title: 1999 (Prince album)

text: The album's opening title track, "1999", was also its first single and initially peaked at 44 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. It was subsequently re-released following the huge success of its follow-up single and "1999"s second track, "Little Red Corvette", which peaked at 6 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 (like other Prince songs, it again charted after his death, reaching 3). Lisa Coleman - who sang on the album - recalled how Prince came up with "Little Red Corvette" after sleeping in her pink Mercury Montclair Maurauder. Shortly after being reissued, "1999" hit 12, and subsequently became one of Prince's most recognizable compositions. Its composition, and inclusion in the album, may have been originally prompted by a suggestion from the record company.


title: 1999 (Prince album)

text: The music videos for both "1999" and "Little Red Corvette" were significant as two of the first videos by a black artist to receive heavy rotation on the newly launched music video channel, MTV, after heated controversy over its failure to promote black performers. The two tracks were later combined as a double A-side single in the United Kingdom, where it peaked at number 2. A subsequent single from the album and its third chronological track, the rockabilly-influenced "Delirious", still managed top ten status in the United States at 8, but a fourth, the double-sided single "Let's Pretend We're Married"/"Irresistible Bitch", got no further than 52.


title: 1999 (Prince album)

text: While "Little Red Corvette" helped Prince cross over to the wider rock audience, the rest of "1999" retains the funk elements featured in previous albums and is dominated by the use of synthesizers and drum machines. The album is, however, notable within Prince's catalogue for its wide variety of themes in addition to the sexual imagery which had already become something of a trademark on his previous work. "Automatic", extending to almost ten minutes, starts side three of the album with a prominent synthesizer melody and bondage-inspired lyrical imagery which, transplanted to the music video for the track (with a scene that depicted Prince being tied up and whipped by band-members Lisa Coleman and Jill Jones), had been deemed too sexual for MTV in 1983.


title: 1999 (Prince album)

text: "Something in the Water (Does Not Compute)", an ode to a harsh lover, is the centerpiece of a preoccupation with Computer Age themes that would continue into future albums. This is also reflected in various aspects of the album's instrumentation, with Prince fully embracing the gadgetry and sounds of emergent electro-funk and 1980s sequencing technology on tracks like "Let's Pretend We're Married" and "All the Critics Love U in New York", songs that widen his use of synthesizers and prominently feature the use of a Linn LM-1 drum machine. "1999" also contains two ballads in "Free", a piano piece encouraging people to count their blessings and be thankful for what they have, and "International Lover", a slow-paced love song for which Prince received his first Grammy Award nomination in 1984 under the category of Best Male R&B Vocal Performance.


title: 1999 (Prince album)

text: The album's cover features elements from the front cover of Prince's previous album, "Controversy"; namely the eyes and the "Rude Boy" pin in the "1999", the jacket studs in the "R" and the smile in the "P". The "I" in "Prince" contains the words "and the Revolution" written backwards (as "dna eht noituloveR"), both acknowledging his backing band and foreshadowing the next four years of his career.


title: 1999 (Prince album)

text: "1999" was released on October 27, 1982, by Warner Bros. Records. It was the fifth album released by Prince. "1999" was Prince's first top ten album on the "Billboard" 200, peaking at number nine. It was fifth in the "Billboard" Year-End Albums of 1983. Following Prince's death in 2016, the album re-entered the "Billboard" 200 and peaked at number seven, besting its original performance on the chart thirty-three years earlier. It also peaked in the top 10 in New Zealand, reaching number six on the New Zealand Albums Chart in 1982.


title: 1999 (Prince album)

text: The album was released as a "Remastered", "Deluxe" and "Super Deluxe" edition on November 29, 2019. The most elaborate re-issue contains five CDs featuring previously-unreleased tracks, and a live DVD, with a total running time of 5 hours & 53 minutes. It reached the top 20 of the charts in Belgium, the Netherlands and Hungary.


title: 1999 (Prince album)

text: "1999" was well received by contemporary critics. Reviewing for "Rolling Stone" in December 1982, Michael Hill praised Prince for "working like a colorblind technician who's studied both Devo and Afrika Bambaataa and the Soulsonic Force, keeping the ["1999"s] songs constantly kinetic with an inventive series of shocks and surprises." "The Village Voice" reviewer Robert Christgau was more reserved in his praise. While conceding that, "like every black pop auteur, Prince commands his own personal groove ... stretching his flat funk forcebeat onto two discs worth of deeply useful dance tracks", he also believed that the musician's only reliable subject remains race, leaving the critic with doubts about the messages behind the sex and apocalyptic songs.


title: 1999 (Prince album)

text: Retrospective appraisals have been even more favorable. According to "The New Rolling Stone Album Guide" (2004), ""1999" may be Prince's most influential album: Its synth-and-drum machine-heavy arrangements codified the Minneapolis sound that loomed over mid-'80s R&B and pop, not to mention the next two decades' worth of electro, house, and techno." Paul A. Thompson of "Pitchfork" noted the way Prince "marshal[led] the Reagan years and the LM-1 for his own purposes" has rarely been replicated and called "1999" a "rare record that has come to define its era while also existing outside of it, a masterpiece that immediately precedes the albums Prince fashioned, conspicuously, as masterpieces." Thompson also described the album as a "computer breathing." Also writing for "Pitchfork", Maura Johnston wrote in 2016 that through the "balancing synth-funk explorations...taut pop construction, genre-bending, and the proto-nuclear fallout of lust, "1999" still sounds like a landmark release in 2016". Johnston further praised Prince's "singular vision and willingness to indulge his curiosities" for creating an "apocalypse-anticipating album that, perhaps paradoxically, was built to last for decades and even centuries to come." Writing for "PopMatters", Eric Henderson called "1999" a "massive, sexy, rump-shaking, and sometimes even disturbing masterpiece" and stated that even though it may not be better than "Dirty Mind", "Purple Rain", and "Sign o' the Times", the album represented a "quantum leap in sophistication and scope." Henderson also claimed that "1999" raised the bar for '80s funk.


title: 1999 (Prince album)

text: "1999" has appeared frequently on professional listings of the greatest albums. In 1989, "Rolling Stone" ranked "1999" 16th on its list of the 100 Greatest Albums of the 1980s. In 2003, VH1 placed "1999" number 48 in its list of the 100 Greatest Albums. The album was also part of "Slant Magazine"s list The 50 Most Essential Pop Albums and the magazine listed the album at number 8 on its list of Best Albums of the 1980s. In 2003, the album was ranked number 163 on "Rolling Stone" magazine's list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. It maintained the rating in a 2012 revised list, and was re-ranked number 130 in 2020. The album was also included in the book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die". The album was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2008. Based on such listings and honors, the aggregate website Acclaimed Music ranks it as the 207th most acclaimed album in history, as well as the third most from 1982.


title: 1999 (Prince album)

text: Some countries in 1983, such as Brazil and Kenya, opted to issue the release as two separate vinyl albums, "1999 I" and "1999 II".


title: 1999 (Prince album)

text: The "Remastered" edition contains a remaster of the original album. The "Deluxe" edition contains the remaster and a bonus disc with all the single, maxi-single and promo mixes as well as the B-sides. The "Super Deluxe" edition contains four more discs: Two of them contain 24 previously unissued studio tracks, the third contains a complete live audio performance of the "1999 Tour" recorded at the late show (the second of two that day) in Detroit, Michigan, on November 30, 1982, and a DVD with another complete, previously unreleased concert from the "1999 Tour", recorded in multi-cam live at the Houston Summit on December 29, 1982. The albums were also issued on vinyl in a 2 LP, 4 LP and 10 LP + DVD set.


title: 1999 (Prince album)

text: While not performance credited for the studio recordings, band members Doctor Fink (keyboards), Bobby Z. (drums) and Brown Mark (bass) do appear in the music videos.


title: John Carreyrou

text: John Carreyrou () is a French-American journalist and writer who worked for "The Wall Street Journal" for 20 years between 1999 and 2019 and has been based in Brussels, Paris, and New York City. He won the Pulitzer Prize twice and is well known for having exposed the fraudulent practices of the multibillion-dollar blood-testing company Theranos in a series of articles published in "The Wall Street Journal".


title: John Carreyrou

text: John Carreyrou was born to French journalist and an American mother. He grew up in Paris. Carreyrou graduated from Duke University in 1994 with a B.A. in political science and government.


title: John Carreyrou

text: After graduation, he joined the Dow Jones Newswires. In 1999, he joined "The Wall Street Journal Europe" in Brussels. In 2001, he moved to Paris to cover French business and other topics such as terrorism. In 2003, he was appointed the deputy bureau chief for Southern Europe. He covered French politics and business, Spain, and Portugal. By 2008, he was the deputy bureau chief and later bureau chief of the health and science bureau in New York.


title: John Carreyrou

text: In late 2015, spurred by a deep investigation carried out by Eleftherios Diamandis, Carreyrou began a series of investigative articles on Theranos, the blood-testing start-up founded by Elizabeth Holmes, that questioned the firm's claim to be able to run a wide range of lab tests from a tiny sample of blood from a finger prick. Holmes turned to Rupert Murdoch, whose media empire includes Carreyrou's employer, "The Wall Street Journal", to kill the story. Murdoch, who became the biggest investor in Theranos in 2015 as a result of his $125 million injection, refused the request from Holmes saying that "he trusted the paper's editors to handle the matter fairly". In May 2018, Knopf published Carreyrou's book-length treatment of the topic, "". Carreyrou also features prominently in a documentary about Theranos called "".


title: John Carreyrou

text: In August 2019, Carreyrou left the "Wall Street Journal", opting for paid speaking engagements that are banned by the newspaper. For future plans, he commented "I want to keep writing non-fiction books for the second part of my career".


title: John Carreyrou

text: In 2021, Carreyrou released a podcast called "Bad Blood: The Final Chapter" covering the trial of Elizabeth Holmes.


title: John Carreyrou

text: In 2003, Carreyrou shared the Pulitzer Prize for Explanatory Reporting with a team of "Wall Street Journal" reporters for a series of stories that exposed corporate scandals in America. Carreyrou co-authored the article "Damage Control: How Messier Kept Cash Crisis at Vivendi Hidden for Months", published Oct. 31, 2002.


title: John Carreyrou

text: In 2003, Carreyrou won the German Marshall Fund's Peter R. Weitz Junior Prize for excellence in reporting on European affairs for his detailed coverage of the downfall of Vivendi Universal SA and its chairman, Jean-Marie Messier.


