title: Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom

text: Princess Victoria was educated at home with her sisters. The princess grew up at Marlborough House and Sandringham under the supervision of tutors. She occasionally spent the summer in Denmark, her mother's homeland. In her youth, she was described as "a lively, mischievous girl ... smart, tall and elegant; she had a wonderful sense of humour and was a good friend to everyone; she had big expressive blue eyes; there was no pretense or hint of a high position in her." Victoria loved horse riding, cycling, reading, listening to music and dancing. The princess's particular passion was photography. She compiled several albums of family photographs. Victoria's works have been displayed at several different exhibitions. She was very fond of animals. Her favorites were dogs named Sam, Mas and Punchy. For six years Victoria had a tamed pigeon, which she took with her on walks and travels in a small basket.


title: Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom

text: Victoria maintained friendly relations with her cousins in Russia and Greece. The future Emperor Nicholas II of Russia in his youth was in love with her. The Tsarevich liked Victoria for her seriousness, thoroughness, and "unfeminine mind." In 1889, describing the princess, Nicholas told his close friend, Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich: "She is a truly wonderful creature, and the more and deeper you delve into her soul, the clearer you see all her virtues and qualities. I must confess that it is very difficult to figure it out at first, i.e. to learn her view of things and people, but this difficulty is a special charm for me, which I am unable to explain." The princess also caught the eyes of Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich, and later Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich was fascinated by her.


title: Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom

text: One of the closest people in Victoria's life was her older brother George, who in 1910 became king and emperor. Throughout their lives, they maintained a warm relationship, as they had similar characters and a mutual sense of humour. When Victoria died in 1935, the king said: "How I will miss our daily phone calls. Nobody had such a sister as I had." The king died a month after the death of his sister. Victoria, however, was not close to George's wife, Queen Mary, née Princess Mary of Teck, once describing her as "terribly boring". This was attributed to their different characters, education and interests.


title: Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom

text: Victoria was particularly close to her parents. The princess accompanied them during official events and ceremonies, and helped them in private life. Another candidate to win Victoria's hand in marriage was her cousin, Crown Prince Christian of Denmark, who later became Christian X. The princess rejected him, much to the disappointment of her parents. Another contender for marriage was the Portuguese king Carlos I. He demanded that Victoria accept the Catholic faith, which did not sit well with her parents. The 5th Earl of Rosebery also attempted to win her attention. Victoria never married, and her mother was said to support this decision. Her first cousin Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia remarked in later life that she "felt so very sorry" for Victoria, as she seemed within her family to be "a glorified maid to her mother," attributing her staying unmarried to a disinclination to oppose her mother. "I'd something of a rebel in me. Toria had not."


title: Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom

text: Between 22 and 24 March 1905, Princess Victoria, along with her mother, her sister Maud (future Queen Maud of Norway) and her brother-in-law Carl (future Haakon VII, King of Norway), made an official visit to Portugal on the royal yacht HMY "Victoria and Albert" following a visit by the Portuguese monarch to the United Kingdom a year prior. On the first day of her arrival, Victoria stayed on the royal yacht due to poor health. Queen Alexandra with her daughter Princess Maud and Prince Carl met with Queen Amelia and Queen Dowager Maria Pia. The next day, accompanied by her sister, Victoria paid a visit to the king, queen and their sons. On 24 March the British guests left for their homeland.


title: Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom

text: After her father's death in 1910, Victoria remained in the shadow of her mother. Queen Alexandra suffered from constant depression and was practically deaf. Victoria accompanied her mother during her visits to various institutions and on holidays. Once, when the dowager queen was unable to attend the charity event Alexandra Rose Day, she sent her daughters Louise and Victoria together, and the latter later recorded in her diary that "it was terrible to be there without dear Mama." With continuing public hostility towards Germany during World War I, King George V decided to renounce all German titles and honours. He asked all members of the royal family to do the same. The king renamed the ruling dynasty from Saxe-Coburg and Gotha to Windsor, after his favourite castle. Princess Victoria followed suit and adopted the surname Windsor.


title: Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom

text: After the death of Queen Alexandra in 1925, Victoria moved to the small town of Coppins, Iver, in Buckinghamshire, where she lived until her death. In her final years, Victoria enjoyed listening to music, gardening, and taking an active part in local issues and problems. Victoria became a patron to the young cellist Beatrice Harrison and her sisters May and Margaret, who also studied music, and Victoria paid for Harrison's valuable Guarneri cello. Victoria received the Harrison sisters regularly at her home and at Sandringham, and attended concerts at the Wigmore Hall with them. She also commissioned HMV to make her some private recordings in August 1928: the recordings, capturing Victoria at the piano accompanying Beatrice Harrison on the cello and May Harrison on the violin, would many years later be commercially released, though Victoria's musicianship would generate mixed reviews.


title: Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom

text: Other friends of Victoria included members of the Musgrave family, the widowed 5th Earl of Rosebery, and Violet Vivian, a former lady-in-waiting to Queen Alexandra. Lady Musgrave was Victoria's lifelong friend and lady-in-waiting. The princess assisted Violet Vivian in the design of the Cestyll Garden near the village of Cemaes on the northwest coast of Anglesey.


title: Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom

text: Victoria died in the early hours of 3 December 1935 at the age of 67 at her home. She had been in poor health over the previous month, culminating in a severe haemorrhage on 1 December. The State Opening of Parliament, planned for 3 December, was cancelled in response to her death, and instead the already-written King's Speech was read to Parliamentarians by the Lord Chancellor without ceremony.


title: Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom

text: Her funeral took place on 7 December 1935 at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, where she was initially buried. The mourners at the funeral included Victoria's brother George V. George himself was in poor health, and his doctor pushed for the funeral service to be shortened; he was unsuccessful, and George's final deterioration and death soon after would later be blamed on the physical strain of the long event. Victoria's remains were later moved and reburied at the Royal Burial Ground, Frogmore, Windsor Great Park, on 8 January 1936. Her will was sealed in London in 1936. Her estate was valued at £237,455 (or £11.7 million in 2022 when adjusted for inflation).


title: Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom

text: Upon her younger sister's marriage in 1896, Princess Victoria was awarded a personal coat of arms, being the Royal Arms of the United Kingdom, bearing an inescutcheon of the shield of Saxony and differenced with a label argent of five points, the first, third and fifth bearing roses gules, and the second and fourth crosses gules. The inescutcheon was dropped by royal warrant in 1917.


title: Kino (band)

text: Kino (, ) was a Soviet rock band formed in Leningrad in 1982, considered to be one of, if not the, greatest rock band in the history of Russian music. The band was co-founded and headed by Viktor Tsoi, who wrote the music and lyrics for almost all of the band's songs. Over the course of eight years, Kino released over 90 songs spanning over seven studio albums, as well as releasing a few compilations and live albums. The band's music was also widely circulated in the form of bootleg recordings through the underground magnitizdat distribution scene. Viktor Tsoi died in a car accident in 1990. Shortly after his passing, the band broke up after releasing their final album, consisting of songs that Tsoi and the group were working on in the months before his death.


title: Kino (band)

text: In 2019, the band announced a reunion with concerts planned in the fall of 2020 for the first time in 30 years, however they were later postponed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Kino (band)

text: Kino was formed in 1981 by the members of two earlier groups from Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg), Palata No. 6 and Piligrimy. They initially called themselves Garin i giperboloidy () after Aleksei Tolstoi's novel "The Hyperboloid of Engineer Garin". The group consisted of Viktor Tsoi, guitarist , and drummer . They began rehearsing, but Valinsky was drafted and had to leave the band. In the spring of 1982, they began to perform at the Leningrad Rock Club and met with the influential underground musician Boris Grebenshchikov. It was around this time that they changed the band's name to Kino. The name was chosen because it was considered short and "synthetic," and the band members took pride in that it had only two syllables and was easy to pronounce by speakers all over the world. Tsoi and Rybin later said that they had the idea for the name after seeing a bright cinema sign.


title: Kino (band)

text: Kino released their debut album, "45", in 1982. Since the band only consisted of two members, Grebenshchikov suggested that members of his band Aquarium assist Kino in recording the album. These included cellist Vsevolod Gakkel, flautist , and bassist . Since they had no drummer at the time, they used a drum machine. This simple line-up made the album sound lively and bright. Lyrically, it resembled earlier Soviet bard music for its romanticism of city life and the use of poetic language. The album consisted of thirteen songs and was named "45" in reference to its length. The group's popularity was rather limited at the time, so the album was not considered much of a success. Tsoi later stated that the record had come out crudely and he should have recorded it differently.


