent assembly to write a new constitution.


title: Xiomara Castro

text: Leading up to the election, she was first in the polls among all eight candidates during the months of March through October. However, in the final poll before the election, she fell to second place, behind the President of the National Congress, Juan Orlando Hernández of the National Party of Honduras. Castro and Hernández were widely seen as the two leading candidates going into the election. She came in second behind Hernández with 896,498 votes (28.78%) to Hernández's 1,149,302 (36.89%). Even though she didn't win the presidency, she was widely seen as provoking a rupture in Honduras's bipartite system, as the support for her Libre party eclipsed that of the Liberal Party, with Libre winning the second most seats in Congress.


title: Xiomara Castro

text: For the 2017 presidential election, Castro again sought to be Libre's nominee. She easily won the primary, but when Libre formed an alliance with the Innovation and Unity Party, she agreed to step aside and let Salvador Nasralla lead the alliance's presidential ticket.


title: Xiomara Castro

text: Castro was chosen as the 2021 presidential candidate for Libre and represented her political party in the 2021 Honduran general election. Salvador Nasralla, a presidential candidate for the Savior Party, later dropped out and became Castro's running mate. Polls showed a tight race between Castro and her right-wing opponent Nasry Asfura, of the incumbent National Party, a two-term mayor plagued by allegations of corruption. During her presidential campaign, she suggested the diplomatic recognition of the People's Republic of China in Beijing over the Republic of China on Taiwan (see One-China policy), the establishment of an anti-corruption commission backed by the United Nations similar to the one active in Guatemala and an update to the Honduran Constitution. Castro has proposed a constituent assembly to rewrite the Constitution of Honduras. She has also suggested easing the country's complete prohibition of abortion, under limited circumstances, and allow the use and distribution of emergency contraception.


title: Xiomara Castro

text: Following the release of the preliminary results of the election, Castro declared victory, and was described by international media as the apparent victor of the election, pending full results. On 30 November, Asfura's party conceded defeat. He then met with Castro and congratulated her. Castro became Honduras' first female president on 27 January 2022.


title: Xiomara Castro

text: Before the 2021 election, Castro had promised Salvador Nasralla that his Savior party would hold the leadership of the national congress should they win the election. This promise was one of the conditions that persuaded Nasralla to end his presidential campaign and join Castro’s. However, on 21 January 2022, 20 deputies from Libre refused to follow suit. They voted for Libre deputy Jorge Cálix to be the congressional president. The rest of the Libre deputies and allied parties voted for Luis Redondo of the Savior party. A fight then broke out on the floor of Congress, and Castro refused to recognise Cálix's election. She subsequently denounced the 20 deputies (two of whom later retracted their support for Cálix) as "traitors" and expelled 18 from Libre. The following evening Castro held a vigil with Libre supporters outside congress; she stated that the purpose of the event was "...to prevent the kidnapping of the National Congress and to reject the bipartisanship led by the dictator Juan Orlando Hernández with the direct complicity of a few traitorous deputies, elected by the people under our banner". The dispute ended when Calíx and the expelled Libre deputies agreed to support Redondo. Castro subsequently had their party membership restored.


title: Xiomara Castro

text: Castro was inaugurated as president on 27 January 2022. She was sworn in at the Tegucigalpa National Soccer Stadium, with thousands of individuals present. Among the attendees were King of Spain Felipe VI, Vice President of Taiwan Lai Ching-te, U.S. Vice President Kamala Harris, Vice President of Argentina Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, Vice President of Cuba Salvador Valdés Mesa and President of Costa Rica Carlos Alvarado Quesada. Castro is the first female President of Honduras and the first to not be a member of the National or Liberal parties since the restoration of democracy in 1982. During her inaugural address, Castro said, "the economic catastrophe that I'm inheriting is unparalleled in the history of our country." She also promised to combat corruption and inequality which she said was 'rampant' during the rule of the previous National government.


title: Xiomara Castro

text: In her inaugural speech, Castro vowed to re-found a democratic socialist state, stating she had a duty to restore an economic system based upon transparency, efficiency of production, social justice in the distribution of wealth and in national income, and that her vision of her world puts the human being before the rules of the market.


title: Xiomara Castro

text: She banned open-pit mining in March 2022 due to the extensive damage to the environment. The government also promised to intervene "immediately" to conserve areas of "high environmental value" for the benefit of the population.


title: Xiomara Castro

text: In May 2022, Castro signed a measure passed by Congress to abolish Honduras' special economic zones, which the previous National government implemented.


title: Xiomara Castro

text: In a bid to combat poverty, Castro announced during her inauguration that the poorest families in Honduras; those that consume under 150kWh per month of electricity, will no longer pay electricity bills, and that the additional cost of this policy will be paid for by the biggest consumers assuming an extra charge on their bills. In addition, Castro also announced that her government would send a decree to the National Congress of Honduras to achieve a fuel subsidy, and vowed no more concessions in the exploitation of rivers, hydrographic basins and national parks.


title: Xiomara Castro

text: In her inaugural address, Castro announced to the nation that the largest base of the budget she will present to parliament is dedicated to salaries and wages. In-addition, Castro stated that she had ordered her Minister of Finance and the Central Bank to take action to reduce interest rates for production.


title: Xiomara Castro

text: In February of 2022, Deputy Foreign Minister Gerardo Torres Zelaya held a meeting with Saharawi President Brahim Ghali, which concluded with an announcement that diplomatic relations between the peoples and governments of Honduras and the SADR had been restored and would be deepened.


title: Xiomara Castro

text: Castro has reassured that she has no plans of changing recognition from the Republic of China (Taiwan) to the People's Republic of China, and vowed to vice president Lai Ching-te to strengthen the relationship with Taiwan. Furthermore, a spokesperson for Castro said that she has "no immediate intention to change or shift the One-China policy."


title: Xiomara Castro

text: Shortly following Castro's inauguration, an event attended by representatives of the Nicolás Maduro government, the Venezuelan embassy in Honduras's capital of Tegucigalpa was vacated by representatives of Juan Guaidó, who had been recognised as the President of Venezuela by outgoing President Juan Orlando Hernández since the Venezuelan presidential crisis. As a result, the embassy was recovered by the Venezuelan delegation sent by the Maduro government. Former President and First Gentleman Manuel Zelaya responded to the news by sending a tweet welcoming Maduro, Latin American unity and the Bolivarian Revolution. Soon after, the Foreign Minister of Venezuela, Félix Plasencia and newly appointed Foreign Minister of Honduras Enrique Reina announced the restoration of diplomatic relations between the two nations for the first time since 2009, when they were severed shortly after the coup. The restoration of diplomatic relations was followed by Honduran accreditation of the Venezuelan ambassador Margaud Godoy by Foreign Minister Reina, who said that if the United States had any uncertainty about Honduras' position, reestablishment of relations with Venezuela "for Honduras is a matter of sovereign foreign policy".


