title: Hookup culture

text: Cable television is filled with reality shows that depict an image of partying and glorified hookups, one of the most well known shows being MTV's Jersey Shore. Studies have found that about 35% of sexual behavior on cable television is with people "who are not in established committed relationships." In television, sexual monogamy differs by gender, which suggests men stray away from commitment, and women desire it. That further suggesting that masculinity is equal to sex and possibly leads male viewers to be more accepting of hookup culture.


title: Hookup culture

text: As the cost of personal computers dropped and online access has increased, Heldman and Wade, along with others, argue that internet pornography has "emerged as a primary influence on young people's, especially men's, attitudes towards sex and their own sexuality." Heldman and Wade believe that the increase of access to pornography via the internet is what "spurred" hookup culture, in part by challenging the idea that "good sex" takes place in a monogamous relationship. Feminist Gail Dines has opined that pornography is "a cultural force that is shaping the sexual attitudes of an entire generation" and a "major form of sex ed today for boys."


title: Hookup culture

text: There are many ideas as to why people think young adults are involved in hookup culture, such as that they feel like they have to do it to fit in. Some girls also reported that the main reason that they are involved with random hookups is because they think that is what boys want. The feeling of being wanted by a cute guy is what they want and hookups are how girls think that they can get that attention. However, many boys and girls reported that they do hookup with random people to find someone with whom they could possibly start something serious. That being said, not all young adults are hooking up with each other to fit the college norm and gain sexual pleasure, but some truly want to find someone with whom they have a serious connection. There was a study by University of Louisville researchers Owen and Fincham, who asked 500 undergraduate students that have been involved in hookup culture how they felt about commitment. About 45% of men and 65% of women said they wanted their hookups to possibly end up in a serious relationship.


title: Hookup culture

text: There have also been a number of studies that have studied the mental aspects of casual hookups. A study done by psychologist Seth Schwartz has shown results that people who had many random hookups had more psychological issues. For instance, students in college that had stated they were involved in casual sex had higher levels of depression and anxiety and lower levels of self-esteem, happiness and life satisfaction compared to the students who did not engage in a casual hookup in the past thirty days. There was then a study of about 400 young adults that felt lonely and depressed and adults who had less feeling of loneliness and depression who were involved in sexual intercourse. They then researched what emotional affects being involved in sexual intercourse hookups had on them. They came up with results that showed that penetrative sex hookups made people with greater feelings of depression and loneliness have a decrease in those symptoms and feelings. People who expressed fewer symptoms of loneliness and depression had an increase in those feelings after a penetrative sex hookup. It makes people feel depressed but also uncomfortable. For example, a study by Reiber and Garcia in 2010 show that many people who engage in sexual hookups feel uncomfortable. They also comcluded that 78% of people in a hookup overestimate how comfortable their partner is doing certain things during their sexual engagement. Random hookups also have shown to cause feelings of pressure and performance anxiety in a study by Paul, et al.


title: Hookup culture

text: The continuation of the sexual double standard between men and women may be due to the motivations behind men's and women's hook ups. The sexual marketplace makes it seem that women hold all of the power, but most women report engaging in casual sex to satisfy their partners and increase the possibility of it turning into a long-term, monogamous relationship in which men use casual sex to increase their sexual experience and explore themselves before they are tied down by marriage.


title: Hookup culture

text: The majority of academic research about hookup culture focuses on the psychological, biological, and societal influences on an individual's inclination to engage in uncommitted sex, but some scholars have examined theories of communication and how they relate to hook-up culture.


title: Hookup culture

text: The premise behind John Bowlby's attachment theory is to "describe the behaviors that humans use to relate to one another." Attachment theory suggests people develop an attachment style during childhood and then carry it into adulthood, where it can have impacts on the relationships they form. Researcher Mary Ainsworth identified different attachment styles and suggested that they can influence someone's relational and sexual behavior. In one analysis, these attachment styles were applied to explain how homosexual men behave sexually. For example, gay men with an anxious-ambivalent attachment style (an individual made uncomfortable by "close emotional relationships, but will desperately try to seek out reassurance from another person") might be more reluctant to use condoms during sexual intercourse because they believe that will make them feel more wanted by their partner. Meanwhile, a gay man with an anxious-avoidant attachment style (an individual who does not like to get close to others) will most likely try to remain disconnected from his partner for fear of becoming too close or intimate.


title: Hookup culture

text: How cultural norms affects someone's sexual habits and behavior is defined as sexual script theory. Researchers John Gagnon and William Simon originally developed the concept and suggested these scripts serve as "guides for behavior." The scripts can help individuals determine what is and is not appropriate based on surrounding cultural influences. In the United States, the script includes "kissing, then sexual touching, and ultimately culminates in sexual intercourse (i.e., the 'bases')." The sexual scripts also help define gender roles and explain the actions that both males and females take in hookups and uncommitted sexual encounters.


title: Hookup culture

text: Casual sexual scripts have emerged as a subset of traditional sexual scripts. The traditional dating script follows a formal pattern and heteronormative gender roles. The casual script is perceived as less formal and lacks clarity.


title: Hookup culture

text: Hookups seem to offer a chance to break away from normative dating patterns. Research on friends with benefits relationships contradicts this perception. Some women seek to flip the gender scripts and behave as a powerful man might with casual relationships. They suppress their emotions and in turn feel a lack of power and control. Reverting to characteristics of traditional sexual scripts, women may find themselves further entrenched in unwanted gender roles.


title: Hookup culture

text: Mediated sexual scripts portray two different narratives for men and women. The male script portrays sex as uncomplicated, fun, and expected. The female sexual script emphasizes the need for caution and expectation of criticism. When viewed, the mediated scripts encode into personal sexual script and influence behavior. The results of a study looking at first-year college students supported that claim. Male students were likely to endorse or take part in hookup culture if they had viewed such scripts.


title: Hookup culture

text: The concept of cultivation theory suggests "media influence people indirectly." Researchers suggest that how media portray sexual activity of different age groups is disproportionate to reality. Someone who consumes a variety of media will demonstrate such influences when they are confronted with hookups or uncommitted sexual scenarios.


title: Hookup culture

text: Most research regarding hookup culture has been reliant on conducting interviews and surveys with sexually active individuals, particularly those at a high school or college level. Each investigator's set of questions, however, has served a different purpose in the overall analysis of hookup culture.


title: Hookup culture

text: Scholars have expressed the difficulty of defining a "hookup" since it has different meanings, based on cultural norms and personal preferences. Researchers like Kathleen Bogle and Donna Freitas have interviewed males and females, both separately and together, to gain a better understanding of the hookup culture on campuses in the United States. Their studies have focused on how the growing hookup culture has shaped the trajectory of dating and forming relationships, and they have also aimed to gain a better understanding of the difference in sexual scripts between men and women. They have also used this data to help further explain what specific actions and behaviors constitute a hookup.


title: Hookup culture

text: Another avenue of research has studied the influences of dating websites and mobile dating apps on hookup culture. Scholar Carey Noland suggests the advent of finding hookups or dates through the Internet has made talking about sex easier because of the possibility to "skip the small talk" and not needing to worry about the normal "barriers" of saving face by talking to someone online. Additional research has analyzed hookup patterns to see how mobile app developers have catered to their potential users. For example, the creators of Grindr capitalized on the increased sexual desires among gay men to base its app on locational awareness. That paved the way for apps in which users can find connections and meet up with people, who are often right around the corner.


title: Hookup culture

text: Research conducted on hook-up culture has also been applied to scientific studies about sexually-transmitted infections. Knowing more information about a man's or a woman's behavior during casual sex has increased the understanding of how STIs are contracted, whether it is through oral sex or sexual intercourse and how frequently or infrequently individuals take steps to prevent them. By interviewing individuals who engage in hookups, scholars have been able to better address health risk perceptions or the lack thereof. Researchers have also applied their findings to study the potential psychological effects of hookups, including feelings of depression or regret.


title: Hookup culture

text: According to a 2004 peer-reviewed study published in the "Journal of Marriage and Family" found that women who have more than one premarital sexual relationship have a higher likelihood in the long run of disruptions if ever married, with this effect being the "strongest for women who have multiple premarital coresidential unions". Kahn and London (1991) found that premarital sex and divorce are positively correlated. According to a 2014 report, couples that began as hook-ups tended to have lower marital quality than couples who had not begun as a hook up.


title: Hookup culture

text: Experts have suggested several areas for future research, including additional studies about how members of the LGBTQ community are impacted and have been affected by hookup culture. Researcher Kathleen Bogle highlights another area of study; she says a new focus should be on individuals who choose not to participate in hookups and how they are "affected by the dominant hookup culture that surrounds them." Finally, a third avenue for future research could include an analytical view of individuals who use apps like Grindr or Tinder with hopes of finding connections or developing relationships, rather than using them for the more common use of casual hookups.


title: Hookup culture

text: Several scholars have critiqued how outside influences have shaped or contributed to hookup culture as a whole.


title: Hookup culture

text: Many ideas and beliefs about the growing hookup culture suggest that the act of engaging in uncommitted sex is found primarily among teenagers or college students. Teenagers and college students may be sexually active, but it is important to understand that other age and social groups take part in casual sex too. One of the reasons for that disconnect is the misrepresentation of sexual activity among certain age groups in media. In television, teens are most commonly shown to be sexually active, and it is rare to see any kind of sexual activity portrayed for individuals aged 65 or older. Further research shows, however, that that is opposite of the "actual" sexual activity reported among those age groups.


title: Hookup culture

text: The stereotypes and different sexual scripts of males and females in hookups have also been influenced greatly by different media like movies, television, and pornography. In the media, women are frequently depicted as "sexual objects" and men portrayed as "there to objectify them."


title: Hookup culture

text: On another note, scholars suggest the reality of emotional risks associated with hooking up can be linked to a lack of conversation or discussion about them. When discussing sex with adolescents, both parents and sex education programs tend to focus on the health risks, like STIs and pregnancy, but the exchanges rarely highlight the "emotions that occur from sexual experiences." The conversations seldom present information about motives for engaging in sex aside from reproduction and rarely acknowledge the positive emotions associated with that type of activity like physical pleasure. The imbalance of information regarding sexual behavior and activity has also contributed to the sexual scripts that are seen in hookup culture today.


