title: Just war theory

text: In the same document, it is stated that wars have accompanied human history since the fall of man, and according to the gospel, they will continue to accompany it. While recognizing war as evil, the Russian Orthodox Church does not prohibit its members from participating in hostilities if there is the security of their neighbours and the restoration of trampled justice at stake. War is considered to be necessary but undesirable. It is also stated that the Russian Orthodox Church has had profound respect for soldiers who gave their lives to protect the life and security of their neighbours.


title: Just war theory

text: The just war theory, propounded by the medieval Christian philosopher Thomas Aquinas, was developed further by legal scholars in the context of international law. Cardinal Cajetan, the jurist Francisco de Vitoria, the two Jesuit priests Luis de Molina and Francisco Suárez, as well as the humanist Hugo Grotius and the lawyer Luigi Taparelli were most influential in the formation of a "just war tradition". The just war tradition, which was well established by the 19th century, found its practical application in the Hague Peace Conferences (1899 and 1907) and in the founding of the League of Nations in 1920. After the United States Congress declared war on Germany in 1917, Cardinal James Gibbons issued a letter that all Catholics were to support the war because "Our Lord Jesus Christ does not stand for peace at any price... If by Pacifism is meant the teaching that the use of force is never justifiable, then, however well meant, it is mistaken, and it is hurtful to the life of our country."


title: Just war theory

text: Armed conflicts such as the Spanish Civil War, World War II and the Cold War were, as a matter of course, judged according to the norms (as established in Aquinas' just war theory) by philosophers such as Jacques Maritain, Elizabeth Anscombe and John Finnis.


title: Just war theory

text: The first work dedicated specifically to "just war" was the 15th-century sermon "De bellis justis" of Stanisław of Skarbimierz (1360–1431), who justified war by the Kingdom of Poland against the Teutonic Knights. Francisco de Vitoria criticized the conquest of America by the Spanish conquistadors on the basis of just-war theory. With Alberico Gentili and Hugo Grotius, just war theory was replaced by international law theory, codified as a set of rules, which today still encompass the points commonly debated, with some modifications.


title: Just war theory

text: Just-war theorists combine a moral abhorrence towards war with a readiness to accept that war may sometimes be necessary. The criteria of the just-war tradition act as an aid in determining whether resorting to arms is morally permissible. Just-war theories aim "to distinguish between justifiable and unjustifiable uses of organized armed forces"; they attempt "to conceive of how the use of arms might be restrained, made more humane, and ultimately directed towards the aim of establishing lasting peace and justice". Although the criticism can be made that the application of just war theory is relativistic, one of the fundamental bases of the tradition is the Ethic of Reciprocity, particularly when it comes to "in bello" considerations of deportment during battle. If one set of combatants promise to treat their enemies with a modicum of restraint and respect, then the hope is that other sets of combatants will do similarly in reciprocation (a concept not unrelated to the considerations of game theory).


title: Just war theory

text: The just war tradition addresses the morality of the use of force in two parts: when it is right to resort to armed force (the concern of "jus ad bellum") and what is acceptable in using such force (the concern of "jus in bello"). In more recent years, a third category—"jus post bellum"—has been added by certain theorists and addresses the justice of war termination and peace agreements, as well as the prosecution of war criminals.


title: Just war theory

text: The Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin defined only three types of just war, all of which share the central trait of being revolutionary in character. In simple terms: "To the Russian workers has fallen the honor and the good fortune of being the first to start the revolution—the great and only legitimate and just war, the war of the oppressed against the oppressors", with these two opposing categories being defined in terms of class, as is typical in the left. In that manner, Lenin shunned the more common interpretation of a defensive war as a just one, often summarized as "who fired the first shot?", precisely because it failed to take into consideration the class factor. Which side initiated aggressions or had a grievance or any other commonly-considered factor of "jus ad bellum" mattered not at all, he claimed. if one side was being oppressed by the other, the war against the oppressor would always be, by definition, a defensive war anyway. Any war lacking that duality of oppressed and oppressor was, in contradistinction, always a reactionary, unjust war, in which the oppressed effectively fight in order to protect their own oppressors:


title: Just war theory

text: "But picture to yourselves a slave-owner who owned 100 slaves warring against a slave-owner who owned 200 slaves for a more "just" distribution of slaves. Clearly, the application of the term "defensive" war, or war "for the defense of the fatherland" in such a case would be historically false, and in practice would be sheer deception of the common people, of philistines, of ignorant people, by the astute slaveowners. Precisely in this way are the present-day imperialist bourgeoisie deceiving the peoples by means of "national ideology" and the term "defense of the fatherland" in the present war between slave-owners for fortifying and strengthening slavery."


title: Just war theory

text: The anarcho-capitalist scholar Murray Rothbard (1926-1995) stated that "a "just" war exists when a people tries to ward off the threat of coercive domination by another people, or to overthrow an already-existing domination. A war is "unjust", on the other hand, when a people try to impose domination on another people or try to retain an already-existing coercive rule over them."


title: Just war theory

text: The consensus among Christians on the use of violence has changed radically since the crusades were fought. The just war theory prevailing for most of the last two centuries—that violence is an evil that can, in certain situations, be condoned as the lesser of evils—is relatively young. Although it has inherited some elements (the criteria of legitimate authority, just cause, right intention) from the older war theory that first evolved around AD 400, it has rejected two premises that underpinned all medieval just wars, including crusades: first, that violence could be employed on behalf of Christ's intentions for mankind and could even be directly authorized by him; and second, that it was a morally neutral force that drew whatever ethical coloring it had from the intentions of the perpetrators.


title: Just war theory

text: The just war theory has two sets of criteria, the first establishing "jus ad bellum" (the right to go to war),and the second establishing "jus in bello" (right conduct within war).


title: Just war theory

text: In modern terms, just war is waged in terms of self-defense, or in defense of another (with sufficient evidence).


title: Just war theory

text: Once war has begun, just war theory ("jus in bello") also directs how combatants are to act or should act:


title: Just war theory

text: In recent years, some theorists, such as Gary Bass, Louis Iasiello and Brian Orend, have proposed a third category within the just war theory. "Jus post bellum" concerns justice after a war, including peace treaties, reconstruction, environmental remediation, war crimes trials, and war reparations. "Jus post bellum" has been added to deal with the fact that some hostile actions may take place outside a traditional battlefield. "Jus post bellum" governs the justice of war termination and peace agreements, as well as the prosecution of war criminals, and publicly labelled terrorists. The idea has largely been added to help decide what to do if there are prisoners that have been taken during battle. It is, through government labelling and public opinion, that people use "jus post bellum" to justify the pursuit of labelled terrorist for the safety of the government's state in a modern context. The actual fault lies with the aggressor and so by being the aggressor, they forfeit their rights for honourable treatment by their actions. That theory is used to justify the actions taken by anyone fighting in a war to treat prisoners outside of war. Actions after a conflict can be warranted by actions observed during war, meaning that there can be justification to meet violence with violence even after war. Orend, who was one of the theorists mentioned earlier, proposes the following principles:


title: Renaissance art

text: Renaissance art (1350 – 1620 AD) is the painting, sculpture, and decorative arts of the period of European history known as the Renaissance, which emerged as a distinct style in Italy in about AD 1400, in parallel with developments which occurred in philosophy, literature, music, science, and technology. Renaissance art took as its foundation the art of Classical antiquity, perceived as the noblest of ancient traditions, but transformed that tradition by absorbing recent developments in the art of Northern Europe and by applying contemporary scientific knowledge. Along with Renaissance humanist philosophy, it spread throughout Europe, affecting both artists and their patrons with the development of new techniques and new artistic sensibilities. For art historians, Renaissance art marks the transition of Europe from the medieval period to the Early Modern age.


title: Renaissance art

text: The body of art, painting, sculpture, architecture, music and literature identified as "Renaissance art" was primarily produced during the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries in Europe under the combined influences of an increased awareness of nature, a revival of classical learning, and a more individualistic view of man. Scholars no longer believe that the Renaissance marked an abrupt break with medieval values, as is suggested by the French word "renaissance", literally meaning "rebirth". In many parts of Europe, Early Renaissance art was created in parallel with Late Medieval art.


title: Renaissance art

text: Many influences on the development of Renaissance men and women in the early 15th century have been credited with the emergence of Renaissance art; they are the same as those that affected philosophy, literature, architecture, theology, science, government and other aspects of society. The following list presents a summary of changes to social and cultural conditions which have been identified as factors which contributed to the development of Renaissance art. Each is dealt with more fully in the main articles cited above. The scholars of Renaissance period focused on present life and ways improve human life. They did not pay much attention to medieval philosophy or religion. During this period, scholars and humanists like Erasmus, Dante and Petrarch criticized superstitious beliefs and also questioned them. The concept of education also widened its spectrum and focused more on creating 'an ideal man' who would have a fair understanding of arts, music, poetry and literature and would have the ability to appreciate these aspects of life. During this period, there emerged a scientific outlook which helped people question the needless rituals of the church.


title: Renaissance art

text: In Italy in the late 13th and early 14th centuries, the sculpture of Nicola Pisano and his son Giovanni Pisano, working at Pisa, Siena and Pistoia shows markedly classicising tendencies, probably influenced by the familiarity of these artists with ancient Roman sarcophagi. Their masterpieces are the pulpits of the Baptistery and Cathedral of Pisa.


title: Renaissance art

text: Contemporary with Giovanni Pisano, the Florentine painter Giotto developed a manner of figurative painting that was unprecedentedly naturalistic, three-dimensional, lifelike and classicist, when compared with that of his contemporaries and teacher Cimabue. Giotto, whose greatest work is the cycle of the "Life of Christ" at the Arena Chapel in Padua, was seen by the 16th-century biographer Giorgio Vasari as "rescuing and restoring art" from the "crude, traditional, Byzantine style" prevalent in Italy in the 13th century.