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Sub-Roman Britain is the period of late antiquity in Great Britain between the end of Roman rule and the Anglo-Saxon settlement. The term was originally used to describe archaeological remains found in 5th- and 6th-century AD sites that hinted at the decay of locally made wares from a previous higher standard under the Roman Empire. It is now used to describe the period that commenced with the evacuation of Roman troops to Gaul by Constantine III in 407 and to have concluded with the Battle of Deorham in 577.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: The period of sub-Roman Britain traditionally covers the history of the area which subsequently became England from the end of Roman imperial rule, traditionally dated to be in 410, to the arrival of Saint Augustine in 597. The date taken for the end of this period is arbitrary in that the sub-Roman culture continued in northern England until the merger of Rheged (the kingdom of the Brigantes) with Northumbria by dynastic marriage in 633, and longer in the West of Britain, and Cornwall, Cumbria and Wales especially.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: This period has attracted a great deal of academic and popular debate, in part because of the scarcity of the written source material. The term "post-Roman Britain" is also used for the period, mainly in non-archaeological contexts; "sub-Roman" and "post-Roman" are both terms that apply to the old Roman province of Britannia, i.e. Britain south of the Forth–Clyde line. The history of the area between Hadrian's Wall and the Forth–Clyde line is similar to that of Wales (see Rheged, Bernicia, Gododdin and Strathclyde). North of the line lay a thinly populated area including the kingdoms of the Maeatae (in Angus), Dalriada (in Argyll), and the kingdom whose "kaer" (castle) near Inverness was visited by Saint Columba. The Romans referred to these peoples collectively as "Picti", meaning 'Painted Ones'.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: The term "late antiquity", implying wider horizons, is finding more use in the academic community, especially when transformations of classical culture common throughout the post-Roman West are examined; it is less successfully applied to Britain at the time. The period may also be considered as part of the early Middle Ages, if continuity with the following periods is stressed. Popular (and some academic) works use a range of more dramatic names for the period: the Dark Ages, the Brythonic Age, the Age of Tyrants, or the Age of Arthur.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: There is very little extant written material available from this period, though there is a considerable amount from later periods that may be relevant. A lot of what is available deals with the first few decades of the 5th century only. The sources can usefully be classified into British and continental, and into contemporary and non-contemporary.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Two primary contemporary British sources exist: the "Confessio" of Saint Patrick and Gildas' "De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae" ("On the Ruin and Conquest of Britain"). Patrick's "Confessio" and his "Letter to Coroticus" reveal aspects of life in Britain, from where he was abducted to Ireland. It is particularly useful in highlighting the state of Christianity at the time. Gildas is the nearest to a source of Sub-Roman history but there are many problems in using it. The document represents British history as he and his audience understood it. Though a few other documents of the period do exist, such as Gildas' letters on monasticism, they are not directly relevant to British history. Gildas' "De Excidio" is a jeremiad: it is written as a polemic to warn contemporary rulers against sin, demonstrating through historical and biblical examples that bad rulers are always punished by God – in the case of Britain, through the destructive wrath of the Saxon invaders. The historical section of "De Excidio" is short, and the material in it is clearly selected with Gildas' purpose in mind. There are no absolute dates given, and some of the details, such as those regarding the Hadrian's and Antonine Walls are clearly wrong. Nevertheless, Gildas does provide us with an insight into some of the kingdoms that existed when he was writing, and how an educated monk perceived the situation that had developed between the Anglo-Saxons and the Britons.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: There are more continental contemporary sources that mention Britain, though these are highly problematic. The most famous is the so-called "Rescript of Honorius", in which the Western Emperor Honorius tells the British "civitates" to look to their own defence. The first reference to this rescript is written by the 6th-century Byzantine scholar Zosimus and is found in the middle of a discussion of southern Italy; no further mention of Britain is made, which has led some, though not all, modern academics to suggest that the rescript does not apply to Britain, but to Bruttium in Italy. The Gallic chronicles, "Chronica Gallica" of 452 and "Chronica Gallica" of 511, say prematurely that "Britain, abandoned by the Romans, passed into the power of the Saxons" and provide information about St Germanus and his visit or visits to Britain, though again this text has received considerable academic deconstruction. The work of Procopius, another 6th-century Byzantine writer, makes some references to Britain, though the accuracy of these is uncertain.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: There are numerous later written sources that claim to provide accurate accounts of the period. The first to attempt this was the monk Bede, writing in the early 8th century. He based his account of the Sub-Roman period in his "Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum" (written around 731) heavily on Gildas, though he tried to provide dates for the events Gildas describes. It was written from an anti-Briton point of view. Later sources, such as the "Historia Brittonum" often attributed to Nennius, the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" (again written from a non-Briton point of view, based on West Saxon sources) and the "Annales Cambriae", are all heavily shrouded in myth and can only be used with caution as evidence for this period. There are also documents giving Welsh poetry (of Taliesin and Aneirin) and land deeds (Llandaff charters) that appear to date back to the 6th century.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: After the Norman Conquest there were many books written that purport to give the history of the Sub-Roman period. These have been influenced by the fictionalised account in Geoffrey of Monmouth's "Historia Regum Britanniae" ("History of the Kings of Britain"). Therefore, they can only be regarded as showing how the legends grew. Not until modern times have serious studies of the period been undertaken.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Later "Lives" of Celtic saints, although often unreliable, do provide some insights into life in Sub-Roman Britain. For example, there is a description of a dilapidated, but still occupied, Roman villa near Chepstow (probably at Portskewett) included in an account of a visit by St Tatheus; and the Roman ruins of Carlisle, as they were in 685, are described in a "Life" of St Cuthbert.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Archaeology provides further evidence for this period, though of a different nature from that provided by documents. Archaeology suggested to Richard Reece that the depopulation of Roman towns and the development of villa and estate organization was already occurring in the 4th century.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: The 5th and 6th centuries in Britain are marked by a sharp discontinuity in town life, perhaps always a somewhat artificial Roman imposition on the landscape, dependent on imperial military requirements and requirements of administration and tax collection; the exceptions are a handful of sites: Londinium, Eboracum, Canterbury, Wroxeter and possibly Cambridge, but the discontinuity in the episcopate, "the institution most responsible for the survival of towns in Gaul", as H. R. Loyn observes, speaks against town survival in Britain.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: The Roman villa system, represented by some five hundred archaeological sites, did not survive either; unlike Gaul, in Britain not a single villa name survived into the Germanic period (however, at "Chedworth villa" a mosaic within Room 28, discovered in 2020, was designed and created in the middle of the 5th century). It may be possible that the villa system did not survive the disastrous Pictish incursions in 367 and following years.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: In the sub-Roman period, building in stone came to an end; buildings were constructed of less durable materials than during the Roman period. However, brooches, pottery, and weapons from this period have survived. The study of burials and cremations, and the grave goods associated with these, has done much to expand the understanding of cultural identities in the period. Archaeology has shown some evidence of continuity with Roman education, trade with the Mediterranean, and with Celtic art.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Excavations of settlements have revealed possible changes in social structures, and to what extent life in Britain continued unaltered in certain pockets into the early medieval period. Hilltops, the so-called "hillforts", "castra", and monasteries have been excavated. Work on towns has been particularly important. Work on the hill-forts has shown evidence of refurbishment, and also of overseas trade, in this period. One of the earliest major excavations was at Tintagel (Radford 1939). This uncovered rectangular structures and much Mediterranean pottery. The buildings were initially interpreted as a monastery, but later as a princely stronghold and trading post. Another important excavation was at Dinas Powys (Alcock 1963) which showed evidence of metalworking. Alcock also led the excavations at South Cadbury (Alcock 1995). Many other sites have now been shown to have been occupied during the sub-Roman period, including Birdoswald and Saxon Shore forts. Work on field systems and environmental archaeology has also highlighted how much agricultural practice continued and changed over the period. Archaeology has confirmed Germanic burials at Bowcombe and Gatcombe on the Isle of Wight that took place at least 50 years before the dates suggested by historical sources, concurrent with Honorius's award of land in Gallia Aquitania to the Visigoths in 418.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Archaeology, however, has its limits, especially in dating. Although radiocarbon dating can provide a rough estimate, this is not accurate enough to associate archaeological finds with historical events. Dendrochronology is accurate enough to do this, though few suitable pieces of wood have been uncovered. Coins would normally be the most useful tool for dating, but not for sub-Roman Britain since no newly minted coins are believed to have entered circulation after the very early 5th century.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: There is archaeological evidence of Anglo-Saxons and Britons living on the same site. For example, in the cemetery at Wasperton, Warwickshire, one can see a family adopting Anglo-Saxon culture over a long period.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: The proximate cause of the end of Roman rule in Britannia appears to have been a power-struggle between aristocrats and Stilicho, Roman general and strongman of the Roman Empire. In order to protect Italy from invasions by the Visigoths, Stilicho had seriously depleted the Roman forces defending the "Limes Germanicus". In the summer of 406 there was a rebellion of "legionarii" in Britain that resulted in the acclamation of several usurpers in quick succession as "imperator", a declaration of rebellion against the ruling emperor. The last of these, Constantine III crossed the Channel at Bononia and took with him all of the mobile troops left in Britain, thus denuding the province of any first line military protection. The Roman forces in Gaul (modern France) declared for him, followed by most of those in Hispania (modern Spain). On 31 December 406 the Vandals, Burgundians, Alans and Sueves crossed the Rhine and overran the "Limes Germanicus".


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Meanwhile, there were barbarian raids on Britain in 408, but these seem to have been defeated. After 410 Honorius apparently sent letters to the cities of Britain telling them to fend for themselves, though this is sometimes disputed. The withdrawal of most Roman troops did not end the Roman culture of the "lost province", which still remained part of the Roman cultural world, with inhabitants who identified themselves as Roman.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: From the middle of the 5th century the Germanic raiders began to settle in the eastern river valleys. Later civil wars seem to have broken out, which have been interpreted either as being between pro-Roman and independence groups or between "Established Church" and Pelagian parties (Myres 1965, Morris 1965), a class struggle between peasants and land owners (Thompson 1977, Wood 1984), or a coup by an urban elite (Snyder 1988). A recent view explored by Laycock ("Britannia the Failed State", 2008) sees Britain violently fragmenting into kingdoms based on British tribal identities; 'violently' is disputable, but clearly most of the "civitates" gradually transformed into kingdoms. Life seems to have continued much as before in the countryside, and on a reduced scale in the towns as evidenced by the descriptions of Germanus' visits. Feuding kingships replaced the centrally governed Roman provinces.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Gildas says that a "council" was convened by Vortigern to find ways of countering the barbarian threat. The council opted to hire Saxon mercenaries, following Roman practice. After a while these turned against the British and plundered the towns. A British leader, Ambrosius Aurelianus, fought against them in a number of battles apparently over a long period. Towards the end of this period was the Battle of Mons Badonicus, around 490, which later sources claimed was won by King Arthur, though Gildas does not identify him. After this there was a long period of peace. The British seem to have been in control of England and Wales roughly west of a line from York to Bournemouth. The Saxons had control of eastern areas in an arc from East Yorkshire through Lincolnshire and perhaps Nottinghamshire, to East Anglia and South East England.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Writing in Latin, perhaps about 540, Gildas gives an account of the history of Britain, but the earlier part (for which other sources are available) is severely muddled. He castigates five rulers in western Britain – Constantine of Dumnonia, Aurelius Caninus, Vortipor of the Demetae, Cuneglasus and Maglocunus (Mailcun or in later spelling Maelgwn of Gwynedd)  – for their sins. He also attacks the British clergy. He gives information on the British diet, dress and entertainment. He writes that Britons were killed, emigrated or enslaved but gives no idea of numbers.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: In the late 6th century there was another period of Saxon expansion, starting with the capture of Searoburh in 552 by the dynasty that later ruled Wessex, and including entry into the Cotswolds area after the Battle of Deorham (577), though the accuracy of the entries in the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" for this period has been questioned. These conquests are often said by modern writers, on no clear evidence, to have separated the Britons of South West England (known later as the West Welsh) from those of Wales. (Just after the period being discussed, the Battle of Chester in 611 might have separated the latter from those of the north of England.) Until the 570s, Britons were still in control of about half of England and Wales.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Various British kingdoms existed at some point in the period. Some changed their names and some were absorbed by others. Not all of their names, especially in the southeast, are known, nor are the details of their political development; some authority structures left from the Roman period may have continued in charge of some areas for some time. At times some of the kingdoms were united by a ruler who was an overlord, while wars occurred between others. During the period the boundaries are likely to have changed. The major ones were:


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Officially the Roman Empire was Christian at the start of the 5th century, but there is evidence of rural pagan temples being refurbished at the start of this period in western England. However, most temples seem to have been replaced eventually by Christian churches on the same site or nearby. "Celtic" churches or monasteries seem to have flourished during this period in the British areas, such as that at Glastonbury, though mostly not until the 6th century; but the "Saxons" were pagan. This reinforced a great antipathy between the peoples. Many Roman cemeteries continued into much later times, such as that at Cannington, Somerset. In the east, there was a gradual transition among the pagan Saxons from cremation to inhumation. Although the arrival of Saint Augustine is traditionally seen as the significant Christianising event for the Saxons, a bishop had already arrived in Kent with the king's Merovingian wife. Other Saxons remained pagan after this time.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: In 429, a British Deacon, Palladius, had requested support from the Pope in Rome to combat Pelagianism. Bishops Germanus and Lupus of Troyes were sent. Germanus, a former military commander, is reported to have led the British to the "Hallelujah" victory, possibly in Wales or Herefordshire. Germanus is said to have made a second visit to England later. Participation by a British bishop at a synod in Gaul demonstrates that at least some British churches were in full administrative and doctrinal touch with Gaul as late as 455.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: In the north, Whithorn is said to be the earliest church in Scotland, being founded in 397 by Saint Ninian. Coroticus (or Ceretic) was a Christian king who was the recipient of the letter from Saint Patrick. His base may have been Dumbarton Rock on the River Clyde, and his descendant Rhydderch Hael is named in the "Life of Saint Columba". Rhydderch was a contemporary of Áedán mac Gabráin of Dal Riata and Urien of Rheged in the late 6th century, as well as of Æthelfrith of Bernicia. Unlike Columba, Kentigern, the supposed apostle to the Britons of the Clyde and alleged founder of Glasgow, is a shadowy figure.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Linguistics is useful in the analysis of culture, and to an extent political associations. Bede in "Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum" (completed in 731) wrote that "currently, [there are in Britain] the languages of five peoples, namely that of the Angles (English), the Britons (Welsh), the Scots (Gaelic), the Picts and the Latins" ("HE" 1.1). A review of the changes in the Brythonic language during this period is given by Kenneth H. Jackson. Studies of Old English, P- and Q-Celtic, and Latin have provided evidence for contact among the Britons, the Gaels, and the Anglo-Saxons. The consensus is that Old English has little evidence of linguistic contact. Some scholars have suggested that there is more evidence in the grammar than in the lexicon, though this is challenged by many. Latin continued to be used for writing but the extent of its use for speech has been much disputed.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Similarly, studies of place names give clues about the linguistic history of an area. England (except Cornwall and Cumbria) shows patchy evidence now of Celtic in its place names. There are scattered Celtic place names throughout, increasing towards the west. There are also Celtic river names and topographical names. An explanation of the toponymic and linguistic evidence is that Anglo-Saxon language and culture became dominant due to their political and social preeminence in the south and east of Britain. Names with a Latin element may suggest continuity of settlement, while some places are named for pagan Germanic deities. Names of British origin may or may not indicate survival of a British population. Names based on the Anglo-Saxon word for the British, "wealh", are also taken as indicating British survival. An example is Walton, meaning settlement of the British and this name is found in many parts of England, though it sometimes means "Wall-town".


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Surviving inscriptions on stones provide another source of information on the settlements of Britons and the Anglo-Saxons. Celtic inscribed stones from this period occur in western England, Wales and southern Scotland. Inscriptions in parts of Scotland, Wales, and Cornwall, are in ogham, some containing forms which scholars have not been able to understand.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Two contrasting models of the end of sub-Roman Britain have been described by Richard Reece as "decline and immigration" and "invasion and displacement". It has long been held that the Anglo-Saxons migrated to Britain in large numbers in the 5th and 6th centuries, substantially displacing the British people. The Anglo-Saxon historian Frank Stenton in 1943, although making considerable allowance for British survival, essentially sums up this view, arguing "that the greater part of southern England was overrun in the first phase of the war". This interpretation was based on the written sources, particularly Gildas but also the later sources such as the Anglo-Saxon historian Bede, that cast the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons as a violent event. The toponymic and linguistic evidence was also considered to support this interpretation, as very few British place names survived in eastern Britain, very few British Celtic words entered the Old English language and the Brythonic language and peoples migrated from south-western Britain to Armorica, which eventually became Brittany. This interpretation particularly appealed to earlier English historians, who wanted to further their view that England had developed differently from mainland Europe, with a limited monarchy and love of liberty. This, it was argued, came from the mass Anglo-Saxon invasions. While this view was never universal – Edward Gibbon believed that there had been a great deal of British survival – it was the dominant paradigm. Though many scholars would now employ this argument, the traditional view is still held by many other historians, Lawrence James writing in 2002 that England was "submerged by an Anglo-Saxon current which swept away the Romano-British."


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: The traditional view has been partly deconstructed (considerably in some circles) since the 1990s, with a reduction in the numbers of Anglo-Saxons believed to have arrived in Britain. A lower figure is sometimes accepted, which would mean that it is highly unlikely that the existing British population was substantially displaced by the Anglo-Saxons. If fewer Anglo-Saxons arrived, it is proposed that they formed a ruling elite, with acculturation of the local population. Thus some "Saxon" graves may be of Britons, though many scholars disagree.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Two genetic studies published in 2016, using data from ancient burials found in Cambridgeshire, Yorkshire and Durham, found that the ancestry of the modern-day English population contained substantial contributions from both Anglo-Saxon and Celtic peoples.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Various dates have been proposed to mark the end of Roman Britain, including the end of Roman currency coinage importation in 402, Constantine III's rebellion in 407, the rebellion mentioned by Zosimus in 409, and the Rescript of Honorius in 410. Unlike modern decolonisation, the dating of the end of Roman Britain is complex, and the exact process is unknown.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: There is some controversy as to why Roman rule ended in Britain. The view first advocated by Theodor Mommsen was that Rome left Britain. This argument was substantiated over time, most recently by A.S. Esmonde-Cleary. According to this argument, internal turmoil in the Roman Empire and the need to withdraw troops to fight off barbarian armies led Rome to abandon Britain. It was the collapse of the imperial system that led to the end of imperial rule in Britain. However, Michael Jones has advanced an alternative thesis that argues that Rome did not leave Britain, but that Britain left Rome. He highlights the numerous usurpers who came from Britain in the late 4th and early 5th centuries, and points out that the supply of coinage to Britain had dried up by the early 5th century, so that administrators and troops were not getting paid. All of this, he argues, led the British people to rebel against Rome. Both of these arguments are open to criticism, and the question is still open.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: It was a violent period, and there was probably widespread tension, alluded to in all the written sources. This may have led to the deaths of many Britons. There are also references to plagues. Laycock ("Britannia the Failed State", 2008) suggests tribal conflict, possibly even starting before 410, may have sliced up much of Britain and helped destroy the economy. The evidence from land use suggests a decline in production, which might be a sign of population decline.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: It is clear that some British people migrated to elsewhere in Europe, and Armorica in northwest Gaul became known as Brittany. There is also evidence of British migration to Gallaecia, in Hispania. The dates of these migrations are uncertain, but recent studies suggest that the migration from south western Britain to Brittany may have begun as early as 300 and had largely ended by 500. These settlers, unlikely to be refugees if the date was this early, made their presence felt in the naming of the westernmost, Atlantic-facing provinces of Armorica, Kerne/Cornouaille ("Kernow/Cornwall") and Domnonea ("Devon"). However, there is clear linguistic evidence for close contact between the south west of Britain and Brittany across the sub-Roman period.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: In Galicia, in the north west corner of the Iberian peninsula, another region of traditional Celtic culture, the Suebian "Parochiale", drawn up about 580, includes a list of the principal churches of each diocese in the metropolitanate of Braga: the "ecclesia Britonensis", now Bretoña (north of Lugo), which was the seat of a bishop who ministered to the spiritual needs of the British immigrants to northwestern Spain: in 572 the bishop, Mailoc, had a Celtic name. The settlers had brought their Celtic Christianity with them but finally accepted the Latin Rite at the Council of Toledo in 633. The diocese stretched from Ferrol to the Eo River. In Spain, the area has sometimes been dubbed "the third Britain" or "the last Britain".