title: Kino (band)

text: In late 1982, Kino attempted to record a second album at the studio of the Maly Drama Theatre, along with drummer (who later joined Zoopark) and sound designer Andrey Kuskov. However, Tsoi lost interest in the project and they ceased recording. In the winter of 1983, they played several shows in Leningrad and Moscow and were sometimes accompanied by Aquarium drummer . Rybin was replaced by rehearsal bassist Maksim Kolosov and later, guitarist Yuri Kasparyan. According to Grebenshchikov, Kasparyan was a poor guitar player initially, but he quickly progressed and eventually became the second most important member of Kino. With Kolosov and Kasparyan, Kino performed their second concert at the Leningrad Rock Club.


title: Kino (band)

text: The band's responsibilities were split evenly between Tsoi and Rybin. Tsoi was in charge of the creative component, writing music and lyrics, while Rybin did all the administrative work, such as organizing concerts, rehearsals and recording sessions. In March 1983, a serious conflict broke out between them, the culmination of multiple differences between the two musicians. Tsoi was particularly annoyed that Rybin performed his songs, and not his own writing, while Rybin did not like Tsoi's unconditional leadership of the group. Eventually, the two stopped talking, and Rybin left the band.


title: Kino (band)

text: The only audio document from this period was a bootleg called 46, which consisted of demos of new songs by Tsoi. These songs continued with the romanticism of "45", but also had darker undertones. Tsoi dismissed the recording as "only a rehearsal tape," but many fans viewed it as Kino's second record. Nonetheless, it has never been recognized as a legitimate album by the band.


title: Kino (band)

text: In 1984, Kino released their sophomore album, "Nachalnik Kamchatki "(). The title was inspired by Tsoi's job as a boiler plant operator ("nachalnik" means 'chief' or 'boss,' and "Kamchatka" is slang for 'a very faraway place' – but also a folk name for the boiler plant where Tsoi worked, now his museum), as well as a reference to the 1967 Soviet comedy "Nachalnik Chukotki" (). Again, Grebenshchikov served as a producer and brought many of his friends to help with the record. Among them were Alexander Titov (bass guitar), Sergey Kuryokhin (keyboards), Pyotr Troshchenkov (drums), Vsevolod Gakkel (cello), Igor Butman (sax), and Andrey Radchenko (drums). Grebenshchikov played a small keyboard instrument. The album was minimalist in style, with sparse arrangements and usage of fuzz effects on Kasparyan's guitar. "The album was electric and somewhat experimental in sound and form. I cannot say that the sound and style orientation turned out the way we'd like to see it, but from the point of view of the experiment, it looked interesting," said Tsoi later.


title: Kino (band)

text: After the album was finished, Tsoi formed the electric section of Kino, which included Kasparyan on lead guitar, Titov on bass guitar, and Georgy Guryanov on percussion, and in May 1984, they began to actively rehearse a new concert program. Kino then performed at II Festival at the Leningrad Rock Club, where they were highly acclaimed and began to take off in popularity. The group soon became famous and started to tour the Soviet Union. In the summer, they participated in a critically acclaimed joint performance with Aquarium and other bands held in the Moscow suburb of under the close supervision of the state security forces. In 1985, Kino released their third album, "Eto ne lyubov...".


title: Kino (band)

text: In early 1985, Kino attempted to record another album, but Tsoi did not like producer Andrei Tropillo's interference in his work, and the project was left unfinished.


title: Kino (band)

text: In November 1985, Titov decided to leave Kino in favour of Aquarium, of which he was also a member. He was replaced by jazz guitarist , who remained part of Kino's "classic lineup" until its end.


title: Kino (band)

text: In January 1986, Tropillo released the unfinished record the band had recorded in his studio a few months earlier. The album, entitled "Noch" () sold two million copies, making the group famous far beyond the rock community. However, the band had an extremely negative view of the release of this album. They received very little money from the sales of the record, and the underground rock press also criticized the album.


title: Kino (band)

text: In the spring the band performed at the IV Festival Rock Club, where they received the grand prize for the song "Dalshe deystvovat budem my" (). In the summer, they traveled to Kiev to make a film with Sergei Lysenko called , "End of Summer Break," (23 min., IMDb ID 2290966). The film consists of a story line that sequences three of Kino's songs followed by the aforementioned song. In July, they performed at the Moscow Palace of Culture Engineering along with Aquarium and Alisa. Afterwards, the three bands released a compilation called "Red Wave". The album sold 10,000 copies in California, becoming the first release of Soviet rock music in the West.


title: Kino (band)

text: From 1986 to 1988, Tsoi began to act in more movies and continued to write songs for Kino. The film "The Needle "(), which he starred in, brought the band to even more prominence, and their 1988 album "Gruppa krovi" () brought them to the pinnacle of their popularity. Kasparyan had married the American Joanna Stingray, who brought the group high-quality equipment from abroad. Thus, the technical equipment Kino used on this album far exceeded the equipment they had access to on their earlier albums, and it was their first record technically on par with European and American recordings. Russian journalist Alexander Zhitinsky called "Gruppa krovi" one of the best works of Russian music and said that it elevated Russian rock to a new level. The album was also acclaimed in the West, where it was released in 1989 by Capitol Records and lauded by American critic Robert Christgau. "Noch" was also released on vinyl by Melodiya in 1988.


title: Kino (band)

text: Kino performed on central television in the Soviet Union, and "Assa", a 1987 film featuring Russian rock, showed Tsoi performing "Khochu peremen!" () in front of a crowd of thousands. After this, Kino's popularity swept the country, and their music captured the minds of the Soviet youth of the 1980s.


title: Kino (band)

text: Soon after gaining national fame, Kino began to receive invitations to perform from all over the Eastern Bloc and even from some foreign countries. They participated in a charity contest in Denmark to raise money for relief from the earthquake in Armenia and performed at the largest French rock festival in Bourges and at the Soviet-Italian festival Back in the U.S.S.R. in Melpignano. In 1989, they travelled to New York and held a premiere of "The Needle", as well as a small concert.


title: Kino (band)

text: In 1989, they released "Zvezda po imeni Solntse "(), which was lonely, introspective, and sad, despite the fame the band was enjoying. Kino appeared on the popular Soviet television program "Vzglyad "and attempted to record several video clips. While Tsoi was unsatisfied with them and insisted that they be removed, they were nonetheless shown frequently on television.


title: Kino (band)

text: Around this time, the band decided to create a separate pop band to perform their more light-hearted songs to balance the pop songs that helped them gain popularity with Tsoi's introspective musings.


title: Kino (band)

text: In 1990, Kino performed at Luzhniki Stadium, where the organizers lit the Olympic flame, which had been lit only four times before (at the Moscow Olympics in 1980, the World Festival of Youth and Students in 1985, the Goodwill Games in 1986, and the Moscow International Peace Festival 1989.)


title: Kino (band)

text: In June 1990, after finishing a lengthy touring season, the band decided to take a short break before recording an album in France. However, on 15 August, Tsoi died in a car crash near Tukums while returning from a fishing trip.


title: Kino (band)

text: Before Tsoi died, they had recorded several songs in Latvia, and the remaining members of Kino finished the album as a tribute to him. While it had no official title, it is often called the "Black Album" () in reference to its all-black cover. It was released in December 1990, and shortly after, Kino and others close to Tsoi held a press conference announcing the end of the band.


title: Kino (band)

text: In 2012, on what would have been Tsoi's fiftieth birthday, the band briefly reunited to record the song "Ataman", which had originally been intended to feature on the "Black Album". The song was not featured on the album at release because the only recording that existed of the song contained only low-quality vocals. This was the final release of the band and the final song to feature Georgy Guryanov who died on 20 July 2013, from complications of hepatitis C, liver and pancreatic cancer, at the age of 52.


title: Kino (band)

text: In 2019, the band announced a reunion with concerts planned in the fall of 2020 for the first time in 30 years. It would feature the band's guitarist Yuri Kasparyan and bass guitarists Alexander Titov and Igor Tikhomirov. It would also use Viktor's voice, digitized from original multichannel recordings, and be accompanied by a "unique video sequence". Viktor Tsoi's son, Alexander, became the band's producer. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the concerts were postponed to 2021.


title: Kino (band)

text: All Kino songs were written by Viktor Tsoi. His lyrics are characterized by a poetic simplicity. The ideas of liberty were present (one song was named "Mother Anarchy") but, on the whole, the band's message to the public was not overly or overtly political, except for the recurring theme of freedom. Their songs largely focused on man's struggle in life and dealt with such overarching themes as love, war, and the pursuit of liberty. When asked about the social and political themes of his music, Tsoi said that his songs were works of art and he did not wish to engage in journalism.