title: Renaissance art

text: Although both the Pisanos and Giotto had students and followers, the first truly Renaissance artists were not to emerge in Florence until 1401 with the competition to sculpt a set of bronze doors of the Baptistery of Florence Cathedral, which drew entries from seven young sculptors including Brunelleschi, Donatello and the winner, Lorenzo Ghiberti. Brunelleschi, most famous as the architect of the dome of Florence Cathedral and the Church of San Lorenzo, created a number of sculptural works, including a life-sized crucifix in Santa Maria Novella, renowned for its naturalism. His studies of perspective are thought to have influenced the painter Masaccio. Donatello became renowned as the greatest sculptor of the Early Renaissance, his masterpieces being his humanist and unusually erotic statue of David, one of the icons of the Florentine republic, and his great monument to Gattamelata, the first large equestrian bronze to be created since Roman times.


title: Renaissance art

text: The contemporary of Donatello, Masaccio, was the painterly descendant of Giotto and began the Early Renaissance in Italian painting in 1425, furthering the trend towards solidity of form and naturalism of face and gesture that Giotto had begun a century earlier. From 1425–1428, Masaccio completed several panel paintings but is best known for the fresco cycle that he began in the Brancacci Chapel with the older artist Masolino and which had profound influence on later painters, including Michelangelo. Masaccio's developments were carried forward in the paintings of Fra Angelico, particularly in his frescos at the Convent of San Marco in Florence.


title: Renaissance art

text: The treatment of the elements of perspective and light in painting was of particular concern to 15th-century Florentine painters. Uccello was so obsessed with trying to achieve an appearance of perspective that, according to Giorgio Vasari, it disturbed his sleep. His solutions can be seen in his masterpiece set of three paintings, the Battle of San Romano, which is believed to have been completed by 1460. Piero della Francesca made systematic and scientific studies of both light and linear perspective, the results of which can be seen in his fresco cycle of "The History of the True Cross" in San Francesco, Arezzo.


title: Renaissance art

text: In Naples, the painter Antonello da Messina began using oil paints for portraits and religious paintings at a date that preceded other Italian painters, possibly about 1450. He carried this technique north and influenced the painters of Venice. One of the most significant painters of Northern Italy was Andrea Mantegna, who decorated the interior of a room, the Camera degli Sposi for his patron Ludovico Gonzaga, setting portraits of the family and court into an illusionistic architectural space.


title: Renaissance art

text: The end period of the Early Renaissance in Italian art is marked, like its beginning, by a particular commission that drew artists together, this time in cooperation rather than competition. Pope Sixtus IV had rebuilt the Papal Chapel, named the Sistine Chapel in his honour, and commissioned a group of artists, Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Cosimo Rosselli to decorate its wall with fresco cycles depicting the Life of Christ and the Life of Moses. In the sixteen large paintings, the artists, although each working in his individual style, agreed on principles of format, and utilised the techniques of lighting, linear and atmospheric perspective, anatomy, foreshortening and characterisation that had been carried to a high point in the large Florentine studios of Ghiberti, Verrocchio, Ghirlandaio and Perugino.


title: Renaissance art

text: The painters of the Low Countries in this period included Jan van Eyck, his brother Hubert van Eyck, Robert Campin, Hans Memling, Rogier van der Weyden and Hugo van der Goes. Their painting developed partly independently of Early Italian Renaissance painting, and without the influence of a deliberate and conscious striving to revive antiquity.


title: Renaissance art

text: The style of painting grew directly out of medieval painting in tempera, on panels and illuminated manuscripts, and other forms such as stained glass; the medium of fresco was less common in northern Europe. The medium used was oil paint, which had long been utilised for painting leather ceremonial shields and accoutrements because it was flexible and relatively durable. The earliest Netherlandish oil paintings are meticulous and detailed like tempera paintings. The material lent itself to the depiction of tonal variations and texture, so facilitating the observation of nature in great detail.


title: Renaissance art

text: The Netherlandish painters did not approach the creation of a picture through a framework of linear perspective and correct proportion. They maintained a medieval view of hierarchical proportion and religious symbolism, while delighting in a realistic treatment of material elements, both natural and man-made. Jan van Eyck, with his brother Hubert, painted "The Altarpiece of the Mystical Lamb". It is probable that Antonello da Messina became familiar with Van Eyck's work, while in Naples or Sicily. In 1475, Hugo van der Goes' "Portinari Altarpiece" arrived in Florence, where it was to have a profound influence on many painters, most immediately Domenico Ghirlandaio, who painted an altarpiece imitating its elements.


title: Renaissance art

text: A very significant Netherlandish painter towards the end of the period was Hieronymus Bosch, who employed the type of fanciful forms that were often utilized to decorate borders and letters in illuminated manuscripts, combining plant and animal forms with architectonic ones. When taken from the context of the illumination and peopled with humans, these forms give Bosch's paintings a surreal quality which have no parallel in the work of any other Renaissance painter. His masterpiece is the triptych "The Garden of Earthly Delights".


title: Renaissance art

text: The artists of France (including duchies such as Burgundy) were often associated with courts, providing illuminated manuscripts and portraits for the nobility as well as devotional paintings and altarpieces. Among the most famous were the Limbourg brothers, Flemish illuminators and creators of the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry manuscript illumination. Jean Fouquet, painter of the royal court, visited Italy in 1437 and reflects the influence of Florentine painters such as Paolo Uccello. Although best known for his portraits such as that of Charles VII of France, Fouquet also created illuminations, and is thought to be the inventor of the portrait miniature.


title: Renaissance art

text: There were a number of artists at this date who painted famed altarpieces, that are stylistically quite distinct from both the Italian and the Flemish. These include two enigmatic figures, Enguerrand Quarton, to whom is ascribed the "Pieta of Villeneuve-lès-Avignon", and Jean Hey, otherwise known as "the Master of Moulins" after his most famous work, the Moulins Altarpiece. In these works, realism and close observation of the human figure, emotions and lighting are combined with a medieval formality, which includes gilt backgrounds.


title: Renaissance art

text: The "universal genius" Leonardo da Vinci was to further perfect the aspects of pictorial art (lighting, linear and atmospheric perspective, anatomy, foreshortening and characterisation) that had preoccupied artists of the Early Renaissance, in a lifetime of studying and meticulously recording his observations of the natural world. His adoption of oil paint as his primary media meant that he could depict light and its effects on the landscape and objects more naturally and with greater dramatic effect than had ever been done before, as demonstrated in the "Mona Lisa" (1503–1506). His dissection of cadavers carried forward the understanding of skeletal and muscular anatomy, as seen in the unfinished "Saint Jerome in the Wilderness" (c. 1480). His depiction of human emotion in "The Last Supper", completed 1495–1498, set the benchmark for religious painting.


title: Renaissance art

text: The art of Leonardo's younger contemporary Michelangelo took a very different direction. Michelangelo in neither his painting nor his sculpture demonstrates any interest in the observation of any natural object except the human body. He perfected his technique in depicting it, while in his early twenties, by the creation of the enormous marble statue of "David" and the group "Pietà", in the St Peter's Basilica, Rome. He then set about an exploration of the expressive possibilities of the human anatomy. His commission by Pope Julius II to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling resulted in the supreme masterpiece of figurative composition, which was to have profound effect on every subsequent generation of European artists. His later work, "The Last Judgement", painted on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel between 1534 and 1541, shows a Mannerist (also called Late Renaissance) style with generally elongated bodies which took over from the High Renaissance style between 1520 and 1530.


title: Renaissance art

text: Standing alongside Leonardo and Michelangelo as the third great painter of the High Renaissance was the younger Raphael, who in a short lifespan painted a great number of life-like and engaging portraits, including those of Pope Julius II and his successor Pope Leo X, and numerous portrayals of the Madonna and Christ Child, including the "Sistine Madonna". His death in 1520 at age 37 is considered by many art historians to be the end of the High Renaissance period, although some individual artists continued working in the High Renaissance style for many years thereafter.


title: Renaissance art

text: In Northern Italy, the High Renaissance is represented primarily by members of the Venetian school, especially by the latter works of Giovanni Bellini, especially religious paintings, which include several large altarpieces of a type known as "Sacred Conversation", which show a group of saints around the enthroned Madonna. His contemporary Giorgione, who died at about the age of 32 in 1510, left a small number of enigmatic works, including "The Tempest", the subject of which has remained a matter of speculation. The earliest works of Titian date from the era of the High Renaissance, including a massive altarpiece "The Assumption of the Virgin" which combines human action and drama with spectacular colour and atmosphere. Titian continued painting in a generally High Renaissance style until near the end of his career in the 1570s, although he increasingly used colour and light over line to define his figures.


title: Renaissance art

text: German Renaissance art falls into the broader category of the Renaissance in Northern Europe, also known as the Northern Renaissance. Renaissance influences began to appear in German art in the 15th century, but this trend was not widespread. Gardner's "Art Through the Ages" identifies Michael Pacher, a painter and sculptor, as the first German artist whose work begins to show Italian Renaissance influences. According to that source, Pacher's painting, "St. Wolfgang Forces the Devil to Hold His Prayerbook" (c. 1481), is Late Gothic in style, but also shows the influence of the Italian artist Mantegna.


title: Renaissance art

text: In the 1500s, Renaissance art in Germany became more common as, according to Gardner, "The art of northern Europe during the sixteenth century is characterized by a sudden awareness of the advances made by the Italian Renaissance and by a desire to assimilate this new style as rapidly as possible." One of the best known practitioners of German Renaissance art was Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528), whose fascination with classical ideas led him to Italy to study art. Both Gardner and Russell recognized the importance of Dürer's contribution to German art in bringing Italian Renaissance styles and ideas to Germany. Russell calls this "Opening the Gothic windows of German art," while Gardner calls it Dürer's "life mission." Importantly, as Gardner points out, Dürer "was the first northern artist who fully understood the basic aims of the southern Renaissance," although his style did not always reflect that. The same source says that Hans Holbein the Younger (1497–1543) successfully assimilated Italian ideas while also keeping "northern traditions of close realism." This is contrasted with Dürer's tendency to work in "his own native German style" instead of combining German and Italian styles. Other important artists of the German Renaissance were Matthias Grünewald, Albrecht Altdorfer and Lucas Cranach the Elder.