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: Virginia Eliza Poe (née Clemm; August 15, 1822 – January 30, 1847) was the wife of American writer Edgar Allan Poe. The couple were first cousins and publicly married when Virginia Clemm was 13 and Poe was 27. Biographers disagree as to the nature of the couple's relationship. Though their marriage was loving, some biographers suggest they viewed one another more like a brother and sister. In January 1842, she contracted tuberculosis, growing worse for five years until she died of the disease at the age of 24 in the family's cottage, at that time outside New York City.


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: Along with other family members, Virginia Clemm and Edgar Allan Poe lived together off and on for several years before their marriage. The couple often moved to accommodate Poe's employment, living intermittently in Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York. A few years after their wedding, Poe was involved in a substantial scandal involving Frances Sargent Osgood and Elizabeth F. Ellet. Rumors about amorous improprieties on her husband's part affected Virginia Poe so much that on her deathbed she claimed that Ellet had murdered her. After her death, her body was eventually placed under the same memorial marker as her husband's in Westminster Hall and Burying Ground in Baltimore, Maryland. Only one image of Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe has been authenticated: a watercolor portrait painted several hours after her death.


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: The disease and eventual death of his wife had a substantial effect on Edgar Allan Poe, who became despondent and turned to alcohol to cope. Her struggles with illness and death are believed to have affected his poetry and prose, where dying young women appear as a frequent motif, as in "Annabel Lee", "The Raven", and "Ligeia".


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: Virginia Eliza Clemm was born in 1822 and named after an older sister who had died at age two only ten days earlier. Her father William Clemm, Jr. was a hardware merchant in Baltimore. He had married Maria Poe, Virginia's mother, on July 12, 1817, after the death of his first wife, Maria's first cousin Harriet. Clemm had five children from his previous marriage and went on to have three more with Maria. After his death in 1826, he left very little to the family and relatives offered no financial support because they had opposed the marriage. Maria supported the family by sewing and taking in boarders, aided with an annual $240 pension granted to her mother Elizabeth Cairnes, who was paralyzed and bedridden. Elizabeth received this pension on behalf of her late husband, "General" David Poe, a former quartermaster in Maryland who had loaned money to the state.


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: Edgar Poe first met his cousin Virginia in August 1829, four months after his discharge from the Army. She was seven at the time. In 1832, the family—made up of Elizabeth, Maria, Virginia, and Virginia's brother Henry—was able to use Elizabeth's pension to rent a home at what was then 3 North Amity Street in Baltimore. Poe's older brother William Henry Leonard Poe, who had been living with the family, had recently died on August 1, 1831. Poe joined the household in 1833 and was soon smitten by a neighbor named Mary Devereaux. The young Virginia served as a messenger between the two, at one point retrieving a lock of Devereaux's hair to give to Poe. Elizabeth Cairnes Poe died on July 7, 1835, effectively ending the family's income and making their financial situation even more difficult. Henry died around this time, sometime before 1836, leaving Virginia as Maria Clemm's only surviving child.


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: In August 1835, Poe left the destitute family behind and moved to Richmond, Virginia to take a job at the "Southern Literary Messenger". While Poe was away from Baltimore, another cousin, Neilson Poe, the husband of Virginia's half-sister Josephine Clemm, heard that Edgar was considering marrying Virginia. Neilson offered to take her in and have her educated in an attempt to prevent the girl's marriage to Edgar at such a young age, though suggesting that the option could be reconsidered later. Edgar called Neilson, the owner of a newspaper in Baltimore, Maryland, his "bitterest enemy" and interpreted his cousin's actions as an attempt at breaking his connection with Virginia. On August 29, 1835, Edgar wrote an emotional letter to Maria, declaring that he was "blinded with tears while writing", and pleading that she allow Virginia to make her own decision. Encouraged by his employment at the "Southern Literary Messenger", Poe offered to provide financially for Maria, Virginia, and Henry if they moved to Richmond.


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: Marriage plans were confirmed and Poe returned to Baltimore to file for a marriage license on September 22, 1835. The couple might have been quietly married as well, though accounts are unclear. Their only public ceremony was in Richmond on May 16, 1836, when they were married by a Presbyterian minister named Rev. Amasa Converse. Poe was 27 and Virginia was 13, though her age was listed as 21. This marriage bond was filed in Richmond and included an affidavit from Thomas W. Cleland confirming the bride's alleged age. The ceremony was held in the evening at the home of a Mrs. James Yarrington, the owner of the boarding house in which Poe, Virginia, and Virginia's mother Maria Clemm were staying. Yarrington helped Maria Clemm bake the wedding cake and prepared a wedding meal. The couple then had a short honeymoon in Petersburg, Virginia.


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: Debate has raged regarding how unusual this pairing was based on the couple's age and blood relationship. Noted Poe biographer Arthur Hobson Quinn argues it was not particularly unusual, nor was Poe's nicknaming his wife "Sissy" or "Sis". Another Poe biographer, Kenneth Silverman, contends that though their first-cousin marriage was not unusual, her young age was. It has been suggested that Clemm and Poe had a relationship more like that between brother and sister than between husband and wife. Biographer Arthur Hobson Quinn disagreed with this view, citing a fervent love letter to argue that Poe "loved his little cousin not only with the affection of a brother, but also with the passionate devotion of a lover and prospective husband." Some scholars, including Marie Bonaparte, have read many of Poe's works as autobiographical and have concluded that Virginia died a virgin. It has been speculated that she and her husband never consummated their marriage, although no evidence is given. This interpretation often assumes that Virginia is represented by the title character in the poem "Annabel Lee": a "maiden... by the name of Annabel Lee". Poe biographer Joseph Wood Krutch suggests that Poe did not need women "in the way that normal men need them", but only as a source of inspiration and care, and that Poe was never interested in women sexually. Friends of Poe suggested that the couple did not share a bed for at least the first two years of their marriage but that, from the time she turned 16, they had a "normal" married life until the onset of her illness.


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: Virginia and Poe were by all accounts a happy and devoted couple. Poe's one-time employer George Rex Graham wrote of their relationship: "His love for his wife was a sort of rapturous worship of the spirit of beauty." Poe once wrote to a friend, "I see no one among the living as beautiful as my little wife." She, in turn, by many contemporary accounts, nearly idolized her husband. She often sat close to him while he wrote, kept his pens in order, and folded and addressed his manuscripts. She showed her love for Poe in an acrostic poem she composed when she was 23, dated February 14, 1846:


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: The "tattling of many tongues" in Virginia's Valentine poem was a reference to actual incidents. In 1845, Poe had begun a flirtation with Frances Sargent Osgood, a married 34-year-old poet. Virginia was aware of the friendship and might even have encouraged it. She often invited Osgood to visit them at home, believing that the older woman had a "restraining" effect on Poe, who had made a promise to "give up the use of stimulants" and was never drunk in Osgood's presence.


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: At the same time, another poet, Elizabeth F. Ellet, became enamored of Poe and jealous of Osgood. Though, in a letter to Sarah Helen Whitman, Poe called her love for him "loathsome" and wrote that he "could do nothing but repel [it] with scorn", he printed many of her poems to him in the "Broadway Journal" while he was its editor. Ellet was known for being meddlesome and vindictive, and, while visiting the Poe household in late January 1846, she saw one of Osgood's personal letters to Poe. According to Ellet, Virginia pointed out "fearful paragraphs" in Osgood's letter. Ellet contacted Osgood and suggested she should beware of her indiscretions and asked Poe to return her letters, motivated either by jealousy or by a desire to cause scandal. Osgood then sent Margaret Fuller and Anne Lynch Botta to ask Poe on her behalf to return the letters. Angered by their interference, Poe called them "Busy-bodies" and said that Ellet had better "look after her "own" letters", suggesting indiscretion on her part. He then gathered up these letters from Ellet and left them at her house.


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: Though these letters had already been returned to her, Ellet asked her brother "to "demand of me the letters"". Her brother, Colonel William Lummis, did not believe that Poe had already returned them and threatened to kill him. In order to defend himself, Poe requested a pistol from Thomas Dunn English. English, Poe's friend and a minor writer who was also a trained doctor and lawyer, likewise did not believe that Poe had already returned the letters and even questioned their existence. The easiest way out of the predicament, he said, "was a retraction of unfounded charges". Angered at being called a liar, Poe pushed English into a fistfight. Poe later claimed he was triumphant in the fight, though English claimed otherwise, and Poe's face was badly cut by one of English's rings. In Poe's version, he said, "I gave E. a flogging which he will remember to the day of his death." Either way, the fight further sparked gossip over the Osgood affair.


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: Osgood's husband stepped in and threatened to sue Ellet unless she formally apologized for her insinuations. She retracted her statements in a letter to Osgood saying, "The letter shown me by Mrs Poe "must have been a forgery"" created by Poe himself. She put all the blame on Poe, suggesting the incident was because Poe was "intemperate and subject to acts of lunacy". Ellet spread the rumor of Poe's insanity, which was taken up by other enemies of Poe and reported in newspapers. The St. Louis "Reveille" reported: "A rumor is in circulation in New York, to the effect that Mr. Edgar A. Poe, the poet and author, has been deranged, and his friends are about to place him under the charge of Dr. Brigham of the Insane Retreat at Utica." The scandal eventually died down only when Osgood reunited with her husband. Virginia, however, had been very affected by the whole affair. She had received anonymous letters about her husband's alleged indiscretions as early as July 1845. It is presumed that Ellet was involved with these letters, and they so disturbed Virginia that she allegedly declared on her deathbed that "Mrs. E. had been [her] murderer."