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Non-Anglo-Saxon kingdoms began appearing in western Britain, and are first referred to in Gildas' "De Excidio". To an extent these kingdoms may have derived from Roman structures. But it is also clear that they drew on a strong influence from Hibernia, which was never part of the Roman Empire. Archaeology has helped further the study of these kingdoms, notably at sites like Tintagel or the hillfort at South Cadbury.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: In the north there developed the British kingdoms of the Hen Ogledd, the "Old North", comprising Ebrauc (probable name), Bryneich, Rheged, Strathclyde, Elmet and Gododdin. 5th- and 6th-century repairs along Hadrian's Wall have been uncovered, and at Whithorn in south western Scotland (possibly the site of Ninian's monastery). Chance discoveries have helped document the continuing urban occupation of some Roman towns such as Wroxeter and Caerwent. Continued urban use might be associated with an ecclesiastical structure.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Western Britain has attracted those archaeologists who wish to place King Arthur as a historical figure. Though there is little contemporary written evidence for this, archaeological evidence does suggest that a Romano-British king might have wielded considerable power during the sub-Roman period, as demonstrated by the creation of sites such as Tintagel and earthworks such as the Wansdyke. Such interpretations continue to attract the popular imagination and the scepticism of academics.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: While pushed back politically and linguistically, British scholars and ecclesiastics had a significant impact on the Anglo-Saxon newcomers through literacy, ecclesiastical social constructs and historical memory of the Roman period in Britain, particularly after the Christianizing of the Anglo-Saxons. Coming from a fully oral cultural background, the Anglo-Saxons were heavily influenced by the more developed Christianized and literate culture of the Britons. British scholars were often employed at Anglo-Saxon courts to assist in the management of the kingdoms. This reintroduced British culture to those parts of Britain lost to the British politically. The epitome of this process is the adoption of the legendary British war leader, King Arthur, as the national hero of the English, due to the literary work of Welsh historians.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: There is evidence for climate change in the 5th century, with conditions turning cooler and wetter. This shortened the growing season and made uplands unsuited to growing grain. Dendrochronology reveals a particular climatic event in 540. Michael Jones suggests that declining agricultural production from land that was already fully exploited had considerable demographic consequences.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Slaves were important in the economy and the army in the Roman Empire. Estimates for the prevalence of slavery in the Roman Empire vary: some estimate that around 30% of the population of the Empire in the 1st century was enslaved. A more recent study suggests 10-15% even for the early empire "as any greater estimate would require implausible levels of transformation in a pre-modern context." The difference the lower percentage in the Later Roman Empire can be attributed to fewer slaves in sub-elite households and agricultural estates (replaced by a great expansion in various types of tenancy). The Germanic region was one of the main sources of slaves. It was mainly wholesale dealers, who followed the Roman armies, who sold slaves. After the Empire expanded, there were fewer places to obtain slaves. Around 210, piracy increased around the North Sea and boosted the supply, taken from villages in that area, along with those captured for ransom.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Britain was not easily defensible. It did not pay completely the costs of occupation. Nevertheless, the Romans were forced to keep three or four legions, 30,000 to 40,000 men with auxiliary units in place to defend it. They managed fairly well until the collapse of Roman authority after the garrison was reduced in size by Magnus Maximus in 388 and Stilicho in 401. It seems that after 350 the Roman government was having more difficulty in recruiting soldiers.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: In an effort to remedy the situation it resorted to payment instead of provision of recruit, the "aurum tironicum". Landowners could pay a set fee to prevent any of their tenants from being pressed into the army (slaves were rarely resorted to even at critical moments in exchange for their freedom). Not enough men wanted to enter military service. The gold from the tax led to a greater use of Germanic or other tribal groups who did not need to be expensively equipped, housed, and paid pensions, as the tax was used to recruit mercenaries as "foederati", but it also drained the treasury. Previously foreigners were put into units, the "auxilia", officered by Romans. Roman army units, the smaller Later Roman legions, continued to exist but gradually disappeared in the 5th century leaving defense of the Empire to hirelings.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: After the Battle of Adrianople, the Gothic "foederati", by the Treaty of 382, were allowed to remain with the Empire intact, which reversed the centuries-old Roman policy of destroying barbarian enemies by killing them all, selling them or incorporating them into the Roman army by scattering them across units. The "hospitalitas" system granted a third of the land (or fees) of a region to barbarians who had invaded and occupied those lands assigned to them. In return, these people declared loyalty to the Emperor and provided military support, whilst retaining their independence. If the theory is correct, Germanic peoples may have been resident in Britain before and after these reforms. One thing led to another to create a spiral.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: The policy of substituting mercenaries who were paid in gold which should have gone to support the professional standing army and accommodation to their presence spelled the doom of the Western Empire. The "federates," operating from within the boundaries of the Empire, eventually became the new landlords, as there was no professional Roman army to subdue them.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Ancient authors bitterly comment on this series of policy mistakes. The East which relied far less on mercenaries escaped Britain's fate. The Britons in the decades after 410 repeated the mistakes the emperors had done with the Visigoths, Burgundians, Sueves, Vandals, and Franks – they invited mercenaries to protect them, then those same mercenaries subsequently took control over Britain.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: The population of Britain may have decreased by between 1.5 and 3 million after the Roman period, perhaps caused by environmental changes (the Late Antique Little Ice Age) and, subsequently, by plague and smallpox (around 600, the smallpox spread from India into Europe). It is known that the Plague of Justinian entered the Mediterranean world in the 6th century and first arrived in the British Isles in 544 or 545, when it reached Ireland. It is estimated that the Plague of Justinian killed as many as 100 million people across the world. As a result, Europe's population fell by around 50% between 550 and 700. The later medieval Welsh Lludd and Llefelys mentions a series of three plagues affecting the British of London.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: According to research led by University College London, Anglo-Saxon settlers could have enjoyed a substantial social and economic advantage over the native Celtic Britons who lived in what is now England, for more than 300 years from the middle of the 5th century. However, this scenario, assuming that the Anglo-Saxons were just Germanic Ingaevones, has been questioned.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: The traditional view about the numbers of Anglo-Saxons arriving in Britain during this period has been deconstructed. Incoming people uniting with the existing population could explain why the island conquest was as slow and incomplete as it was, and why the island was exposed to external attacks by Danish pirates and Normans, as well as other issues about the population composition.


title: Sub-Roman Britain

text: Stephen Oppenheimer, basing his research on the Weale and Capelli studies, maintains that none of the invasions since the Romans have had a significant impact on the gene pool of the British Isles, and that the inhabitants from prehistoric times belong to an Iberian genetic grouping. He says that most people in the British Isles are genetically similar to the Basque people of northern Spain and southwestern France, from 90% in Wales to 66% in East Anglia. Oppenheimer suggests that the division between the West and the East of England is not due to the Anglo-Saxon invasion but originates with two main routes of genetic flow – one up the Atlantic coast, the other from neighbouring areas of Continental Europe – which occurred just after the Last Glacial Maximum. He reports work on linguistics by Forster and Toth which suggests that Indo-European languages began to fragment some 10,000 years ago, at the end of the last Ice Age. He claims that the Celtic languages split from the Indo-European earlier than previously suspected, some 6000 years ago. He claims that the English language split from the other Germanic languages before the Roman period, and became the English that was spoken by the Belgae tribes of what is now southern and eastern England, northeastern France, and Belgium prior to their conquest by the Romans, and long before the arrival of the Anglo-Saxon. Bryan Sykes came to fairly similar conclusions as Oppenheimer in his research, which he set forth in his 2006 published book "Blood of the Isles: Exploring the Genetic Roots of our Tribal History", published in the United States and Canada as "Saxons, Vikings and Celts: The Genetic Roots of Britain and Ireland". In its summary of their article "Who were the Celts?", the National Museum of Wales note, "It is possible that future genetic studies of ancient and modern human DNA may help to inform our understanding of the subject. However, early studies have, so far, tended to produce implausible conclusions from very small numbers of people and using outdated assumptions about linguistics and archaeology".


title: Art the Clown

text: Art the Clown is a fictional character from the "Terrifier" franchise and related media. Created by Damien Leone, he first appeared in low budget short films before making his feature film debut in the anthology film "All Hallows' Eve" (2013), where he was played by Mike Giannelli. He later appeared as the antagonist in "Terrifier" (2016) and "Terrifier 2" (2022), where he is played by David Howard Thornton.


title: Art the Clown

text: Art is a demonic killer clown with mime-like qualities who appears on Halloween nights to wreak havoc. The character appears in many of director Damien Leone's works, originating in the short film "The 9th Circle" before taking on a more prominent role in feature horror films. Art's behavior is very much like that of a silent clown, in obvious reference to his appearance, and he is never shown speaking or making any other audible noises. Even when badly injured, he mimes screams of pain instead of actually screaming. He always (silently) laughs when his targets are in peril, and is very theatrical when hunting down and killing them, often performing his kills in an animated, comedic manner.


title: Art the Clown

text: Unlike other silent slasher villains, Art is very expressive and emotional, using gestures and facial expressions to communicate.


title: Art the Clown

text: Following the launch of the "Terrifier" franchise in 2016, the character has been the subject of extensive merchandising, appearing in licensed apparel lines, comic books, fan art, body art, and action figures. Thornton's performance, which incorporates physical comedy, received critical praise.


title: Art the Clown

text: The character made his debut appearance in the 2008 short film "The 9th Circle" which follows his pursuit of a young woman named Casey (Kayla Lian) in an empty train station on Halloween night. Merely a supporting character in this film, Art abducts Casey and brings her to a satanic cult to be sacrificed. Art made his next appearance in the 2011 short film "Terrifier", where he stalks and torments a young woman who witnesses one of his previous murders.


title: Art the Clown

text: The character made his feature-film debut in "All Hallows' Eve" (2013) which incorporates the prior two short films as segments on VHS tapes that Sarah (Katie Maguire) watches with the children she's babysitting on Halloween night. Art enters the real world and murders the children for a terrified Sarah to find.


title: Art the Clown

text: In "Terrifier" (2016), on Halloween night, Art fills a garbage bag with a variety of weapons and begins wandering the streets of Miles County. He stumbles across the drunken Tara Heyes (Jenna Kanell) and Dawn (Catherine Corcoran), the latter of whom provokes him. He slashes Dawn's tires and follows them into a nearby pizzeria and finds himself fixated on the distraught Tara. He murders the two girls and anyone in his path. He later begins a hunt for Tara's older sister Victoria Heyes (Samantha Scaffidi). After running her over with a car, he partially eats her face and commits suicide upon police confrontation, leaving her severely mutilated. In the final scene, he is resurrected in the morgue by an unknown force and promptly murders the coroner.


title: Art the Clown

text: In "Terrifier 2" (2022), following the mutilation of Victoria and his suicide, Art has become an urban legend in Miles County due to his body disappearing from the morgue after being resurrected by a sinister entity. The sinister entity that revives him takes the form of his first victim, a little girl he killed at a carnival years before, wearing the same clown makeup as him and is completely mute as well, acting as his partner-in-crime throughout the film. Though, only Art and certain people can see her. A year later, he begins another killing spree on Halloween, while hunting down the teenager Sienna Shaw (Lauren LaVera) and her younger brother Jonathan (Elliot Fullam), whose late father knew about Art and his secrets. He tries to kill Sienna with a sword from her father, but it only heals her wounds, and she uses it to decapitate Art. Eventually, Victoria, now in a mental hospital, gives birth to his still alive severed head.


title: Art the Clown

text: Leone wanted to create a clown character based on iconic slasher film villains, but wanted him to be the complete opposite of Pennywise from "It" (1990), being devoid of color and speech.


title: Art the Clown

text: Art first appeared in Leone's short film "The Ninth Circle" (2008). Although he was only a minor character, viewers found him particularly memorable, prompting Leone to make the short film "Terrifier" (2011), centered on Art. He wanted to create a feature film about the character, but put the idea on hold when producers approached him to feature his short films as segments in the anthology "All Hallows' Eve", with Art as the thread connecting all the segments.


title: Art the Clown

text: In the short films featuring him, and in "All Hallow's Eve", Art was played by Mike Giannelli. When Leone began developing a feature film based on Art, Giannelli decided to retire from acting. When David Howard Thornton submitted an audition tape, he was cast as the murderous villain and is set to portray him in future installments. Thornton says his performance was inspired by classic physical comedians like Charlie Chaplin and


title: Art the Clown

text: famous horror villains like Robert Englund's Freddy Krueger and Tim Curry's Pennywise, but that his main inspiration came from the various portrayals of the iconic supervillain the Joker.