title: Renaissance art

text: Artisans such as engravers became more concerned with aesthetics rather than just perfecting their crafts. Germany had master engravers, such as Martin Schongauer, who did metal engravings in the late 1400s. Gardner relates this mastery of the graphic arts to advances in printing which occurred in Germany, and says that metal engraving began to replace the woodcut during the Renaissance. However, some artists, such as Albrecht Dürer, continued to do woodcuts. Both Gardner and Russell describe the fine quality of Dürer's woodcuts, with Russell stating in "The World of Dürer" that Dürer "elevated them into high works of art."


title: Renaissance art

text: Britain was very late to develop a distinct Renaissance style and most artists of the Tudor court were imported foreigners, usually from the Low Countries, including Hans Holbein the Younger, who died in England. One exception was the portrait miniature, which artists including Nicholas Hilliard developed into a distinct genre well before it became popular in the rest of Europe. Renaissance art in Scotland was similarly dependent on imported artists, and largely restricted to the court.


title: Renaissance art

text: Renaissance artists painted a wide variety of themes. Religious altarpieces, fresco cycles, and small works for private devotion were very popular. For inspiration, painters in both Italy and northern Europe frequently turned to Jacobus de Voragine's "Golden Legend" (1260), a highly influential source book for the lives of saints that had already had a strong influence on Medieval artists. The rebirth of classical antiquity and Renaissance humanism also resulted in many mythological and history paintings. Ovidian stories, for example, were very popular. Decorative ornament, often used in painted architectural elements, was especially influenced by classical Roman motifs.


title: California Love

text: "California Love" is a song by American rapper 2Pac featuring fellow American rapper-producer Dr. Dre and American singer Roger Troutman. The song was released as 2Pac's comeback single after his release from prison in 1995 and was his first single as the newest artist of Death Row Records. The remix is featured on the UK version of his fourth album, "All Eyez on Me" (1996), and is one of 2Pac's most widely known and most successful singles. It reached number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100 for two weeks (as a double A-side single with "How Do U Want It") and also topped the charts of Italy, New Zealand, and Sweden. The song was posthumously nominated Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group in 1997.


title: California Love

text: The original version was not available on any of Shakur's studio albums due to it being intended for Dr. Dre's shelved album "The Chronic II: A New World Odor (Poppa's Got A Brand New Funk)", but it can now be found on Shakur's compilation of "Greatest Hits" and on the United Kingdom version of "All Eyez on Me".


title: California Love

text: The original version also exists in extended form and is 6:29 in length. This particular version was never released to the public and is now only available on 12-inch promo vinyl records. Aside from the extended track being on limited quantities of vinyl promo records, very few uploads to YouTube exist of the original, 6:29-length extended song, performed without Shakur.


title: California Love

text: "California Love" was one of two songs produced by Dr. Dre on "All Eyez on Me"—the other one being "Can't C Me". The first version of the song has three verses featuring Dr. Dre's rapping. The only copy of this session is now in the possession of DJ Jam, Snoop Dogg's personal concert DJ. 2Pac first heard Dr. Dre's session while at Dre's in-house studio and asked Dre to put him on the song. Producer Laylaw also did an additional remix of the song which is often erroneously credited to Dr. Dre and has been suggested to be one of the reasons for the fallout between Dre and 2Pac a few months later. The original was released as a double-A side single together with "How Do U Want It" and intended for the Dr. Dre album "The Chronic II", while the remix was included on 2Pac's "All Eyez on Me". The song was made and written in Dr. Dre's in house studio, 2Pac came in and wrote his verse straight away; it took him just 15 minutes to write his verse. The weekend after the song was completed the video was then recorded.


title: California Love

text: The chorus, "California knows how to party", was sung by Roger Troutman using his characteristic talk box and was taken from the 1982 song "West Coast Poplock" by Ronnie Hudson & The Street People which was written by Ronnie Hudson and Mikel Hooks.


title: California Love

text: In the song where Troutman sings "shake it, shake it baby", he interpolates the chant he used on his 1982 Zapp single, "Dance Floor".


title: California Love

text: Michael Hill from "Cash Box" noted that 2Pac and Dr Dre "are clicking some smooth lyrics together over this killer a— dance track. This track is smoking, and with the introduction of funk royalty Roger Troutman on the vocoder, it simply bursts into flames. If you haven’t heard one of the six mixes available, be patient because it’s bound to reach your area soon." Ralph Tee from "Music Week" "RM" Dance Update rated the song four out of five, describing it as "a fusion of funk and hip hop on this excellent rap cut about the splendour of the US's sunshine state." He added further, "Dr Dre's production sparkles on this potential hit which takes the vocoder and horns from Zapp's 'So Ruff So Tuff' (Roger Troutman also appearing in the Mad Max-style video) and on its best mix the sticky bassline from Kleeer's 'Intimate Connection' underlines it all."


title: California Love

text: Two versions of the music video were filmed. Shakur's longtime friend, actress Jada Pinkett Smith, came up with the concept inspired by the 1985 film "Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome". She was expected to direct the video, but she removed herself from the project and was replaced by Hype Williams. The video was filmed November 10-13, 1995 in El Mirage, California. It takes place in a desert in the year 2095. The casting includes actor Clifton Powell as the evil tribal chief, actor Chris Tucker (then known for his role in the 1995 film "Friday"), Tony Cox as the dwarf soldier, and Roger Troutman (formerly with the band Zapp) carrying a talk box. It ends with a cliffhanger cut by a "To Be Continued" closing. An alternative version, featuring the remix song re-cut, removes the final caption and features 2Pac and Dr. Dre naming West Coast towns.


title: California Love

text: The second video is based on the remix version of the song from the album "All Eyez on Me" and is a continuation of the video's story. The premise is that the desert scenes of the previous videos were merely a nightmare 2Pac was having. When he wakes up, he finds himself in his bed beside a young woman. He calls Dr. Dre on a cordless phone, who tells him to get over to his summer house because he's throwing a house party. The rest of the music video takes place as if it were a home video celebrating 2Pac's welcome to Death Row and features several cameos, notably Roger Troutman who is now playing the piano, and guest appearances from DJ Quik, Big Syke, Deion Sanders, Danny Boy, Nadia Cassini, Jodeci, B-Legit and E-40. The video was shot in Compton, California.


title: California Love

text: The first video can be found on the DualDisc of "All Eyez on Me" and the second video can be found on "Tupac: Live at the House of Blues" DVD.


title: California Love

text: "California Love" was voted the 11th best single of 1996 in the Pazz & Jop, an annual critics poll run by "The Village Voice". Robert Christgau, the poll's creator, ranked it 10th in his own year-end list. The song's first video was nominated for an MTV Video Music Award for Best Rap Video in 1996. It achieved number 9 of the top 10 on MTV's 100 Greatest Videos Ever Made list in 1999. In April 2005 it reached the Bronze medal spot on MTV2 and XXL's 25 Greatest West Coast Videos. It also achieved number 1 on the French MTV's "100 Greatest Rap Music Videos" in 2006.


title: California Love

text: There are several different versions (and duration lengths) of California Love recorded and released by 2Pac.


title: California Love

text: Some tracks listed above are available through iTunes and other music providers, while others are from CD discs only believed to be released in the UK. The "official/original" track can only be found on promo vinyl records or through YouTube, which is done only by Dr. Dre and Roger Troutman.


title: Michael Kiwanuka

text: Michael Samuel Kiwanuka (born 3 May 1987) is a British singer-songwriter and record producer who is signed with Polydor Records. His 2012 debut album, "Home Again", went gold in the United Kingdom and his second album, "Love & Hate", debuted in 2016 at number one. He has been nominated for numerous honours, including the Brit Awards, MTV Europe Music Awards, BBC Music Awards, and The Grammy Awards. In January 2012, he won the BBC's Sound of 2012; and, in September 2020, he won the Mercury Prize.


title: Michael Kiwanuka

text: Born and raised in Muswell Hill, London, Kiwanuka is the son of Michael and Deborah, Ugandan parents who escaped the Amin regime. He attended Fortismere School, leaving there in 2005 after completing his A-Levels. He went on to study at the School of Media, Arts and Design at the University of Westminster.


title: Michael Kiwanuka

text: Kiwanuka worked as a session guitarist, playing with Chipmunk and Bashy before working as a solo artist. His first proper gig was at The Oxford in Kentish Town at age 22. He came to the attention of Communion Records, which released his first two EPs, including his debut "Tell Me A Tale" on 13 June 2011.


title: Michael Kiwanuka

text: Kiwanuka supported Adele on her Adele Live 2011 tour, as well as at her iTunes Festival 2011 gig, and played at the 2011 Hard Rock Calling.


title: Michael Kiwanuka

text: In 2011, he signed a deal with Polydor Records. He was included in the BBC's Sound of 2012 poll and was named as the winner on 6 January 2012. In June 2012, he was illustrated in a BBC article regarding Spain vis-à-vis Uganda during the Eurozone crisis; his putative counterpart was actress Penélope Cruz.


title: Michael Kiwanuka

text: Kiwanuka released his debut studio album, "Home Again", in 2012 to positive reviews from critics. The album peaked at number 4 in the UK and, as of 2012, has sold over 70,000 copies in the UK.


title: Michael Kiwanuka

text: After scrapping an entire second album (due to be called Night Songs) after he was discouraged by an A&R man, in 2016, Kiwanuka released his follow-up to "Home Again", "Love & Hate". The album was a critical and commercial success, reaching number 1 on the UK albums chart. The album was produced by Danger Mouse and spawned several singles.


title: Michael Kiwanuka

text: Kiwanuka recorded a track with UNKLE for the 2018 Roma companion album ('On My Knees'). After another collaborative song and video, this time with Tom Misch, was released in June 2019 ('Money'), his single, You Ain't the Problem preceded his third album "Kiwanuka" which was released in November 2019, again to further critical and commercial success. The album placed at number 2 in the UK charts, has been gold-certified for over 100,000 sales and would go on to win the UK Mercury Music Prize for 2020, his first win after his first two albums were only nominated. Danger Mouse was involved with the album, along with producer Inflo. Kiwanuka said that the choice of album name reflected his increasing confidence in being himself.