title: John Carreyrou

text: In 2004, Carreyrou shared the German Marshall Fund's Peter R. Weitz Senior Prize for excellence in reporting on European affairs with a team of six "Wall Street Journal" journalists. In the five-part series titled "The Disintegration of the Trans-Atlantic Relationship" over the Iraq War Carreyrou contributed the article "In Normandy, U.S.-France Feud Cuts Deep". Published on February 24, 2003, while Carreyrou was based in Paris, the article explored how France's Normandy region, site of the D-Day landings, was caught between gratitude for the U.S. role in World War II and France's opposition to war in Iraq.


title: John Carreyrou

text: In 2015, Carreyrou shared the Pulitzer Prize for Investigative Reporting and the Gerald Loeb Award for Investigative with a team of investigative reporters at "The Wall Street Journal" for "Medicare Unmasked", a project that forced the American government in 2014 to release important Medicare data kept secret for decades, and in a sweeping investigative series uncovered abuses that cost taxpayers billions. Carreyrou co-authored four articles in the series: "Taxpayers face big tab for unusual doctor billings", "A fast-growing medical lab tests anti-kickback law", "Doctor 'self-referral' thrives on legal loophole" and "Sprawling medicare struggles to fight fraud".


title: John Carreyrou

text: In 2016, Carreyrou received the 67th annual George Polk Awards in Journalism for Financial Reporting in 2015, and the Gerald Loeb Award for Beat Reporting. His investigation of Theranos, Inc. "raised serious doubts about claims by the firm and its celebrated 31-year-old founder, Elizabeth Holmes". According to "Vanity Fair", "a damning report published in "The Wall Street Journal" had alleged that the company was, in effect, a sham". Carreyrou wrote the report. A book-length treatment titled "" (2018) won the "Financial Times" and McKinsey Business Book of the Year Award. A film version was once described as being in the works starring Jennifer Lawrence, written by Vanessa Taylor, and directed by Adam McKay.


title: John Carreyrou

text: He lives in Brooklyn, New York with his wife Molly Schuetz, an editor at Bloomberg News, and their three children.


title: Putinism

text: Putinism () is the social, political, and economic system of Russia formed during the political leadership of Vladimir Putin. It is characterized by the concentration of political and financial powers in the hands of "siloviks", current and former "people with shoulder marks", coming from a total of 22 governmental enforcement agencies, the majority of them being the Federal Security Service (FSB), Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, Armed Forces of Russia, and National Guard of Russia. According to Arnold Beichman, "Putinism in the 21st century has become as significant a watchword as Stalinism was in the 20th."


title: Putinism

text: The "Chekist takeover" of the Russian state and economic assets has been allegedly accomplished by a clique of Putin's close associates and friends who gradually became a leading group of Russian oligarchs and who "seized control over the financial, media and administrative resources of the Russian state", and restricted democratic freedoms and human rights. According to Julie Anderson, Russia has been transformed to an "FSB state".


title: Putinism

text: Mass de-politicization has been described as an important element of Putinism's social course. The mass social involvement being discouraged, the politics are reduced to "pure management" left to those who are in power, free from the interference of the masses. In exchange to non-involvement in the politics, Putinism's social contract offers limited amount of freedom in the private life.


title: BTR-4

text: The BTR-4 "Bucephalus" (, abbreviation of ) is an amphibious 8x8 wheeled Infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) designed in Ukraine by the Kharkiv Morozov Machine Building Design Bureau (SOE KMDB).


title: BTR-4

text: They have seen action in the Russo-Ukrainian War, the capture of Jurf Al Nasr from ISIL, and the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: BTR-4

text: The prototype, which was designed as a private venture, was unveiled at the Aviasvit 2006 exhibition held in Kyiv in June 2006.A serial production started in late 2008, first series of ten BTR entered service in the army of Ukraine in 2009. In 2009, BTR-4 has been presented to the tender for the next infantry combat vehicle for the Spain Ground Forces, to replace the Pegaso BMR.


title: BTR-4

text: In 2012, the Iraqi MoD ordered 420 Ukrainian BTR-4E IFVs. However, only 88 vehicles were delivered from the order, as the Iraqi MoD cancelled the contract due to quality issues. The Ukrainian army thus took over 52 BTR-4E IFVs originally intended for Iraq. In April 2014, units of National Guard of Ukraine received their first BTR-4E IFVs and during late May and early June they were already involved in the siege of Sloviansk, which was liberated on 5 July 2014, with the separatists and Russians withdrawing to Donetsk. During the fighting at Sloviansk, soldiers praised the new BTR-4E. Especially the armour, mobility and optics. Vehicles withstood enemy machine gun fire, also RPGs thanks to the slat-armor and Kevlar layer protected the crew from shrapnel. On October 4, 2014, separatists posted a photo of a captured Ukrainian BTR-4K, a commander's version of the BTR-4. The vehicle had a slat-armor and was repainted. It served with the Vostok Battalion, which was composed mainly of Russian GRU officers.


title: BTR-4

text: The layout of the BTR-4 represents a change compared to the older BTR-60/70/80 designed in the Soviet Union. The vehicle has a conventional layout similar to western designs like the German TPz Fuchs with the driver's and commander's compartment at the front part of the hull, the engine and transmission compartment in the middle, and the troop compartment at the rear. The troops enter and leave the vehicle either through the rear doors or the roof hatches, and the driver and the commander are provided with doors located on the sides of the hull.


title: BTR-4

text: The BTR-4 is a more flexible design than the older BTR-60/70/80s as the changed layout makes it easier to adapt the vehicle to specialized roles. The vehicle can be armed according to customer requirements. The prototype is armed with the locally designed New Armament Module which is armed with one 30mm 2A72 automatic cannon, a 7.62mm coaxial machine-gun, up to four 9P135M Konkurs or Baryer anti-tank missiles (two on each side of the turret), and one 30mm automatic grenade launcher (fitted in place of the AT missiles on one left-hand side of the turret). It can be fitted with different turret weapons modules: the GROM module, SHKVAL module, and the BAU 23x2 module.


title: BTR-4

text: The BTR-4 has a maximum speed of 110 km/h. It can cross water obstacles at a speed of 10 km/h. The vehicle is powered by a 3TD diesel engine with 500 hp. It was reported to have been hit by several RPG rounds and multiple small-arms fire with no consequences. Slat armor can be fitted for maximum protection against RPG attacks.


title: BTR-4

text: Ukrainian state defense manufacturer UkrOboronProm has unveiled a prototype wheeled armored fighting vehicle that is presently known as the BTR-4MV1. The new BTR-4MV1 is the latest generation of 8×8 IFV. The BTR-4MV1 is designed in accordance with NATO standards. The vehicle is based on the BTR-4 but with many new improvements.


title: BTR-4

text: It differs from the previous versions mostly in a modified configuration of the vehicle's hull, which makes it possible to install additional types of protection (including the ceramic plates and explosive reactive armor) to reach the fourth and fifth protection levels in accordance with NATO standards. The hull rear is fitted with a ramp that not only enables troopers to enter and leave the vehicle much quicker, but also enables the armored personnel carrier to transport various large-size cargoes, including additional ammunition, spare parts, etc.


title: BTR-4

text: During early trials and evaluation by the Indonesian Marine Corps, the BTR-4 has successfully passed the trials in Indonesia. In April 2017, it was reported that the Indonesian Marine Corps had prepared a formal letter to withdraw from any further acquisitions of the BTR-4, though according to Ukroboronprom the news are part of informational warfare and black PR.


title: BTR-4

text: Iraq has ordered 450 BTR-4s. 40 vehicles of the third batch delivered arrived with rust and damaged hulls and were not accepted by Iraq.


title: BTR-4

text: Some BTR-4s that are being used by Ukrainian armed forces in the ATO operations come from the rejected batch for the Iraqi army.


title: BTR-4

text: The Iraqi army used BTR-4s in an operation to recapture Jurf Al Sakhar from ISIL forces on 24 October 2014, successfully repelling two road-side ambushes.


title: BTR-4

text: In June 2014, company officials revealed that the BTR-4E was being used in military operations in the Sloviansk area. Its armor had withstood hits from large-caliber machine guns, counter-HEAT side screens protected the crew from anti-tank grenade launchers, and armored glass sustained direct hits from sniper rifles. Their original desert camo as seen on Iraqi BTR-4s can be viewed in pictures and videos from ATO operations. The BTR-4 is currently seeing combat during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: Nude swimming

text: Nude swimming is the practice of swimming without clothing, whether in natural bodies of water or in swimming pools. A colloquial term for nude swimming is "skinny-dipping".


title: Nude swimming

text: In both British and American English, to swim means "to move through water by moving the body or parts of the body". In British English, bathing also means swimming; but in American English, bathing refers to washing, or any immersion in liquid for hygienic, therapeutic, or ritual purposes. Many terms reflect British usage, such as sea bathing and bathing suit, although swimsuit is now more often used.


title: Nude swimming

text: In prehistory and for much of ancient history, both swimming and bathing were done without clothes, although cultures have differed as to whether bathing ought to be segregated by sex. Christian societies have generally opposed mixed nude bathing, although not all early Christians immediately abandoned Roman traditions of mixed communal bathing. In Western societies into the 20th century, nude swimming was common for men and boys, particularly in male-only contexts and to a lesser extent in the presence of clothed women. Some non-Western societies have continued to practice mixed nude bathing into the present, while some Western cultures became more tolerant of the practice over the course of the 20th century.


title: Nude swimming

text: The contemporary practices of naturism include nude swimming. The widespread acceptance of naturism in many European countries has led to legal recognition of clothing-optional swimming in locations open to the public. After a brief period of popularity in the 1960s-1970s of public "nude beaches" in the United States, acceptance is declining, confining American nude swimming generally to private locations.


title: Nude swimming

text: Based upon rock painting found in caves, the human activity of swimming existed for many thousands of years prior to the first civilizations, during which humans were generally naked.


title: Nude swimming

text: In Ancient Egypt, clothing was symbolic of social status, making adult nudity an indicator of low status or poverty. However, children, even of the upper classes, would be naked until puberty. Manual laborers of either sex would wear a loincloth or skirt unless their tasks included swimming; fishermen and boatmen often being nude.


title: Nude swimming

text: In ancient Rome, clothing also represented social status, but public bathhouses were an exception. Bathhouses might include swimming pools that were located in open courtyards.