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: By this time, Virginia had developed tuberculosis, first seen sometime in the middle of January 1842. While singing and playing the piano, Virginia began to bleed from the mouth, though Poe said that she merely "ruptured a blood-vessel". Her health declined and she became an invalid, which drove Poe into a deep depression, especially as she occasionally showed signs of improvement. In a letter to a friend, Poe described his resulting mental state: "Each time I felt all the agonies of her death—and at each accession of the disorder I loved her more dearly & clung to her life with more desperate pertinacity. But I am constitutionally sensitive—nervous in a very unusual degree. I became insane, with long intervals of horrible sanity."


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: Virginia's condition might have been what prompted the Poe family to move, in the hopes of finding a healthier environment for her. They moved several times within Philadelphia in the early 1840s and their last home in that city is now preserved as the Edgar Allan Poe National Historic Site in Spring Garden. In this home, Virginia was well enough to tend the flower garden and entertain visitors by playing the harp or the piano and singing. The family then moved to New York sometime in early April 1844, traveling by train and steamboat. Virginia waited onboard the ship while her husband secured space at a boarding house on Greenwich Street. By early 1846, family friend Elizabeth Oakes Smith said that Virginia admitted, "I know I shall die soon; I know I can't get well; but I want to be as happy as possible, and make Edgar happy." She promised her husband that after her death she would be his guardian angel.


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: In May 1846, the family (Poe, Virginia, and her mother, Maria) moved to a small cottage in Fordham, about fourteen miles outside the city, a home which is still standing today. In what is the only surviving letter from Poe to Virginia, dated June 12, 1846, he urged her to remain optimistic: "Keep up your heart in all hopelessness, and trust yet a little longer." Of his recent loss of the "Broadway Journal", the only magazine Poe ever owned, he said, "I should have lost my courage "but for you"—my darling little wife you are my "greatest" and "only" stimulus now to battle with this uncongenial, unsatisfactory and ungrateful life." But by November of that year, Virginia's condition was hopeless. Her symptoms included irregular appetite, flushed cheeks, unstable pulse, night sweats, high fever, sudden chills, shortness of breath, chest pains, coughing and spitting up blood.


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: Nathaniel Parker Willis, a friend of Poe's and an influential editor, published an announcement on December 30, 1846, requesting help for the family, though his facts were not entirely correct:


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: Willis, who had not corresponded with Poe for two years and had since lost his own wife, was one of his greatest supporters in this period. He sent Poe and his wife an inspirational Christmas book, "The Marriage Ring; or How to Make a Home Happy".


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: The announcement was similar to one made for Poe's mother, Eliza Poe, during her last stages of tuberculosis. Other newspapers picked up on the story: "Great God!", said one, "is it possible, that the literary people of the Union, will let poor Poe perish by starvation and lean faced beggary in New York? For so we are led to believe, from frequent notices in the papers, stating that Poe and his wife are both down upon a bed of misery, death, and disease, with not a ducat in the world." The "Saturday Evening Post" asserted that Virginia was in a hopeless condition and that Poe was bereft: "It is said that Edgar A. Poe is lying dangerously with brain fever, and that his wife is in the last stages of consumption—they are without money and without friends." Even editor Hiram Fuller, whom Poe had previously sued for libel, attempted in the "New York Mirror" to garner support for Poe and his wife: "We, whom he has quarrelled with, will take the lead", he wrote.


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: Virginia was described as having dark hair and violet eyes, with skin so pale it was called "pure white", causing a "bad complexion that spoiled her looks". One visitor to the Poe family noted that "the rose-tint upon her cheek was too bright", possibly a symptom of her illness. Another visitor in Fordham wrote, "Mrs. Poe looked very young; she had large black eyes, and a pearly whiteness of complexion, which was a perfect pallor. Her pale face, her brilliant eyes, and her raven hair gave her an unearthly look." That unearthly look was mentioned by others who suggested it made her look not quite human. William Gowans, who once lodged with the family, described Virginia as a woman of "matchless beauty and loveliness, her eye could match that of any houri, and her face defy the genius of a Canova to imitate". She might have been a little plump. Many contemporary accounts as well as modern biographers remark on her childlike appearance even in the last years of her life.


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: While dying, Virginia asked her mother: "Darling... will you console and take care of my poor Eddy—you will "never never" leave him?" Her mother stayed with Poe until his own death in 1849. As Virginia was dying, the family received many visitors, including an old friend named Mary Starr. At one point Virginia put Starr's hand in Poe's and asked her to "be a friend to Eddy, and don't forsake him". Virginia was tended to by 25-year-old Marie Louise Shew. Shew, who served as a nurse, knew medical care from her father and her husband, both doctors. She provided Virginia with a comforter as her only other cover was Poe's old military cloak, as well as bottles of wine, which the invalid drank "smiling, even when difficult to get it down". Virginia also showed Poe a letter from Louisa Patterson, second wife of Poe's foster-father John Allan, which she had kept for years and which suggested that Patterson had purposely caused the break between Allan and Poe.


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: On January 29, 1847, Poe wrote to Marie Louise Shew: "My poor Virginia still lives, although failing fast and now suffering much pain."


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: Virginia died the following day, January 30, after five years of illness. Shew helped in organizing her funeral, even purchasing the coffin. Death notices appeared in several newspapers. On February 1, The New York "Daily Tribune" and the "Herald" carried the simple obituary: "On Saturday, the 30th ult., of pulmonary consumption, in the 25th year of her age, VIRGINIA ELIZA, wife of EDGAR A. POE." The funeral was February 2, 1847. Attendees included Nathaniel Parker Willis, Ann S. Stephens, and publisher George Pope Morris. Poe refused to look at his dead wife's face, saying he preferred to remember her living. Though now buried at Westminster Hall and Burying Ground, Virginia was originally buried in a vault owned by the Valentine family, from whom the Poes rented their Fordham cottage.


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: Only one image of Virginia is known to exist, for which the painter had to take her corpse as model. A few hours after her death, Poe realized he had no image of Virginia and so commissioned a portrait in watercolor. She is shown wearing "beautiful linen" that Shew said she had dressed her in; Shew might have been the portrait's artist, though this is uncertain. The image depicts her with a slight double chin and with hazel eyes. The image was passed down to the family of Virginia's half-sister Josephine, wife of Neilson Poe.


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: In 1875, the same year in which her husband's body was reburied, the cemetery in which she lay was destroyed and her remains were almost forgotten. An early Poe biographer, William Gill, gathered the bones and stored them in a box he hid under his bed. Gill's story was reported in the "Boston Herald" twenty-seven years after the event: he says that he had visited the Fordham cemetery in 1883 at exactly the moment that the sexton Dennis Valentine held Virginia's bones in his shovel, ready to throw them away as unclaimed. Poe himself had died in 1849, and so Gill took Virginia's remains and, after corresponding with Neilson Poe and John Prentiss Poe in Baltimore, arranged to bring the box down to be laid on Poe's left side in a small bronze casket. Virginia's remains were finally buried with her husband's on January 19, 1885—the seventy-sixth anniversary of her husband's birth and nearly ten years after his current monument was erected. The same man who served as sexton during Poe's original burial and his exhumations and reburials was also present at the rites which brought his body to rest with Virginia and Virginia's mother Maria Clemm.


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: Virginia's death had a significant effect on Poe. After her death, Poe was deeply saddened for several months. A friend said of him, "the loss of his wife was a sad blow to him. He did not seem to care, after she was gone, whether he lived an hour, a day, a week or a year; she was his all." A year after her death, he wrote to a friend that he had experienced the greatest evil a man can suffer when, he said, "a wife, whom I loved as no man ever loved before", had fallen ill. While Virginia was still struggling to recover, Poe turned to alcohol after abstaining for quite some time. How often and how much he drank is a controversial issue, debated in Poe's lifetime and also by modern biographers. Poe referred to his emotional response to his wife's sickness as his own illness, and that he found the cure to it "in the "death" of my wife. This I can & do endure as becomes a man—it was the horrible never-ending oscillation between hope & despair which I could "not" longer have endured without the total loss of reason".


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: Poe regularly visited Virginia's grave. As his friend Charles Chauncey Burr wrote, "Many times, after the death of his beloved wife, was he found at the dead hour of a winter night, sitting beside her tomb almost frozen in the snow". Shortly after Virginia's death, Poe courted several other women, including Nancy Richmond of Lowell, Massachusetts, Sarah Helen Whitman of Providence, Rhode Island, and childhood sweetheart Sarah Elmira Royster in Richmond. Even so, Frances Sargent Osgood, whom Poe also attempted to woo, believed "that [Virginia] was the only woman whom he ever loved".


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: Many of Poe's works are interpreted autobiographically, with much of his work believed to reflect Virginia's long struggle with tuberculosis and her eventual death. The most discussed example is "Annabel Lee". This poem, which depicts a dead young bride and her mourning lover, is often assumed to have been inspired by Virginia, though other women in Poe's life are potential candidates including Frances Sargent Osgood and Sarah Helen Whitman. A similar poem, "Ulalume", is also believed to be a memorial tribute to Virginia, as is "Lenore", whose title character is described as "the most lovely dead that ever died so young!" After Poe's death, George Gilfillan of the London-based "Critic" said Poe was responsible for his wife's death, "hurrying her to a premature grave, that he might write 'Annabel Lee' and 'The Raven'". However, "The Raven" was written and published two years before Virginia's death.