title: Michael Kiwanuka

text: Kiwanuka has acknowledged influences from musicians such as Jimi Hendrix, The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, Pink Floyd,Nirvana, Ray Charles, Bill Withers, Otis Redding, Jack Johnson, Chuck Berry, Pops Staples, The Band, Joni Mitchell, Bob Dylan, Frank Zappa, Neil Diamond, Eric Clapton, Joe Cocker, Eric Bibb, Tommy Sims, Dobie Gray, Wham!, Richie Havens, Sly and the Family Stone, and Funkadelic. He has played with James Gadson, who drummed for Bill Withers.


title: Michael Kiwanuka

text: Kiwanuka is a lifelong fan of Tottenham Hotspur F.C. He moved out of London to Southampton shortly before the release and promotion of his third album.


title: 480p

text: 480p is the shorthand name for a family of video display resolutions. The p stands for progressive scan, i.e. non-interlaced. The "480" denotes a vertical resolution of 480 pixels, usually with a horizontal resolution of 640 pixels and aspect ratio ( 640) or a horizontal resolution of 854 or less (848 should be used for mod16 compatibility) pixels for an approximate ( 853.). Since a pixel count must be a whole number, in Wide VGA displays it is generally rounded up to 854 to ensure inclusion of the entire image. The frames are displayed progressively as opposed to interlaced. 480p was used for many early plasma televisions. Standard definition has always been a 4:3 aspect ratio with a pixel resolution of at 60 Hz for NTSC regions, and 720 or for PAL regions (1024 wide for widescreen displays). However, standard definition defines a 15.7k Hz horizontal scanrate, which means that interlacing has to be used for those resolution modes. The lowercase letter "p" in 480p stands for progressive, so the two must not be confused.


title: 480p

text: The ATSC digital television standards define 480p with 640×480p (4:3) pixel resolutions, at 24, 30, or 60 frames per second. When 480p30 is broadcast on air, it is frame doubled then interlaced to 480i60. The spatial resolution hasn't changed, but a 480p video stored in digital RGB format is transcoded and modulated when broadcast on the analog television network. 24 fps however, needs to be processed using the 3:2 pulldown technique to be broadcast to TVs, even if the spatial resolution in the stored media is the same as the output resolution.


title: Batman: The Brave and the Bold

text: Batman: The Brave and the Bold is an American animated television series based in part on the DC Comics series "The Brave and the Bold" which features two or more superheroes coming together to solve a crime or foil a super villain. As the title suggests, the series focuses on Batman's regular "team-ups" with various heroes similar to the most well-known version of the original comic book series. This version has a much lighter and simpler, often comic feel, targeting younger viewers more than the character's other series. The series premiered on November 14, 2008, on Cartoon Network in the United States, and ended on November 18, 2011. It also aired in Canada on Teletoon.


title: Batman: The Brave and the Bold

text: Each episode of "Batman: The Brave and the Bold" features the main character (Batman) teaming up with other characters from the DC Universe to thwart villains or to solve crimes, the show focusing mainly on the inclusion of lesser-known characters. Most episodes have a cold open with an escapade not related to the remainder of the episode. In the first season, the villain was Equinox, who later returned in "Time Out for Vengeance!"; and in the second season, the villain was the alien Starro. During production, the show's creator said that if a character's cold open appearance was deemed successful, then it may warrant exploring the character further in a future episode's main adventure.


title: Batman: The Brave and the Bold

text: "Batman: The Brave and the Bold" ended after season three, which consisted of 13 episodes. After it ended, a new show, "Beware the Batman", returned the character to a more serious tone. However, a new direct-to-video crossover with Scooby-Doo, entitled "", was released in 2018.


title: Batman: The Brave and the Bold

text: The show has no overarching story, instead having most episodes stand alone. The show is lighter in tone than previous Batman series, depicting the Dark Knight as more lighthearted and playful with a "dry, ironic wit." The show features various references to various depictions of Batman in media, including the 1960s "Batman" TV series.


title: Batman: The Brave and the Bold

text: While the tone is lighter, the series has touched on the subject of death with such examples as retelling the murder of Thomas Wayne and Martha Wayne at the hands of Joe Chill, the death of the Silver Age Blue Beetle, the assassination of Boston Brand, the death of the first Black Canary, the execution of "Gentleman" Jim Craddock, and the self-sacrifice and death of B'wana Beast and the Doom Patrol. The tone of the series was addressed in the episode "Legends of the Dark Mite!", when Bat-Mite broke the fourth wall to read out this missive from one of the show's creators:


title: Batman: The Brave and the Bold

text: Show creators have chosen to go with "lesser known" characters. In many instances, the characters are those that were repeatedly teamed with Batman in the 1970s run of the "Brave and the Bold" comic book, such as Green Arrow, Wildcat, Plastic Man, and even the Joker. Thus, the characters have an appearance and feel very akin to both of their Golden & Silver Age incarnations. While the show has featured major heroes such as the Green Lantern and the Flash, it consistently focused on the lesser-known individuals that portrayed the heroes, such as Guy Gardner and Jay Garrick, rather than the more popular, better known Hal Jordan or Barry Allen, until Barry appeared in the second-season episode "Requiem for a Scarlet Speedster!" (though this episode centers around Kid Flash and Jay Garrick) while Hal appeared in the first-season episode "The Eyes of Despero!" as well as the third-season episode "The Scorn of Star Sapphire". In the episode "Bat-Mite Presents: Batman's Strangest Cases!", Batman even teamed up with Scooby-Doo and the Mystery, Inc. gang to defeat the Joker and the Penguin in a retelling of the two similar crossovers from "The New Scooby-Doo Movies".


title: Batman: The Brave and the Bold

text: Additionally, Batman's alter ego of billionaire playboy Bruce Wayne did not appear as an adult during the series in situations where Batman was unmasked. His face was kept hidden until the season 2 episode "Chill of the Night!" when Batman finally confronts Joe Chill. From this episode onwards, whenever Bruce Wayne appears, his face is no longer silhouetted (as in "The Knights of Tomorrow").


title: Batman: The Brave and the Bold

text: The series was not initially released on DVD in full season formats, like previous Batman series. A series of DVD volumes, with each containing 4–5 episodes, were first released. A two-disc collection of the first 13 episodes, season 1, part 1, was released on August 17, 2010. Season 1, part 2 was released on March 15, 2011, making the first season available both as separate volumes and two-part sets.


title: Batman: The Brave and the Bold

text: Season Two, Part One was released on August 16, 2011. It contained 12 episodes and did not contain "The Siege of Starro!". Warner Home Video confirmed that season 2, part 2 would be released on March 20, 2012. It contains 14 episodes, including the two-part "The Siege of Starro!" and the season 3 episode "Battle of the Superheroes!". The final release, season 3, complete, was June 19, 2012. The DVD also contains the unaired-on-TV season 2 episode "The Mask of Matches Malone!" as a bonus episode.


title: Batman: The Brave and the Bold

text: A Blu-ray set for the first season was released manufacture-on-demand on November 5, 2013 via Warner Archive. This was followed by a second-season manufacture-on-demand Blu-ray set on September 9, 2014, and a third-season manufacture-on-demand Blu-ray set on March 21, 2017. A first-season DVD box set was conventionally released on May 20, 2014, and a second-season DVD box set followed on April 7, 2015.


title: Batman: The Brave and the Bold

text: In January 2009, the first issue of "Batman: the Brave and the Bold" was released. The comic book follows the same format as the show, starting off with a brief teaser segment at the start of the book which features Batman teaming up with an additional hero for a short adventure unrelated to the rest of the issue. Several authors have contributed to the comic book series, including Matt Wayne, J. Torres and Landry Walker.


title: Batman: The Brave and the Bold

text: Certain characters such as Superman, Wonder Woman, Captain Marvel Jr. and Mary Marvel made appearances in the comic prior to actually appearing in the show, while other characters, such as Power Girl, Kid Eternity, Brother Power and Angel and the Ape, appeared in the comic without ever actually appearing on the show. In addition, the depictions of several characters in the comic book (notably Katana and Talia al Ghul and The Doom Patrol and Damian Wayne) do not match up with their television counterparts, something that "Brave and the Bold" director Ben Jones stated stems from the comic artists not being given character reference sheets from the show's producers.


title: Batman: The Brave and the Bold

text: The "Batman: The Brave and the Bold" comic series began selling in the UK on March 11, 2010, published by Titan Magazines.


title: Batman: The Brave and the Bold

text: In late 2010, the series was relaunched as "The All-New Batman: The Brave and the Bold", with the new creative team of Sholly Fisch and Rick Burchett. In order to devote more pages to the actual story, the teaser segments from the first series were dropped. This incarnation of the title lasted 16 issues. The final issue is a Valentine's-themed story featuring Batman, Batgirl and Bat-Mite.


title: Batman: The Brave and the Bold

text: On 28 January 2014, La La Land Records released a 2-disc compilation of music from the series, featuring the musical scores for 12 episodes from the first and second seasons (including those of "Legends of the Dark Mite!", "The Mask of Matches Malone!" and "Chill of the Night!"). It is a limited edition release of 2000 units and can be purchased at the La La Land Records website.


title: Batman: The Brave and the Bold

text: A soundtrack exclusively covering songs from the musical episode "Mayhem of the Music Meister!" was released on October 24, 2009.