title: Nude swimming

text: Swimming became increasingly unpopular after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, being viewed by the Christian church as both sinful and unhealthy. In spite of church teaching, swimming and bathing returned in the 12th century, sometimes without segregation of the sexes. Defying the Church of England, Everard Digby's book "The Art of Swimming (De Arte Natandi)" was published in 1587. Melchisédech Thévenot's 1696 instruction book, also called "The Art of Swimming", was illustrated by 40 copperplate etchings that showed swimming was normally nude.


title: Nude swimming

text: Indigenous peoples swimming naked were depicted by colonists in the Americas beginning in the 16th century.


title: Nude swimming

text: In the Victorian era, public baths and swimming pools were built in Adelaide to address problems of health and safety, but also to reduce the persistence of nude swimming in open waters. Swimming costumes being issued to pool patrons.


title: Nude swimming

text: The Bath Corporation official bathing dress code of 1737, prohibited men and women from swimming nude either in the day or in the night.


title: Nude swimming

text: In the early 1730s, fashionable sea bathing initially followed the inland health seeking tradition. Sea bathing resorts modelled themselves on Bath, and provided promenades, circulating libraries, and assembly rooms. While sea bathing or dipping, men and boys were naked. Women and girls were encouraged to dip wearing loose clothing. Scarborough was the first resort to provide bathing machines for changing. Some men extended this to swimming in the sea and by 1736 it was seen at Brighton and Margate, and later at Deal, Eastbourne and Portsmouth.


title: Nude swimming

text: In England, bathing in the sea by the lower classes was noted in Southampton by Thomas Gray in 1764, and in Exmouth in 1779. In Lancashire, working women and men bathed naked in the sea together in 1795: "Lower classes of people of both sexes made an annual pilgrimage to Liverpool where they dabbled in the salt water for hours at each tide in promiscuous numbers and not much embarrassing themselves about appearance."


title: Nude swimming

text: At the beginning of the Victorian period in England, men and boys typically swam naked in the sea near bathing machines that were used by women. There were some efforts to designate separate beach sections for males and females. On the River Cherwell near the University of Oxford, an area for male nude bathing was known as Parson's Pleasure; a nearby area for female nude bathing which closed in 1970 was known as Dame's Delight.


title: Nude swimming

text: In the latter half of the 19th century, the rise of the influence of Christian Evangelicals caused arrangements for mixed bathing to be reassessed. Moral pressures led some town councils to establish zones for the women and men to bathe separately. These areas were not policed; mixed bathing was a popular activity. Resorts attempted to placate the Evangelicals without upsetting traditional bathers. There are very few records of magistrates enforcing the bylaws. In 1895 "Cosmopolitan" reported: "At most English resorts, buff bathing is available before eight o'clock in the morning" while Brighton, Worthing, Hastings, Bexhill, Bognor and Folkestone still tolerated nude bathing at any time of the day, in areas away from the central bathing areas.


title: Nude swimming

text: Drawers, or caleçons as they were called ("fr:caleçon de bain"), came into use in the 1860s. Even then there were many who protested against them and wanted to remain in the nude. Rev. Francis Kilvert, an English clergyman and nude swimmer, described men's bathing suits coming into use in the 1870s as "a pair of very short red and white striped drawers". Excerpts from Kilvert's diary show the transition in the England of the 1870s from an acceptance of nude bathing to the acceptance of bathing suits. Kilvert describes "a delicious feeling of freedom in stripping in the open air and running down naked to the sea."


title: Nude swimming

text: In 1895, "The Daily Telegraph", "Standard", "Daily Graphic" and "Daily Mail" newspapers ran a campaign to reintroduce mixed bathing in all resorts, pointing out that its prohibition split up families and encouraged them to take their holidays abroad. Commercial pressure defeated the moral pressures. Sea bathing had ceased to be done for health reasons, and was done overwhelmingly for pleasure. As the segregated beaches in town disappeared, bathing costumes for men became part of the commercial package, and nude bathing ceased.


title: Nude swimming

text: The introduction of mixed bathing throughout Europe and elsewhere certainly created pressure towards bathing costumes being worn by both genders. However, well into the latter days of the Victorian Era, whereas all females were routinely wearing modest bathing attire, many boys well into their teens in Victorian England, even when in a mixed gender setting, were still swimming and playing at the beach resorts completely naked. An article published on August 23, 1891, in the "Syracuse Sunday Herald" suggests naked boys of up to 15 years in age were problematic for American parents with daughters, and read:


title: Nude swimming

text: From 1873, the East London, Eastern Cape town council promulgated measures to control swimming hours, apparel and especially separate swimming areas for men and women. These regulations were too conservative and constraining for the taste of the residents of this coastal town and for several decades they were the subject of legal battles, or were simply ignored. The dispute was finally settled in 1906 when mixed bathing was permitted with the proviso that both men and women should wear suitable swimming costumes.


title: Nude swimming

text: Since the early 20th century, the naturist movement has developed in western countries, seeking a return to non-sexual nudity when swimming and during other appropriate activities.


title: Nude swimming

text: In the late 19th to early 20th century, using tax revenue to provide public bathing facilities for working-class men was not politically popular in London, Ontario, while private establishments served the middle and upper classes. These included swimming at the YMCA, which required membership or payment of fees. However, the problem of men being publicly naked while swimming and bathing in open water was recognized. Efforts to regulate nude swimming with laws against doing so during daylight hours did not prevent increases in incidents in the 1860s through the 1880s by laborers and boys.


title: Nude swimming

text: In the 19th century, boys and working class men in Toronto swimming nude in the Humber and Don Rivers was allowed in secluded swimming holes, while officially prohibited elsewhere. Skinny-dipping was seen by many as an innocent activity for young males, as long it did not intrude upon the sensibilities of females. In the 20th century, urban growth had encroached upon this isolation, and also created the problem of water pollution. The development of beaches in the Sunnyside district on the Lake Ontario waterfront marked the end of nude outdoor swimming.


title: Nude swimming

text: In 2004 after some local university students went skinny-dipping there, signs were placed at a riverside beach in a public park in Zhejiang province declaring a section to be a nudist beach. Following complaints from other park visitors, the signs were removed, although officially China has no law forbidding swimming nude. In a July 2005 a heat wave, a number of incidents of men skinny-dipping were noted.


title: Nude swimming

text: In English boys' schools (Manchester Grammar School, for example), students recall nude swimming being required at least from the 1930s until the 1970s. No official reason for the practice was given, but some mention the problem in the early years of fibres from wool swimsuits clogged pool filters. However, nude swimming continued when modern swimsuit materials were available.


title: Nude swimming

text: In the United States, skinny-dipping by young people, mostly boys, was common in rural areas across the country. As towns such as Logan, Utah, Humboldt, Iowa and Dixon, Illinois grew in the 1890s, the traditional locations became more visible to the public, and local ordinances were implemented prohibiting nude swimming, but were difficult to enforce, or involved very young children who were not punished. Among the features of rural Vermont being overtaken by development in the 1970s, an editorial mentions the removal of forests that sheltered ponds where boys had been swimming naked for 200 years. Older residents of Duncanville, Texas remembered the "Blue Hole" on Ten Mile Creek a few hundred feet west of Main Street as the place to skinny-dip for decades. In 1967, misbehavior including drinking, fighting, and accidents led to complaints and calls to make the place off-limits.


title: Nude swimming

text: American president Theodore Roosevelt described nude swims in the Potomac with his "tennis cabinet" in his "Autobiography": "If we swam the Potomac, we usually took off our clothes".


title: Nude swimming

text: Ernest Thompson Seton describes skinny dipping as one of the first activities of his Woodcraft Indians, a forerunner of the Scout movement, in 1902. A 1937 article on swimming at boy scout summer camps in Washington state makes no mention of the boys being naked in almost all the photographs. Descriptions of special "carnival" days that were coed did not mention whether swimsuits were available for boys.


title: Nude swimming

text: Initially, men and boys swam in the nude in indoor swimming pools, as had previously been customary in lakes and rivers. YMCAs everywhere had nude swimming beginning in the 1890s until they became coed in the 1960s. In 1900, there were only 67 public pools in the United States, by 1929 there were more than 5,000. Given the limits of chlorination at that time, behavioral measures were used to maintain water quality. In 1933, in addition to recommending nudity, all bathers were required to empty their bladder and shower before entering the pool. Those suffering from skin or repiratory disease were prohibited from using the pool. In 1940 health experts continued to favor boys wearing bathing suits only in pools visible to both sexes. Girls were issued cotton suits that could be boiled to disinfect them between uses; the wool suits used by boys could not because they would shrink. It was also noted that wool suits that had previously been used in salt water could not be washed effectively because salt prevents soap from lathering. In 1926, the American Public Health Association (APHA) standards handbook recommended that indoor swimming pools used by men adopt nude bathing policies and that indoor swimming pools used by women require swimsuits "of the simplest type". Students bringing their own suits was discouraged, the institutions not having control of decontamination. The October 16, 1950 "Life" magazine had a photograph of boys swimming together in the indoor pool of New Trier High School in Winnetka, Illinois; the caption did not mention they were naked.


title: Nude swimming

text: New developments in pool chlorination, filtration, and nylon swimsuits led the APHA to abandon its recommendation of nude swimming for males in 1962. However, the custom did not immediately cease. During the 1970s, the adoption of mixed-gender swimming led to the gradual abandonment of nude male swimming in schools. Federal Title IX rules mandating equality in physical education led most schools to switch to co-educational gym classes by 1980, ending nude swimming in public schools. In the 21st century, the practice has been forgotten, denied having existed, or viewed as an example of questionable behaviors in the past that are no longer acceptable. However, Jungian psychoanalyst Barry Miller views the sexualization of nudity in male only situations such as locker rooms and swimming pools as a loss.


title: Nude swimming

text: In many countries in the 21st century, nude swimming mostly takes place at nude beaches, naturist facilities, private swimming pools, or secluded or segregated public swimming areas. Some Western countries, such as Canada and the United Kingdom, have no laws prohibiting nude swimming in public areas, but some countries around the world strictly enforce various laws against public nudity, including nude swimming. Some jurisdictions which maintain laws against public nudity may turn a blind eye to incidents of skinny dipping depending on the circumstances, as police officers on the spot decline to make arrests.


title: Nude swimming

text: A 2006 Roper poll showed that 25% of all American adults had been skinny dipping at least once, and that 74% believed nude swimming should be tolerated at accepted locations. Nude swimming is fairly common in rural areas of the United States, where unexpected visitors are less likely. However, in some places, even that type of swimming is prohibited by law. There is no federal law against nudity. Nude beaches such as Baker Beach in San Francisco operate within federal park lands in California. However, under a provision called "concurrent jurisdiction", federal park rangers may enforce state and local laws against nudity or invite local authorities to do so. Skinny-dippers generally deal with this by keeping an eye out for local patrols, who generally do not go out of their way to find violators. Many swimmers in the United States confine nude swimming to private locations due to concerns about attitudes to public nudity.