title: Kino (band)

text: As one of the first Russian rock bands, Kino greatly influenced later bands. On 31 December 1999, Russian rock radio station Nashe Radio announced the 100 best Russian rock songs of the 20th century based on listener votes. Kino had ten songs in the list, more than any other band, and "Gruppa Krovi" took the first place. The Russian newspaper Komsomolskaya Pravda listed Kino as the second most influential Russian band ever (after Alisa.) In addition, "Gruppa Krovi" was listed as one of forty songs that changed the world in a 2007 Russian-language edition of "Rolling Stone."


title: Kino (band)

text: Tsoi's simple, relatable lyrical style was very accessible to Kino's audience and helped them gain popularity throughout the Soviet Union. While not excessively political, their music coincided with Mikhail Gorbachev's liberal reforms such as glasnost and perestroika. Additionally, the Western style of their music increased the popularity of Western culture in the Soviet Union.


title: Kino (band)

text: Kino has remained popular in modern Russia, and Tsoi, in particular, is a cult hero. The group's popularity is referred to as "Kinomania," and fans of the group are known as "Kinophiles." In Moscow, there is a Tsoi Wall, where fans leave messages for the musician, and the boiler room where Tsoi once worked is a place of pilgrimage for fans of Russian rock.


title: Serif

text: In typography, a serif () is a small line or stroke regularly attached to the end of a larger stroke in a letter or symbol within a particular font or family of fonts. A typeface or "font family" making use of serifs is called a serif typeface (or serifed typeface), and a typeface that does not include them is sans-serif. Some typography sources refer to sans-serif typefaces as "grotesque" (in German, ) or "Gothic", and serif typefaces as "roman".


title: Serif

text: Serifs originated from the first official Greek writings on stone and in Latin alphabet with inscriptional lettering—words carved into stone in Roman antiquity. The explanation proposed by Father Edward Catich in his 1968 book "The Origin of the Serif" is now broadly but not universally accepted: the Roman letter outlines were first painted onto stone, and the stone carvers followed the brush marks, which flared at stroke ends and corners, creating serifs. Another theory is that serifs were devised to neaten the ends of lines as they were chiselled into stone.


title: Serif

text: The origin of the word 'serif' is obscure, but apparently is almost as recent as the type style. The book "The British Standard of the Capital Letters contained in the Roman Alphabet, forming a complete code of systematic rules for a mathematical construction and accurate formation of the same" (1813) by William Hollins, defined 'surripses', usually pronounced "surriphs", as "projections which appear at the tops and bottoms of some letters, the O and Q excepted, at the beginning or end, and sometimes at each, of all". The standard also proposed that 'surripsis' may be a Greek word derived from (, "together") and (, "projection").


title: Serif

text: In 1827, Greek scholar Julian Hibbert printed with his own experimental uncial Greek types, remarking that the types of Giambattista Bodoni's "Callimachus" were "ornamented (or rather disfigured) by additions of what [he] believe[s] type-founders call syrifs or cerefs". The printer Thomas Curson Hansard referred to them as "ceriphs" in 1825. The oldest citations in the "Oxford English Dictionary" ("OED") are 1830 for 'serif' and 1841 for 'sans serif'. The "OED" speculates that 'serif' was a back-formation from 'sanserif'.


title: Serif

text: "Webster's Third New International Dictionary" traces 'serif' to the Dutch noun , meaning "line, stroke of the pen", related to the verb , "to delete, strike through" ( now also means "serif" in Dutch). Yet, is the past tense of (to write). The relation between and is documented by Van Veen and Van der Sijs. In her book , Van der Sijs lists words by first known publication in the language area that is the Netherlands today:


title: Serif

text: The "OED"s earliest citation for "grotesque" in this sense is 1875, giving 'stone-letter' as a synonym. It would seem to mean "out of the ordinary" in this usage, as in art 'grotesque' usually means "elaborately decorated". Other synonyms include "Doric" and "Gothic", commonly used for Japanese Gothic typefaces.


title: Serif

text: Serif fonts can be broadly classified into one of four subgroups: old style, transitional, Didone and slab serif, in order of first appearance.


title: Serif

text: Old-style typefaces date back to 1465, shortly after Johannes Gutenberg's adoption of the movable type printing press. Early printers in Italy created types that broke with Gutenberg's blackletter printing, creating upright and later italic styles inspired by Renaissance calligraphy. Old-style serif fonts have remained popular for setting body text because of their organic appearance and excellent readability on rough book paper. The increasing interest in early printing during the late 19th and early 20th centuries saw a return to the designs of Renaissance printers and type-founders, many of whose names and designs are still used today.


title: Serif

text: Old-style type is characterized by a lack of large differences between thick and thin lines (low line contrast) and generally, but less often, by a diagonal stress (the thinnest parts of letters are at an angle rather than at the top and bottom). An old-style font normally has a left-inclining curve axis with weight stress at about 8 and 2 o'clock; serifs are almost always bracketed (they have curves connecting the serif to the stroke); head serifs are often angled.


title: Serif

text: Old-style faces evolved over time, showing increasing abstraction from what would now be considered handwriting and blackletter characteristics, and often increased delicacy or contrast as printing technique improved. Old-style faces have often sub-divided into 'Venetian' (or 'humanist') and 'Garalde' (or 'Aldine'), a division made on the Vox-ATypI classification system. Nonetheless, some have argued that the difference is excessively abstract, hard to spot except to specialists and implies a clearer separation between styles than originally appeared. Modern typefaces such as Arno and Trinité may fuse both styles.


title: Serif

text: Early "humanist" roman types were introduced in Italy. Modelled on the script of the period, they tend to feature an "e" in which the cross stroke is angled, not horizontal; an "M" with two-way serifs; and often a relatively dark colour on the page. In modern times, that of Nicolas Jenson has been the most admired, with many revivals. Garaldes, which tend to feature a level cross-stroke on the "e", descend from an influential 1495 font cut by engraver Francesco Griffo for printer Aldus Manutius, which became the inspiration for many typefaces cut in France from the 1530s onwards. Often lighter on the page and made in larger sizes than had been used for roman type before, French Garalde faces rapidly spread throughout Europe from the 1530s to become an international standard.


title: Serif

text: Also during this period, italic type evolved from a quite separate genre of type, intended for informal uses such as poetry, into taking a secondary role for emphasis. Italics moved from being conceived as separate designs and proportions to being able to be fitted into the same line as roman type with a design complementary to it.


title: Serif

text: A new genre of serif type developed around the 17th century in the Netherlands and Germany that came to be called the "Dutch taste" ( in French). It was a tendency towards denser, more solid typefaces, often with a high x-height (tall lower-case letters) and a sharp contrast between thick and thin strokes, perhaps influenced by blackletter faces.


title: Serif

text: Examples of contemporary Garalde old-style typefaces are Bembo, Garamond, Galliard, Granjon, Goudy Old Style, Minion, Palatino, Renard, Sabon, and Scala. Contemporary typefaces with Venetian old style characteristics include Cloister, Adobe Jenson, the Golden Type, Hightower Text, Centaur, Goudy's Italian Old Style and Berkeley Old Style and ITC Legacy. Several of these blend in Garalde influences to fit modern expectations, especially placing single-sided serifs on the "M"; Cloister is an exception. Artists in the "Dutch taste" style include Hendrik van den Keere, Nicolaas Briot, Christoffel van Dijck, Miklós Tótfalusi Kis and the Janson and Ehrhardt types based on his work and Caslon, especially the larger sizes.


title: Serif

text: Transitional, or baroque, serif typefaces first became common around the mid-18th century until the start of the 19th. They are in between "old style" and "modern" fonts, thus the name "transitional". Differences between thick and thin lines are more pronounced than they are in old style, but less dramatic than they are in the Didone fonts that followed. Stress is more likely to be vertical, and often the "R" has a curled tail. The ends of many strokes are marked not by blunt or angled serifs but by ball terminals. Transitional faces often have an italic 'h' that opens outwards at bottom right. Because the genre bridges styles, it is difficult to define where the genre starts and ends. Many of the most popular transitional designs are later creations in the same style.