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: Virginia is also seen in Poe's prose. The short story "Eleonora" (1842)—which features a narrator preparing to marry his cousin, with whom he lives alongside her mother—may also refer to Virginia's illness. When Poe wrote it, his wife had just begun to show signs of her illness. It was shortly thereafter that the couple moved to New York City by boat and Poe published "The Oblong Box" (1844). This story, which shows a man mourning his young wife while transporting her corpse by boat, seems to suggest Poe's feelings about Virginia's impending death. As the ship sinks, the husband would rather die than be separated from his wife's corpse. The short story "Ligeia", whose title character suffers a slow and lingering death, may also be inspired by Virginia. After his wife's death, Poe edited his first published story, "Metzengerstein", to remove the narrator's line, "I would wish all I love to perish of that gentle disease", a reference to tuberculosis.


title: Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

text: In track 9 of their 2008 debut album "Le Pop", Norwegian band Katzenjammer performed a song entitled "Virginia Clemm". Set to the tune of a musical clock, the song's lyrics refer to Virginia's early marriage at 13 years of age ("He was a child I was a child / Sentimental and wild"), to her husband's alleged affairs ("The other woman to explain / Her letters I deplore"), to her untimely death ("For twelve short years / We lived out of health"), to the band's perceived obsessions of Poe's subsequent obsession with his wife's death ("Heir of my illness / Writer of all the stories and the words / That I'm haunting / That I'm haunting") as well as alluding, in the last verse ("And I'll leave you nevermore"), to the poem "The Raven".


title: Chad Hugo

text: Charles Edward Hugo (born February 24, 1974) is an American record producer, multi-instrumentalist, singer and songwriter. With close friend Pharrell Williams, he formed the production duo the Neptunes in the early 1990s, with whom he has produced songs for many recording artists. He is also a member of the band N.E.R.D, alongside Williams and Shay Haley.


title: Chad Hugo

text: Hugo and Williams were announced to be inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame as a part of the 2020 class.


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: "Sunday Bloody Sunday" is a song by Irish rock band U2. It is the opening track from their 1983 album "War" and was released as the album's third single on 21 March 1983 in the Netherlands and West Germany. "Sunday Bloody Sunday" is noted for its militaristic drumbeat, harsh guitar, and melodic harmonies. One of U2's most overtly political songs, its lyrics describe the horror felt by an observer of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, mainly focusing on the 1972 Bloody Sunday incident in Derry where British troops shot and killed unarmed civil rights protesters. Along with "New Year's Day", the song helped U2 reach a wider listening audience. It was generally well received by critics on the album's release.


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: The song has remained a staple of U2's live concerts. During its earliest performances, the song created controversy. Lead singer Bono reasserted the song's anti-sectarian-violence message to his audience for many years. Today, it is considered one of U2's signature songs, and is one of the band's most performed tracks. Critics rate it among the best political protest songs, and it has been covered by over a dozen artists. In 2004, it was ranked 268th on "Rolling Stone"s list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time".


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: "Sunday Bloody Sunday" grew from a guitar riff and lyric written by the Edge in 1982. While newlyweds Bono and Ali Hewson honeymooned in Jamaica, the Edge worked in Ireland on music for the band's upcoming album. Following an argument with his girlfriend, and a period of doubt in his own song-writing abilities, the Edge—"feeling depressed... channelled [his] fear and frustration and self-loathing into a piece of music." This early draft did not yet have a title or chorus melody, but did contain a structural outline and theme. After Bono had reworked the lyrics, the band recorded the song at Windmill Lane Studios in Dublin. During the sessions, producer Steve Lillywhite encouraged drummer Larry Mullen Jr. to use a click track, but Mullen was firmly against the idea. A chance meeting with Andy Newmark of Sly & the Family Stone – a drummer who used a click track religiously – changed Mullen's mind. The opening drum pattern soon developed into the song's hook. A local violinist, Steve Wickham, approached the Edge one morning at a bus stop and asked if U2 had any need for a violin on their next album. In the studio for only half a day, Wickham's electric violin became the final instrumental contribution to the song.


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: The direct impetus for the lyrics was an encounter with Provisional IRA supporters in New York City. As a promotional gimmick, U2 manager Paul McGuinness had made arrangements for the band to appear in the 1982 St. Patrick's Day parade. However, he later found that there was a possibility that Bobby Sands, an IRA hunger striker who had starved to death the previous year, would be the parade's honorary marshal. As they felt that the IRA's tactics were prolonging the fighting in Northern Ireland, McGuinness and the band members mutually decided they should withdraw from the parade. McGuinness met with one of the parade's organizers in a New York bar to arrange the cancellation, and ended up in a heated debate about the IRA. McGuinness recalled, "He kept telling me to keep my voice down. The place was full of New York policemen – Irish cops – and he thought I was going to get us killed."


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: We're into the politics of people, we're not into politics. Like you talk about Northern Ireland, 'Sunday Bloody Sunday,' people sort of think, 'Oh, that time when 13 Catholics were shot by British soldiers'; that's not what the song is about. That's an incident, the most famous incident in Northern Ireland and it's the strongest way of saying, 'How long? How long do we have to put up with this?' I don't care who's who – Catholics, Protestants, whatever. You know people are dying every single day through bitterness and hate, and we're saying why? What's the point? And you can move that into places like El Salvador and other similar situations – people dying. Let's forget the politics, let's stop shooting each other and sit around the table and talk about it... There are a lot of bands taking sides saying politics is crap, etc. Well, so what! The real battle is people dying, that's the real battle.


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: "Sunday Bloody Sunday" is played at a tempo of 103 beats per minute in a time signature. The song opens with a militaristic drumbeat and electric violin part; the aggressive snare drum rhythm closely resembles a beat used to keep a military band in step. The distinctive drum sound was achieved by recording Mullen's drumwork at the base of a staircase, producing a more natural reverb. It is followed by the Edge's repeating arpeggios (see notation at left). The riff, which follows a Bm–D–G chord progression, establishes the minor chord territory of the piece. As the song progresses, the lyrics and guitar become more furious. The guitar riff has been described as the "bone-crushing arena-rock riff of the decade" by "Rolling Stone". A bass drum kick on every beat provides the musical foundation until the first chorus, when Adam Clayton's bass guitar enters.


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: In contrast to the violent nature of the verses, the emergence of major chords creates a feeling of hope during Bono's "How long, how long must we sing this song?" refrain. During the chorus, the Edge's backing vocals further develop this tread, using a harmonic imitative echo. The snare drum is absent from this section, and the guitar parts are muted. This part of the song deviates musically from the raw aggression seen in the song's verses and gives the song a more uplifting structure. Bono once commented that "love is...a central theme" of "Sunday Bloody Sunday"


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: The band have said the lyrics refer to the events of both Bloody Sunday in 1972 and Bloody Sunday in 1920, but are not specifically about either event. The song takes the standpoint of someone horrified by the cycle of violence in the province. Bono rewrote the Edge's initial lyrics, attempting to contrast the two events with Easter Sunday, but he has said that the band were too inexperienced at the time to fully realise that goal, noting that "it was a song whose eloquence lay in its harmonic power rather than its verbal strength."


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: Early versions opened with the line "Don't talk to me about the rights of the IRA, UDA." U2's bassist, Adam Clayton, recalls that better judgment led to the removal of such a politically charged line, and that the song's "viewpoint became very humane and non-sectarian...which, is the only responsible position." The chosen opening line, "I can't believe the news today" crystallises the prevailing response, especially among young people, to the violence in Northern Ireland during the 1970s and 1980s. In successive stanzas, the lyrics paraphrase religious texts from Matthew ("mother's children; brothers, sisters torn apart"), Revelation 21:4 ("wipe your tears away"), and bring a twist to 1 Corinthians ("we eat and drink while tomorrow "they" die", instead of "let us eat and drink; for tomorrow "we" die"). The song finishes with a call for the Irish to stop fighting each other, and "claim the victory Jesus won...on [a] Sunday bloody Sunday."


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: Although a promotional music video had not been produced for the original release, the band used footage from a 5 June 1983 live performance filmed for the concert film "" to promote the song. Directed by Gavin Taylor, the video displays Bono's use of a white flag during performances of the song. The video highlights the intensity and emotion felt by many audience members during U2's concerts, while the rainy, torch-lit setting in Colorado's Red Rocks Amphitheatre further adds to the atmosphere. In 2004, "Rolling Stone" cited the performance as one "50 Moments that Changed the History of Rock and Roll" and noted that "the sight of Bono singing the anti-violence anthem 'Sunday Bloody Sunday' while waving a white flag through crimson mist (created by a combination of wet weather, hot lights and the illumination of those crags) became the defining image of U2's warrior-rock spirit and—shown in heavy rotation on MTV—broke the band nationwide."


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: U2 were aware when they decided to record "Sunday Bloody Sunday" that its lyrics could be misinterpreted as sectarian, and possibly place them in danger. Some of the Edge's original lyrics explicitly spoke out against violent rebels, but they were omitted to protect the group. Even without these lyrics, some listeners still considered it to be a rebel song—even one which glorifies the events of the two Bloody Sundays to which the lyrics refer.


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: Commercially, the single had its biggest impact in the Netherlands, where it reached number 3 on the national charts. In the US, the song gained significant album-oriented rock radio airplay, and together with the earlier "New Year's Day" helped expose U2 to a mainstream American rock audience.


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: Contemporaneously, critical reception to the song was positive. In the Irish magazine "Hot Press", Liam Mackey wrote that "Sunday Bloody Sunday" "takes the widescreen view...a powerful riff and machine-gun drumming [is] crisscrossed by skipping violin." Denise Sullivan commented for "Allmusic" that Mullen's opening drumwork "helps set the tone for the unforgiving, take-no-prisoners feel of the song, as well as for the rest of the album."