title: Nude swimming

text: In Germany, nude bathing is more widespread than in many other countries. A 2014 study revealed Germans (28%) were the most likely of all nations surveyed to have been nude at a beach.


title: Nude swimming

text: The world record for the largest skinny dip—2,505 persons—was set on 9 June 2018 at Meaghermore beach in County Wicklow, Ireland. The record was set at an annual all-women's event known as Strip and Dip, which was created by cancer survivor Deirdre Featherstone. The 2018 event raised money for a national children's cancer charity.


title: Nude swimming

text: Nude swimming was a common subject of Old Masters – painters from before the 19th century – and Romantic oil paintings, usually bucolic or in a mythological or historical settings. For example, Swedish painters Georg Pauli and Anders Zorn painted a number of nude swimming scenes.


title: Nude swimming

text: Late in the 19th century, painters started to render nude boys and men in realistic settings. Daumier's "Bathers" shows youths clumsily hauling off their clothes (a symbol of repression) and a naked short stocky youth stepping cautiously into the water that represents freedom. Seurat's "Bathers Asnières" uses similar symbolism to show the bathers removing their everyday identities to step into the momentary sunlight.


title: Nude swimming

text: The bathers in Thomas Eakins' "The Swimming Hole" each represent different stages in the artist's life. He prepared for this canvas by taking multiple photographs of his students frolicking at this location. The painting portrays a happy physical un-selfconsciousness seen through the perspective of age; a nostalgia for youth. By the 1880s, this nostalgia for youth was a veneer carefully disguising a latent homosexuality. In contrast, there were poets and painters who would contrast the free young beauty of bodies in the water with the approaching grind of maturity and responsibility. Henry Scott Tuke painted naked bathers in a soft, idealized style, deliberately avoiding overt sexuality.


title: Nude swimming

text: Cezanne's monumental male bathers derive from memories of a happy childhood rather than direct observation. This was described by his friend Emile Zola as a time when "they were possessed with the joys of plunging (naked) into the deeper pools where the waters flowed, or spending the days stark naked in the sun, drying them selves on the burning sand, diving in once more to live in the river..."


title: Nude swimming

text: In later periods, depictions of nude swimming scenes became rarer, but more likely to depict straightforward contemporary scenes. The cover of the August 19, 1911 edition of the "Saturday Evening Post" had a Leyendecker painting of three boys; the cover of the June 4, 1921 edition had Norman Rockwell's painting , depicting boys in various states of undress escaping from the local authorities.


title: Nude swimming

text: A number of films have become notable in whole or in part due to reaction to their nude swimming scenes.


title: Post-nasal drip

text: Post-nasal drip (PND), also known as upper airway cough syndrome (UACS), occurs when excessive mucus is produced by the nasal mucosa. The excess mucus accumulates in the back of the nose, and eventually in the throat once it drips down the back of the throat. It can be caused by rhinitis, sinusitis, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), or by a disorder of swallowing (such as an esophageal motility disorder). Other causes can be allergy, cold, flu, and side effects from medications.


title: Post-nasal drip

text: However, some researchers argue that the flow of mucus down the back of the throat from the nasal cavity is a normal physiologic process that occurs in all healthy individuals. Some researchers challenge post-nasal drip as a syndrome and instead view it as a symptom, also taking into account variation across different societies. Furthermore, this rebuttal is reinforced because of the lack of an accepted definition, pathologic tissue changes, and available biochemical tests.


title: Post-nasal drip

text: PND may present itself through the constant presence of discomfort in the upper airways. It is classically described as the sensation of a substance "dripping down the throat" and may also present with rhinorrhea, constant throat clearing, and cough, although its symptoms can be very nonspecific. PND is one of the most common etiologies for chronic cough, defined as a cough persisting beyond 8 weeks.


title: Post-nasal drip

text: GERD is often associated with a high prevalence of upper-respiratory symptoms similar to those of PND, such as coughing, throat clearing, hoarseness and change in voice. Reflux causes throat irritation, leading to a sensation of increased mucus in the throat, which is believed to aggravate and, in some cases, cause post-nasal drip.


title: Post-nasal drip

text: Post-nasal drip can be a cause of laryngeal inflammation and hyperresponsiveness, leading to symptoms of vocal cord dysfunction.


title: Post-nasal drip

text: Allergic rhinitis (AR) is a common condition where exposure to allergens results in the release of inflammatory mediators, such as histamine, that causes sneezing, rhinorrhea, itchy eyes, and nasal congestion. The increased rhinorrhea and mucus production can result in PND.


title: Post-nasal drip

text: Non-allergic rhinitis (NAR) is a condition in which there are symptoms of rhinitis, including rhinorrhea and nasal obstruction, but with negative skin and serum allergy testing results. It can be further categorized into:


title: Post-nasal drip

text: Rhinosinusitis is inflammation or infection of the sinus cavities. Acute rhinosinusitis has symptoms lasting less than four weeks, while chronic rhinosinusitis lasts greater than 12 weeks. This persistent irritation can lead to increased mucus production as a result of pro-inflammatory pathways, producing symptoms of PND.


title: Post-nasal drip

text: The exact mechanism of PND depends on its etiology, but usually involves increased production of mucus from the nasal mucosa. In addition to providing sense of smell, the nasal cavity serves to filter and regulate the temperature and humidity of inspired air. The nasal mucosa can produce secretions, or mucus, that provides lubrication and protection for the nasal cavity. This mucus production is activated by the autonomic nervous system; specifically, cholinergic neuropeptides are responsible for increasing mucus production. Excess mucus can drain posteriorly into the upper and lower airways, which, along with other physical and chemical irritants, can activate receptors in the respiratory tract that results in a protective physiological cough.


title: Post-nasal drip

text: Diagnosis of PND depends on both a detailed history and clinical examination to help determine its etiology. The history may begin with feelings of obstructed nasal breathing or "stuffy nose" with or without nasal discharge. If allergic rhinitis is suspected, a family history of allergic conditions as well as a personal history of other associated conditions such as food allergy, asthma, and atopic dermatitis can be evaluated. Allergic rhinitis classically has more symptoms of sneezing attacks, itchy eyes, and respiratory problems, although it is difficult to distinguish the different types of rhinitis by symptomology alone. Visual inspection can reveal mouth breathing, which is suggestive of nasal obstruction, or a horizontal crease across the nose (caused by the "allergic salute").


title: Post-nasal drip

text: In the absence of any specific diagnostic tests, it may be difficult to diagnose PND from history of symptoms alone, as the etiology is broad and the symptoms may be very general. As such, suggestive procedures that highlight rhinitis and mucopurulent secretions, such as nasoendoscopy, may instead be utilized because of the vague nature of information available to directly attribute specific symptoms to the syndrome.


title: Post-nasal drip

text: Treatment options depend on the nature of an individual’s post-nasal drip and its cause. Antibiotics may be prescribed if the PND is the result of bacterial sinusitis. In cases where PND is caused by allergic rhinitis or irritant rhinitis, avoidance of allergens or irritating factors such as dander, cigarette smoke, and cleaning supplies may be beneficial. Antihistamines are particularly useful for allergic rhinitis, and it may be beneficial in some cases of non-allergic rhinitis. First-generation antihistamines such as chlorpheniramine and clemastine are more potent but have greater sedatory effects; later-generation antihistamines may be used to reduce these effects. Azelastine, a topical antihistamine, is approved for both allergic and non-allergic rhinitis due to its unique anti-inflammatory effects separate from its histamine receptor antagonism.


title: Post-nasal drip

text: Intranasal steroids may also be beneficial in patients who do not respond to antihistamines. In one meta-analysis, intranasal steroids were shown to improve symptoms of non-allergic rhinitis at four weeks better than a placebo. Decongestants such as pseudoephedrine can tighten blood vessels of the nasal mucosa and result in a decrease in mucus production. Anticholinergics such as ipratropium bromide can help reduce secretions by blocking parasympathetic effects on the nasal mucosa.


title: Post-nasal drip

text: Other methods, such as drinking warm fluids and using saline nasal irrigation, may be useful for managing symptoms of PND but its exact efficacy is unclear in medical literature.


title: Post-nasal drip

text: Because PND is often characterized as a "symptom" rather than a separate condition, the exact incidence is unknown and varies by its etiology. Chronic rhinitis, which includes allergic and non-allergic rhinitis, can affect 30-40% of the population. Non-allergic rhinitis is more common in females than in males.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The Honda Gold Wing is a series of touring motorcycles manufactured by Honda. Gold Wings feature shaft drive and a flat engine. Mooted by press in September 1974 as "The world's biggest motor cycle manufacturer's first attack on the over-750cc capacity market...", it was introduced at the Cologne Motorcycle Show in October 1974.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: Total sales are more than 640,000, most of them in the U.S. market. Gold Wings were assembled in Marysville, Ohio, from 1980 until 2010, when motorcycle production there was halted. No Gold Wings were produced for the 2011 model year, and production resumed in Kumamoto Prefecture, Japan in 2011 using tooling transported from the American factory.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The includes a Honda Gold Wing GL1000 manufactured in 1974 as one of their "240 Landmarks of Japanese Automotive Technology". Through 2012, Honda GL models have appeared eighteen times in the "Cycle World" list of Ten Best bikes.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: Over the course of its production history, the Gold Wing had many design changes, beginning in 1975 with a flat-four engine; by 2001, this had grown to a flat-six. The 2012 model had anti-lock braking, cruise control, electrically assisted reverse gear, an optional airbag, a fairing with heating and an adjustable windscreen, panniers and a trunk, a pillion backrest, satnav, and a six-speaker radio/audio system with MP3/iPod connectivity.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: In 1972, following the success of the ground-breaking CB750 superbike, the company assembled an R&D design team to explore concepts for a new flagship motorcycle. The project leader was Shoichiro Irimajiri, who in the 1960s had designed Honda's multi-cylinder MotoGP engines and their Formula One V12 engine.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The 1974 Gold Wing with its flat-four shaft-drive powertrain used technologies both from earlier motorcycle and automotive designs.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: Although preceded by the 1971 water-cooled Suzuki GT750 two-stroke triple, the Gold Wing was the first Japanese production motorcycle with a water-cooled four-stroke engine. The first four-cylinder boxer engine was produced in 1900.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: During its development, the CB750 was known within Honda as their "King of Motorcycles", so Honda's next big thing would be deemed the "King of Kings". Honda first envisaged the Gold Wing as a large sport motorcycle, but on learning that customers were "piling miles on touring", Honda reconsidered the bike's design objectives, realising that the primary market for the Gold Wing was the long-distance motorcyclist. In North America a motorcycle suitable to that task would need comfort for the long haul, wind protection, a smooth ride, a comfortable seat, luggage storage, and power in abundance.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: In America in the early 1970s, long-distance motorcyclists had only a few manufacturers to choose from: Harley-Davidson, Moto Guzzi and BMW. The H-D Electra Glide was a comfortable, high-maintenance and high-vibration motorcycle with a loyal cult following. It faced strong competition from Moto Guzzi's 850cc Eldorado. BMW motorcycles were smoother and more reliable, if expensive. Other large Japanese motorcycles, such as the Honda CB750 and the Kawasaki Z1 were cheaper but were not ideal tourers with their small fuel tanks and rear drive-chains needing regular maintenance. The Gold Wing was aimed at a newly emerging market segment, namely, a new kind of American long-distance rider who was not likely to buy a Harley-Davidson or BMW but who would open their wallets for a reliable machine offering comfort, endurance, low maintenance, and a smooth, torquey, quiet engine.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The Gold Wing's secondary target market was Europe, where riders prioritised handling and performance over luxury. (The European market's special demands subsequently led to the Honda Pan European). Though other motorcycle manufacturers build touring bikes, no other touring bike has achieved the popularity of the Gold Wing.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: In 1972, the project team broke from Honda practice to produce an experimental prototype motorcycle code-named "M1". Instead of the usual transverse engine layout with a chain final drive, the M1 had a longitudinal engine suitable for shaft drive. The M1 had a 1470cc liquid-cooled flat-six engine, (twice the displacement of the CB750). Instead of seeking high performance (as some engineers had wanted), the M1 engine was designed to have a broad torque output and to produce at 6700 rpm, with a top speed of .