title: Serif

text: Fonts from the original period of transitional typefaces include early on the in France, then the work of Pierre Simon Fournier in France, Fleischman and Rosart in the Low Countries, Pradell in Spain and John Baskerville and Bulmer in England. Among more recent designs, Times New Roman (1932), Perpetua, Plantin, Mrs. Eaves, Freight Text, and the earlier "modernised old styles" have been described as transitional in design.


title: Serif

text: Later 18th-century transitional typefaces in Britain begin to show influences of Didone typefaces from Europe, described below, and the two genres blur, especially in type intended for body text; Bell is an example of this.


title: Serif

text: Didone, or modern, serif typefaces, which first emerged in the late 18th century, are characterized by extreme contrast between thick and thin lines. These typefaces have a vertical stress and thin serifs with a constant width, with minimal bracketing (constant width). Serifs tend to be very thin, and vertical lines very heavy. Didone fonts are often considered to be less readable than transitional or old-style serif typefaces. Period examples include Bodoni, Didot, and Walbaum. Computer Modern is a popular contemporary example. The very popular Century is a softened version of the same basic design, with reduced contrast. Didone typefaces achieved dominance of printing in the early 19th-century printing before declining in popularity in the second half of the century and especially in the 20th as new designs and revivals of old-style faces emerged.


title: Serif

text: In print, Didone fonts are often used on high-gloss magazine paper for magazines such as "Harper's Bazaar", where the paper retains the detail of their high contrast well, and for whose image a crisp, "European" design of type may be considered appropriate. They are used more often for general-purpose body text, such as book printing, in Europe. They remain popular in the printing of Greek, as the Didot family were among the first to establish a printing press in newly independent Greece. The period of Didone types' greatest popularity coincided with the rapid spread of printed posters and commercial ephemera and the arrival of bold type. As a result, many Didone typefaces are among the earliest designed for "display" use, with an ultra-bold "fat face" style becoming a common sub-genre.


title: Serif

text: Slab serif typefaces date to about 1817.<ref name="Three chapters in the development of clarendon/ionic typefaces"></ref> Originally intended as attention-grabbing designs for posters, they have very thick serifs, which tend to be as thick as the vertical lines themselves. Slab serif fonts vary considerably: some such as Rockwell have a geometric design with minimal variation in stroke width—they are sometimes described as sans-serif fonts with added serifs. Others such as those of the "Clarendon" model have a structure more like most other serif fonts, though with larger and more obvious serifs. These designs may have bracketed serifs that increase width along their length.


title: Serif

text: Because of the clear, bold nature of the large serifs, slab serif designs are often used for posters and in small print. Many monospace fonts, on which all characters occupy the same amount of horizontal space as in a typewriter, are slab-serif designs. While not always purely slab-serif designs, many fonts intended for newspaper use have large slab-like serifs for clearer reading on poor-quality paper. Many early slab-serif types, being intended for posters, only come in bold styles with the key differentiation being width, and often have no lower-case letters at all.


title: Serif

text: Examples of slab-serif typefaces include Clarendon, Rockwell, Archer, Courier, Excelsior, TheSerif, and Zilla Slab. FF Meta Serif and Guardian Egyptian are examples of newspaper and small print-oriented typefaces with some slab-serif characteristics, often most visible in the bold weights. In the late 20th century, the term "humanist slab-serif" has been applied to typefaces such as Chaparral, Caecilia and Tisa, with strong serifs but an outline structure with some influence of old-style serif typefaces.


title: Serif

text: During the 19th century, genres of serif type besides conventional body text faces proliferated. These included "Tuscan" faces, with ornamental, decorative ends to the strokes rather than serifs, and "Latin" or "wedge-serif" faces, with pointed serifs, which were particularly popular in France and other parts of Europe including for signage applications such as business cards or shop fronts.


title: Serif

text: Well-known typefaces in the "Latin" style include Wide Latin, Copperplate Gothic, Johnston Delf Smith and the more restrained Méridien.


title: Serif

text: Serifed fonts are widely used for body text because they are considered easier to read than sans-serif fonts in print. Colin Wheildon, who conducted scientific studies from 1982 to 1990, found that sans serif fonts created various difficulties for readers that impaired their comprehension. According to Kathleen Tinkel, studies suggest that "most sans serif typefaces may be slightly less legible than most serif faces, but ... the difference can be offset by careful setting".


title: Serif

text: Sans-serif are considered to be more legible on computer screens. According to Alex Poole, "we should accept that most reasonably designed typefaces in mainstream use will be equally legible". A study suggested that serif fonts are more legible on a screen but are not generally preferred to sans serif fonts. Another study indicated that comprehension times for individual words are slightly faster when written in a sans serif font versus a serif font.


title: Serif

text: When size of an individual glyph is 9-20 pixels, proportional serifs and some lines of most glyphs of common vector fonts are smaller than individual pixels. Hinting, spatial anti-aliasing, and subpixel rendering allow to render distinguishable serifs even in this case, but their proportions and appearance are off and thickness is close to many lines of the main glyph, strongly altering appearance of the glyph. Consequently, it is sometimes advised to use sans-serif fonts for content meant to be displayed on screens, as they scale better for low resolutions. Indeed, most web pages employ sans-serif type. Recent introduction of desktop displays with 300+ dpi resolution might eventually make this recommendation obsolete.


title: Serif

text: As serifs originated in inscription, they are generally not used in handwriting. A common exception is the printed capital I, where the addition of serifs distinguishes the character from lowercase L. The printed capital J and the numeral 1 are also often handwritten with serifs.


title: Serif

text: In the Chinese and Japanese writing systems, there are common type styles based on the regular script for Chinese characters akin to serif and sans serif fonts in the West. In Mainland China, the most popular category of serifed-like typefaces for body text is called Song (, ); in Japan, the most popular serif style is called ; and in Taiwan and Hong Kong, it is called (, ). The names of these lettering styles come from the Song and Ming dynasties, when block printing flourished in China. Because the wood grain on printing blocks ran horizontally, it was fairly easy to carve horizontal lines with the grain. However, carving vertical or slanted patterns was difficult because those patterns intersect with the grain and break easily. This resulted in a typeface that has thin horizontal strokes and thick vertical strokes. In accordance with Chinese calligraphy (kaiti style in particular), where each horizontal stroke is ended with a dipping motion of the brush, the ending of horizontal strokes are also thickened. These design forces resulted in the current Song typeface characterized by thick vertical strokes contrasted with thin horizontal strokes, triangular ornaments at the end of single horizontal strokes, and overall geometrical regularity.


title: Serif

text: In Japanese typography, the equivalent of serifs on kanji and kana characters are called —"fish scales". In Chinese, the serifs are called either (, lit. "forms with legs") or (, lit. "forms with ornamental lines").


title: Serif

text: The other common East Asian style of type is called black (, ) in Chinese and in Japanese. This group is characterized by lines of even thickness for each stroke, the equivalent of "sans serif". This style, first introduced on newspaper headlines, is commonly used on headings, websites, signs and billboards.


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: The twelfth series of the British science fiction television programme "Doctor Who" premiered on 1 January 2020 and aired until 1 March 2020. It is the second series to be led by Chris Chibnall as head writer and executive producer, alongside executive producer Matt Strevens, the twelfth to air after the programme's revival in 2005, and the thirty-eighth season overall. The twelfth series was broadcast on Sundays, except for the premiere episode, continuing the trend from the eleventh series. Prior to the eleventh series, regular episodes of the revived era were commonly broadcast on Saturdays. The series was followed by the 2021 New Year's Day special, "Revolution of the Daleks".


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: Jodie Whittaker returns for her second series as the Thirteenth Doctor, an incarnation of the Doctor, an alien Time Lord who travels through time and space in her TARDIS, which appears from the outside to be an old fashioned British police box. It also stars Bradley Walsh, Tosin Cole and Mandip Gill as the Doctor's travelling companions, playing Graham O'Brien, Ryan Sinclair and Yasmin Khan, respectively. The series follows the Thirteenth Doctor and her companions as they meet a new incarnation of the Master, and his destruction of Gallifrey, the return of Jack Harkness, the appearance of an unknown incarnation of the Doctor, the Cybermen, and the secret of the "Timeless Child".


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: The ten episodes were directed by Jamie Magnus Stone, Lee Haven Jones, Nida Manzoor and Emma Sullivan. Alongside Chibnall, who wrote four of the scripts and co-wrote a further three, the writers include Ed Hime, Pete McTighe and Vinay Patel, who return from writing the previous series, as well as new contributors Nina Metivier, Maxine Alderton and Charlene James. Filming commenced in January 2019 and had concluded by November 2019. The series gained the lowest ratings since the revival of the show in 2005, but received generally positive reviews from critics.