title: Batman: The Brave and the Bold

text: The main theme has also been included on "The Music of DC Comics: 75th Anniversary Collection" soundtrack.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Joseph Bologne, Chevalier de Saint-Georges (December 25, 1745 – June 10, 1799), was a French Creole virtuoso violinist and composer, who was conductor of the leading symphony orchestra in Paris.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Saint-Georges was born in the then-French colony of Guadeloupe, the son of Georges de Bologne Saint-Georges, a wealthy married planter, and an enslaved Senegalese African woman named Nanon. At the age of seven he was taken to France, and at the age of thirteen educated as gendarme to the King. He received music lessons from François-Joseph Gossec and likely violin lessons from Jean-Marie Leclair, while continuing to study fencing.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: In 1764 Antonio Lolli dedicated two concertos to Saint-Georges. In 1769 he joined a new symphony orchestra; two years later he was appointed concertmaster and soon started composing. In 1773 he was appointed conductor of "Le Concert des Amateurs". In 1775 he introduced the symphonie concertante, using the possibilities offered by a new bow. In 1776 he was proposed as the next conductor of the Paris Opera but was subsequently denied this role by a petition by the divas of the time to the Queen. This, effectively, put an end to any aspirations that Saint-Georges had to become music director of the institution. In 1778, he lived for around 2.5 months near to Mozart in the Chaussee d'Antin, and stopped composing instrumental works altogether by 1785. However, he was still acquainted with and remained friendly with several composers (notably, Salieri, Gossec, Gretry, Mozart and Gluck). He commissioned and performed the Paris Symphonies by Haydn, and also travelled to London for a personal meeting with the Prince of Wales and George III, in 1787.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Following the 1789 outbreak of the French Revolution, and now approaching 45 years of age, Saint-Georges served as a colonel of the Légion St.-Georges, established in 1792 as the first all-black regiment in Europe, and the first of its kind to be defending the French First Republic.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Today, le Chevalier de Saint-Georges is best remembered as the earliest European musician/composer, of full or partial African descent, to receive widespread critical acclaim; becoming concertmaster and (supposed to have been) conductor of the Paris symphonic institution, no less. This achievement was rendered all the more iconic, having been attained in a particularly uncertain, turbulent time in French (and world) history. He published numerous string quartets, sonatas, and symphonies. In addition to his many violin concertos, Saint-Georges also composed several stage works (plays, comedies, ballet), a rondeau for two violins, an adagio in F-minor (for piano), a harpsichord quartet, and several operas — he even composed a children’s opera, “"Aline et Dupré, ou le marchand de marrons,"” G.204. Ludwig van Beethoven is known to have held his music, his skill, and his views in extremely high regard.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Joseph Bologne was born in Baillif, Basse-Terre as the son of a planter and former councillor at the parliament of Metz, (1711–1774) and Nanon, his wife's 16-year-old enslaved African servant of Senegalese origin, who served as her personal maid. Bologne was legally married to Elisabeth Mérican (1722–1801) but acknowledged his son by Nanon and gave him his surname.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: His father, called "de Saint-Georges" after one of his plantations in Guadeloupe, was a commoner until 1757, when he acquired the title of "Gentilhomme ordinaire de la chambre du roi" (Gentleman of the King's Chamber). The younger Saint-Georges was ineligible under French law for titles of nobility due to his African mother. Starting in the 17th century, a Code Noir had been the law in France and its colonial possessions. On April 5, 1762, King Louis XV decreed that "Nègres et gens de couleur" (blacks and people of color) must register with the clerk of the Admiralty within two months. Many leading ”Enlightenment” thinkers (like Voltaire) argued that Africans and their descendants were inferior to White Europeans. These racist legal bindings and attitudes towards mixed-race citizens made it virtually impossible for Joseph Bologne to marry any woman at his level of society; however, he is known to have had at least one long-term, serious and romantic relationship.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: In 1753, his father took Joseph, aged seven, to France for his education, installed him in a boarding school, and returned to Guadeloupe. Two years later, on August 26, 1755, listed as passengers on the ship "L'Aimable Rose", Bologne de Saint-Georges and his favorite Nanon landed in Bordeaux. In Paris, reunited with their son Joseph, they moved into a spacious apartment in the 6th Arrondissement at 49 rue Saint André des Arts.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: At the age of 13, Joseph was enrolled by his father in a fencing school run by . "At 15 his [Bologne's] progress was so rapid, that he was already beating the best swordsmen, and at 17 he developed the greatest speed imaginable." Bologne was still a student when he beat Alexandre Picard, a fencing master in Rouen, who had been mocking him as "Boëssière's mulatto", in public. That match, bet on heavily by a public divided into partisans and opponents of slavery, was an important coup for Bologne. His father, proud of his feat, rewarded Joseph with a handsome horse and buggy. In 1766 on graduating from the Royal Polytechnique Academy, Bologne was made a "Gendarme du roi" (officer of the king's bodyguard) and a chevalier. Henceforth Joseph Bologne, by adopting the suffix of his father, would be known as the "Chevalier de Saint-Georges". As an illegitimate son, he was ineligible to inherit his father's title.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: In 1764, at the end of the Seven Years' War, Georges Bologne returned to Guadeloupe to look after his plantations. The following year, he made a last will and testament where he left Joseph an annuity of 8,000 francs and an adequate pension to Nanon, who remained with their son in Paris. When his father died in 1774 in Guadeloupe, he awarded his annuity to his legitimate daughter, Elisabeth Benedictine.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Long before her death, Saint-Georges's mother would also record a testamentary deed dated June 18, 1778, in which she gives and bequeaths all her belongings. However, according to biographer Pierre Bardin, she signed "Anne Danneveau," and refers to her son as "Mr De Boulonge St-George," reflecting her desire to distance herself from her son thus further conceal Saint-Georges's African origins.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: According to Bologne's friend, Louise Fusil: "... admired for his fencing and riding prowess, he served as a model to young sportsmen ... who formed a court around him." A fine dancer, Saint-Georges was also invited to balls and welcomed in the salons (and boudoirs) of highborn ladies. "Partial for the music of liaisons where "amour" had real meaning... he loved and was loved." Yet he continued to fence daily in the various "salles" of Paris. There he met Domenico and son Henry Angelo, fencing masters from London; the mysterious Chevalier d'Éon; and the teenage Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, all of whom would play a role in his future.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: During his time at the opera and before the revolution, Saint-Georges became the darling of many women in the salons and drawing rooms of Paris society. As was often said, 'he loved and was loved.' One potential suitor of his was the esteemed dancer Marie-Madeleine Guimard, whose advances he declined. Having been spurned, and with great influence in the Queen's court, La Guimard would come to play a pivotal role in the petition that would deny Joseph's ambition to become the director of the Paris Opera from ever coming to fruition.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Arguably, the love of his life was , a talented society actress. The wife of a much older general of military engineering in the Queen's Court (Marc René, marquis de Montalembert), Marie-Josephine was drawn to the young composer. The affair was later discovered and consequently upended, but not before she bore him a child. The infant was taken from Marie-Josephine and sent by her husband to a nearby village to essentially die; the disgrace that was brought to the marquis was then hidden away. According to noted biographer Gabriel Banat, "Saint-Georges mourned the loss of one who was most likely his greatest love and the death of the son he never saw" (p 231 of The Chevalier de Saint-Georges: Virtuoso of the Sword and Bow).


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: On April 22, 1779, around midnight, Saint-Georges was attacked in the streets of Paris as he was returning home with one of his friends. Malicious spirits claimed that this punitive expedition had been decided by the monarch's secret services. It is interesting to know that this attack is reported differently by several memoirs of the time and later by the knight's biographers, examples among many others of the fragility of testimonies, even if they were written by contemporaries.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: In one of the thirty-six volumes of his Secret Memoirs, Louis Petit de Bachaumont mentions that the attack took place on the night of May 1, 1779. This date is incorrect and, moreover, he reports that Saint-Georges was attacked by six men. He and his friend would have valiantly defended themselves and were providentially saved by the watch and its men-at-arms:


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: →« 1st May 1779. M. de Saint Georges is a mulatto, that is to say the son of a negress […] Recently, during the night, he was attacked by six men, he was with one of his friends, they defended themselves to the best of their ability against sticks with which the fellows wanted to knock them down; there is even talk of a pistol shot which was heard: the lookout occurred & prevented the consequences of this assassination, - so that Mr. de Saint Georges is freed for bruises & minor injuries; he even shows himself already in the world. Several of the killers have been arrested. M. le Duc d'Orléans wrote to M. le Noir, as soon as he was informed of the fact, to recommend to him the most exact research, and that a striking justice be done on the culprits. After 24 hours Mr. the Duke of Orléans was asked not to interfere in this affair, and the prisoners, who were recognized as policemen, among whom was a certain Desbrugnieres, so renowned in the affair of the Comte de Morangiès, were released, which gives rise to a thousand conjectures. »


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Pierre Lefebvre de Beauvray, a gossip writer at the time, author of a work entitled Journal d'un bourgeois de Popincourt , attributes to Saint-Georges a love affair with the Marquise , salonnière and novelist, young wife of an old general. The Marquis de Montalembert (Marc René, marquis de Montalembert), eager to avenge his honor and punish the seducer by setting up a night operation, would he be the sponsor of the aggression.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Since he was of mixed race, Saint-Georges was affected by the racism and racist laws in pre-Revolutionary France. On 26 August, 1789, when the revolution declared equal rights to all French people, Saint-Georges embraced the The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. In June 1791, the Parliament recruited volunteers from the entire French National Guard. Saint-Georges was the first person to sign in Lille.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: On September 7, 1792, the Parliament established a light cavalry consisting of volunteers from the West Indies and Africa. The name of it was ""Légion franche de cavalerie des Américains et du Midi"", but it was later often referred to as ""Légion St-Georges"" because of the outstanding performance of Colonel Saint-Georges. In the early 1790s, due to the little effect Legion had, St. Georges was condemned by critics for being involved in non-revolutionary activities such as music events, and was dismissed and imprisoned for 18 months. Despite the support given by his soldiers and lower-level cadres, he was released but did not resume command after the appeal and was banned from dealing with his former comrades. Saint-Georges returned to St Domingue for a while. However, there was a fierce civil war  between the revolutionaries and royalists. St. Georges was very disappointed with St-Domingue and returned to France. In 1797, he tried to join the army again and signed his petition "Georges". St. Georges wrote:


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: "I continue to show loyalty to the revolution. Since the beginning of the war, I have been serving with relentless enthusiasm, but the persecution I suffered has not diminished. I have no other resources, only to restore my original position." However, his application failed again.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Nothing is known about Saint-Georges' early musical training. Given his prodigious technique as an adult, Saint-Georges must have practiced the violin seriously as a child. There has been no documentation found of him as a musician before 1764, when violinist Antonio Lolli composed two concertos, Op. 2, for him, and 1766, when composer François-Joseph Gossec dedicated a set of six string trios, Op. 9, to Saint Georges. Lolli may have worked with Bologne on his violin technique and Gossec on compositions.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Historians have discounted François-Joseph Fétis' claim that Saint-Georges studied violin with Jean-Marie Leclair. Some of his technique was said to reveal influence by Pierre Gaviniès. Other composers who later dedicated works to Saint-Georges were Carl Stamitz in 1770, and Avolio in 1778.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: In 1769, the Parisian public was amazed to see Saint-Georges, the great fencer, playing as a violinist in Gossec's new orchestra, "Le Concert des Amateurs". Four years later he became its concertmaster/conductor. In 1772 Saint-Georges created a sensation with his debut as a soloist, playing his first two violin concertos, Op. II, with Gossec conducting the orchestra. "These concertos were performed last winter at a concert of the "Amateurs" by the author himself, who received great applause as much for their performance as for their composition." According to another source, "The celebrated Saint-Georges, mulatto fencer [and] violinist, created a sensation in Paris ... [when] two years later ... at the "Concert Spirituel", he was appreciated not as much for his compositions as for his performances, enrapturing especially the feminine members of his audience."