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The brainstorming team's M1 project was never intended as a production prototype. Nonetheless, the M1 should be seen as the primordial Gold Wing because so many of its distinctive features appeared on the GL1000. The flat-six gave the M1 a low center of gravity, enhancing stability, but the extreme length of the engine/gearbox unit resulted in a cramped riding position. Instead, the project team chose to build a bike with a compact one liter flat-four engine. This bike was code-named "Project 371", and Toshio Nozue (who had worked on CB750 development) took over from Irimajiri as project leader.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The Project 371 team finally settled on a layout that became the characteristic Gold Wing: a liquid-cooled flat-four SOHC engine, with a gear-driven generator that contra-rotated to counteract the engine's torque reaction. Cylinder blocks and crankcase were integral, with the transmission situated beneath the crankcase to keep the unit construction engine as short as possible. Final drive was by shaft.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: Before going on sale in the US and in Europe in 1975, the Gold Wing was revealed to dealers in September 1974 at American Honda's annual dealer meeting in Las Vegas, and then shown to the public the following month at the (International Bicycle and Motorcycle Exhibition; today Intermot) in Cologne.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: Small fairings had been mounted on two of the show models at the US dealer show in Las Vegas. These Honda-designed fairings were to be manufactured in the US by the Vetter Fairing Company and sold as "Hondaline" accessories; but they never went into production after the molds were accidentally destroyed. Consequently, the Gold Wing was born into the world naked, lacking saddlebags and having no place for luggage, without even a windshield. This created a golden opportunity for accessory manufacturers, who quickly offered a range of fairings and luggage accessories, particularly the Craig Vetter "Windjammer" series.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The original GL1000 (designated K0) had an electric starter backed up by a kick start lever stored inside a dummy fuel tank, which also housed the radiator expansion tank, electrical components, as well as the air filter supplying four Keihin 32 mm CV carburetors. The real fuel tank was under the seat, in order to keep the center of mass as low as possible. The bike had a dry weight of . 13,000 Gold Wings were sold in the United States in 1975.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: There were no significant changes in the standard Gold Wing for 1976 (the K1 model). To mark the United States Bicentennial year Honda announced the GL1000 LTD with distinctive insignia and color scheme (e.g., gold stripes, gold wheels) plus some extra amenities. The LTD was a genuine limited edition with production restricted to about 2,000 units.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: In the third model year (K2) Honda began refining the Gold Wing, although the changes for 1977 were small, such as exhaust pipe heat shields, revised seat and handlebar, as well as a new fuel gauge. Weight increased to . The motorcycle division of Honda UK produced 52 "Executive" GL1000 K1 bikes by adding premium accessories to 1977 Gold Wings.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The engine was modified in 1978 for the GL1000 K3 model, in order to make more torque available at lower engine speeds; the carburetors were reduced in size by 1 mm, the exhaust system was redesigned, valve timing and ignition timing were altered. The kick-start mechanism was removed from the engine, and a reserve lighting module for the headlight and taillight (automatically switching to the second filament when one burns out) was removed from the electrics. A small instrument panel appeared on top of a restyled dummy fuel tank. Wire-spoke wheels were replaced with Honda's new ComStar wheels, but the existing tires with inner tubes remained. Dry weight grew to .


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: 1979 marked the end of GL1000 development with the K4 model (the UK version was designated KZ). Dry weight increased slightly to . for the last Gold Wing to be powered by a one-liter engine. There were only minor changes for this model year, except for the ComStar wheels; new ComStars had stronger steel spokes on aluminum rims instead of the original aluminum spoked wheels that precipitated a 1979 recall (for the 1978 model year). During the final run of the GL1000 in 1979, "Hondaline" saddlebags and trunk were available, but Honda still did not offer a fairing.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: After five years of the GL1000, the second-generation Gold Wing was released in 1979 as a 1980 model, and the GL1100 would be continued through the 1983 model year. The GL1100 was manufactured in Japan until May 1980 when Honda started assembling 1981 models at the Marysville Motorcycle Plant in Ohio, which had been making frames and parts for various models since 1974. Gold Wings would be built at a rate of 150 units a day for the years 1981–1983. Engines were still being built in Japan, but Honda began to market the machine as being made in America.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The Gold Wing faced competition from Japan in the form of the Suzuki GS1000 with an inline-four engine, and especially in the Kawasaki Z1300 that had a massive DOHC 1300cc straight-six engine with water cooling. Honda responded by increasing the displacement of the Gold Wing, and then followed-up by announcing the first Japanese full-dress tourer. The new engine was more than just a GL1000 with a 3 mm larger bore, the alterations clearly emphasized torque over horsepower. The cylinder heads were modified to improve combustion at low and middle engine speeds, transmission gear ratios were changed and the final drive ratio shortened to make more torque available at highway speeds. The bore size for all four carburetors was again reduced by 1 mm, to 30 mm.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The wheelbase was lengthened over that of the GL1000, and air suspension was added. The GL1100 had an adjustable seat, and for the first time used tubeless tires, mounted on black reverse ComStar wheels. The naked Gold Wing, which would become known as the "Standard" model, weighed dry. In spite of the fact that here were only minor changes to differentiate the GL1100 '81 edition from the previous year.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: Ridden by Emilio Scotto, the GL1100 is the bike that toured the world. Holding the record for the longest distance of any motorcycle total distance of 457,000 miles (735,000 km).


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: All the 1982 Gold Wings had transmission ratios revised (again) to lower engine rpm at cruising speeds, new brakes with twin-piston calipers and wider tires on smaller wheels. Dry weight for the GL1100 '82 was .


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: Transmission gear ratios were revised yet again for the 1983 Gold Wings to lessen engine speed on the highway. But the significant changes were not to the engine, they were to the running gear in this last year for GL1100s. Cast aluminum eleven-spoke wheels replaced the ComStars. The front suspension was endowed with TRAC anti-dive forks with an integrated fork brace, and the rear suspension worked even with no air pressure. Honda's first combined braking system, dubbed "Unified Braking" at the time, debuted in 1983; it engaged both front and rear brakes in unison when the brake pedal was applied. Dry weight for the standard GL1100 inched up to .


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: Honda went beyond the mechanical makeover of the naked Gold Wing in March 1980 by releasing the first Japanese turn-key tourer, the "Interstate" model (GL1100I) with a factory-installed full fairing, saddlebags and a removable trunk, plus a long list of optional extras including a stereo system. This bike was called the "De Luxe" model (GL1100DX) in some markets. The fairing was designed to protect both the rider and a passenger from the wind. Likewise, the saddlebags and trunk were intended to carry the baggage of two people. This made the Interstate significantly heavier than the standard model, with a dry weight of . The almost identical Interstate model was made for 1981.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The GL1100I '82 model offered more options, such as a new stereo, a 40-channel CB transceiver, and an on-board compressor to adjust the suspension air pressure. Dry weight was .


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The GL1100I '83 received the engine and running gear updates of the standard model; dry weight increased to .


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: Starting in 1982, Honda offered three different Gold Wing models. With the introduction of the "Aspencade" (GL1100A) Honda took the full-dress tourer to a new level of luxury, with a larger seat, two-tone paint and more storage compartments, together with many options from the Interstate that were being included as standard. All three brake disks on the GL1100A were internally ventilated. The additional items jacked up the dry weight to .


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The GL1100A '83 received the same engine and running gear updates of the other models. The Aspencade also got new front and rear brakes, with internally ventilated front discs (only), as well as a digital LCD instrument panel and some additional amenities for rider and passenger. Weight went up just a bit to .