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: The twelfth series included two-part stories for the first time since the tenth series, and more than one two-part story for the first time since the ninth series. "Spyfall" is the first two-part story not to use separate titles for its episodes since "The End of Time" (2009–10).


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: The series is the second to feature Jodie Whittaker as the Thirteenth Doctor. Bradley Walsh, Tosin Cole and Mandip Gill also reprise their roles as Graham O'Brien, Ryan Sinclair and Yasmin Khan, respectively.


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: Stephen Fry and Lenny Henry appeared in the two-part premiere episode "Spyfall". Dominique Maher and Darron Meyer portrayed Agent Browning and Seesay respectively in "Spyfall". Sacha Dhawan appeared unannounced in "Spyfall, Part 1", and was revealed at the end of the episode to be the Master. Aurora Marion portrayed Noor Inayat Khan in "Spyfall, Part 2". James Buckley appeared in "Orphan 55" as Nevi. Laura Fraser also appeared in "Orphan 55" as Kane, as did Julia Foster as Vilma. Goran Višnjić and Robert Glenister were also cast as Nikola Tesla and Thomas Edison respectively. They appeared in "Nikola Tesla's Night of Terror", as well. Anjli Mohindra, who had previously portrayed Rani Chandra in the "Doctor Who" spin-off "The Sarah Jane Adventures", played Queen Skithra in "Nikola Tesla's Night of Terror".


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: John Barrowman returned to his role as Jack Harkness in "Fugitive of the Judoon" and also for "Revolution of the Daleks". This is his first appearance on the show since "The End of Time - Part Two" in 2010. Jo Martin appeared as a previously unknown incarnation of the Doctor using the alias 'Ruth Clayton' in "Fugitive of the Judoon". Neil Stuke appeared in "Fugitive of the Judoon", and Nicholas Briggs provided the voice of the Judoon. Molly Harris appeared as Suki Cheng in "Praxeus". Warren Brown was also cast in that episode.


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: Sharon D. Clarke reprises her role as Graham's late wife, Grace, in "Can You Hear Me?". Maxim Baldry appeared as Dr John Polidori in "The Haunting of Villa Diodati". Jacob Collins-Levy also appeared as Lord Byron in the same episode. Julie Graham, Ian McElhinney and Steve Toussaint guest star in the two-part finale, "Ascension of the Cybermen" / "The Timeless Children".


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: In "SFX" #355, it was confirmed that "Revolution of the Daleks" would be the final appearances by Walsh and Cole, Chris Noth would return as Jack Robertson from "Arachnids in the UK" (2018), and that Harriet Walter had been cast.


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: In April 2015, Steven Moffat confirmed that "Doctor Who" would run for at least another five years, extending the show until 2020. In May 2017, it was announced that due to the terms of a deal between BBC Worldwide and SMG Pictures in China, SMG has first right of refusal on the purchase for the Chinese market of future series of the programme until and including Series 15.


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: Chris Chibnall returned as the series's showrunner, the role he took on following Steven Moffat's departure after the tenth series. Matt Strevens also returned to serve as executive producer alongside Chibnall.


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: Ed Hime (who wrote the penultimate episode of the previous series) wrote "Orphan 55". Nina Metivier, who served as script editor on the previous series, also wrote "Nikola Tesla's Night of Terror". In November 2019, "Doctor Who Magazine" revealed the writers for the twelfth series, including Vinay Patel, Pete McTighe, Maxine Alderton and Charlene James, as well as Hime, Métivier and Chibnall. Chibnall wrote four episodes and co-wrote a further three. In a "Radio Times" article, Chibnall confirmed that Series 12 would feature the return of two-part stories.


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: The twelfth series introduced changes to the design of the TARDIS, with the differences including a modified column above the time rotor, an updated pathway from the TARDIS's doors, the inclusion of stairs, and modifications to the central console. These changes were introduced by production designer Dafydd Shurmer. Some episodes feature cold openings, which had been consistently used in the revived era but were entirely absent in the eleventh series.


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: Costume designer Ray Holman listed the twelfth series as being in pre-production in November 2018. By 17 November, BBC confirmed that Series 12 had begun production. Jamie Magnus Stone, who previously directed the fiftieth-anniversary mini-episode "The Last Day", directed the first block, which comprised the first and sixth episodes of the series. Lee Haven Jones directed the second and third episodes in the second block. Nida Manzoor directed the third block of the fourth and fifth episodes. Emma Sullivan directed the fourth block of the seventh and eighth episodes. Stone directed the fifth block of the ninth and tenth episodes.


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: Filming commenced on 23 January 2019 in South Africa, and concluded on 7 February, taking place at Western Cape, Hopefield, Lion's Head, and Taal Monument. Filming took place in Cardiff and Wales between February and October 2019. Filming also took place in Tenerife, Gloucester, and Merthyr Mawr. Filming concluded by 19 November 2019.


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: The 2021 New Year's Day special, "Revolution of the Daleks", was filmed by Lee Haven Jones. In April 2020, Chibnall confirmed that post-production was continuing on "Revolution of the Daleks" remotely throughout the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: A poster for the twelfth series was released on 21 November 2019. The first trailer for the series was released on 23 November 2019, coinciding with the programme's fifty-sixth anniversary. Another trailer was released on 2 December 2019 alongside news of the series's premiere date. Forbidden Planet released shirts weekly with themes that corresponded to each week's broadcast episode of Series 12. Two new trailers were released mid-series on 20 January and 7 February 2020.


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: The BBC confirmed after the eleventh series's finale that the twelfth series would premiere in "very early" 2020. BBC confirmed on 2 December 2019 that the series was set to premiere on 1 January 2020, and would air through 1 March 2020. The twelfth series was broadcast on Sundays, bar the premiere episode which aired on a Wednesday, continuing on from the format of the eleventh series, after regular episodes of the revived era had previously been broadcast on Saturdays.


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: The "Spyfall" two-part episode was released in cinemas in the United States on 5 January 2020. The series was followed by a special episode, "Revolution of the Daleks", on New Year's Day in 2021.


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: The twelfth series was released on 4 May 2020 in Region 2, and included the 2019 special "Resolution" in the boxset.


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: The series gained the lowest ratings since the revival of the show in 2005, containing six of the show's ten least-watched episodes. The average viewing figure for this series was 5.40 million UK viewers. The series finale was the least-watched episode of the show since 2005, at 4.69 million viewers. Nielsen ratings of the show on BBC America for the key demographic, people aged 18 to 34, dropped by 52.5% compared to the previous series, down to 0.13.


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: "Doctor Who"s twelfth series received positive reviews from critics. Series 12 holds a 78% approval rating on online review aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes with an average score of 6.55/10, based on 179 critic reviews. The site's consensus reads ""Doctor Who"s twelfth outing adds welcome nuances to Jodie Whittaker's Doctor and some scary new layers of horror to some of the series' most terrifying villains." Metacritic calculated a weighted average score of 80 out of 100 from 4 reviews of the series premiere, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Doctor Who (series 12)

text: 48 selected pieces of score from this series as composed by Segun Akinola were released in a 2-CD set on 3 April 2020 by Silva Screen Records. Twelve selected pieces of score from "Revolution of the Daleks" as composed by Segun Akinola were released on digital music platforms on 2 January 2021 by Silva Screen Records, which are also set to be released on CD 11 November 2022 as a bonus disc to the "" soundtrack release.


title: President of Singapore

text: In addition to being the head of state, it is also the function of the president to safeguard the reserves and the integrity of the Public Services. To safeguard the reserves, the president can withhold assent to any supply bill or transaction proposed by the government that is likely to lead to a draw on the past reserves. To safeguard the integrity of the Public Services, the president can refuse to make or revoke appointments to public offices such as the Chief Justice, the Attorney-General, the Chief of Defence Force and the Commissioner of Police, amongst others.


title: President of Singapore

text: The president also carries out ceremonial duties and engagements at home and abroad, while the Cabinet has the general direction and control of the government. The incumbent president is Halimah Yacob, who assumed office on 14 September 2017. She is also the first female president in the country's history.


title: President of Singapore

text: The office of the "President of the Republic of Singapore" was created on 9 August 1965 when Singapore achieved independence from Malaysia. It replaced the office of Yang di-Pertuan Negara which was created when Singapore attained self-governance from the United Kingdom in 1959. The last Yang di-Pertuan Negara, Yusof Ishak, became the first president of Singapore. After his death in 1971, he was succeeded by Benjamin Sheares who served until his death in 1981.