title: Art the Clown

text: In a positive review for the magazine "Starburst", Sol Harris wrote "Art is a truly enigmatic and memorable villain. He frequently veers into the territory of being genuinely unpleasant to watch, which makes him feel somewhat separate from the stable of horror icons such as Freddy Krueger and Chucky. Special acknowledgement should be given to David Howard Thornton for a truly wonderful performance and one that easily stands toe-to-toe with the likes of Curry and Skarsgård." In a more middling review, the blog Film School Rejects praised Thornton's portrayal and use of body language but panned "Terrifier" and deemed the character a misogynist with a deep hatred for women.


title: Art the Clown

text: In 2018, apparel company Terror Threads released an ugly Christmas sweater of the character. In 2019, Trick or Treat Studios obtained the licensing rights of Art and released a mask and costume based on the character—which was developed by taking the screen-used outfit and making a "one-to-one replication." The company additionally released enamel pins and air fresheners based on the character. American rapper and singer Ghostemane cites the character as influence for his studio album "ANTI-ICON" (2020). In 2022, the company Knuckleheads Toys released a special edition caricature figure of Art. While Trick or Treat Studios released an action figure based on Art the same year.


title: Soweto

text: Soweto () is a township of the City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality in Gauteng, South Africa, bordering the city's mining belt in the south. Its name is an English syllabic abbreviation for "South Western Townships". Formerly a separate municipality, it is now incorporated in the City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality, and one of the suburbs of Johannesburg.


title: Soweto

text: George Harrison and George Walker are today credited as the men who discovered an outcrop of the Main Reef of gold on the farm Langlaagte in February 1886. The fledgling town of Johannesburg was laid out on a triangular wedge of "uitvalgrond" (area excluded when the farms were surveyed) named Randjeslaagte, situated between the farms Doornfontein to the east, Braamfontein to the west and Turffontein to the south.


title: Soweto

text: Within a decade of the discovery of gold in Johannesburg, 100,000 people flocked to this part of the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek in search of riches. They were of many races and nationalities. In October 1887, the government of the South African Republic (ZAR) bought the south-eastern portion of the farm Braamfontein. There were large quantities of clay, suitable for brickmaking, along the stream. The government decided that more money was to be made from issuing brick maker's licences at five shillings per month. The result was that many landless Dutch-speaking burghers (citizens) of the ZAR settled on the property and started making bricks. They also erected their shacks there. Soon, the area was known either Brickfields or Veldschoendorp. Soon other working poor, Coloureds, Indians and Africans also settled there. The government, who sought to differentiate the white working class from the black, laid out new suburbs for the Burghers (Whites), Coolies (Indians), Malays (Coloureds) and Black Africans (Africans), but the whole area simply stayed multiracial.


title: Soweto

text: Soweto was created in the 1930s when the White government started separating Blacks from Whites, creating black "townships". Blacks were moved away from Johannesburg, to an area separated from White suburbs by a so-called "cordon sanitaire" (or sanitary corridor) which was usually a river, railway track, industrial area or highway. This was carried out using the infamous Urban Areas Act of 1923.


title: Soweto

text: William Carr, chair of non-European affairs, initiated the naming of Soweto in 1949. He called for a competition to give a collective name to townships dotted around the South-west of Johannesburg. People responded to this competition with great enthusiasm. Among the names suggested to the City Council was KwaMpanza, meaning Mpanza's place, invoking the name of Mpanza and his role in bringing the plight of Orlando sub tenants to the attention of the City Council. The City Council settled for the acronym SOWETO (South West Townships). The name Soweto was first used in 1963 and within a short period of time, following the 1976 uprising of students in the township, the name became internationally known.


title: Soweto

text: Soweto became the largest Black city in South Africa, but until 1976, its population could have status only as temporary residents, serving as a workforce for Johannesburg. It experienced civil unrest during the Apartheid regime. There were serious riots in 1976, sparked by a ruling that Afrikaans be used in African schools there; the riots were violently suppressed, with 176 striking students killed and more than 1,000 injured. Reforms followed, but riots flared up again in 1985 and continued until the first non-racial elections were held in April 1994. In 2010, South Africa's oldest township hosted the FIFA World Cup Final and the attention of more than a billion soccer spectators from all over the world was focused on Soweto.


title: Soweto

text: In April 1904, there was a bubonic plague scare in the shanty town area of Brickfields. The town council decided to condemn the area and burn it down. Beforehand, most of the Africans living there were moved far out of town to the farm Klipspruit (later called Pimville), south-west of Johannesburg, where the council had erected iron barracks and a few triangular hutments. The rest of them had to build their own shacks. The fire brigade then set the 1600 shacks and shops in Brickfields alight. Thereafter, the area was redeveloped as Newtown. Pimville was next to Kliptown, the oldest Black residential district of Johannesburg and first laid out in 1891, on land which formed part of Klipspruit farm. The future Soweto was to be laid out on Klipspruit and the adjoining farm called Diepkloof.


title: Soweto

text: In the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek and the subsequent Transvaal Colony, it was lawful for people of colour to own fixed property. Consequently, the township of Sophiatown was laid out in 1903 and Blacks were encouraged to buy property there. For the same reasons, Alexandra, Gauteng was planned for Black ownership in 1912. The subsequent Natives Land Act of 1913 did not change the situation because it did not apply to land situated within municipal boundaries.


title: Soweto

text: In 1923, the Parliament of the Union of South Africa passed the Natives (Urban Areas) Act (Act No. 21 of 1923). The purpose of the Act was to provide for improved conditions of residence for natives in urban areas, to control their ingress into such areas and to restrict their access to intoxicating liquor. The Act required local authorities to provide accommodation for Natives (then the polite term for Africans or Blacks) lawfully employed and resident within the area of their jurisdiction. Pursuant to this Act, the Johannesburg town council formed a Municipal Native Affairs Department in 1927. It bought 1 300 morgen of land on the farm Klipspruit No. 8 and the first houses in what was to become Orlando Location were built there in the latter half of 1930. The township was named after the chairman of the Native Affairs committee, Mr. Edwin Orlando Leake. In the end, some 10,311 houses were built there by the municipality. In addition, it built 4,045 temporary single-room shelters.


title: Soweto

text: In about 1934, James Sofasonke Mpanza moved to 957 Pheele Street, Orlando, and lived there for the rest of his life. A year after his arrival in Orlando, he formed his own political party, the Sofasonke Party. He also became very active in the affairs of the Advisory Board for Orlando. Towards the end of World War II, there was an acute shortage of housing for Blacks in Johannesburg. By the end of 1943, the Sofasonke Party advised its members to put up their own squatters' shacks on municipal property. On Saturday 25 March 1944, the squat began. Hundreds of homeless people from Orlando and elsewhere joined Mpanza in marching to a vacant lot in Orlando West and starting a squatters camp. The City Council's resistance crumbled. After feverish consultations with the relevant government department, it was agreed that an emergency camp, which could house 991 families, be erected. It was to be called Central Western Jabavu. The next wave of land invasions took place in September 1946. Some 30,000 squatters congregated west of Orlando. Early the next year, the City Council proclaimed a new emergency camp. It was called Moroka. 10,000 sites were made available immediately. Moroka became Johannesburg's worst slum area. Residents erected their shanties on plots measuring six metres by six metres. There were only communal bucket-system toilets and very few taps. The camps were meant to be used for a maximum of five years, but when they were eventually demolished in 1955, Moroka and Jabavu housed 89,000 people.


title: Soweto

text: In 1941, the British Government built a military hospital next to the road between Johannesburg and Potchefstroom. The place was to be at the 8th milestone near the old Wayside Inn, owned by a Cornishman called John Albert Baragwanath. It was called The Imperial Military Hospital, Baragwanath. After the war, the Transvaal Provincial Administration bought the hospital for £1 million. On 1 April 1948, the Black section of Johannesburg Hospital (known as Non-European Hospital or NEH) was transferred to Baragwanath Hospital. In 1997, the facility was renamed Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital after former General Secretary of the South African Communist Party, Chris Hani.


title: Soweto

text: The National Party won the general election of 1948 and formed a new government. The party's policy was called apartheid, the Afrikaans word meaning separateness. They thought they could separate the various racial groups in South Africa. In those days, the Johannesburg City Council did not support the National Party. The City Council and the central government competed to control the Black townships of Johannesburg.


title: Soweto

text: Following the election of the new government, some 7,000 new houses were built in the first two or three years, but very little was done thereafter. In 1952, there was a breakthrough. Firstly, the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research came up with a standard design for low-cost, four-roomed, forty-square-metre houses. In 1951, the Parliament passed the Building Workers Act, which permitted Blacks to be trained as artisans in the building trade. In 1952, it passed the Bantu Services Levy Act, which imposed a levy on employers of African workers and the levy was used to finance basic services in Black townships. In 1954, the City Council built 5,100 houses in Jabavu and 1,450 in Mofolo.


title: Soweto

text: The City Council's pride and joy was its economic scheme known as Dube Village. It was intended "primarily for the thoroughly urbanised and economically advanced Native". Stands, varying in size from fifty by hundred feet to forty by 70 feet, were made available on a thirty-year leasehold tenure. Tenants could erect their own dwellings in conformity with approved plans.


title: Soweto

text: In June 1955, Kliptown was the home of an unprecedented Congress of the People, which adopted the Freedom Charter.


title: Soweto

text: From the onset, the Apartheid government purposed Soweto to house the bulk of the labour force which was needed by Johannesburg (1998:58). Africans used to live in areas surrounding the city, so the authorities felt it would be more expedient to concentrate black workers in one district that could be easily controlled (1998:58).