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Saint-Georges's first composition, Op. I, were a set of six string quartets, among the first in France, published by famed French publisher, composer, and teacher Antoine Bailleux. They were inspired by Haydn's earliest quartets, brought from Vienna by Baron Bagge. Saint-Georges wrote two more sets of six string quartets, three forte-piano and violin sonatas, a sonata for harp and flute, and six violin duets. The music for three other known compositions was lost: a cello sonata, performed in Lille in 1792, a concerto for clarinet, and one for bassoon.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Saint-Georges wrote twelve additional violin concertos, two symphonies, and eight "symphonie-concertantes", a new, intrinsically Parisian genre of which he was one of the chief exponents. He wrote his instrumental works over a short span of time, and they were published between 1771 and 1779. He also wrote six "opéras comiques" and a number of songs in the manuscript.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: In 1773, when Gossec took over the direction of the prestigious "Concert Spirituel", he designated Saint-Georges as his successor as director of the "Concert des Amateurs". After fewer than two years under the younger man's direction, the group was described as "Performing with great precision and delicate nuances [and] became the best orchestra for symphonies in Paris, and perhaps in all of Europe."


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: In 1781, Saint Georges's "Concert des Amateurs" had to be disbanded due to a lack of funding. Playwright and "Secret du Roi" spy Pierre Caron de Beaumarchais began to collect funds from private contributors, including many of the "Concert's" patrons, to send materiel aid for the American cause. The plan to send military aid via a fleet of fifty vessels and have those vessels return with American rice, cotton, or tobacco ended up bankrupting the French contributors as the American congress failed to acknowledge its debt and the ships were sent back empty. Saint-Georges turned to his friend and admirer, Philippe D'Orléans, duc de Chartres, for help. In 1773 at the age of 26, Philippe had been elected Grand Master of the 'Grand Orient de France' after uniting all the Masonic organizations in France. Responding to Saint-Georges's plea, Philippe revived the orchestra as part of the "Loge Olympique", an exclusive Freemason Lodge.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Renamed "Le Concert Olympique", with practically the same personnel, it performed in the grand salon of the Palais Royal. In 1785, Count D'Ogny, grand master of the Lodge and a member of its cello section, authorized Saint-Georges to commission Haydn to compose six new symphonies for the Concert Olympique. Conducted by Saint-Georges, Haydn's "Paris" symphonies were first performed at the Salle des Gardes-Suisses of the Tuileries, a much larger hall, in order to accommodate the huge public demand to hear Haydn's new works. Queen Marie Antoinette attended some of Saint-Georges's concerts at the Palais de Soubise, arriving sometimes without notice, so the orchestra wore court attire for all its performances. "Dressed in rich velvet or damask with gold or silver braid and fine lace on their cuffs and collars and with their parade swords and plumed hats placed next to them on their benches, the combined effect was as pleasing to the eye as it was flattering to the ear." Saint-Georges played all his violin concertos as a soloist with his orchestra.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: In 1776 the "Académie royale de musique", the Paris Opéra, was struggling financially and artistically. Saint-Georges was proposed as the next director of the opera. As creator of the first disciplined French orchestra since Lully, he was the obvious choice. But, according to Baron von Grimm's "Correspondance litteraire, philosophique et critique", three of the Opéra's leading ladies "... presented a "placet" (petition) to the Queen [Marie Antoinette] assuring Her Majesty that their honor and delicate conscience could never allow them to submit to the orders of a mulatto."


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: To defuse the brewing scandal, Louis XVI took the Opéra back from the city of Paris – ceded to it by Louis XIV a century before – to be managed by his Intendant of Light Entertainments. Following the "affair", Marie-Antoinette preferred to hold her musicales in the salon of her "petit Appartement de la reine" in Versailles. She limited the audience to her intimate circle and a few musicians, among them the Chevalier de Saint-Georges. "Invited to play music with the Queen," Saint-Georges probably played his violin sonatas, with Her Majesty playing the forte-piano.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: The singers' "placet" may have ended Saint-Georges's aspirations to higher positions as a musician. But, over the next two years, he published two more violin concertos and a pair of his "Symphonies concertantes". Thereafter, except for his final set of quartets (Op. 14, 1785), Saint-Georges abandoned composing instrumental music in favor of opera.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: "Ernestine", Saint-Georges's first opera, with a libretto by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos, future author of "Les Liaisons dangereuses", was performed on July 19, 1777, at the "Comédie-Italienne". It did not survive its premiere. The critics liked the music, but panned the weak libretto, which was then usually given precedence over the music. The Queen attended with her entourage. She came to support Saint-Georges's opera but, after the audience kept echoing a character cracking his whip and crying "Ohé, Ohé," the Queen gave it the coup de grace by calling to her driver: "to Versailles, Ohé!"


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: After the failure of the opera, the Marquise de Montesson, morganatic wife of the Duc d'Orléans, realized her ambition to engage Saint-Georges as music director of her fashionable private theater. He was glad to gain a position that entitled him to an apartment in the ducal mansion on the Chaussée d'Antin. After Mozart's mother died in Paris, the composer was allowed to stay at the mansion for a period with Melchior Grimm, who, as personal secretary of the Duke, lived in the mansion. Mozart and Saint-Georges lived from 5 July to 11 September 1778 under the same roof at Madame de Montesson. The Duc d'Orléans appointed Saint-Georges as "Lieutenant de la chasse" of his vast hunting grounds at Raincy, with an additional salary of 2000 Livres a year. "Saint-Georges the mulatto so strong, so adroit, was one of the hunters..."


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Saint-Georges wrote and rehearsed his second opera, appropriately named "La Chasse" at Raincy. At its premiere in the "Théâtre Italien", "The public received the work with loud applause. Vastly superior compared with "Ernestine" ... there is every reason to encourage him to continue [writing operas]." "La Chasse" was performed at her Majesty's request at the royal chateau at Marly. Saint-Georges's most successful "opéra comique" was "L'Amant anonyme", with a libretto based on a play by Madame de Genlis.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: In 1785, the Duke of Orléans died. The Marquise de Montesson, his morganatic wife, having been forbidden by the King to mourn him, shuttered their mansion, closed her theater, and retired to a convent near Paris. With his patrons gone, Saint-Georges lost not only his positions, but also his apartment. His friend, Philippe, now Duke of Orléans, presented him with a small flat in the Palais- Royal. Living in the Palais, Saint-Georges was drawn into the whirlpool of political activity around Philippe, the new leader of the Orléanist party, the main opposition to the absolute monarchy.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Meanwhile the Duke's ambitious plans for re-constructing the Palais-Royal left the "Orchestre Olympique" without a home and Saint-Georges unemployed. Seeing his protégé at loose ends and recalling that the Prince of Wales often expressed a wish to meet the legendary fencer, Philippe approved Brissot's plan to dispatch Saint-Georges to London. He believed it was a way to ensure the Regent-in-waiting's support of Philippe as future "Regent" of France. But Brissot had a secret agenda as well. He considered Saint-Georges, a "man of color", the ideal person to contact his fellow abolitionists in London and ask their advice about Brissot's plans for "Les Amis des Noirs" (Friends of the Blacks) modelled on the English anti-slavery movement.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: In London, Saint-Georges stayed with fencing masters Domenico Angelo and Henry, his son, whom he knew as an apprentice from early years in Paris. They arranged exhibition matches for him, including one at Carlton House, before the Prince of Wales. After sparring with him, "carte" and "tierce", the prince matched Saint-Georges with several renowned masters. One included "La Chevalière" D'Éon, aged 59, in a voluminous black dress. A painting by Abbé Alexandre-Auguste Robineau, violinist-composer and painter, showed the Prince and his entourage watching Mlle D'Éon score a hit on Saint-Georges, giving rise to rumours that the Frenchman allowed it out of gallantry for a lady. But, as Saint-Georges had fenced with dragoon Captain d'Éon in Paris, he probably was deferring to her age. Saint-Georges played one of his concertos at the Anacreontic Society. He also delivered Brissot's request to the abolitionists MPs William Wilberforce, John Wilkes, and the Reverend Thomas Clarkson. Before Saint-Georges left England, Mather Brown painted his portrait. Asked by Mrs Angelo if it was a true likeness, Saint-Georges replied: "Alas, Madame it is frightfully so."


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Back in Paris, he completed and produced his latest "opéra comique", "La Fille Garçon", at the Théâtre des Italiens. The critics found the libretto wanting. "The piece, [was] sustained only by the music of Monsieur de Saint Georges... The success he obtained should serve as encouragement to continue enriching this theatre with his productions."


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Meanwhile, having nearly completed reconstruction of the Palais-Royale, the Duke had opened several new theaters. The smallest was the Théâtre Beaujolais, a marionette theater for children, named after his youngest son, the duc de Beaujolais. The lead singers of the Opéra provided the voices for the puppets. Saint-Georges wrote the music of "Le Marchand de Marrons" (The Chestnut Vendor) for this theater, with a libretto by Madame de Genlis, Philippe's former mistress and then confidential adviser.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: While Saint-Georges was away, the "Concert Olympique" had resumed performing at the Hôtel de Soubise, the old hall of the "Amateurs". The Italian violinist Jean-Baptiste Viotti had been appointed as conductor. Disenchanted, Saint-Georges, together with the talented young singer Louise Fusil, and his friend, the horn virtuoso Lamothe, embarked on a brief concert tour in the North of France. On May 5, 1789, the opening day of the fateful Estates General, Saint-Georges, seated in the gallery with Laclos, heard Jacques Necker, Louis XVI's minister of finance, saying, "The slave trade is a barbarous practice and must be eliminated."