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: In 1983 Honda was facing a challenge in the marketplace from a new full-dress tourer, the Yamaha Venture XVZ 1200 with its DOHC four valve per cylinder V4 engine (as Yamaha's XS Eleven Venturer had challenged the GL1100 two years earlier). Honda hit back at the Milan motorcycle show late that year by announcing a new 1984 Gold Wing that pushed its four-cylinder engine design to its limits. The bored and stroked boxer produced more power and torque; a new final drive ratio gave the GL1200 taller gearing in order to reduce noise and vibration. The four Keihin 32 mm CV carburetors were larger than those on the GL1100 engine, on the other hand, they were the same size as the '75–'76 GL1000 carbs. Incorporating hydraulic actuation for the clutch, in addition to hydraulic tappets for the valves, made the new engine virtually maintenance-free. In order to make the Gold Wing more nimble, front and rear wheel diameters contracted (and tire widths expanded) one more time. The GL1200 was built on a new, stronger frame and despite all the improvements, the claimed dry weight of the naked bike remained unchanged at for the 1984 model year.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: 1984 was the one and only year for the GL1200 "Standard" (which was not exported to Europe) for the reason that sales had decreased in favor of the Interstate and Aspencade models. This led to the decline of aftermarket manufacturers such as the Vetter Fairing Company.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The GL1200's competitors were becoming more numerous. Last of the big Japanese manufacturers to do so, Suzuki finally entered the marketplace in 1985 with their full-dress tourer, the GV1400 Cavalcade with a DOHC, four valves per cylinder, V4 engine. In 1986 Yamaha enlarged the Venture's V4 engine to 1300cc, and Kawasaki introduced the ZG 1200 Voyager XII with a four-valve, DOHC, Inline-four engine.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: With three versions of the Gold Wing boxer motor spanning a dozen years, by 1987 further development of the flat-four engine was regarded as being constrained by the law of diminishing returns. Piston displacement had been increased twice to generate more torque, but this also made each power stroke more intense. During the same time period, gear ratios had been raised to decrease engine RPM (boosting fuel economy and reducing vibration as well as noise levels) which in turn made pulses through the drivetrain seem rougher to the rider because firing intervals were farther apart. The obvious way to deliver power more smoothly (as Irimajiri-san had demonstrated with the M1 engine) was to step up from four cylinders to six.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: Having introduced the full-dress Interstate with the GL1100, Honda used the GL1200I '84 to refine the Gold Wing's fairing so that it would come across as a basic part of the bike and not as an afterthought. The new model Interstate (still called De Luxe in Europe) had an automotive-style instrument panel up front and increased luggage capacity in back: in each saddlebag plus another in the trunk. Dry weight for the 1984 Interstate was .


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: Despite giving the Gold Wing "taller" gearing the year before, in 1985 Honda "shortened" the overall gearing to improve performance. There were many small changes to the GL1200I '85 but atypically its price was the same as it was the previous year, and at its weight was basically stable.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The GL1200I '86 got more small updates, but the significant change was that all Gold Wing engines were being produced in Honda's Anna, Ohio plant from July 1985. Claimed dry weight for the 1986 Interstate was unchanged. The GL1200I '87 got a new seat design with three-stage foam; the weight was unchanged for 1987, the last year of the four-cylinder Gold Wing Interstate.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The GL1200A '84 had all the features of the GL1200I, plus a new Panasonic audio system that combined AM/FM radio, cassette player and an intercom between the rider and passenger. Unlike the analog instruments of the Interstate, the Aspencade had a dashboard with an LCD digital display. The GL1200A also had foot boards for the passenger instead of footpegs. Claimed dry weight for the 1984 Aspencade was .


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The price was unchanged for 1985, and the Aspencade received the same updates as the Interstate model for that year. Dry weight for the Aspencade was in both '85 and ’86.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: In 1986 Dolby noise reduction was added to the audio system, which was replaced with an improved Panasonic system in 1987. In its final year, the GL1200A got the same seat upgrade as the GL1200I '87 model and some amenities that had been optional were made standard, increasing the dry weight of the Aspencade to .


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: In 1985 Honda marked the tenth anniversary of the Gold Wing by launching a gold-painted "Limited Edition" model (GL1200L) luxuriously equipped with cruise control, auto-leveling rear suspension, an electronic trip computer and a four-speaker audio system. The significant development was that the GL1200L was furnished with Honda's programmed fuel injection system, previously used on the turbocharged CX500T and CX650T (variants of the GL500 and GL650 Silver Wing). Also known as the "LTD", 5372 units were built and sold only in North America. Claimed dry weight for the GL1200L was .


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: To a limited extent, the "Limited Edition" turned out to be a sham when the "SE-i" (Special Edition—injected) debuted in 1986, as essentially a repainted GL1200L. The SE-i had the same Dolby audio system as the GL1200A '86 and was only available in the US. This was the only year for the SE-i because the high cost of the fuel injection system forced Honda to return to carburetors for 1987.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: A new design team began work on the fourth-generation Gold Wing in 1984. Honda describes prototype testing as involving sixty developmental stages, and building fifteen different test bikes, including one made from a GL1200 frame coupled with the original M1 engine so that a six-cylinder could be compared to a four-cylinder head-on. This early '70s prototype had an influence far beyond what the M1's initial designers could have expected.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: New Gold Wing engine design goals were smoothness, quietness and enormous power. Ultimately, a redesigned Gold Wing made its debut at the 1987 Cologne Motorcycle Show, 13 years after the original GL1000 was first shown to the public at the same venue, and the GL1500 brought the most changes seen to the Gold Wing series since its inception. The biggest difference was that the flat-four engine was replaced with a flat-six engine. Although the GL1500 still used carburetors, there were just two large 36 mm CV Keihins supplying all six cylinders, the first time any Gold Wing had less than one carb per cylinder.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: Honda also enclosed the entire motorcycle in plastic, giving it a seamless appearance. The seat height was lowest yet on a Gold Wing, the passenger back rest and trunk were integrated, and a central mechanism locked the trunk lid and saddlebags. Rear suspension air pressure was adjusted by an on-board compressor. One major innovation was the addition of a "reverse gear", which was actually a creative use of the electric starter motor linked to the transmission. Because of the size and weight, Honda felt that some people would have problems backing it up.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The new Gold Wing had grown in nearly every dimension. A larger windshield, longer wheelbase, two more cylinders, more horsepower, more bodywork, more electronics, more accessories and more mass: dry. Options include a passenger audio control and rear speakers, CB radio, auxiliary lights and exterior trim. In another first for the GL1500, 1988 was the year Honda exported Gold Wings from the US to Japan for the first time.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: For 1989 Honda modified the brake discs, and raised the price. Brake discs were modified again in 1990, as were the carbs and camshafts, without a price increase. The claimed GL1500 dry weight for '90 was . In addition, a Gold Wing 15th Anniversary Special Edition model (GL1500SE) made its debut in 1990.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The following year, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of American-made Gold Wings, every bike produced for 1991 came with a numbered plaque and anniversary edition insignia. There were three '91 models: "Aspencade" indicated the regular GL1500 model; the luxurious Special Edition from the year before carried on as the "SE" model; and the "Interstate" name denoted a stripped-down model.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: When the Honda of America Manufacturing (HAM) plant in Marysville, Ohio produced its 500,000th vehicle in 1991, it was a Gold Wing Aspencade. The claimed dry weight for the GL1500A '91 was . Honda began offering extra cost paint options, and Honda Canada inaugurated "Canadian Edition" Gold Wings in '92.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: Beginning in 1993, all GL1500 rocker arms pivoted on needle bearings, and the cruise control was updated to directly read crankshaft speed for enhanced precision. 1994 was the seventh year of GL1500 production (longer than any of its forerunners) and nothing significant changed except the asking price.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: 1995 was the 20th anniversary of the Gold Wing. American Honda published a special hard-cover book All 1995 models got commemorative emblems, cosmetic changes, a thinner and narrower seat and suspension improvements which reduced ground clearance, contributing to an even lower seat height (offsetting the weight gain). The GL1500A was at its heaviest in '95; the claimed dry weight would stay at until the end of this model.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The 1996 Aspencade received an upmarket audio system that had been exclusive to the GL1500SE. Yet another milestone was reached in mid-1996 when a Gold Wing Aspencade was the millionth Honda motorcycle made in America to roll off the assembly line at the Marysville Motorcycle Plant. The GL1500 family got bigger when Honda created the first GL1500C "Valkyrie" in May 1996 (for the 1997 model year). The Valkyrie was the first naked GL since 1984.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: 1997 GL1500s received engine, transmission and final drive improvements first introduced on the GL1500C. A 1998 Gold Wing styling makeover extended to the engine with redesigned valve covers, but no price increase. Honda commemorated 50 years in America by adding 50th Anniversary emblems to all 1999 Gold Wings; the GL1500A '99 price increased. The 2000 Gold Wings had chrome-plated valve covers, Canadian and American models also had gold-plated 25th Anniversary emblems marking 25 years since the first GL1000 debuted for the 1975 model year.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The 2000 model was the last GL1500 Aspencade model. A complete redesign of the Marysville Motorcycle Plant began In January 2000 to build the next Gold Wing, and stories soon came out in the motorcycle press that the Gold Wing itself was being redesigned. The GL1500 had been in production for 13 model years, which was as long as all of the four-cylinder Gold Wings combined; moreover, GL1500 engine continued to be used in the Valkyrie through the 2003 model year.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The original 15th Anniversary "Special Edition" model had a vented windshield, additional lights, upgraded sound system, two-tone paint with special insignia, adjustable passenger floorboards and adjustable foot pegs as well as foot heaters for the rider. In 1990 It had a weight of dry. The GL1500SE '91 was essentially unchanged, though weight and price were up a bit at .


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: Hitherto optional rear speakers and CB radio became standard on the GL1500SE '93; boosting both its weight—.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The GL1500SE '97 had powertrain updates. Honda marked its 50th anniversary in 1999 without a GL1500SE price increase, and the American-made GL1500SE '99 that was exported to Japan got a two-tone paint job. More significantly, the export model got an exhaust air-injection system along with carburetor modifications in order to pass Japan's new emission regulations.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The GL1500I '91 model had its weight and price cut by eliminating the reverse gear, cruise-control, the passenger footboards, and by replacing the audio system with a small Kenwood radio. The seat was lowered by . Claimed dry weight for the 1991 Interstate was . In 1992 the Kenwood radio was, in turn, replaced by a new Panasonic 25-watt-per-channel sound system with intercom. Weight for the GL1500I '92 rose slightly to .


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: As with the other 20th Anniversary models, the cost of a GL1500I '95 jumped. The last GL1500I was the 1996 model. Claimed dry weight for '95 and '96 was . The Interstate model was discontinued, replaced in 1997 by the "Valkyrie Tourer" (GL1500CT) as well as the 1999 "Valkyrie Interstate" (GL1500CF).


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The first new model for 13 years, the 2001 GL1800 had a larger engine with fuel injection, and a power increase from to . The GL1800's extruded aluminium frame, comprising 31 elements (barely half the GL1500's number) resulted in an overall weight decrease. Options included ABS braking.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The 2006 model had further options: an airbag, in-dash GPS called Internavi, with audio information provided through the speakers and headset cables, plus a rider "comfort package" comprising saddle heating, heated grips, and adjustable engine-air vents ahead of the driver's foot pegs.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The 2010 model year was the last to be produced in the United States, and no 2011 model year Gold Wings were produced while manufacturing was transferred to Japan in 2012. Some retailers and aftermarket traders group all GL1800 models into two categories: US made GL1800s (2001–2010) are "1st Generation", and Japanese-built GL1800's (2012-2017) are "2nd Generation".