title: Soweto

text: The new sub-economic townships took off in 1956, when Tladi, Zondi, Dhlamini, Chiawelo and Senoane were laid out providing 28,888 people with accommodation. Jabulani, Phiri and Naledi followed the next year. Sir Ernest Oppenheimer arranged a loan of £3 million from the mining industry, which allowed an additional 14,000 houses to be built. It was decided to divide Soweto into various language groups. Naledi, Mapetla, Tladi, Moletsane and Phiri were for Sotho- and Tswana-speaking people. Chiawelo for Tsonga and Venda. Dlamini Senaoane, Zola, Zondi, Jabulani, Emdeni and White City were for Zulus and Xhosas.


title: Soweto

text: The central government was busy with its own agenda. The presence of Blacks with freehold title to land among Johannesburg's White suburbs irked them. In 1954, Parliament passed the Native Resettlement Act, which permitted the government to remove Blacks from suburbs like Sophiatown, Martindale, Newclare and Western Native Township. Between 1956 and 1960, they built 23,695 houses in Meadowlands and Diepkloof to accommodate the evicted persons. By 1960, the removals were more-or-less complete.


title: Soweto

text: In 1959, the City Council launched a competition to find a collective name for all the townships south-west of the city's centre. It was only in 1963 that the City Council decided to adopt the name Soweto as the collective name. The name Soweto was officially endorsed by the municipalities’ authorities only in 1963 after a special committee had considered various names. The apartheid government's intention was for Soweto to house black people who were working for Johannesburg. Other names considered included "apartheid Townships" and "Verwoerdstad" (Gorodnov 1998:58).


title: Soweto

text: In 1971, Parliament passed the Black Affairs Administration Act, No. 45 of 1971. In terms of this Act, the central government appointed the West Rand Administration Board to take over the powers and obligations of the Johannesburg City Council in respect of Soweto. As chairman of the board it appointed Manie Mulder, a political appointment of a person who had no experience of the administration of native affairs.


title: Soweto

text: Manie Mulder's most famous quote was given to the Rand Daily Mail in May 1976: "The broad masses of Soweto are perfectly content, perfectly happy. Black-White relationships at present are as healthy as can be. There is no danger whatever of a blow-up in Soweto."


title: Soweto

text: Soweto came to the world's attention on 16 June 1976 with the Soweto uprising, when mass protests erupted over the government's policy to enforce education in Afrikaans rather than their native language. Police opened fire in Orlando West on 10,000 students marching from Naledi High School to Orlando Stadium. The rioting continued and 23 people died on the first day in Soweto, 21 of whom were black, including the minor Hector Pieterson, as well as two white people, including Dr Melville Edelstein, a lifelong humanitarian.


title: Soweto

text: The impact of the Soweto protests reverberated through the country and across the world. In their aftermath, economic and cultural sanctions were introduced from abroad. Political activists left the country to train for guerrilla resistance. Soweto and other townships became the stage for violent state repression. Since 1991, this date and the schoolchildren have been commemorated by the International Day of the African Child.


title: Soweto

text: In response, the apartheid state started providing electricity to more Soweto homes, yet phased out financial support for building additional housing. Soweto became an independent municipality with elected black councilors in 1983, in line with the Black Local Authorities Act. Previously, the townships were governed by the Johannesburg council, but from the 1970s, the state took control.


title: Soweto

text: Black African councilors were not provided by the apartheid state with the finances to address housing and infrastructural problems. Township residents opposed the black councilors as puppet collaborators who personally benefited financially from an oppressive regime. Resistance was spurred by the exclusion of blacks from the newly formed tricameral Parliament (which did include Whites, Indians and Coloreds). Municipal elections in black, coloured, and Indian areas were subsequently widely boycotted, returning extremely low voting figures for years. Popular resistance to state structures dates back to the Advisory Boards (1950) that co-opted black residents to advise whites who managed the townships.


title: Soweto

text: In Soweto, popular resistance to apartheid emerged in various forms during the 1980s. Educational and economic boycotts were initiated, and student bodies were organized. Street committees were formed, and civic organizations were established as alternatives to state-imposed structures. One of the most well-known "civics" was Soweto's Committee of Ten, started in 1978 in the offices of "The Bantu World" newspaper. Such actions were strengthened by the call issued by African National Congress's 1985 Kabwe congress in Zambia to make South Africa ungovernable. As the state forbade public gatherings, church buildings like Regina Mundi were sometimes used for political gatherings.


title: Soweto

text: In 1995, Soweto became part of the Southern Metropolitan Transitional Local Council, and in 2002, was incorporated into the City of Johannesburg. A series of bombings occurred in 2002. They are believed to be the work of the Boeremag, a right-wing extremist group, damaged buildings and railway lines, and killed one person. In 2022, 15 people were killed in a mass shooting at a bar.


title: Soweto

text: Soweto's population is predominantly black and the most common first language is Zulu followed by Sotho and Tswana.


title: Soweto

text: The suburb was not historically allowed to create employment centres within the area, so almost all of its residents are commuters to other parts of the city.


title: Soweto

text: Metrorail operates commuter trains between Soweto and central Johannesburg. Soweto train stations are at Naledi, Merafe, Inhlazane, Ikwezi, Dube, Phefeni, Phomolong, Mzimhlophe, New Canada, Mlamlankunzi, Orlando, Nancefield, Kliptown, Tshiawelo and Midway.


title: Soweto

text: The N1 Western Bypass skirts the eastern boundary of Soweto. There is efficient road access for many parts of the region along busy highways to the CBD and Roodepoort, but commuters are largely reliant on trains and taxis.


title: Soweto

text: The M70, also known as the Soweto Highway, links Soweto with central Johannesburg via Nasrec and Booysens. This road is multi lane, passes next to Soccer City in Nasrec and has dedicated taxiway lanes from Soccer City eastwards.


title: Soweto

text: A major thoroughfare through Soweto is the Golden Highway. It provides access to the N1, N12 and M1 highways.


title: Soweto

text: Minibus taxis are a popular form of transport. In 2000 it was estimated that around 2000 minibus taxis operated from the Baragwanath taxi rank alone.


title: Soweto

text: The area is mostly composed of old "matchbox" houses, or four-room houses built by the government, that were built to provide cheap accommodation for black workers during apartheid. However, there are a few smaller areas where prosperous Sowetans have built houses that are similar in stature to those in more affluent suburbs. Many people who still live in matchbox houses have improved and expanded their homes, and the City Council has enabled the planting of more trees and the improving of parks and green spaces in the area.


title: Soweto

text: Hostels are another prominent physical feature of Soweto. Originally built to house male migrant workers, many have been improved as dwellings for couples and families.


title: Soweto

text: In 1996, the City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality awarded tenders to Conrad Penny and his company Penny Brothers Brokers & Valuers (Pty) Ltd. for the valuation of the whole of Soweto (which at the time consisted of over 325,000 properties) for rating and taxing purpose. This was the single largest valuation ever undertaken in Africa.


title: Soweto

text: Being part of the urban agglomerations of Gauteng, Soweto shares much of the same media as the rest of Gauteng province. There are however some media sources dedicated to Soweto itself:


title: Soweto

text: Soweto is credited as one of the founding places for Kwaito and Kasi rap, which is a style of hip hop specific to South Africa. This form of music, which combined many elements of house music, American hip-hop, and traditional African music, became a strong force amongst black South Africans.


title: Soweto

text: The experiences of other developing nations were examined at the Soweto entrepreneurship conference, which looked for ways to help turn the economic tide in townships.


title: Soweto

text: SOWETO'S entrepreneurs gathered at the University of Johannesburg Soweto Campus on 13 and 14 April to engage with experts from all over the globe about how to enhance skills and value-add in township economies.


title: Soweto

text: The restrictions on economic activities were lifted in 1977, spurring the growth of the taxi industry as an alternative to Soweto's inadequate bus and train transport systems.


title: Soweto

text: In 1994 Sowetans earned on average almost six and a half times less than their counterparts in wealthier areas of Johannesburg (1994 estimates). Sowetans contribute less than 2% to Johannesburg's rates Some Sowetans remain impoverished, and others live in shanty towns with little or no services. About 85% of Kliptown comprises informal housing. The Soweto Electricity Crisis Committee argues that Soweto's poor are unable to pay for electricity. The committee believes that the South African government's privatization drives will worsen the situation. Research showed that 62% of residents in Orlando East and Pimville were unemployed or pensioners.


title: Soweto

text: There have been signs recently indicating economic improvement. The Johannesburg City Council began to provide more street lights and to pave roads. Private initiatives to tap Sowetans' combined spending power of R4.3 billion were also planned, including the construction of Protea Mall, Jabulani Mall, and the development of Maponya Mall, an upmarket hotel in Kliptown, and the Orlando Ekhaya entertainment center. Soweto has also become a Centre for nightlife and culture.


title: Soweto

text: The Soweto Wine Festival was started in 2004. The three-night festival is hosted at the University of Johannesburg's Soweto Campus on Chris Hani Road in the first weekend of September. Organised by the Cape Wine Academy, the festival attracts over 6000 wine enthusiasts, over 100 of South Africa's finest wineries and well over 900 fine wines.


title: Soweto

text: Former president Nelson Mandela received the Life Time Award from the first Soweto Awards in Johannesburg on 25 February 2001. The Legends Awards went to Gibson Kente, the "godfather" of township theatre, Felicia Mabuza-Suttle, a talk show host, Aggrey Klaaste, editor of the Sowetan newspaper and Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, MP and African National Congress Women's League president.


title: Soweto

text: By 2003, the Greater Soweto area consisted of 87 townships grouped together into Administrative Regions 6 and 10 of Johannesburg.


title: Soweto

text: Estimates of how many residential areas make up Soweto itself vary widely. Some counts say that Soweto comprises 29 townships, whilst others find 34. The differences may be due to confusion arising from the merger of adjoining townships (such as Lenasia and Eldorado Park) with those of Soweto into Regions 6 and 10. The total number also depends on whether the various "extensions" and "zones" are counted separately, or as part of one main suburb. The 2003 Regional Spatial Development Framework arrived at 87 names by counting various extensions (e.g. Chiawelo's 5) and zones (e.g. Pimville's 7) separately. The City of Johannesburg's website groups the zones and extensions together to arrive at 32, but omits Noordgesig and Mmesi Park.