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Choderlos de Laclos, who replaced Brissot as Philippe's chief of staff, intensified Brissot's campaign to promote Philippe as an alternative to the monarchy. Concerned by its success, Louis dispatched Philippe on a bogus mission to London. On July 14, 1789, the fall of the Bastille took place, starting the Revolution, and Philippe, Duke of Orléans, missed his chance to save the monarchy.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: In September he was invited to go on a trip to London with his employer, the Duke of Orléans. Saint-Georges, sent ahead to London by Laclos, stayed at Grenier's. This hotel in Jermyn Street became patronised by French refugees. Saint-Georges was entertaining himself lavishly. Without salaries, he must have depended on Philippe. His assignment was to stay close to the Prince of Wales. As soon as Saint-Georges arrived, the Prince took the composer to his Marine Pavilion in Brighton. He also took him fox hunting and to the races at Newmarket. But when Philippe arrived, he became the Prince's regular companion. Saint-Georges was relieved to be free of the Prince.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: When Saint-Georges passed Brissot's request to the British abolitionists, they complied by translating their literature into French for his fledgling "Société des amis des Noirs". Saint-Georges met with them again, this time on his own account. "Early in July, walking home from Greenwich, a man armed with a pistol demanded his purse. The Chevalier disarmed the man... but when four more rogues hidden until then attacked him, he put them all out of commission. M. de Saint Georges received only some contusions which did not keep him from going on that night to play music in the company of friends." The nature of the attack, with four attackers emerging after the first one made sure they had the right victim, has been claimed to be an assassination attempt disguised as a hold-up, arranged by the "Slave Trade" to put an end to his abolitionist activities.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: A cartoon of the Chevalier fencing with Colonel Hanger captioned "St. George & the Dragon" appeared in the "Morning Post" on April 12, 1789.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: In late June, Philippe, dubbed "The Red Duke" in London, realized that his "mission" there was a ruse used by the French king to get him out of the country. He amused himself with the Prince, horse racing, young women and champagne. Philippe clung to a vague promise made by King Louis to make him Regent of the Southern Netherlands. In February they were in Brussels but the Belgians wanted a Republic, and rejected Philippe. In July 1790 the duke went to Paris, but Saint-Georges decided to join a fencing tournament in Lille.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: "On Thursday, July 8, 1790, in Lille's municipal ballroom, the famous Saint-Georges was the principal antagonist in a brilliant fencing tournament. Though ill, he fought with that grace which is his trademark. Lightning is no faster than his arms and in spite of running a fever, he demonstrated astonishing vigor." Two days later looking worse but in need of funds, he offered another assault, this one for the officers of the garrison. But his illness proved so serious that it sent him to bed for six long weeks. The diagnosis according to medical science at the time was "brain fever" (probably meningitis). Unconscious for days, he was taken in and nursed by some kind citizens of Lille. While still bedridden Saint-Georges began to compose an opera for Lille's theater company. Calling it "Guillome tout Coeur, ou les amis du village", he dedicated it to the citizens of Lille. ""Guillaume" is an opera in one act. The music by Saint-George is full of sweet warmth of motion and spirit...Its [individual] pieces distinguished by their melodic lines and the vigor of their harmony. The public...made the hall resound with its justly deserved applause." It was to be his last opera, lost, including its libretto. He participated in local events and took charge of the music.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Louise Fusil, who had idolized Saint-Georges since she was a girl of 15, wrote: "In 1791, I stopped in Amiens where St. Georges and Lamothe were waiting for me, committed to give some concerts over the Easter holidays. We were to repeat them in Tournai. But the French refugees assembled in that town just across the border, could not abide the Créole they believed to be an agent of the despised Duke of Orléans. St. Georges was even advised [by its commandant] not to stop there for long." According to a report by a local newspaper: "The dining room of the hotel where St. Georges, a citizen of France, was also staying, refused to serve him, but he remained perfectly calm; remarkable for a man with his means to defend himself."


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Louise describes the scenario of Saint-Georges' "Love and Death of the Poor Little Bird", a programmatic piece for violin alone, which he was constantly entreated to play especially by the ladies. Its three parts depicted the little bird greeting the spring; passionately pursuing the object of his love, who alas, has chosen another; its voice grows weaker then, after the last sigh, it is stilled forever. This kind of program music or sound painting of scenarios such as love scenes, tempests, or battles complete with cannonades and the cries of the wounded, conveyed by a lone violin, was by that time nearly forgotten. Saint-Georges must have had fun inventing it as he went along. Louise places his improvisational style on a par with her subsequent musical idol, Hector Berlioz: "We did not know then this expressive ...depiction a dramatic scene, which Mr. Berlioz later revealed to us... making us feel an emotion that identifies us with the subject." Curiously, some of Saint-Georges' biographers are still looking for its score, but Louise's account leaves no doubt that it belonged to the lost art of spontaneous improvisation.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Tired of politics yet faithful to his ideals, St. Georges decided to serve the Revolution, directly. With 50,000 Austrian troops massed on its borders, the first citizen's army in modern history was calling for volunteers. In 1790, having recovered from his illness, Saint-Georges was one of the first in Lille to join its "Garde Nationale". But not even his military duties in the "Garde Nationale" could prevent St. Georges from giving concerts. Once again he was building an orchestra which, according to the announcement in the paper, "Will give a concert every week until Easter." At the conclusion of the last concert, the mayor of Lille placed a crown of laurels on St. Georges' brow and read a poem dedicated to him.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: On April 20, 1792, compelled by the National Assembly, Louis XVI declared war against his brother-in-law, Francis II. General Dillon, commander of Lille, was ordered by Dumouriez to attack Tournai, reportedly only lightly defended. Instead, massive fire by the Austrian artillery turned an orderly retreat into a rout by the regular cavalry but not that of the volunteers of the National Guard. Captain St. Georges, promoted in 1791, commanded the company of volunteers that held the line at Baisieux near the Belgian border. On 18 May, "M. St. Georges took charge of the music for a solemn requiem held [in Lille] for the souls of those who perished for their city on the fateful day of the 29 of April last."


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: In Saint-Domingue, the news from abroad that the "whites of La France had risen up and killed their masters", spread among the black slaves of the island. "The rebellion was extremely violent ... the rich plain of the North was reduced to ruins and ashes ..." After months of arson and murder, Toussaint Louverture, a Haitian revolutionary, took charge of the slave revolt. In the Spring of 1796, a commission with 15,000 troops and tons of arms sailed for Saint-Domingue to abolish slavery. Second to Léger-Félicité Sonthonax, leader of the commission, was Julien Raimond, the founder of Saint-Georges's Légion.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: According to Louise Fusil, Saint Georges and his friend Lamothe had been absent from Paris for nearly two years. "I since learned that they had left for Saint-Domingue, then in full revolt; it was rumoured they had been hanged in a mutiny. I gave them up for dead and mourned them with all my heart, when one day, as I sat in the Palais Royal with a friend absorbed in a magazine ... I looked up and screamed, thinking I saw ghosts. They were Lamothe and Saint Georges who, clowning, sang to me 'At last there you are! You thought we've been hanged /For almost two years what became of you?' 'No, I was not sure that you were hanged, but I did take you for ghosts, come back to haunt me!' 'We nearly are [ghosts] they answered, for we come from very far indeed.'"


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: It stands to reason that Julien Raimond would want to take St. Georges, an experienced officer, with him to Saint-Domingue, then in the throes of a bloody civil war. While we lack concrete evidence that St. Georges was aboard the convoy of the commission, the fact that we find Captain Colin, and Lamotte (Lamothe) on the payroll of a ship of the convoy to Saint-Domingue, confirms Louise Fusil's account. So does Lionel de La Laurencie's statement: "The expedition to Saint-Domingue was Saint-Georges' last voyage," adding that "Disenchantment and melancholy resulting from his experiences during that voyage must have weighed heavily on his aging shoulders"


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Within a fortnight of returning from that harrowing journey, St. Georges was again building a symphony orchestra. Like his last ensemble, "Le Cercle de l'Harmonie" was also part of a Masonic lodge performing in what was formerly the Palais Royal. The founders of the new "Loge", a group of "nouveau riche" gentlemen bent on re-creating the elegance of the old "Loge Olympique", were delighted to find St. Georges back in Paris. According to "Le Mercure Français", "The concerts ... under the direction of the famous Saint Georges, left nothing to be desired as to the choice of pieces or the superiority of their execution." Though a number of his biographers maintain that at the end of his life, St. Georges lived in abject poverty, the "Cercle" was not exactly the lower depths. Rejected by the army, St. Georges, at the age of 51, found solace in his music. Sounding like any veteran performer proud of his longevity, he said: "Towards the end of my life, I was particularly devoted to my violin," adding: "never before did I play it so well!"


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: In the late spring of 1799, there came bad news from Saint-Domingue: Generals Hédouville and Roume, the "Directoire's" emissaries, reverting to the discredited policy of stirring up trouble between blacks and mulattoes, succeeded in starting a war between pro-French André Rigaud's mulattoes, and separatist Toussaint Louverture's blacks. It was so savage that it became known as the "War of Knives". Hearing of it affected St. Georges, already suffering from a painful condition which he refused to acknowledge. Two of his contemporary obituaries reveal the course of his illness and death.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: La Boëssière fils: "Saint-Georges felt the onset of a disease of the bladder and, given his usual negligence, paid it little attention; he even kept secret an ulcer, source of his illness; gangrene set in and he succumbed on June 12, 1799.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: J. S. A. Cuvelier in his "Necrology": "For some time he had been tormented by a violent fever ... his vigorous nature had repeatedly fought off this cruel illness; [but] after a month of suffering, the end came on 21 Prairial [June 9] at five o'clock in the evening. Some time before the end, St. Georges stayed with a friend [Captain Duhamel] in the rue Boucherat. His death was marked by the calm of the wise and the dignity of the strong."