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: 2nd Gen GL1800 had minor updates: restyled bodywork made the fairing and saddlebags seem less bulbous, despite being more capacious. A revised fairing gave better protection to the rider's legs, with vents channelling warm engine air onto the rider's feet. The trunk, fairing pockets and saddlebags gave a storage capacity of . The instrument display has a brighter screen, an updated satellite navigation / radio, and a revised six-speaker audio system with MP3 and iPod connectivity.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: For its 6th generation in 2018 Honda produced a completely redesigned Gold Wing. The new model has a new four-valve engine and is available in two versions: the standard Gold Wing (replacing F6B bagger) and the "top trunk" Gold Wing Tour. Sportier in appearance, technologically more advanced, and more compact, the 2018 Gold Wing is lighter than before. Its new robotically welded frame has a double wishbone front suspension, resembling the Duolever from BMW. New features include throttle by wire, four ride modes, traction control, LED lighting, hill start assist, Apple CarPlay, and (on the Tour model) electronically adjustable suspension. Options include automatic dual clutch transmission with a forward and reverse "walking mode".


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: In mid-June 2020, Honda introduced Android Auto. For 2021, Honda increased the size of the top trunk from 50 litres to 61 litres. The passenger's back seat rest features a more relaxed angle with thicker foam and taller profile. Speakers were changed to 45 watt with automatic volume adjustment and standard XM radio. Rear turn signals were changed to all red.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: In 1997 Honda brought back an incarnation of the "Standard" or "classic" Gold Wing, renamed the Valkyrie in the US, and called F6C in the rest of the world. It had a higher performance engine, based on the GL1500, in a cruiser-style frame. The Valkyrie Tourer version had a windshield and saddlebags. A more touring-oriented version was introduced in 1999 as the Valkyrie Interstate with a full fairing, saddlebags and trunk. It was released as a naked bike, but also had a Tourer and an Interstate model. These two incarnations lasted relatively short and were (re-absorbed by the Goldwing line.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: These Valkyrie models were dropped due to slow sales, leaving the standard Valkyrie, which was discontinued after the 2003 model year and since then intermittently new Valkyrie models introduced into the market as "limited" editions. One such case was the in 2004 released Limited Edition model, the Valkyrie Rune, complete with engine and unique styling.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: The Valkyrie engine is based on the Gold Wing engine, but has solid lifters instead of hydraulic lifters, six carburetors instead of the Goldwing's two (carbs ≤ 2000, FI ≥ 2001), more aggressive camshafts, a free flowing exhaust, and altered ignition timing to increase performance.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: At the 2013 Tokyo Motor Show, Honda revealed a new naked version of the GL1800, the 2014 Valkyrie, using the same 1832cc six-cylinder engine as the Gold Wing but weighing less. The new Valkyrie has increased rake and trail, front and rear suspension revised for the reduced weight, 50/50 weight distribution and large tires after the fashion of sport-bikes. Going beyond the naked bike genre, the Valkyrie's horsepower-to-weight ratio puts it clearly into the "muscle bike" class.


title: Honda Gold Wing

text: In 2013, Honda brought out a new variation on the traditional Gold Wing, itself being available in two models, The F6B and F6B Deluxe. The F6B is basically a greatly stripped-down version of the 'standard' Gold Wing with most of the chrome trim being 'blacked out', giving the F6B a look that should appeal to many cruiser buyers. It is affectionately known as the Bagger. The rear trunk has been eliminated and the windshield is much smaller. The seat is changed for both the passenger and the rider with the most obvious difference being that the passenger no longer has the oversize backrest – a result of the removal of the trunk. The F6B Deluxe does, however, come with a small passenger backrest, heated grips, self cancelling turn signals & center stand as standard equipment. The basic design is, otherwise, the same as the full blown Gold Wing except that there is no reverse gear and early models did not have cruise control. For 2018 this model is now just called the standard Gold Wing.


title: Michael Kitchen

text: Michael Roy Kitchen (born 31 October 1948) is an English actor and television producer, best known for his starring role as Detective Chief Superintendent Christopher Foyle in the ITV drama "Foyle's War", which comprised eight series between 2002 and 2015. He also played the role of Bill Tanner in two James Bond films, and that of John Farrow in BBC Four's comedy series "Brian Pern".


title: Michael Kitchen

text: Kitchen was born in Leicester. As a boy he was head chorister in the Church of the Martyrs choir, where he was a regular soloist. He attended the City of Leicester Boys' Grammar School, where he appeared on stage in a production of "Cymbeline".


title: Michael Kitchen

text: Kitchen was discovered at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA) by talent agent Peter Froggatt. In the early 1970s, he appeared in small roles in films such as "Unman, Wittering and Zigo" (1971) and the Hammer film "Dracula A.D. 1972" (1972) before becoming a fixture of British stage and television.


title: Michael Kitchen

text: His early TV appearances include roles in "Man at the Top" (episode 4 "The Prime of Life", 1970) "Play for Today" ("Hell's Angels" by David Agnew, 1971), "Thriller" (1976), "The Brontes of Haworth" (1973, in which he played Branwell Brontë), "Tales of the Unexpected" and "Beasts". He played the role of Martin in the original 1976 production of Dennis Potter's "Brimstone and Treacle", Peter in Stephen Poliakoff's "Caught on a Train", Edmund in the BBC Television Shakespeare production of "King Lear", the Antipholi in the same series' production of "The Comedy of Errors", Private Bamforth in the 1979 BBC television play of "The Long and the Short and the Tall". Also in 1979 Kitchen appeared in an episode ("Runner") of the hard-hitting police drama "The Professionals". He played the role of Duffy, a renegade former member of an organised crime network.


title: Michael Kitchen

text: His other roles at this time include Larner in the film "Breaking Glass" (1980), Rochus Misch in "The Bunker" (1981), Berkeley Cole in the film "Out of Africa" (1985), the King of the United Kingdom in "To Play the King" (1993), an English land agent during the Irish Famine in "The Hanging Gale" (1995), and a recurring role as Bill Tanner in the Bond films "GoldenEye" (1995) and "The World Is Not Enough" (1999).


title: Michael Kitchen

text: His later films include "The Russia House" (1990), "Fools of Fortune" (1990), "Enchanted April" (1992), "The Trial" (1993), "Fatherland" (1994), "Doomsday Gun" (1994), "The Hanging Gale" (1995), "Kidnapped" (1995), "Mrs Dalloway" (1997), "The Railway Children" (2000), "Proof of Life" (2000), "Lorna Doone" (2001) and "My Week with Marilyn" (2011).


title: Michael Kitchen

text: Between 2002 and 2015, he starred in the ITV mystery-drama "Foyle's War" as the lead character DCS Christopher Foyle; he was also a producer for the show, which comprised eight series. His other noted appearances include "The Buccaneers" as Sir Helmsley Thwaite (1995), "Dandelion Dead" (1994), "A Royal Scandal" (1996), "The Last Contract" ("Sista Kontraktet", 1998) a Swedish film about the assassination of Prime Minister Olof Palme, Paul Abbott's "Alibi" in 2003, Andrew Davies' dramatization of "Falling" in 2005, ITV's three-part drama series "Mobile" (2007) and Channel 4's phone hacking comedy "Hacks" (2012).


title: Michael Kitchen

text: Kitchen has guest-starred in roles in other popular British television shows such as "Minder", "Chancer", "Inspector Morse", "A Touch of Frost", "Between the Lines", "Pie in the Sky" and "Dalziel and Pascoe".


title: Michael Kitchen

text: He played Richard Crane in "Reckless" and John Farrow in the mockumentary "The Life of Rock with Brian Pern".


title: Michael Kitchen

text: Kitchen is also a noted theatre actor. His roles have ranged from Ptolemy in "Caesar and Cleopatra" at the Belgrade Theatre in 1966, to Will in Howard Brenton's "Magnificence" at the Royal Court in 1973, to William Hogarth in Nick Dear's "The Art of Success" in 1986–87.


title: Michael Kitchen

text: He played Mercutio in "Romeo and Juliet" for the RSC at Stratford and was a member of the National Theatre Company and the Young Vic, where he played Iago in "Othello". In 1974 he appeared at Laurence Olivier's National Theatre in the play "Spring Awakening" opposite Peter Firth, Jenny Agutter, Beryl Reid and Cyril Cusack. Later he appeared opposite Sir Ralph Richardson and Sir John Gielgud in Harold Pinter's "No Man's Land", directed by Peter Hall. In 1981 he played Melchior, the manservant of Zangler, in Tom Stoppard's play "On the Razzle". In 1984 he played the cabin steward Dvornicheck in Tom Stoppard's play "Rough Crossing".


title: Joo Won

text: Joo Won (; born Moon Jun-won on September 30, 1987) is a South Korean actor best known for his roles in "King of Baking, Kim Takgu" (2010), "Ojakgyo Family" (2011), "Bridal Mask" (2012), "Good Doctor" (2013), "Fatal Intuition" (2015), "Yong-pal" (2015), "My Sassy Girl" (2017), and "Alice "(2020).


title: Joo Won

text: He studied at Kaywon High School of Arts and continued his education on Theatre and Arts in Sungkyunkwan University. In 2013, Joo Won announced that he would be furthering his studies at Konkuk University.


title: Joo Won

text: Upon making it into college, Joo Won's father came up with the stage name Joo Won for him as the Hangul pronunciation of the name sounds similar to "God-willing".


title: Joo Won

text: With his love for singing, he became involved in "Frees", a co-ed television performance group formed by SBS as part of a children's TV program. The show premiered in 2006, but Joo Won left the show quickly thereafter. Joo Won later auditioned for the stage musical "Altar Boyz", based on the American musical of the same name. This musical role was a first of many to come, as he later appeared in other musicals, namely "Singles", "Grease", "Sinsangnam" and most notably, "Spring Awakening".


title: Joo Won

text: Originally, Joo Won was the understudy for Melchior in "Spring Awakening". However, the original actor who played Melchior left the musical midway through the production, thus allowing Joo Won to perform later on in the production. His performance in "Spring Awakening" caught the attention of his future agency, Sim Entertainment.