title: Soweto

text: The list below provides the dates when some of Soweto's townships were established, along with the probable origins or meanings of their names, where available:


title: Soweto

text: Many parts of Soweto rank among the poorest in Johannesburg, although individual townships tend to have a mix of wealthier and poorer residents. In general, households in the outlying areas to the northwest and southeast have lower incomes, while those in southwestern areas tend to have higher incomes.


title: Soweto

text: The economic development of Soweto was severely curtailed by the apartheid state, which provided very limited infrastructure and prevented residents from creating their own businesses. Roads remained unpaved, and many residents had to share one tap between four houses, for example. Soweto was meant to exist only as a dormitory town for black Africans who worked in white houses, factories, and industries. The 1957 Natives (Urban Areas) Consolidation Act and its predecessors restricted residents between 1923 and 1976 to seven self-employment categories in Soweto itself. Sowetans could operate general shops, butcheries, eating houses, sell milk or vegetables, or hawk goods. The overall number of such enterprises at any time were strictly controlled. As a result, informal trading developed outside the legally-recognized activities.


title: Soweto

text: By 1976, Soweto had only two cinemas and two hotels, and 83% of houses had electricity. Up to 93% of residents had no running water. Using fire for cooking and heating resulted in respiratory problems that contributed to high infant mortality rates (54 per 1,000 compared to 18 for whites, 1976 figures.


title: Soweto

text: In 1994, Sowetans earned on average almost six and a half times less than their counterparts in wealthier areas of Johannesburg (1994 estimates). Sowetans contribute less than 2% to Johannesburg's rates. Some Sowetans remain impoverished, and others live in shanty towns with little or no services. About 85% of Kliptown comprises informal housing. The Soweto Electricity Crisis Committee argues that Soweto's poor are unable to pay for electricity. The committee believes that the South African government's privatization drives will worsen the situation. Research showed that 62% of residents in Orlando East and Pimville were unemployed or pensioners.


title: Soweto

text: There have been signs recently indicating economic improvement. The Johannesburg City Council began to provide more street lights and to pave roads. Private initiatives to tap Sowetans' combined spending power of R4.3 billion were also planned, including the construction of Protea Mall, Jabulani Mall, the development of Maponya Mall, an upmarket hotel in Kliptown, and the Orlando Ekhaya entertainment centre. Soweto has also become a centre for nightlife and culture.


title: Soweto

text: The 1976 uprising is depicted in the film "A Dry White Season" (1989), starring Donald Sutherland, Marlon Brando, and Susan Sarandon, who portray white South Africans pursuing justice for the deaths of black Soweto residents which followed the demonstrations.


title: Soweto

text: The American film "Stander" (2003) portrays the story of Andre Stander, a rogue police captain who sympathised with the state of apartheid and its corruption by becoming a bank thief. The Soweto uprising riots provided Stander's breaking point in the film.


title: Soweto

text: Sara Blecher and Rimi Raphoto's popular documentary, "Surfing Soweto" (2006), addresses the phenomenon of young kids "surfing" on the roofs of Soweto trains and the social problem this represents.


title: Soweto

text: The film "District 9" (2009) was shot in Tshiawelo, Soweto. The plot involves a species of aliens who arrive on Earth in a starving and helpless condition, seeking aid. The originally benign attempts to aid them turn increasingly oppressive due to the overwhelming numbers of aliens and the cost of maintaining them, and to increasing xenophobia on the part of humans who treat the intelligent and sophisticated aliens like animals while taking advantage of them for personal and corporate gain. The aliens are housed in shacks in a slum-like concentration camp called "District 9", which is in fact modern-day Soweto; an attempt to relocate the aliens to another camp leads to violence and a wholesale slaughter by South African mercenary security forces (a reference to historical events in "District Six", Cape Town, a mostly Coloured neighborhood subjected to forced segregation during the apartheid years). The parallels to apartheid South Africa are obvious but not explicitly remarked on in the film.


title: Soweto

text: The marches by students in Soweto are briefly mentioned in Linzi Glass' novel, "Ruby Red", which was nominated for the Carnegie Medal in 2008.


title: Soweto

text: The main protagonist from the Jonas Jonasson novel "The Girl Who Saved the King of Sweden" (2013), Nombeko Mayeki was born in 1961 in Soweto.


title: Soweto

text: In his first Anthology of Poems titled "In Quiet Realm" South African Soweto Born poet Lawrence Mduduzi Ndlovu dedicated a poem called "Soweto My Everything" to honour the place of his birth.


title: Soweto

text: Trevor Noah, in his autobiographical comedy "Born a Crime" (2016), describes his early childhood and growing up in Soweto.


title: Soweto

text: Soweto is mentioned in the song "Burden of Shame" by the British band UB40, on their album "Signing off" (1980).


title: Soweto

text: Singer–songwriter Joe Strummer, formerly of The Clash, referenced Soweto in his solo album "Streetcore" (song: "Arms Aloft"), as well as in The Clash's track, "Where You Gonna Go (Soweto)", found on the album "London Calling" (Legacy Edition).


title: Soweto

text: The UK music duo Mattafix have a song called "Memories Of Soweto" on their album "Rhythm & Hymns" (2007).


title: Soweto

text: Soweto is mentioned in the anti-apartheid song "Gimme Hope Jo'anna" by Eddy Grant. The line, "While every mother in a black Soweto fears the killing of another son", refers to police brutality during apartheid.


title: Soweto

text: The Mexican group Tijuana No! recorded the song "Soweto" for their first album "No", in reference to the city and the movements.


title: Soweto

text: The American band Vampire Weekend refers to its own musical style, a blend of indie rock and pop with African influences, as "Upper West Side Soweto", based on the same description of Paul Simon's album "Graceland."


title: Soweto

text: "Soweto" is the title of the opening track of the album "Joined at the Hip", by Bob James and Kirk Whalum.


title: Soweto

text: Brazilian singer-songwriter Djavan, in his 1987 album "Não É Azul, mas É Mar", recorded a song called "Soweto". Also this song inspired the naming of Brazilian pagode group "Soweto".


title: Soweto

text: The American group The Magnetic Fields mentions Soweto in their song "World Love" on the album "69 Love Songs" (1999).


title: Won Bin

text: Kim Do-jin (born on November 10, 1977), professionally known as Won Bin, is a South Korean actor. He first gained wide popularity in 2000 after starring in the KBS's television series "Autumn in My Heart". One of the most selective actors in the Korean entertainment industry, he has starred in only five films to date, "Guns & Talks", "Taegukgi", "My Brother", "Mother" and "The Man from Nowhere". He was Gallup Korea's Film Actor of the Year in 2010 and 2011.


title: Won Bin

text: Won Bin was born and raised in Jeongseon County in Gangwon Province, South Korea. He is the fifth and youngest child, with one brother and three sisters. His father was formerly employed in a mine and his mother worked on a farm; both of his parents are now retired. As was common for other children living in mountainous regions, Won Bin spent most of his time playing around with friends in the mountains and rivers, and later explained: "I came back home most nights at sunset with a black and dusty face." He was frequently shy, introspective, and quiet, character traits that would continue to follow him throughout adulthood. While not talkative or outgoing, he excelled at athletics. Won Bin started taekwondo lessons and now holds a black belt. As a young boy, he initially planned to become a car mechanic due to his interest in car racing and motorcycling. Won Bin graduated from a mechanical high school, where he studied car repair and mechanics.


title: Won Bin

text: In November 1995, a cable television station was looking to recruit and hire new actors; Won Bin applied and was accepted in his last semester of high school. He started to take acting classes at the station's headquarters and appeared in several dramas. The following month, Won Bin signed an acting contract with a talent agency.


title: Won Bin

text: Won Bin made his screen debut with a supporting role in the 1997 drama film "Propose". His role in "Ready Go!" (1998) helped hone his acting chops. After "Ready Go!", he took a break and entered a college called Paekche Institute of the Arts in 1998 to take acting classes. In 1999, Won Bin came back to the screen with a lead role in drama "Kwangki" from which he was recognized as a promising young actor and a teen heartthrob.


title: Won Bin

text: He made his big breakthrough in 2000 with drama "Tough Guy's Love" ("Kkokji") and "Autumn in My Heart". His role as a rebellious youngest son in "Kkokji" proved his acting potential and his role in the widely successful drama landed him on the A-list for Korean performers. "Autumn in My Heart" gained wide popularity in Asia and he became one of the most popular Korean actors in Korea and Asia as well. In 2002, Won Bin was involved in the first South Korea and Japan joint production drama "Friends".


title: Won Bin

text: Won Bin also had roles in a number of popular films, including "Guns & Talks" and "My Brother", but it is his portrayal of the sensitive younger brother in the blockbuster war film "Taegukgi" (2004) that cemented his international fame. With the success of the critically acclaimed "Taegukgi", recognition of his acting skills has reached an ever-wider international audience. "Taegukgi" was the best selling film in South Korea in 2004 with 11.75 million admissions.


title: Won Bin

text: His career was interrupted by his mandatory service to the South Korean Army. After graduating from the Graduate School of Arts in Yong-In University in 2005, Won Bin started his military duty in November 2005 and stationed at the Korean Demilitarized Zone, a position for which he volunteered. On June 2, 2006, the military officially confirmed that Won Bin would be no longer active. The decision was made by the military when Won Bin sustained injury to his ACL. He had undergone surgery and was officially discharged on June 7, 2006. After the surgery, he had gone through rehabilitation program for more than one year to recover from the injury.


title: Won Bin

text: Won Bin was appointed as UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador of the Korean Committee on September 6, 2007. He has participated in various programs and charity events in Korea for UNICEF from that time on, and has appeared in several promotional videos.


title: Won Bin

text: In April 2008, Won Bin confirmed that his next film would be "Mother" directed by Bong Joon-ho. Filming started in September 2008 and finished in February 2009. The film was selected to compete in the Un Certain Regard section of the 2009 Cannes Film Festival. This was followed by the 2010 film "The Man from Nowhere", his final film appearance to date.