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: "Sunday Bloody Sunday" has been performed more than 600 times by U2. It was first heard by a live audience in December 1982 in Glasgow, Scotland, on a twenty-one show "Pre-War Tour". The band were particularly nervous about playing the song in Belfast, Northern Ireland. Introducing the song there at the Maysfield Leisure Centre, Bono stated, "It's not a rebel song", and attempted to further clarify this point by reciting the entire second verse ("Broken bottles under children's feet ..."), and added as a final note, "If you don't like it, you let us know." The crowd overwhelmingly enjoyed the song; the Edge recalls that "the place went nuts, it drew a really positive reaction", also saying: "We thought a lot about the song before we played it in Belfast and Bono told the audience that if they didn't like it then we'd never play it again. Out of the 3,000 people in the hall about three walked out. I think that says a lot about the audience's trust in us." The band remained apprehensive, however. Even by the song's sixth performance, Bono was introducing the song with the statement, "This song is "not" a rebel song."


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: Throughout 1983's War Tour, Bono continued to reassure audiences that "This song is not a rebel song, this song is 'Sunday Bloody Sunday'" highlighting the non-partisan intentions of the lyrics. The live performances on this tour featured a routine during which Bono would set a white flag in the front of the stage while the band vamped three chords—B minor, D major, and G major. (though the band traditionally tune their instruments down a half step so the chords are B flat minor, D flat and G flat). As the band vamped, Bono would sing "no more!" with the audience. These performances were highly effective with U2's audience (at the time, U2 were most popular as a college rock act). Live performances of the song subsequently appeared on their 1983 live album "Under a Blood Red Sky" and their concert film "". In the Unforgettable Fire Tour of 1984 and 1985, "Sunday Bloody Sunday" continued to be a prominent midpoint of each U2 concert—as did the "no more!" interlude. Along with a performance of "Bad", the song was performed at Live Aid in July 1985.


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: As U2 reached new levels of fame in 1987 with "The Joshua Tree", "Sunday Bloody Sunday" continued to be a focal point of concerts. Some performances featured slower, more contemplative versions of the song; other concerts saw the wilder, more violent version. This tour marked the first time "Sunday Bloody Sunday" was played in Northern Ireland since 1982, and it was not performed in Northern Ireland again until the 2015 Innocence + Experience Tour.


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: The 1988 rockumentary "Rattle and Hum" includes a particularly renowned version of the song, recorded on 8 November 1987 at McNichols Sports Arena in Denver, Colorado. On this version Bono's mid-song rant angrily and emphatically condemns the Remembrance Day Bombing that had occurred earlier that same day in the Northern Irish town of Enniskillen:


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: After The Joshua Tree Tour, Bono was heard saying the band might never play the song again, because the song was "made real" with the performance in Denver, and it could never be matched again. Following their original intent, "Sunday Bloody Sunday" was not played during any of the 47 shows on the Lovetown Tour in 1989. The song reappeared for a brief period during the Zoo TV Tour, and late during the second half of PopMart Tour (1997–1998), U2 played an emotional concert in war-ravaged Sarajevo that included a solo performance of the song by the Edge. "Sunday Bloody Sunday" was subsequently played live in this style until the end of the tour in March 1998.


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: "Sunday Bloody Sunday" was played at every concert on the 2001 Elevation and 2005–2006 Vertigo tours. Performances in 2001 frequently included parts of Bob Marley's "Get Up, Stand Up" and "Johnny Was". A memorable mid-song message referencing the Omagh bombing of 1998 ("Turn this song into a prayer!") is captured on the live DVD "". In concerts in New York City after the September 11, 2001 attacks, the "no more!" interlude was replaced by Bono holding an American flag.


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: "Sunday Bloody Sunday" was used during the Vertigo Tour of 2005 and 2006, often alongside "Bullet the Blue Sky" and "Love and Peace or Else" as a trio of politically driven songs performed during the middle part of the band's set. Bono extended the "no more!" interlude to explain a headband he had donned in the previous song. The headband depicted the word "coexist" (written to depict a crescent, a Star of David, and a Christian cross). The Coexist symbol is trademarked in the United States by an LLP in Indiana, and the original artwork was created in 2001 by a Polish artist. As with the 2001 shows, the Vertigo tour saw the song applied to subjects further afield than The Troubles in Northern Ireland. During 2006 Australian shows, in Brisbane, Bono asked for Australian Terrorism suspect David Hicks to be brought home and tried under Australian laws. In subsequent Australian concerts he dedicated the song to the victims of the 2002 Bali bombingswhere 88 of the fatalities were Australianssaying 'This is your song now!'. The song was also performed at every concert on the U2 360° Tour, paying tribute to the 2009 Iranian election protests on each occasion by projecting scenes from the protests and Persian writing in green on the video screen.


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: "Sunday Bloody Sunday" was played as the opening song at shows on The Joshua Tree Tours 2017 and 2019.


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: In 2004, "Rolling Stone" placed the song at number 268 on its list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time"; the song was re-ranked to 272nd on the magazine's 2010 version of the list. In 2006, "Q" named "Sunday Bloody Sunday" the 18th-greatest song of the 1980s. The staff of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame selected "Sunday Bloody Sunday" as one of 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. The "New Statesman" listed it as one of the Top 20 Political Songs, and similarly, "Time" named it one of the Top 10 Protest Songs.


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: In 2019, "Rolling Stone" ranked the song number four on their list of the 50 greatest U2 songs, and in 2020, "The Guardian" ranked the song number five on their list of the 40 greatest U2 songs.


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: The album version of "Sunday Bloody Sunday" was originally included on "War", but it can also be heard on a number of promotional releases, including the compilations "The Best of 1980–1990" and "U218 Singles". Several live versions have been released; the video available on "Live at Red Rocks: Under a Blood Red Sky" is from a performance at Red Rocks Amphitheatre in June 1983, but the version on the live album "Under a Blood Red Sky" is from a performance on 20 August 1983 during the Rockpalast Open Air music festival at the Lorelei, (West) Germany. Audio from the Sarajevo concert of 1997 is featured as a b-side on 1997's single "If God Will Send His Angels." The song also appears on "Rattle and Hum", "", "", "", "", "Live from Paris", "U2 3D", "U2 360° at the Rose Bowl" and in the closing credits of the 2002 TV film "Bloody Sunday". The only concert films that "Sunday Bloody Sunday" does not appear on are "" and "".


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: In 1997, a scheduled U2 concert at Montreal's Olympic Stadium conflicted with an unexpected home playoff game between the Canadian Football League's Montreal Alouettes and British Columbia Lions. As a result, the team opted to move the game to Percival Molson Stadium at McGill University. The Alouettes struggled with attendance issues at Olympic Stadium upon returning in 1996 and were on the verge of contraction. When the team announced they were playing the game at McGill, interest in the team soared and the game sold out. The success prompted the team to relocate permanently to the smaller venue the following season. In honor of the unintended role the band played in saving the franchise, the Alouettes play the song prior to every Sunday home game.


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: In 2000, Ignite covered the song on "A Place Called Home"; The Roots covered "Sunday Bloody Sunday" in 2007 in a medley with "Pride (In the Name of Love)" for an NAACP dinner honouring Bono. While the band played the song, Black Thought rapped lines from the band's own "False Media" and bits of Edwin Starr's "War".


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: In 2008, Jay-Z sampled "Sunday Bloody Sunday" in a version of "Heart of the City" performed at the Glastonbury Festival. During a version of "Sunday Bloody Sunday" performed by the band at the 2009 MTV Europe Music Awards, Jay-Z improvised lyrics over the breakdown in the song before including a snippet of "Get Up, Stand Up."


title: Sunday Bloody Sunday

text: "Sunday Bloody Sunday" was commercially released throughout most of Europe in support of U2's album "War". Its cover art is the same as that of "Two Hearts Beat as One," except on the Japan release. The B-side on the single, "Endless Deep," is one of the few U2 songs that features bassist Adam Clayton singing.


title: Road

text: A road is a linear way for the conveyance of traffic that mostly has an improved surface for use by vehicles (motorized and non-motorized) and pedestrians. Unlike streets, the main function of roads is transportation.


title: Road

text: There are many types of roads, including parkways, avenues, controlled-access highways (freeways, motorways, and expressways), tollways, interstates, highways, thoroughfares, and local roads.


title: Road

text: The primary features of roads include lanes, sidewalks (pavement), roadways (carriageways), medians, shoulders, verges, bike paths (cycle paths), and shared-use paths.


title: Road

text: Historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without any formal construction or some maintenance.


title: Road

text: The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines a road as "a line of communication (travelled way) using a stabilized base other than rails or air strips open to public traffic, primarily for the use of road motor vehicles running on their own wheels", which includes "bridges, tunnels, supporting structures, junctions, crossings, interchanges, and toll roads, but not cycle paths".


title: Road

text: The Eurostat, ITF and UNECE "Glossary for Transport Statistics Illustrated" defines a road as a "Line of communication (traveled way) open to public traffic, primarily for the use of road motor vehicles, using a stabilized base other than rails or air strips. [...] Included are paved roads and other roads with a stabilized base, e.g. gravel roads. Roads also cover streets, bridges, tunnels, supporting structures, junctions, crossings and interchanges. Toll roads are also included. Excluded are dedicated cycle lanes."


title: Road

text: The 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic defines a road as the entire surface of any way or street open to public traffic.


title: Road

text: In urban areas roads may diverge through a city or village and be named as streets, serving a dual function as urban space easement and route. Modern roads are normally smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel.


title: Road

text: Part 2, Division 1, clauses 11-13 of the National Transport Commission Regulations 2006 defines a road in Australia as 'an area that is open to or used by the public and is developed for, or has as one of its main uses, the driving or riding of motor vehicles.'