title: President of Singapore

text: Sheares was succeeded by Devan Nair, who then resigned in 1985. Whilst the apparent reason for Nair's resignation was to seek recovery from his alcoholism, Nair disputes the account, claiming that he was forced out of office by then Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong. Nair was replaced by Wee Kim Wee, who served until 1993 and was the first president to exercise custodial powers pursuant to the constitutional amendments in 1991.


title: President of Singapore

text: In January 1991, a constitutional amendment was passed by parliament to redifine the role of the president. Prior to the amendment, the president was appointed by parliament, but the amendment provided that the president would be elected by popular vote, subject to strict eligibility requirements. The president was also empowered by the amendment to veto the use of the country's past reserves and revoke or refuse appointments to certain high-ranking public offices. The president can also examine the Government's usage of the Internal Security Act and Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act, and concur with the director of the Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau to investigate persons for corrupt practices, even if the Prime Minister refuses consent.


title: President of Singapore

text: The first elected president was Ong Teng Cheong, who served as Deputy Prime Minister prior to his presidency. He served as president from 1993 to 1999. Officially, the Singapore government regards Ong's predecessor Wee Kim Wee as the first elected president on the basis that he held and exercised the powers of the elected president. This was a result of transitional provisions in the Constitution of Singapore in 2017, which were affirmed by the High Court following a legal challenge by then presidential candidate Tan Cheng Bock. He unsueccessfully appealed against this decision, but the appeal was dismissed by the Court of Appeal.


title: President of Singapore

text: The sixth and the oldest to become president was S. R. Nathan, unelected by members of public in a vote, but became president by virtue of being the sole candidate deemed qualified by the Presidential Elections Committee. He served his first term of office from 1999 to 2005 before being re-elected again without contest for a second term, and he served until 2011.


title: President of Singapore

text: After S. R. Nathan stepped down, Tony Tan, who served as Deputy Prime Minister between 1995 and 2005, won the 2011 presidential election by a narrow margin. He was sworn in as the seventh president of Singapore on 1 September 2011.


title: President of Singapore

text: In 2016, further amendments to the Constitution were passed providing for "reserved elections" for a particular ethnic community, if that community has not provided a president in the past five presidential terms.


title: President of Singapore

text: The eighth and incumbent president, Halimah Yacob, who served as Speaker of Parliament prior to her presidency, took office on 14 September 2017. She was the sole eligible candidate under the new reform terms which took effect earlier that year. She is the first Malay head of state in 47 years since the death of the first president of Singapore, Yusof Ishak. She is also the first female President of Singapore.


title: President of Singapore

text: The president is the head of state of the Republic of Singapore. In addition to being the Head of State, it is also the function of the President to safeguard the past reserves of Singapore and the integrity of the Public Services of Singapore. The executive authority of Singapore is vested in the president and exercisable by them or by the Cabinet or any minister authorised by the Cabinet. However, the Constitution vests "general direction and control of the Government" in the Cabinet. In most cases, the president is bound to exercise their powers in accordance with the advice of the Cabinet or of a Minister acting under the general authority of the Cabinet.


title: President of Singapore

text: However, the president is able to exercise some powers in their personal discretion such as preventing the government of the day from drawing on the reserves which were not accumulated during its current term of office, refusing to make or revoking an appointment to any of the public offices under Article 22 of the Constitution such as Chief Justice, Attorney-General, Chief of Defence Force and Commissioner of Police, amongst others., exercising oversight over the Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau and decisions of the Executive under the Internal Security Act and the Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act.


title: President of Singapore

text: As a component of the legislature together with Parliament, the president is also jointly vested with legislative authority. The president's primary role in the exercise of legislative power to make laws is assenting to bills passed by Parliament.


title: President of Singapore

text: As the president exercises this constitutional function in accordance with the Cabinet's advice and not in their personal discretion except in certain circumstances, they may not refuse to assent to bills that Parliament has validly passed. The words of enactment in Singapore Statutes are: "Be it enacted by the president with the advice and consent of the Parliament of Singapore, as follows:". The president usually opens each parliamentary session with an address drafted by the Cabinet setting out the government's agenda for the session, and may address Parliament and send messages to it.


title: President of Singapore

text: The president has been called "Singapore's No. 1 diplomat". Ambassadors and high commissioners accredited to Singapore present their credentials to the president, and the president is called upon by visiting foreign dignitaries. In addition, the president contributes to the nation's external relations by undertaking overseas trips on Cabinet's advice. The president also serves as the "ex officio" chancellor of both the National University of Singapore and the Nanyang Technological University.


title: President of Singapore

text: Presidents have also used the office to champion charitable causes. Wee Kim Wee promoted sports and volunteerism; Ong Teng Cheong promoted culture and the arts, particularly music; and S. R. Nathan established the President's Challenge with the Ministry of Community Development, Youth and Sports and its statutory board, the National Council of Social Service. As of 2011, the endeavour had raised more than S$100 million for charities supporting disabled and needy people.


title: President of Singapore

text: The powers of the president are divided into those which the president may exercise in their own discretion, and those which must be exercised in accordance with the advice of the Cabinet or of a minister acting under the general authority of the Cabinet. In addition, the president is required to consult the Council of Presidential Advisers (CPA) when performing some of their functions. In other cases, they may consult the CPA if they wish to but is not bound to do so.


title: President of Singapore

text: The Constitution confers on the president certain executive functions to block attempts by the government of the day to draw down reserves that it did not accumulate. Thus, a guarantee may only be given or a loan raised by the government if the president concurs, and their approval is also needed for budgets of specified statutory boards and state-owned companies that draw on their past reserves.


title: President of Singapore

text: The president also possesses personal discretion to withhold assent to any bill in Parliament providing directly or indirectly for the direct or indirect variation, changing or increase in powers of the Central Provident Fund Board to invest moneys belonging to it; and the borrowing of money, the giving of any guarantee or the raising of any loan by the government if in the president's opinion the bill is likely to draw on reserves not accumulated by the Government during its current term of office. In addition, the president may withhold assent to any Supply Bill, Supplementary Supply Bill or Final Supply Bill for any financial year if in their opinion the estimates of revenue and expenditure, supplementary estimates or statement of excess are likely to lead to a drawing on past reserves.


title: President of Singapore

text: The president is also empowered to approve changes to key political appointments, such as the chief justice, attorney-general, chairman and members of the Public Service Commission, chief of Defence Force and the commissioner of Police. They also appoint the prime minister, a Member of Parliament (MP) who, in their opinion, is likely to command the confidence of a majority of MPs. The president has certain powers of oversight over the Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau and decisions of the Executive under the Internal Security Act and the Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act.


title: President of Singapore

text: Under the Singapore Armed Forces Act, the president has the authority to raise and maintain the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF). The president also has the power to form, disband or amalgamate units within the SAF.


title: President of Singapore

text: The term of office of the first elected president, Ong Teng Cheong, was marked by the differences between the government and him, concerning the extent of his discretionary fiscal powers. Discussions culminated in the government issuing a non-binding white paper entitled "The Principles for Determining and Safeguarding the Accumulated Reserves of the Government and the Fifth Schedule Statutory Boards and Government Companies" (1999).


title: President of Singapore

text: In 2009, the government had to request for the approval from President S. R. Nathan to draw $4.9 billion from past financial reserves to meet current budget expenditure, the first time it had done so. The sum was used to fund the government's Resilience Package consisting of two schemes aimed at preserving jobs and businesses during the financial downturn.


title: President of Singapore

text: A person who wishes to run for the office of president has to fulfil stringent qualifications set out in the Constitution, which are as follows:


title: President of Singapore

text: The strictness of these qualifications led to the 1999, 2005, and 2017 elections being walkovers as only one candidate had qualified on nomination day.


title: President of Singapore

text: In November 2016, further amendments provide for "reserved elections" for a particular racial group (Chinese, Malay and Indian/other minority) — if that community has not been represented for five presidential terms. Other amendments were made to expand the list of key government companies eligible for the candidacy, and, for candidates using their private sector experience, the use of $500 million of shareholder equity instead of $100 million in paid-up capital. The changes went into effect in April 2017. Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong later explained that while he expected the "reserved election" policy to be unpopular among the population, he believed it was "the right thing to do".


title: President of Singapore

text: The president holds office for a term of six years from the date on which they assume office. The office falls vacant upon the expiry of the incumbent's term or if the president is for some reason unable to complete their term; for example, due to death, resignation, or removal from office for misconduct or mental or physical infirmity. If the office of president becomes vacant before the incumbent's term expires, a poll for an election must be held within six months. In other cases, an election can take place any time from three months before the expiry of the incumbent's term of office.