title: Won Bin

text: In July 2013, news broke that Won Bin and actress Lee Na-young were in a relationship. The two got to know each other when Lee joined the same agency as Won in August 2011. The pair started dating a year later in August 2012. Won married Lee on May 30, 2015, in a small, private ceremony in Won's hometown of Jeongseon, Gangwon Province. A press release from their agency Eden 9 in August 2015 announced that the couple were expecting their first child.


title: Won Bin

text: He was mentioned in the lyrics of Ladies' Code's single "Kiss Kiss", composed by Super Changddai. The lyrics said, "난 오늘밤 꿈에서 난 원빈 오빠가 나타나 줄 텐데" (Tonight, in my dreams, Won Bin "oppa" will appear). Members of the South Korean boy group iKON had also mentioned him on several of their songs. Bobby said in the lyrics of his rap verse on Masta Wu's single "Come Here", "실력이 외모면 난 방탄 유리 앞에 원빈." (If skill equals to looks, I'm Won Bin in front of a bulletproof glass.) Won Bin's character in "The Man from Nowhere" was referenced by Krystal Jung in the 2013 drama "The Heirs", as well as by iKON's B.I in the lyrics of his song with co-member Bobby, "Anthem" wherein he said, "날고 기어도 다 씹어 먹어줄게 Call me 아저씨." (We'll chew you up like raw meat, call me "ahjusshi".) In the 2015 Korean drama "Kill Me, Heal Me", the character of Park Seo-joon, Oh Ri-on, told Secretary Ahn that the elusive Writer Omega's looks were rumored to be "on the Won Bin level." In 2016 drama "", Kim Go-eun's character mentioned Won Bin when Lee Dong-wook's character asked for "a male name that women love".


title: Daniel Roebuck

text: Daniel James Roebuck (born March 4, 1963) is an American actor and writer. His best known roles include Deputy Marshal Robert Biggs in "The Fugitive" and its spinoff film "U.S. Marshals", Jay Leno in "The Late Shift", and Dr. Leslie Arzt in "Lost", as well as numerous Rob Zombie and Don Coscarelli films. He is also known for his role as Cliff Lewis, Ben Matlock's private investigator, on "Matlock" from 1992 until 1995.


title: Daniel Roebuck

text: Roebuck was born in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, in 1963, and graduated from Bethlehem Catholic High School in Bethlehem in 1981.


title: Daniel Roebuck

text: He appeared in his first film role in 1985, the lead in "Cavegirl". From 1992 to 1995, he played Andy Griffith's assistant lawyer and penultimate private investigator, Cliff Lewis, on the television drama "Matlock", and he also had a recurring role as a corrupt officer, Insp. Rick Bettina, in "Nash Bridges". He has appeared in numerous other guest roles in television programs and in many feature films including "Bryan Loves You", "River's Edge", and "Dudes". He also played the role of US Marshal Bob Biggs in "The Fugitive" and "U.S. Marshals". He played the part of Mr. Banks in the film "Agent Cody Banks" and its . He has also appeared as the FBI Agent Weine in "Final Destination".


title: Daniel Roebuck

text: In 1999, Roebuck guest starred in "The King of Queens" episode "Court Date", as Jeffrey the cop, whom lead character Carrie Heffernan tried to date in order to get out of a traffic ticket.


title: Daniel Roebuck

text: One of Roebuck's more memorable roles was as Jay Leno in the 1996 HBO made-for-TV film "The Late Shift". Leno has often commented positively on Roebuck's performance whenever a guest would bring up the film on "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno". In 2001, he played a petty officer in the made-for-TV film "A Glimpse of Hell" exploring the 1989 USS Iowa battleship explosion. In 2002, he played a hearse driver in the comedy horror film "Bubba Ho-Tep", then acted in the 2006 production "Red Riding Hood".


title: Daniel Roebuck

text: From 2005 until 2010, he had a recurring role in the television drama "Lost," appearing as Dr. Arzt in nine episodes. Roebuck is a regular player in films by Rob Zombie, starting with "The Devil's Rejects" (2005), as Morris Green. He has been a writer and producer for the "Monsterama" series, appearing in some of the episodes. Roebuck also starred in the Disney Channel Original Movie "Quints" (2000), as well as the Nickelodeon original film, "Shredderman Rules" (2007). In the series "Sonny with a Chance", he played Mr. Condor. He guest starred in Disney's "Wizards of Waverly Place". In 2009, Roebuck guest starred in the fan-produced web series "".


title: Daniel Roebuck

text: He has guest starred on one episode each of "Dark Blue" and "Bones". He reprised his role of the Rob Zombie character Morris Green, providing that voice in the animated film "The Haunted World of El Superbeasto" (2009), and starred in the film, "A Fork in the Road" (2009).


title: Daniel Roebuck

text: Roebuck portrayed Dave Karofsky's father in the TV series "Glee"’s second season episodes "Furt" and "Born This Way", with a brief cameo appearance in the next season's "On My Way".


title: Daniel Roebuck

text: In October 2012, he played B.J. in AMC's "The Walking Dead" "" webisodes. He stars as Pastor Victor in the Rob Zombie film "31". In November 2015, he played Arnold Walker in "The Man in the High Castle". His role, Arnold Walker, is the father of the leading character. He appeared in five of ten episodes in the first season, distributed through Amazon.com.


title: Daniel Roebuck

text: , he is host of "Classic with Daniel Roebuck" on New Evangelization Television in the New York metropolitan area. Also in 2022, he was cast to play the part of Grandpa The Count in the 2022 Rob Zombie reboot film, "The Munsters".


title: Candiru (fish)

text: Candiru ("Vandellia cirrhosa"), also known as cañero, toothpick fish, or vampire fish, is a species of parasitic freshwater catfish in the family Trichomycteridae native to the Amazon Basin where it is found in the countries of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.


title: Candiru (fish)

text: The definition of "candiru" differs between authors. The word has been used to refer to only "Vandellia cirrhosa", the entire genus "Vandellia", the subfamily Vandelliinae, or even the two subfamilies Vandelliinae and Stegophilinae.


title: Candiru (fish)

text: Although some candiru species have been known to grow to a size of in length, others are considerably smaller. These smaller species are known for an alleged tendency to invade and parasitise the human urethra; however, despite ethnological reports dating back to the late 19th century, the first documented case of the removal of a candiru from a human urethra did not occur until 1997, and even that incident has remained a matter of controversy.


title: Candiru (fish)

text: Candirus are small fish. Members of the genus "Vandellia" can reach up to in standard length, but some others can grow to around . Each has a rather small head and a belly that can appear distended, especially after a large blood meal. The body is translucent, making it quite difficult to spot in the turbid waters of its home. There are short sensory barbels around the head, together with short, backward pointing spines on the gill covers.


title: Candiru (fish)

text: Candirus ("Vandellia") inhabit the Amazon and Orinoco basins of lowland Amazonia, where they constitute part of the Neotropical fish fauna. Candirus are hematophagous and parasitize the gills of larger Amazonian fishes, especially catfish of the family Pimelodidae (Siluriformes).


title: Candiru (fish)

text: Although lurid anecdotes of attacks on humans abound, very few cases have been verified, and some alleged traits of the fish have been discredited as myth or superstition.


title: Candiru (fish)

text: The earliest published report of candiru attacking a human host comes from German biologist C. F. P. von Martius in 1829, who never actually observed it, but rather was told about it by the native people of the area, including that men would tie ligatures around their penises while going into the river to prevent this from happening. Other sources also suggest that other tribes in the area used various forms of protective coverings for their genitals while bathing, though it was also suggested that these were to prevent bites from piranha. Martius also speculated that the fish were attracted by the "odor" of urine. Later experimental evidence has shown this to be false, as the fish actually hunt by sight and have no attraction to urine at all.


title: Candiru (fish)

text: Another report from French naturalist Francis de Castelnau in 1855 relates an allegation by local Araguay fisherman, saying that it is dangerous to urinate in the river as the fish "springs out of the water and penetrates into the urethra by ascending the length of the liquid column." While Castelnau himself dismissed this claim as "absolutely preposterous," and the fluid mechanics of such a maneuver defy the laws of physics, it remains one of the more stubborn myths about the candiru. It has been suggested this claim evolved out of the real observation that certain species of fish in the Amazon will gather at the surface near the point where a urine stream enters, having been attracted by the noise and agitation of the water.


title: Candiru (fish)

text: In 1836, Eduard Poeppig documented a statement by a local physician in Pará, known only as Dr. Lacerda, who offered an eyewitness account of a case where a candiru had entered a human orifice. However, it was lodged in a native woman's vagina, rather than a male urethra. He relates that the fish was extracted after external and internal application of the juice from a Xagua plant (believed to be a name for "Genipa americana"). Another account was documented by biologist George A. Boulenger from a Brazilian physician, named Dr. Bach, who had examined a man and several boys whose penises had been amputated. Bach believed this was a remedy performed because of parasitism by candiru, but he was merely speculating as he did not speak his patients' language. American biologist Eugene Willis Gudger noted that the area which the patients were from did not have candiru in its rivers, and suggested the amputations were much more likely the result of having been attacked by piranha.


title: Candiru (fish)

text: In 1891, naturalist Paul Le Cointe provides a rare first-hand account of a candiru entering a human body, and like Lacerda's account, it involved the fish being lodged in the vaginal canal, not the urethra. Le Cointe actually removed the fish himself, by pushing it forward to disengage the spines, turning it around and removing it head-first.


title: Candiru (fish)

text: Gudger, in 1930, noted there have been several other cases reported wherein the fish entered the vaginal canal, but not a single case of a candiru entering the anus was ever documented. According to Gudger, this lends credence to the unlikelihood of the fish entering the male urethra, based on the comparatively small opening that would accommodate only the most immature members of the species.


title: Candiru (fish)

text: To date, there is only one documented case of a candiru entering a human urethra, which took place in Itacoatiara, Brazil, in 1997. In this incident, the victim (a 23-year-old man known only as "F.B.C.") claimed a candiru "jumped" from the water into his urethra as he urinated while thigh-deep in a river. After traveling to Manaus on October 28, 1997, the victim underwent a two-hour urological surgery by Dr. Anoar Samad to remove the fish from his body.