title: Joo Won

text: Joo Won first appeared in the 2010 television drama "King of Baking, Kim Takgu" as the antagonist to the titular character. "King of Baking, Kim Takgu" recorded high viewership ratings of over 50%, earning "national drama" status, and Joo shot to fame.


title: Joo Won

text: He went on to star in the KBS2 weekend family drama "Ojakgyo Family" in 2011, opposite Uee. He took home the Best New Actor award at the KBS Drama Awards and Baeksang Arts Awards. The same year, Joo made his big-screen debut in the action crime film "S.I.U." alongside Uhm Tae-woong.


title: Joo Won

text: However, it was Joo's third small screen project "Bridal Mask" that truly propelled him to mainstream popularity. He portrayed a pro-Japanese Korean police officer by day and a masked vigilante who fights for Korean independence by night. For his role in "Bridal Mask", Joo Won took home the Excellence award and Popularity award at the 2012 KBS Drama Awards. The same year, he starred opposite Park Bo-young in the horror thriller "Don't Click", and joined the second season of the popular variety program "2 Days & 1 Night".


title: Joo Won

text: In 2013, Joo starred in MBC's drama "7th Grade Civil Servant", based on the action-romance movie "My Girlfriend Is an Agent". The same year, Joo was offered his most challenging role; an autistic savant who becomes a genius pediatric surgeon for KBS's medical drama "Good Doctor".


title: Joo Won

text: After four years of absence from the musical scene, Joo returned to the musical stage with the Korean version of "Ghost the Musical". Due to schedule conflicts, he has since stepped down from "2 Days & 1 Night" to concentrate on his acting career. In late 2013, Joo starred in the romantic comedy film "Steal My Heart" opposite Kim Ah-joong.


title: Joo Won

text: In 2014, Joo starred in "Fashion King", based on a popular webtoon of the same title. He returned to the small screen with "Naeil's Cantabile", the Korean adaptation of "Nodame Cantabile".


title: Joo Won

text: In 2015, Joo starred in action thriller "Yong-pal", alongside Kim Tae-hee. The drama garnered strong ratings and Joo won the Grand Prize (Daesang) at the SBS Drama Awards. He next starred in the thriller "Fatal Intuition", which opened at the top of the box office, earning more than 1 million ticket sales.


title: Joo Won

text: On November 3, 2015, Joo received the "Most Welcomed Actor" award at the second Asian Influence Awards Oriental Ceremony held in China. He then starred in the Korean-Chinese film "Sweet Sixteen", a romantic drama based on an Internet novel will depict the love story of three men and one woman.


title: Joo Won

text: Joo's final project before enlistment was "My Sassy Girl", a historical remake of the 2001 hit film. The television series premiered in 2017.


title: Joo Won

text: In 2020, Joo returned to television in the SBS science fiction romance drama "Alice". In 2022, he starred in the Netflix film "Carter" in the title role.


title: Joo Won

text: Joo Won started his mandatory military service on May 16, 2017. In June 2017, the actor completed his six-week basic training and became an assistant instructor for the 3rd Infantry Division.


title: Joo Won

text: During the military service, Joo Won emceed at the Armed Forces Festival 2017. He also participated at the 63rd Memorial Day Commemoration Ceremony on June 6, 2018


title: Joo Won

text: On February 5, 2019, Joo Won was discharged from the military after completion of 21 months of mandatory military service.


title: Silurian

text: The Silurian ( ) is a geologic period and system spanning 24.6 million years from the end of the Ordovician Period, at million years ago (Mya), to the beginning of the Devonian Period, Mya. The Silurian is the shortest period of the Paleozoic Era. As with other geologic periods, the rock beds that define the period's start and end are well identified, but the exact dates are uncertain by a few million years. The base of the Silurian is set at a series of major Ordovician–Silurian extinction events when up to 60% of marine genera were wiped out.


title: Silurian

text: One important event in this period was the initial establishment of terrestrial life in what is known as the Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution: vascular plants emerged from more primitive land plants, dikaryan fungi started expanding and diversifying along with glomeromycotan fungi, and three groups of arthropods (myriapods, arachnids and hexapods) became fully terrestrialized.


title: Silurian

text: A significant evolutionary milestone during the Silurian was the diversification of jawed fish and bony fish.


title: Silurian

text: The Silurian system was first identified by British geologist Roderick Murchison, who was examining fossil-bearing sedimentary rock strata in south Wales in the early 1830s. He named the sequences for a Celtic tribe of Wales, the Silures, inspired by his friend Adam Sedgwick, who had named the period of his study the Cambrian, from the Latin name for Wales. This naming does not indicate any correlation between the occurrence of the Silurian rocks and the land inhabited by the Silures (. , ). In 1835 the two men presented a joint paper, under the title "On the Silurian and Cambrian Systems, Exhibiting the Order in which the Older Sedimentary Strata Succeed each other in England and Wales," which was the germ of the modern geological time scale. As it was first identified, the "Silurian" series when traced farther afield quickly came to overlap Sedgwick's "Cambrian" sequence, however, provoking furious disagreements that ended the friendship.


title: Silurian

text: Charles Lapworth resolved the conflict by defining a new Ordovician system including the contested beds. An alternative name for the Silurian was ""Gotlandian"" after the strata of the Baltic island of Gotland.


title: Silurian

text: The French geologist Joachim Barrande, building on Murchison's work, used the term "Silurian" in a more comprehensive sense than was justified by subsequent knowledge. He divided the Silurian rocks of Bohemia into eight stages. His interpretation was questioned in 1854 by Edward Forbes, and the later stages of Barrande; F, G and H have since been shown to be Devonian. Despite these modifications in the original groupings of the strata, it is recognized that Barrande established Bohemia as a classic ground for the study of the earliest Silurian fossils.


title: Silurian

text: With the supercontinent Gondwana covering the equator and much of the southern hemisphere, a large ocean occupied most of the northern half of the globe. The high sea levels of the Silurian and the relatively flat land (with few significant mountain belts) resulted in a number of island chains, and thus a rich diversity of environmental settings.


title: Silurian

text: During the Silurian, Gondwana continued a slow southward drift to high southern latitudes, but there is evidence that the Silurian icecaps were less extensive than those of the late-Ordovician glaciation. The southern continents remained united during this period. The melting of icecaps and glaciers contributed to a rise in sea level, recognizable from the fact that Silurian sediments overlie eroded Ordovician sediments, forming an unconformity. The continents of Avalonia, Baltica, and Laurentia drifted together near the equator, starting the formation of a second supercontinent known as Euramerica.


title: Silurian

text: When the proto-Europe collided with North America, the collision folded coastal sediments that had been accumulating since the Cambrian off the east coast of North America and the west coast of Europe. This event is the Caledonian orogeny, a spate of mountain building that stretched from New York State through conjoined Europe and Greenland to Norway. At the end of the Silurian, sea levels dropped again, leaving telltale basins of evaporites extending from Michigan to West Virginia, and the new mountain ranges were rapidly eroded. The Teays River, flowing into the shallow mid-continental sea, eroded Ordovician Period strata, forming deposits of Silurian strata in northern Ohio and Indiana.


title: Silurian

text: The vast ocean of Panthalassa covered most of the northern hemisphere. Other minor oceans include two phases of the Tethys, the Proto-Tethys and Paleo-Tethys, the Rheic Ocean, the Iapetus Ocean (a narrow seaway between Avalonia and Laurentia), and the newly formed Ural Ocean.


title: Silurian

text: The Silurian period was once believed to have enjoyed relatively stable and warm temperatures, in contrast with the extreme glaciations of the Ordovician before it and the extreme heat of the ensuing Devonian; however, it is now known that the global climate underwent many drastic fluctuations throughout the Silurian, evidenced by numerous major carbon and oxygen isotope excursions during this geologic period. Sea levels rose from their Hirnantian low throughout the first half of the Silurian; they subsequently fell throughout the rest of the period, although smaller scale patterns are superimposed on this general trend; fifteen high-stands (periods when sea levels were above the edge of the continental shelf) can be identified, and the highest Silurian sea level was probably around higher than the lowest level reached.


title: Silurian

text: During this period, the Earth entered a warm greenhouse phase, supported by high CO levels of 4500 ppm, and warm shallow seas covered much of the equatorial land masses. Early in the Silurian, glaciers retreated back into the South Pole until they almost disappeared in the middle of Silurian. Layers of broken shells (called coquina) provide strong evidence of a climate dominated by violent storms generated then as now by warm sea surfaces.


title: Silurian

text: The climate and carbon cycle appear to be rather unsettled during the Silurian, which had a higher frequency of isotopic excursions (indicative of climate fluctuations) than any other period. The Ireviken event, Mulde event and Lau event each represent isotopic excursions following a minor mass extinction and associated with rapid sea-level change. Each one leaves a similar signature in the geological record, both geochemically and biologically; pelagic (free-swimming) organisms were particularly hard hit, as were brachiopods, corals and trilobites, and extinctions rarely occur in a rapid series of fast bursts. The climate fluctuations are best explained by a sequence of glaciations, but the lack of tillites in the middle to late Silurian make this explanation problematic.


title: Silurian

text: The Silurian was the first period to see megafossils of extensive terrestrial biota in the form of moss-like miniature forests along lakes and streams and networks of large, mycorrhizal nematophytes, heralding the beginning of the Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution. However, the land fauna did not have a major impact on the Earth until it diversified in the Devonian.


title: Silurian

text: The first fossil records of vascular plants, that is, land plants with tissues that carry water and food, appeared in the second half of the Silurian Period. The earliest-known representatives of this group are "Cooksonia". Most of the sediments containing "Cooksonia" are marine in nature. Preferred habitats were likely along rivers and streams. "Baragwanathia" appears to be almost as old, dating to the early Ludlow (420 million years) and has branching stems and needle-like leaves of . The plant shows a high degree of development in relation to the age of its fossil remains. Fossils of this plant have been recorded in Australia, Canada, and China. "Eohostimella heathana" is an early, probably terrestrial, "plant" known from compression fossils of Early Silurian (Llandovery) age. The chemistry of its fossils is similar to that of fossilised vascular plants, rather than algae.


title: Silurian

text: The earliest-known animals fully adapted to terrestrial conditions appear during the Mid-Silurian, including the millipede "Pneumodesmus". Some evidence also suggests the presence of predatory trigonotarbid arachnoids and myriapods in Late Silurian facies. Predatory invertebrates would indicate that simple food webs were in place that included non-predatory prey animals. Extrapolating back from Early Devonian biota, Andrew Jeram "et al." in 1990 suggested a food web based on as-yet-undiscovered detritivores and grazers on micro-organisms.