title: President of Singapore

text: The procedure for elections is laid out in the Presidential Elections Act. The process begins when the prime minister issues a writ of election to the returning officer specifying the date and place of nomination day. Potential candidates must obtain certificates of eligibility from the Presidential Elections Committee (PEC), the function of which is to ensure that such persons have the necessary qualifications to be nominated as a candidate for the election. In particular, the PEC must be satisfied that the potential candidates are persons of integrity, good character and reputation; and if they have not previously held certain key government offices or acted as chairman of the board of directors or CEO of a company incorporated or registered under the Companies Act with shareholders' equity of at least $500 million, that they held a position of comparable seniority and responsibility in the public or private sector that has given them experience and ability in administering and managing financial affairs. The PEC consists of the chairman of the Public Service Commission, who is also the chairman of the PEC, the chairman of the Accounting and Corporate Regulatory Authority, and a member of the Presidential Council for Minority Rights. For the 2017 presidential election, the members of the PEC are Eddie Teo (chairman), Lim Soo Hoon, Chan Heng Chee, Po'ad Shaik Abu Bakar Mattar, Tay Yong Kwang, and Peter Seah.


title: President of Singapore

text: In addition, candidates must obtain political donation certificates from the registrar of political donations stating that they have complied with the Political Donations Act, and file their nomination papers with the returning officer on nomination day. A deposit must also be paid. The candidate is declared to have been elected president if only one candidate is nominated. Otherwise, the returning officer issues a notice of contested election specifying when polling day will be.


title: President of Singapore

text: During the election period, a candidate may not spend more than $600,000 or 30 cents for each person on the electoral register, whichever is greater. Permits must be obtained to hold election meetings and display posters and banners, and a number of acts are unlawful, including bribery, dissuading electors from voting, making false statements about candidates, treating and undue influence. Legal changes introduced in 2010 made the eve of polling day a "cooling-off day" – campaigning must not take place on that day and on polling day itself.


title: President of Singapore

text: Polling day is a public holiday, and voting is compulsory. Voters must go to the polling stations assigned to them. After the poll closes, the presiding officer of each polling station seals the ballot boxes without opening them. Candidates or their polling agents may also affix their own seals to the ballot boxes. The ballot boxes are then taken to counting centres to be opened and the ballots counted. A candidate or his or her counting agent may ask the returning officer for a recount of votes if the difference between the number of votes for the candidate with the most votes and any other candidate's number of votes is 2% or less. After all counts, and recounts if any, have been completed, the returning officer ascertains whether the total number of electors registered to vote overseas is less than the difference between the number of votes for the two candidates with the highest number of votes. If so, the returning officer declares the candidate with the highest number of votes to be elected as president. If not, the overseas votes may be decisive. The returning officer then states the number of votes cast for each candidate and the date and location where the overseas votes will be counted.


title: President of Singapore

text: The 2011 presidential election was the first election with a ballot since the 1993 election, and was also Singapore's first presidential election contested by more than two candidates. The election was won by Tony Tan Keng Yam with 745,693 (35.19%) of valid votes.


title: President of Singapore

text: The person elected to the office of president assumes office on the day his predecessor ceases to hold office or, if the office is vacant, on the day following his election. Upon his assumption of office, the president is required to take and subscribe in the presence of the chief justice or of another justice of the Supreme Court the Oath of Office, which states:


title: President of Singapore

text: In the case when the president is unable to perform their duties, their powers are temporarily transferred to the chairman of the Council of Presidential Advisers (CPA). If the chairman of the Council of Presidential Advisers is not available, the speaker of the Parliament performs the duties of the president. If both are unavailable the presidential functions are performed by an individual appointed by the Parliament.


title: President of Singapore

text: The Parliament of Singapore is required to provide a civil list for the maintenance of the president, and it does so by way of the Civil List and Gratuity Act. With effect from 17 February 2012, the sum under Class I of the list, which includes the president's personal pay ($1,568,900, known by the British term the "privy purse"), an entertainment allowance ($73,000) and an allowance for an acting president ($4,500), is $1,646,400. The privy purse was reduced from $4,267,500 after the president accepted the Ministerial Salaries Review Committee's recommendations on the matter.


title: President of Singapore

text: The salaries for the president's personal staff (Class II) amount to $4,532,400. Speaking in Parliament on 10 March 2011, Minister for Finance Tharman Shanmugaratnam explained that this sum was to cater for the salaries of an additional staff officer to support the work of the Council of Presidential Advisers, and a butler manager; and to meet higher variable staff salary payments due to the nation's strong economic growth. The allowance for the Istana's household expenses (Class III) is $2,762,308, an increase from $694,000. This allowance is used to cover the maintenance of the Istana, vehicles, utilities and other supplies, as well as for ceremonies and celebrations. The increase was to cater for higher expenses for maintaining computer systems, buildings and land, and to account for inflation.


title: President of Singapore

text: Class IV expenses for "special services" are $550,000. In previous years, this sum was used to cover various expenses such as the cost of replacing state cars and installing a new document repository. Overall, the current civil list of $9,491,100 represents a decrease of about 18% from the sum for the past fiscal year of $11,605,000.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: Unione Sportiva Lecce, commonly referred to as Lecce (), is an Italian football club based in Lecce, Apulia. The club play in Serie A in the 2022–23 season, the top level of the Italian football pyramid, having been promoted from Serie B. Lecce plays its home games at Stadio Via del Mare, which has a capacity of 31,533 spectators.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: The club was formed in the 1908 and has spent a large part of their recent history bouncing between Italy's second division and Serie A, where the team debuted in the 1985–86 season. Its best Serie A finish is the ninth place obtained in the 1988–89 season. The club is 27th in the Serie A all-time table and is the second club from Apulia as regards appearances in the first two tiers of Italian football, with 16 Serie A seasons and 29 Serie B seasons.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: Lecce won a Serie B title in 2022 and 2010, a Coppa Italia Serie C in 1975 and an Anglo-Italian Cup Semiprofessionals in 1976.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: Lecce was founded as Sporting Club Lecce on 15 March 1908, initially including football, track-and-field and cycling sports. The first club president was Francesco Marangi. The first colours worn by Lecce during this time were black and white stripes, known in Italy as "bianconeri".