title: Road

text: Further, it defines a shoulder (typical an area of the road outside the edge line, or the curb) and a road-related area which includes green areas separating roads, areas designated for cyclists and areas generally accessible to the public for driving, riding or parking vehicles.


title: Road

text: In New Zealand, the definition of a road is broad in common law where the statutory definition includes areas the public has access to, by right or not. Beaches, publicly accessible car parks and yards (even if privately owned), river beds, road shoulders (verges), wharves and bridges are included. However, the definition of a road for insurance purposes may be restricted to reduce risk.


title: Road

text: In the United Kingdom "The Highway Code" details rules for "road users", but there is some ambiguity between the terms "highway" and "road". For the purposes of the English law, Highways Act 1980, which covers England and Wales but not Scotland or Northern Ireland, road is "any length of highway or of any other road to which the public has access, and includes bridges over which a road passes". This includes footpaths, bridleways and cycle tracks, and also road and driveways on private land and many car parks. Vehicle Excise Duty, a road use tax, is payable on some vehicles used on the public road.


title: Road

text: The definition of a road depends on the definition of a highway; there is no formal definition for a highway in the relevant Act. A 1984 ruling said "the land over which a public right of way exists is known as a highway; and although most highways have been made up into roads, and most easements of way exist over footpaths, the presence or absence of a made road has nothing to do with the distinction. Another legal view is that while a highway historically included footpaths, bridleways, driftways, etc., it can now be used to mean those ways that allow the movement of motor vehicles, and the term "rights of way" can be used to cover the wider usage.


title: Road

text: In the United States, laws distinguish between "public roads", which are open to public use, and "private roads", which are privately controlled.


title: Road

text: The assertion that the first pathways were the trails made by animals has not been universally accepted; in many cases animals do not follow constant paths. Some believe that some roads originated from following animal trails. The Icknield Way may exemplify this type of road origination, where human and animal both selected the same natural line. By about 10,000 BC human travelers used rough roads/pathways.


title: Road

text: Road design is part of highway engineering. Structural road design is designing a road for the environment in order to extend its longevity and reduce maintenance. The Shell pavement design method is used in many countries for the design of new asphalt roadsides.


title: Road

text: Road construction requires the creation of an engineered continuous right-of-way or roadbed, overcoming geographic obstacles and having grades low enough to permit vehicle or foot travel, and may be required to meet standards set by law or official guidelines. The process is often begun with the removal of earth and rock by digging or blasting, construction of embankments, bridges and tunnels, and removal of vegetation (this may involve deforestation) and followed by the laying of pavement material. A variety of road building equipment is employed in road building.


title: Road

text: After design, approval, planning, legal, and environmental considerations have been addressed alignment of the road is set out by a surveyor. The radii and gradient are designed and staked out to best suit the natural ground levels and minimize the amount of cut and fill. Great care is taken to preserve reference Benchmarks


title: Road

text: Roads are designed and built for primary use by vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Storm drainage and environmental considerations are a major concern. Erosion and sediment controls are constructed to prevent detrimental effects. Drainage lines are laid with sealed joints in the road easement with runoff coefficients and characteristics adequate for the land zoning and storm water system. Drainage systems must be capable of carrying the ultimate design flow from the upstream catchment with approval for the outfall from the appropriate authority to a watercourse, creek, river or the sea for drainage discharge.


title: Road

text: A borrow pit (source for obtaining fill, gravel, and rock) and a water source should be located near or in reasonable distance to the road construction site. Approval from local authorities may be required to draw water or for working (crushing and screening) of materials for construction needs. The topsoil and vegetation is removed from the borrow pit and stockpiled for subsequent rehabilitation of the extraction area. Side slopes in the excavation area not steeper than one vertical to two horizontal for safety reasons.


title: Road

text: Old road surfaces, fences, and buildings may need to be removed before construction can begin. Trees in the road construction area may be marked for retention. These protected trees should not have the topsoil within the area of the tree's drip line removed and the area should be kept clear of construction material and equipment. Compensation or replacement may be required if a protected tree is damaged. Much of the vegetation may be mulched and put aside for use during reinstatement. The topsoil is usually stripped and stockpiled nearby for rehabilitation of newly constructed embankments along the road. Stumps and roots are removed and holes filled as required before the earthwork begins. Final rehabilitation after road construction is completed will include seeding, planting, watering and other activities to reinstate the area to be consistent with the untouched surrounding areas.


title: Road

text: Processes during earthwork include excavation, removal of material to spoil, filling, compacting, construction and trimming. If rock or other unsuitable material is discovered it is removed, moisture content is managed and replaced with standard fill compacted to meet the design requirements (generally 90–95% relative compaction). Blasting is not frequently used to excavate the roadbed as the intact rock structure forms an ideal road base. When a depression must be filled to come up to the road grade the native bed is compacted after the topsoil has been removed. The fill is made by the "compacted layer method" where a layer of fill is spread then compacted to specifications, under saturated conditions. The process is repeated until the desired grade is reached.


title: Road

text: General fill material should be free of organics, meet minimum California bearing ratio (CBR) results and have a low plasticity index. The lower fill generally comprises sand or a sand-rich mixture with fine gravel, which acts as an inhibitor to the growth of plants or other vegetable matter. The compacted fill also serves as lower-stratum drainage. Select second fill (sieved) should be composed of gravel, decomposed rock or broken rock below a specified particle size and be free of large lumps of clay. Sand clay fill may also be used. The roadbed must be "proof rolled" after each layer of fill is compacted. If a roller passes over an area without creating visible deformation or spring the section is deemed to comply.


title: Road

text: Geosynthetics such as geotextiles, geogrids, and geocells are frequently used in the various pavement layers to improve road quality. These materials and methods are used in low-traffic private roadways as well as public roads and highways. Geosynthetics perform four main functions in roads: separation, reinforcement, filtration, and drainage; which increase the pavement performance, reduce construction costs and decrease maintenance.


title: Road

text: The completed roadway is finished by paving or left with a gravel or other natural surface. The type of road surface is dependent on economic factors and expected usage. Safety improvements such as traffic signs, crash barriers, raised pavement markers and other forms of road surface marking are installed.


title: Road

text: According to a May 2009 report by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and TRIP – a national transportation research organization – driving on rough roads costs the average American motorist approximately $400 a year in extra vehicle operating costs. Drivers living in urban areas with populations more than 250,000 are paying upwards of $750 more annually because of accelerated vehicle deterioration, increased maintenance, additional fuel consumption, and tire wear caused by poor road conditions.


title: Road

text: When a single carriageway road is converted into dual carriageway by building a second separate carriageway alongside the first, it is usually referred to as "duplication", "twinning" or "doubling". The original carriageway is changed from two-way to become one-way, while the new carriageway is one-way in the opposite direction. In the same way as converting railway lines from single track to double track, the new carriageway is not always constructed directly alongside the existing carriageway.


title: Road

text: Roads that are intended for use by a particular mode of transport can be reallocated for another mode of transport, i.e. by using traffic signs. For instance, in the ongoing road space reallocation effort, some roads (particularly in city centers) which are intended for use by cars are increasingly being repurposed for cycling and/or walking.


title: Road

text: Like all structures, roads deteriorate over time. Deterioration is primarily due to environmental effects such as frost heaves, thermal cracking and oxidation often contribute, however accumulated damage from vehicles also contributes. According to a series of experiments carried out in the late 1950s, called the AASHO Road Test, it was empirically determined that the effective damage done to the road is roughly proportional to the fourth power of axle weight. A typical tractor-trailer weighing 80,000 pounds (36.287 t) with 8,000 pounds (3.629 t) on the steer axle and 36,000 pounds (16.329 t) on both of the tandem axle groups is expected to do 7,800 times more damage than a passenger vehicle with 2,000 pounds (0.907 t) on each axle. Potholes on roads are caused by rain damage and vehicle braking or related construction works.


title: Road

text: Pavements are designed for an expected service life or design life. In some parts of the United Kingdom the standard design life is 40 years for new bitumen and concrete pavement. Maintenance is considered in the whole life cost of the road with service at 10, 20 and 30 year milestones. Roads can be and are designed for a variety of lives (8-, 15-, 30-, and 60-year designs). When pavement lasts longer than its intended life, it may have been overbuilt, and the original costs may have been too high. When a pavement fails before its intended design life, the owner may have excessive repair and rehabilitation costs. Some asphalt pavements are designed as "perpetual pavements" with an expected structural life in excess of 50 years.


title: Road

text: Many asphalt pavements built over 35 years ago, despite not being specifically designed as a perpetual pavement, have remained in good condition long past their design life. Many concrete pavements built since the 1950s have significantly outlived their intended design lives. Some roads like Chicago, Illinois's Wacker Drive, a major two-level (and at one point, three-level) roadway in the downtown area, are being rebuilt with a designed service life of 100 years.


title: Road

text: Virtually all roads require some form of maintenance before they come to the end of their service life. Pro-active agencies use pavement management techniques to continually monitor road conditions and schedule preventive maintenance treatments as needed to prolong the lifespan of their roads. Technically advanced agencies monitor the road network surface condition with sophisticated equipment such as laser/inertial Profilometers. These measurements include road curvature, cross slope, asperity, roughness, rutting and texture. Software algorithms use this data to recommend maintenance or new construction.


title: Road

text: Maintenance treatments for asphalt concrete generally include thin asphalt overlays, crack sealing, surface rejuvenating, fog sealingfo, micro milling or diamond grinding and surface treatments. Thin surfacing preserves, protects and improves the functional condition of the road while reducing the need for routing maintenance, leading to extended service life without increasing structural capacity.