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Saint-Georges's death certificate was lost in a fire; what remains is only a report by the men who removed his body: "St. Georges Bologne, Joseph, rue Boucherat No. 13, Bachelor, 22 Prairial year 7, Nicholas Duhamel, Ex-officer, same house, former domicile rue de Chartres, taken away by Chagneau." Above the name "Joseph" someone, no doubt the "receiver", scribbled "60 years", merely an estimate which, mistaken for a death certificate, added to the confusion about Saint-Georges's birth-year. Since he was born in December 1745, he was only 53.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Nicholas Duhamel, the ex-officer mentioned in the report of the "receivers", a Captain in St. Georges' Legion, was his loyal friend until his death. Concerned about his old colonel's condition, he stopped by his apartment on rue de Chartres in the Palais Royal and, having found him dying, took him to his flat in rue Boucherat where he took care of him until the end.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: No 2 is identical with the overture to Bologne's "opéra comique", "L'Amant anonyme". The orchestration consists of strings, two oboes and two horns.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Saint-Georges composed 14 violin concertos. Before copyrights, several publishers issued his concertos with both Opus numbers and numbering them according to the order in which they were


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Unlike the concertos, their publishers issued the symphonie-concertantes following Bailleux's original opus numbers, as shown by the incipits on the right.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: "Recueil d'airs et duos avec orchestre:" stamped Conservatoire de musique #4077, now in the music collection of the Bibliothèque Nationale, contains:


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Note: The names of the characters, Ernestine and Clemengis, in numbers 4, 6, 7 and 8 of the above pieces indicate they came from the opera "Ernestine"; number 5 is probably from "La Partie de chasse."


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: The opera, "Le Droit de seigneur" taken for a work by Saint-Georges is in fact by J-P. E. Martini: (one aria contributed by Saint-Georges, mentioned in 1784 by "Mercure", is lost).


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: A Symphony in D by "Signor di Giorgio" in the British Library, arranged for pianoforte, as revealed by Prof. Dominique-René de Lerma is by the Earl of Kelly, using a "nom de plume".


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: A quartet for harp and strings, ed. by Sieber, 1777, attributed to Saint-Georges, is mentioned in an advertisement in "Mercure de France" of September 1778 as: "arranged and dedicated to M. de Saint-Georges" by Delaplanque. This is obviously by the latter.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: A sonata in the "Recueil" "Choix de musique" in the Bibliothèque Nationale, is a transcription for forte-piano and violin of Saint-Georges' violin concerto in G major, Op. II, No. 1. This is the only piece by Saint-Georges in the entire collection erroneously attributed to him.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: "Recueil d'Airs avec accompagnement de forte piano par M. de St. Georges pour Mme. La Comtesse de Vauban", sometimes presented as a collection of vocal pieces by Saint-Georges, contains too many numbers obviously composed by others. For example, "Richard Coeur de lion" is by Grétry; "Iphigenie en Tauride" is by Gluck; and an aria from "Tarare" is by Salieri. Even if Saint-Georges had arranged their orchestral accompaniments for forte-piano, it would be wrong to consider them as his compositions. As for the rest, though some might be by Saint-Georges, since this may only be resolved by a subjective stylistic evaluation, it would be incorrect to accept them all as his work.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: "Six Italian Canzonettas" by a Signor di Giorgio, for voice, keyboard or harp, and "The Mona Melodies", a collection of ancient airs from the Isle of Man, in the British Library, are not by Saint-Georges.


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: "Recueil de pieces pour forte piano et violon pour Mme. la comtesse de Vauban" erroneously subtitled "Trios" (they are solos and duos), a collection of individual movements, some for piano alone, deserves the same doubts as the "Recueil d'Airs pour Mme. Vauban". Apart from drafts for two of Saint-Georges's , too many of these pieces seem incompatible with the composer's style. "Les Caquets" (The Gossips) a violin piece enthusiastically mentioned by some authors as typical of Saint-Georges's style, was composed in 1936 by the violinist Henri Casadesus. He also forged a spurious Handel viola concerto and the charming but equally spurious "Adelaide" concerto supposedly by the 10-year-old Mozart, which Casadesus’ brother, Marius Casadesus later admitted having composed (often incorrectly attributed to Henri as well).


title: Chevalier de Saint-Georges

text: Searchlight Pictures is doing an upcoming film called "Chevalier" (2022 film) to be released theatrically in April, 2023


title: Caeleb Dressel

text: Caeleb Remel Dressel (born August 16, 1996) is an American professional swimmer who specializes in freestyle, butterfly, and individual medley events. He swims representing the Cali Condors as part of the International Swimming League. He won a record seven gold medals at the 2017 World Aquatics Championships in Budapest, nine medals, six of which were gold, at the 2018 World Swimming Championships in Hangzhou, and eight medals, including six gold, at the 2019 World Aquatics Championships in Gwangju. Dressel is a seven-time Olympic gold medalist and holds world records in the 100 meter butterfly (long course and short course), 50 meter freestyle (short course), and 100 meter individual medley (short course).


title: Caeleb Dressel

text: At the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Dressel won five gold medals, which made him the fifth American to win five gold medals in a single Olympic Games after 1970. Mark Spitz, Michael Phelps, Eric Heiden, and Matt Biondi were the other four. He also became the first male swimmer in the history of swimming at the modern Olympic Games, since 1896, to win gold medals in the 50 meter freestyle, the 100 meter freestyle, and the 100 meter butterfly at the same Olympics.


title: Caeleb Dressel

text: Dressel holds American records in the 50 meter and 100 meter freestyle, 50 meter and 100 meter butterfly (all long course meters). He also holds American records in the 50 yard and 100 yard freestyle events, the 100 yard butterfly, and the 200 yard individual medley, and formerly held a national record in the 100 yard breaststroke. Over the course of his collegiate career, he won NCAA titles in the 50 yard freestyle, 100 yard freestyle, and 100 yard butterfly individual events.


title: Caeleb Dressel

text: Dressel was born on August 16, 1996, in Green Cove Springs, Florida, the son of Christina and Michael Dressel. His father is a veterinarian specializing in urgent care for cats and dogs. Dressel is the third of four children; his three siblings, one brother and two sisters, plus his father were all competitive swimmers setting records and earning honors across the high school and university levels. He and his siblings learned to swim at a young age, for him when he was 4 years old, and by the time Dressel was 8 years old he had committed to competitive year-round swimming.


title: Caeleb Dressel

text: Dressel attended Clay High School in Green Cove Springs, Florida, and trained with the Bolles School Sharks in Jacksonville where he met his then training partner and now wife, Meghan Haila. He was a collegiate swimmer at the University of Florida starting in 2014, and he graduated in 2018.


title: Caeleb Dressel

text: He led off a 50-Yard free relay in 19.82, where he became the first swimmer under 16 years old to break 20 seconds.


title: Caeleb Dressel

text: At the 2012 United States Olympic Trials, Dressel was the youngest male swimmer at 15 years of age and ranked 100th in the 200 meter individual medley in a time of 2:08.08, 121st in the 100 meter butterfly at 57.21 seconds, 121st with a time of 1:55.17 in the 200 meter freestyle, tied for 145th in the 50 meter freestyle with a time of 23.87 seconds, and tied for 152nd in the 100 meter freestyle with his time of 52.21 seconds. After not making the 2012 US Olympic Team, Dressel refocused and set his sights on the 2016 Summer Olympics.


title: Caeleb Dressel

text: When Dressel was 17 years old, he won six medals, including a gold medal in the 100 meter freestyle in which he broke the Championships record with his time of 48.97 seconds, at the 2013 FINA World Junior Swimming Championships in Dubai, United Arab Emirates in August 2013. His time also broke the National Age Group record set by Michael Phelps in the 100 meter freestyle in 2004 for the 17–18 year old age group by eight hundredths of a second. His other medals were in the 4x100 meter freestyle relay and the mixed 4x100 meter freestyle relay, where he won a silver medal in each event, and in the 50 meter freestyle, 4x200 meter freestyle relay, and the mixed 4x100 meter medley relay in which he won a bronze medal in each. In addition to the events Dressel medaled in, he competed in the 200 meter freestyle where he finished sixth with a time of 1:49.29 and swam in the final of the 4x100 meter medley relay which did not place as it was disqualified. In total, his medal breakdown was one gold medal, two silver medals, and three bronze medals.


title: Caeleb Dressel

text: At the 2013 Speedo Winter Junior National Championships (the USA Swimming sanctioned national championship meet for 18 and under swimmers), Dressel became the youngest swimmer in history to break the 19 second barrier in the 50 yard freestyle, swimming an 18.94 to lead off his club team's relay.


title: Caeleb Dressel

text: During his freshman year at the University of Florida, Dressel won the 2015 NCAA title in the 50 yard freestyle when he was 18 years old with a time of 18.67 seconds, which was his first NCAA title, the first NCAA title for the Florida Gators in the men's 50 yard freestyle, and set a new 17—18 national age group record in the event. With his performance, Dressel also became the fastest freshman in the 50 yard freestyle in the history of the NCAA and the second-fastest American in the event, only behind Nathan Adrian.


title: Caeleb Dressel

text: At the senior 2015 National Championships (long course) in San Antonio, Texas, he won two individual titles, in the 50 meter and the 100 meter freestyle. His winning time of 21.53 in the 50 meter freestyle ranked 4th in the world for 2015.


title: Caeleb Dressel

text: At the 2016 Men's NCAA Division I Championships, he broke the American and US Open records in the 50-yard freestyle with a time of 18.20 and the 100-yard freestyle with 40.46.


title: Caeleb Dressel

text: At the 2016 US Olympic Trials, Dressel made the 2016 US Olympic Team in the 100 meter freestyle by finishing second with a time of 48.23 seconds, he also placed 4th in the 50 meter freestyle, 7th in the 100 meter butterfly, 32nd in the 200 meter freestyle, and was disqualified in the 200 meter individual medley for a false start. In addition to the five events he raced, Dressel had entered to compete in the 100 meter breaststroke with his best time of 1:02.26 and the 100 meter backstroke, and decided not to race the events. Dressel's performances leading up to and at the 2016 US Olympic Trials earned him recognition as America's best young sprinter by "Sports Illustrated" and "CBS News". Overall, Dressel and coach Gregg Troy chose a forwards mentality to Dressel's training, with Troy expressing Dressel's best could still be four, eight, or more years down the road.