title: Road

text: Older concrete pavements that develop faults can be repaired with a dowel bar retrofit, in which slots are cut in the pavement at each joint, and dowel bars are placed in the slots, which are then filled with concrete patching material. This can extend the life of the concrete pavement for 15 years.


title: Road

text: Failure to maintain roads properly can create significant costs to society, in a 2009 report released by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (US) about 50% of the roads in the US are in bad condition with urban areas worse. The report estimates that urban drivers pay an average of $746/year on vehicle repairs while the average US motorist pays about $335/year. In contrast, the average motorist pays about $171/year in road maintenance taxes (based on 600 gallons/year and $0.285/gallon tax).


title: Road

text: Distress and serviceability loss on concrete roads can be caused by loss of support due to voids beneath the concrete pavement slabs. The voids usually occur near cracks or joints due to surface water infiltration. The most common causes of voids are pumping, consolidation, subgrade failure and bridge approach failure. Slab stabilization is a non-destructive method of solving this problem and is usually employed with other Concrete Pavement Restoration (CPR) methods including patching and diamond grinding. The technique restores support to concrete slabs by filing small voids that develop underneath the concrete slab at joints, cracks or the pavement edge.


title: Road

text: The process consists of pumping a cementitious grout or polyurethane mixture through holes drilled through the slab. The grout can fill small voids beneath the slab and/or sub-base. The grout also displaces free water and helps keep water from saturating and weakening support under the joints and slab edge after stabilization is complete. The three steps for this method after finding the voids are locating and drilling holes, grout injection and post-testing the stabilized slabs.


title: Road

text: Slab stabilization does not correct depressions, increase the design structural capacity, stop erosion or eliminate faulting. It does, however, restore the slab support, therefore, decreasing deflections under the load. Stabilization should only be performed at joints and cracks where the loss of support exists. Visual inspection is the simplest manner to find voids. Signs that repair is needed are transverse joint faulting, corner breaks and shoulder drop off and lines at or near joints and cracks. Deflection testing is another common procedure used to locate voids. It is recommended to do this testing at night as during cooler temperatures, joints open, aggregate interlock diminishes and load deflections are at their highest.


title: Road

text: Ground penetrating radar pulses electromagnetic waves into the pavement and measures and graphically displays the reflected signal. This can reveal voids and other defects.


title: Road

text: The epoxy/core test, detects voids by visual and mechanical methods. It consists of drilling a 25 to 50 millimeter hole through the pavement into the sub-base with a dry-bit roto-hammer. Next, a two-part epoxy is poured into the hole – dyed for visual clarity. Once the epoxy hardens, technicians drill through the hole. If a void is present, the epoxy will stick to the core and provide physical evidence.


title: Road

text: Common stabilization materials include pozzolan-cement grout and polyurethane. The requirements for slab stabilization are strength and the ability to flow into or expand to fill small voids. Colloidal mixing equipment is necessary to use the pozzolan-cement grouts. The contractor must place the grout using a positive-displacement injection pump or a non-pulsing progressive cavity pump. A drill is also necessary but it must produce a clean hole with no surface spalling or breakouts. The injection devices must include a grout packer capable of sealing the hole. The injection device must also have a return hose or a fast-control reverse switch, in case workers detect slab movement on the uplift gauge. The uplift beam helps to monitor the slab deflection and has to have sensitive dial gauges.


title: Road

text: Also called joint and crack repair, this method's purpose is to minimize infiltration of surface water and incompressible material into the joint system. Joint sealants are also used to reduce dowel bar corrosion in Concrete Pavement Restoration (CPR) techniques. Successful resealing consists of old sealant removal, shaping and cleaning the reservoir, installing the backer rod and installing the sealant. Sawing, manual removal, plowing and cutting are methods used to remove the old sealant. Saws are used to shape the reservoir. When cleaning the reservoir, no dust, dirt or traces of old sealant should remain. Thus, it is recommended to water wash, sand-blast and then air blow to remove any sand, dirt or dust. The backer rod installation requires a double-wheeled, steel roller to insert the rod to the desired depth. After inserting the backer rod, the sealant is placed into the joint. There are various materials to choose for this method including hot pour bituminous liquid, silicone and preformed compression seals.


title: Road

text: Careful design and construction of roads can increase road traffic safety and reduce the harm (deaths, injuries, and property damage) on the highway system from traffic collisions.


title: Road

text: On neighborhood roads traffic calming, safety barriers, pedestrian crossings and cycle lanes can help protect pedestrians, cyclists, and drivers.


title: Road

text: Lane markers in some countries and states are marked with Cat's eyes or Botts dots, (bright reflectors that do not fade like paint). Botts dots are not used where it is icy in the winter, because frost and snowplows can break the glue that holds them to the road, although they can be embedded in short, shallow trenches carved in the roadway, as is done in the mountainous regions of California.


title: Road

text: For major roads risk can be reduced by providing limited access from properties and local roads, grade separated junctions and median dividers between opposite-direction traffic to reduce the likelihood of head-on collisions.


title: Road

text: The placement of energy attenuation devices (e.g. guardrails, wide grassy areas, sand barrels) is also common. Some road fixtures such as road signs and fire hydrants are designed to collapse on impact. Light poles are designed to break at the base rather than violently stop a car that hits them. Highway authorities may also remove larger trees from the immediate vicinity of the road. During heavy rains, if the elevation of the road surface isn't higher than the surrounding landscape, it may result in flooding.


title: Road

text: Speed limits can improve road traffic safety and reduce the number of road traffic casualties from traffic collisions. In their "World report on road traffic injury prevention" report, the World Health Organization (WHO) identify speed control as one of various interventions likely to contribute to a reduction in road casualties.


title: Road

text: Road conditions are the collection of factors describing the ease of driving on a particular stretch of road, or on the roads of a particular locality, including the quality of the pavement surface, potholes, road markings, and weather. It has been reported that "[p]roblems of transportation participants and road conditions are the main factors that lead to road traffic accidents". It has further been specifically noted that "weather conditions and road conditions are interlinked as weather conditions affect the road conditions". Specific aspects of road conditions can be of particular importance for particular purposes. For example, for autonomous vehicles such as self-driving cars, significant road conditions can include "shadowing and lighting changes, road surface texture changes, and road markings consisting of circular reflectors, dashed lines, and solid lines".


title: Road

text: Various government agencies and private entities, including local news services, track and report on road conditions to the public so that drivers going through a particular area can be aware of hazards that may exist in that area. News agencies, in turn, rely on tips from area residents with respect to certain aspects of road conditions in their coverage area.


title: Road

text: Water management systems can be used to reduce the effect of pollutants from roads. Rainwater and snowmelt running off of roads tends to pick up gasoline, motor oil, heavy metals, trash and other pollutants and result in water pollution. Road runoff is a major source of nickel, copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are created as combustion byproducts of gasoline and other fossil fuels.


title: Road

text: De-icing chemicals and sand can run off into roadsides, contaminate groundwater and pollute surface waters; and road salts can be toxic to sensitive plants and animals. Sand applied to icy roads can be ground up by traffic into fine particulates and contribute to air pollution.


title: Road

text: Roads are a chief source of noise pollution. In the early 1970s, it was recognized that design of roads can be conducted to influence and minimize noise generation. Noise barriers can reduce noise pollution near built-up areas. Regulations can restrict the use of engine braking.


title: Road

text: Motor vehicle emissions contribute air pollution. Concentrations of air pollutants and adverse respiratory health effects are greater near the road than at some distance away from the road. Road dust kicked up by vehicles may trigger allergic reactions. In addition, on-road transportation greenhouse gas emissions are the largest single cause of climate change, scientists say.


title: Road

text: Traffic flows on the right or on the left side of the road depending on the country. In countries where traffic flows on the right, traffic signs are mostly on the right side of the road, roundabouts and traffic circles go counter-clockwise/anti-clockwise, and pedestrians crossing a two-way road should watch out for traffic from the left first. In countries where traffic flows on the left, the reverse is true.


title: Road

text: About 33% of the world by population drive on the left, and 67% keep right. By road distances, about 28% drive on the left, and 72% on the right, even though originally most traffic drove on the left worldwide.


title: Road

text: Transport economics is used to understand both the relationship between the transport system and the wider economy and the complex network effects when there are multiple paths and competing modes for both personal and freight (road/rail/air/ferry) and where induced demand can result in increased on decreased transport levels when road provision is increased by building new roads or decreased (for example California State Route 480). Roads are generally built and maintained by the public sector using taxation although implementation may be through private contractors). or occasionally using road tolls.


title: Road

text: Public-private partnerships are a way for communities to address the rising cost by injecting private funds into the infrastructure. There are four main ones:


title: Road

text: Society depends heavily on efficient roads. In the European Union (EU) 44% of all goods are moved by trucks over roads and 85% of all people are transported by cars, buses or coaches on roads. The term was also commonly used to refer to roadsteads, waterways that lent themselves to use by shipping.


title: Road

text: According to the New York State Thruway Authority, some sample per-mile costs to construct multi-lane roads in several US northeastern states were:


title: Road

text: The United States has the largest network of roads of any country with as of 2009. The Republic of India has the second-largest road system globally with 4,689,842 kilometres (2,914,133 mi) of road (2013). The People's Republic of China is third with of road (2007). The Federative Republic of Brazil has the fourth-largest road system in the world with (2002). See List of countries by road network size. When looking only at expressways, the National Trunk Highway System (NTHS) in China has a total length of at the end of 2006, and 60,300 km at the end of 2008, second only to the United States with in 2005. However, as of 2017, China has 130,000 km of Expressways.


title: Road

text: Eurasia, Africa, North America, South America, and Australia each have an extensive road network that connects most cities.


title: Road

text: The North and South American road networks are separated by the Darién Gap, the only interruption in the Pan-American Highway. Eurasia and Africa are connected by roads on the Sinai Peninsula. The European Peninsula is connected to the Scandinavian Peninsula by the Øresund Bridge, and both have many connections to the mainland of Eurasia, including the bridges over the Bosphorus. Antarctica has very few roads and no continent-bridging network, though there are a few ice roads between bases, such as the South Pole Traverse. Bahrain is the only island country to be connected to a continental network by road (the King Fahd Causeway to Saudi Arabia).


title: Road

text: Even well-connected road networks are controlled by many different legal jurisdictions, and laws such as which side of the road to drive on vary accordingly.


title: Road

text: Many populated domestic islands are connected to the mainland by bridges. A very long example is the Overseas Highway connecting many of the Florida Keys with the continental United States.


title: Road

text: Even on mainlands, some settlements have no roads connecting with the primary continental network, due to natural obstacles like mountains or wetlands, or high cost compared to the population served. Unpaved roads or lack of roads are more common in developing countries, and these can become impassible in wet conditions. As of 2014, only 43% of rural Africans have access to an all-season road. Due to steepness, mud, snow, or fords, roads can sometimes be passable only to four-wheel drive vehicles, those with snow chains or snow tires, or those capable of deep wading or amphibious operation.


title: Road

text: Most disconnected settlements have local road networks connecting ports, buildings, and other points of interest.


title: Road

text: Where demand for travel by road vehicle to a disconnected island or mainland settlement is high, roll-on/roll-off ferries are commonly available if the journey is relatively short. For long-distance trips, passengers usually travel by air and rent a car upon arrival. If facilities are available, vehicles and cargo can also be shipped to many disconnected settlements by boat, or air transport at much greater expense. The island of Great Britain is connected to the European road network by Eurotunnel Shuttle – an example of a car shuttle train which is a service used in other parts of Europe to travel under mountains and over wetlands.


title: Road

text: In polar areas, disconnected settlements are often more easily reached by snowmobile or dogsled in cold weather, which can produce sea ice that blocks ports, and bad weather that prevents flying. For example, resupply aircraft are only flown to Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station October to February, and many residents of coastal Alaska have bulk cargo shipped in only during the warmer months. Permanent darkness during the winter can also make long-distance travel more dangerous in polar areas. Continental road networks do reach into these areas, such as the Dalton Highway to the North Slope of Alaska, the R21 highway to Murmansk in Russia, and many roads in Scandinavia (though due to fjords water transport is sometimes faster). Large areas of Alaska, Canada, Greenland, and Siberia are sparsely connected. For example, all 25 communities of Nunavut are disconnected from each other and the main North American road network.


title: Road

text: Road transport of people and cargo by may also be obstructed by border controls and travel restrictions. For example, travel from other parts of Asia to South Korea would require passage through the hostile country of North Korea. Moving between most countries in Africa and Eurasia would require passing through Egypt and Israel, which is a politically sensitive area.


title: Road

text: Some places are intentionally car-free, and roads (if present) might be used by bicycles or pedestrians.


title: Road

text: Roads are under construction to many remote places, such as the villages of the Annapurna Circuit, and a road was completed in 2013 to Mêdog County. Additional intercontinental and transoceanic fixed links have been proposed, including a Bering Strait crossing that would connect Eurasia-Africa and North America, a Malacca Strait Bridge to the largest island of Indonesia from Asia, and a Strait of Gibraltar crossing to connect Europe and Africa directly.


title: The Get Down

text: The Get Down is an American musical drama television series created by Baz Luhrmann and Stephen Adly Guirgis. The series debuted on Netflix on August 12, 2016, and was cancelled after the first season.


title: The Get Down

text: Produced by Sony Pictures Television, the series is set in the South Bronx region of New York City in the late 1970s; its title refers to parts of disco and R&B records that could be repeated using multiple turntables and were enjoyed most by dancers. A five-episode second part concluding the series was released on April 7, 2017. On May 24, 2017, Netflix announced that the series had concluded after part two and that there would be no more seasons.


title: The Get Down

text: The series is set in the 1970s in the Bronx borough of New York City and follows the rise of hip-hop and disco music through the eyes of a group of teenagers. Each episode begins with MC Books, a famous artist who raps his story to a large crowd during a concert in 1996. The short rap serves as both a recap of previous episodes and a setup of the coming events. Each episode is intercut with real footage and newscasts from the 1970s.


title: The Get Down

text: Part one begins in 1977 with Zeke (young MC Books), a young poet who lives with his aunt Wanda following the death of his parents. He proceeds to meet Shaolin Fantastic, a graffiti artist and aspiring DJ. The two band together with Zeke's friends to become "The Get Down Brothers," with a dream to become successful music artists and take over the city. Mylene, Zeke's long-time love, dreams of becoming a disco singer and leaving the Bronx but faces obstacles such as her father, a pastor who disapproves of secular music. The show depicts various gangs and gangsters in the area, specifically Fat Annie and her son Cadillac, and observes the poverty and violence faced by those living in the Bronx in the 1970s.


title: The Get Down

text: Part two is set in 1978 and sees the group members entering adulthood and their futures in the music industry. Zeke is faced with an ultimatum: love or music. Although Mylene is his first love, music is his love as well. Mylene is moving up in the music industry and wants Zeke to be there with her, but doesn't think he is putting in the effort. Shaolin and the gang focus on making music and making money. Shaolin gets a car with a dead body in the trunk, which shakes the boys and makes them second-guess their relationship with him. Shaolin calms them down, explaining that everything is going to be all right. They calm down but remain worried about Cadillac and his business with Shaolin.


title: The Get Down

text: The series was announced in February 2015, after Luhrmann had spent over ten years developing the concept. The series is described as "a mythic saga of how New York at the brink of bankruptcy gave birth to hip-hop, punk and disco." The Sony Pictures Television show takes place in Bronx tenements, the SoHo art scene, CBGB, Studio 54 and the just-built World Trade Center. On April 9, 2015, it was announced that Justice Smith, Shameik Moore, Skylan Brooks, Jaden Smith, and newcomer Tremaine (TJ) Brown Jr. would play the show's lead male roles. On April 16, 2015, it was announced that newcomer Herizen F. Guardiola would play the show's female lead.


title: The Get Down

text: Rap legends Grandmaster Flash, Kurtis Blow, and Nas hosted a hip-hop boot camp to educate the young actors. The production crew used the Eisner Award-winning comic series "Hip Hop Family Tree" by Ed Piskor as a reference point. The Sony-produced series soon hit delays and also saw the departure of original show-runner Shawn Ryan. The first six episodes of season one debuted in August 2016, marking the first time a Netflix original season was split into two parts rather than released all at once — as has been the tradition at the streamer for scripted series. The trailer for part two was released in February 2017, with episodes being made available on Netflix on April 7, 2017. The series picked up a year later, set in 1978. The accompanying soundtrack was released on April 21, 2017. The last five episodes brought the season one episode count to 11 — two short of the original 13-episode order "The Get Down" received in 2015. "The Get Down" was Netflix's most expensive series up to date, costing around 120 million. The expense of 120 million greatly surpassed the budget of 7.5 million.


title: The Get Down

text: Praise for the show primarily centred around strong music, a fresh cast, and a nod to authenticity with Luhrmann specifically involving many historical characters in producer roles, including: Nas, Grandmaster Flash, Kurtis Blow, and DJ Kool Herc. Part one holds a score of 77% on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 79 reviews, with the critic consensus reading, ""The Get Down"'s vibrant music and energetic young cast help to elevate its meandering narrative." The season has an overall score of 69 out of 100 based on 31 reviews on Metacritic which is classified as "generally favourable reviews." Part two received an 86% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 14 critics, with an average score of 7.68 out of 10, with the critic consensus reading, ""The Get Down" continues to be a dazzling kaleidoscope of genre styles and a warm celebration of hip-hop's origins."


title: The Get Down

text: The uptempo musical numbers and soundtrack were generally praised as well as the performances from the main cast and cinematography of the show. However, the overly dramatic love story and sometimes "cartoonish" violence have been criticized, saying it detracts from the darker, authentic feel of the show and its setting. Reviews improved with later episodes as critics felt that the series had toned down its more outlandish and over the top elements in favour of a more cohesive and balanced episode structure. Matt Zoller Seitz of Vulture gave high praises to the series' second half, stating that, "A promising show has become a terrific one." Seitz later named "The Get Down" as the 4th best TV series of 2017, writing that it is "one of a handful of series that can be said to have devised its own language." Variety ultimately praised the show as, "a reclamation of, and a love letter to, a marginalized community of a certain era, told through the unreliable tools of romance, intuition, and lived experiences."


title: To All the Boys: Always and Forever

text: To All the Boys: Always and Forever is a 2021 American teen romantic comedy film directed by Michael Fimognari and starring Lana Condor and Noah Centineo. The film is based on Jenny Han's 2017 novel "Always and Forever, Lara Jean" and is a sequel to "" (2020), and the third and final installment in the "To All the Boys" film series. It was released on February 12, 2021, by Netflix.


title: To All the Boys: Always and Forever

text: Lara Jean Covey, accompanied by her sisters, Kitty and Margot; her father, Dan; and her neighbor Trina Rothschild, visits Seoul for spring break. She reconnects with the memory of her mother by searching for a lock her mother had left on a bridge to memorialize her love for Dan, and finally manages to read her accompanying message, which says "for the rest of my life." Returning home, she mentions to her boyfriend, Peter Kavinsky, that the two of them never had a meet-cute, meeting Peter's disbelief because he remembers their first meeting quite well. She nervously waits for the result of her Stanford University application so she can attend college with Peter. As Dan's relationship with Trina becomes more serious and the family begins to plan their upcoming wedding, Lara Jean is accepted to her safety schools, the University of California, Berkeley and New York University, but disappointed when she is rejected from Stanford.