title: U.S. Lecce

text: In its formative years, Lecce played in mostly regional leagues and competitions. During the 1923–24 season, the club dissolved before returning on 16 September 1927 as Unione Sportiva Lecce. The club was still wearing black and white stripes (similar to Juventus' kit) at this point, and the first president under the name Unione Sportiva Lecce was Luigi López y Rojo.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: Taranto Sport played Lecce in a game for promotion to Serie B from the local Southern Italian league; Lecce were victorious winning 3–2 after extra time. They were entered into Serie B for the 1929–30 season. The first game match played in the league was against Novara on 6 October 1929, a 2–1 victory. Lecce would eventually finish 13th. However, for the second time in the club's history, it ceased activity at the end of the 1931–32 season.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: Four years later, Lecce returned and competed Serie C, finishing 11th in their return season. Around this time, the club was in turmoil: the following season they withdrew from Serie C after four days, and then during the 1938–39 season, they finished in third place but were moved down to 12th after it was revealed the club had violated the league's federal regulations.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: The club finished in first place during the 1943–44 season, but club football was then suspended due to World War II. Nonetheless, when club football resumed, Lecce finished as champions of Serie C, gaining promotion back into Serie B. Two decent seasons followed (finishing fourth and third in respective seasons), with star player Silvestri scoring 20 goals in one season, before the club was relegated.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: Lecce stayed down in Serie C for six seasons during this period, though this was not a particularly successful time for the club. Striker Anselmo Bislenghi scored 83 goals for the club during this period, thus becoming a hero. The club slipped even lower to Serie IV, where they spent three years.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: From 1959 to 1975, Lecce played 17 seasons in Serie C. They came extremely close to promotion several times during that period, finishing in second place three seasons in a row (1971–72, 1972–73, 1973–74) before gaining promotion in the 1975–76 season.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: The same year as their promotion, Lecce tasted cup success, winning the Coppa Italia Serie C. In 1976, Lecce took part in the Anglo-Italian Cup, notching up a 4–0 victory against Scarborough.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: In 1980, a scandal occurred which rocked Italian football, including Lecce under president Franco Jurlano. However, Jurlano was able to demonstrate his innocence and the scandal only lead to disqualification of player Claudius Merlo. Later, the club was struck by a tragedy in 1983: players Michele Lo Russo and Ciro Pezzella died in an automotive accident. To this day, Lo Russo remains the club record holder for most number of appearances, with 415.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: Under the management of Eugenio Fascetti, Lecce would achieve promotion to Serie A for the first time in 1985. They finished bottom and were relegated after only one season, but defeated Roma 3–2 away in the penultimate game to deal a fatal blow to Roma's title hopes. Losing a promotion play-off 2–1 to Cesena the following season, they would return to Serie A in 1988.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: Under Carlo Mazzone, Lecce finished a respectable ninth place in 1989. Stars of the side included striker Pedro Pasculli and midfielders Antonio Conte and Paolo Benedetti. They lasted three seasons before relegation, and returned two years later. The 1993–94 season saw Lecce finish in last place with a pitiful 11 points, the lowest ever of any Serie A team, and a second relegation came the following year.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: Giampiero Ventura saw Lecce achieve two successive promotions from Serie C to Serie A before leaving for Cagliari. Once more, it proved a struggle in Serie A despite the best efforts of striker Francesco Palmieri and a famous away win against Milan on 19 October 1997.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: In the summer of 1998, Pantaleo Corvino was appointed new sports director, gaining a reputation for scouting new talents in the years to come. The team was good enough to return to Serie A in 1999 and begin another three-year stint in the top-flight, with yet another return to Serie A in 2003.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: In 2004, under Delio Rossi, who had been managing the club since 2002, Lecce achieved an impressive result, reaching a high-point of tenth despite a poor first half of the season. Famous performances include two sensational victories in a row, first against Italian giants Juventus 3–4 in Turin (the first ever win at the Stadio Delle Alpi for Lecce) and then against Internazionale 2–1 at the Stadio Via del Mare.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: In 2004–05, coach Zdeněk Zeman oversaw a highly attack-minded team that scored plenty of goals. Lecce ended the year again finishing tenth, putting in the spotlight talents like Valeri Bojinov and Mirko Vučinić. The team had the second-best attack with 66 goals (Juventus came first with 67) and the worst defence, with 73 goals conceded. This is a record, as for the first time the team with the worst defence managed to survive in the history of Serie A.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: The 2005–06 season was a continual struggle for Lecce. The club changed its manager two times (Silvio Baldini for Angelo Adamo Gregucci and in January 2006 youth team coach Roberto Rizzo, supported by goalkeeper coach Franco Paleari, for Baldini). The numerous managerial moves could not turn Lecce's fortune as they were relegated with a few games to spare and ended the season in 19th place. In June 2006, Giovanni Semeraro returned at the helm of the club after nine months. The club re-appointed Zdeněk Zeman as manager, just one year after he left the club.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: Lecce was unable to avoid relegation from Serie A, despite some initial hope due to the Serie A match-fixing scandal.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: The club had a mixed start to the 2006–07 season in Serie B, winning three home matches (including a win against early league leaders Genoa), though they suffered poor away form. After a large drop in form, recording 10 losses in 18 matches, Zeman was sacked as manager and replaced by Giuseppe Papadopulo. On 10 March 2007, Lecce clinched a historical victory over Frosinone, beaten 5–0 at Stadio Via del Mare. Having gained 36 points in the second half of the season, Lecce ended the season in the middle of the table, in ninth place. In 2007, Lecce gained more points than any other team in Serie B.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: The 2007–08 season saw Lecce fight for a place in Serie A for the next season. Despite earning 83 points (12 more than sixth-placed Pisa) and boasting the best defence in the tournament, the "giallorossi" were forced to face play-offs for promotion in the top flight. In the semi-final, they beat Pisa in both legs (1–0 away and 2–1 at home) to secure a place in the final against AlbinoLeffe. Then they won the first leg 1–0 away, before securing a 1–1 draw in the second leg at the Studio Via del Mare to gain promotion.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: After persistent rumours, Papadopulo quit due to a difference of opinion with the general manager of the club and was replaced by Mario Beretta, who had a quite satisfactory start in the 2008–09 Serie A season. He remained in charge for twenty-seven games, but, due to four defeats in the last five matches, with the team one point below the survival zone, he was sacked and Luigi De Canio was appointed new manager. Seven points earned in ten matches were not enough to secure Lecce a spot in the next Serie A season. Relegation was official with one match to spare, after a 1–1 home draw against Fiorentina.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: Lecce had a mixed start in the 2009–10 Serie B campaign, but clinched first place in November 2009 and kept it for the rest of the season. In May, the team was on the verge of promotion, but wasted opportunities in their last two matches meant they had to wait until the last match to celebrate their eighth elevation to the top flight in the last 25 years. A goalless home draw with Sassuolo proved enough to clinch the Serie B title with 75 points and win the Coppa Ali della Vittoria.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: Lecce ended a satisfactory 2010–11 Serie A season successfully avoiding relegation with one match to spare after beating arch-rival and already relegated Bari 2–0 away on 15 May 2011. In the last few matches, the team managed to win a tough battle against other underdogs and some glorious teams such as Sampdoria that ended the season in despair. Manager Luigi De Canio left the team in June.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: In the 2011–12 Serie A season, Lecce was relegated to Serie B. The start of the season was bad and new manager Eusebio Di Francesco was sacked in December, after 9 losses in 13 matches. Serse Cosmi was appointed new manager. Lecce refused to crumble as Cosmi's arrival instilled battling qualities into the relegation strugglers, who managed to gain a considerable number of points in the following months, but eventually failed to avoid relegation, due to four losses in the last five matches. Lecce managed to struggle until the final game.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: On 10 August 2012, Lecce was provisionally relegated by the Disciplinary Commission set up for the "Scommessopoli" scandal investigations 2012–13 Lega Pro Prima Divisione because of their involvement. Furthermore, the former president of Lecce, Semeraro, was suspended from all football activities for five years. On 22 August 2012, Lecce's relegation was confirmed by the Federal Court of Justice. In the first season back into the third tier, Lecce ended in second place behind outsiders Trapani and was surprisingly defeated in the promotion playoffs finals by another outsider club, Carpi. The following season ended in similar fashion, with Lecce failing to win the league once again and then losing the playoffs finals, this time to Frosinone, despite a number of high-level signings such as former Palermo star, and well-known Lecce supporter, Fabrizio Miccoli. In 2014–15 Lecce ended the season in sixth place and did not enter the playoffs.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: Following the departure of the Tesoro family, the club was taken over by a consortium of entrepreneurs led by Saverio Sticchi Damiani. The club ended the 2015–16 season in third place, two points behind the second-placed team, and qualified for the playoffs round. After defeating Bassano 3–0 at home, in the semi-finals Lecce lost to Foggia in both the home and the away match. In the following season, Lecce finished in second place. The elimination came in the play-off quarterfinals against Alessandria on penalties after two draws in two matches.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: In September 2017, Fabio Liverani was named new coach of Lecce, with whom he achieved two direct promotions from Serie C to Serie A, thus bringing the Salento club back to the Italian top-tier league after seven years. Lecce then fought against Genoa for survival and made it to the last day of the 2019–20 season before being relegated with a home loss to Parma. The "salentini" missed out promotion to Serie A in the 2020–21 season, losing to Venezia in the play-off semifinals after a 4th-place finish, but then, with coach Marco Baroni, won the 2021–22 Serie B championship, thus celebrating their tenth elevation to the top flight and being awarded the Coppa Nexus. Lecce striker Massimo Coda was top scorer of the Serie B for two seasons in a row in 2020–21 and 2021–22.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: The team plays in red and yellow stripes, the heraldic colours of city. Lecce players and fans are referred to as "salentini" or "giallorossi". The official anthem of Lecce is "Giallorossi per Sempre" composed by Gioy Rielli. The symbol of Lecce is a female wolf under a holm oak tree which is typical to Apulia and is also the symbol of the city of Lecce.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: The main rivalry is with the other most successful football team from Apulia, S.S.C. Bari. The match against them is called "Derby di Puglia". The first "Derby di Puglia" was played on 8 December 1929 in Serie B in Lecce, with the home team winning 1–0. After that occasion, the derby di Puglia was played many times in Serie C and Coppa Italia, and especially in Serie A. The first derby played in Serie A was played on 27 October 1985 in Bari, and was won by the home team. The last one was also played in Bari on 15 May 2011 and saw Lecce prevailing by 2-0 and securing their stay in Serie A (however that match was later object of an investigation for match-fixing). Among the most important wins in the derby for Lecce there is a Serie B match ended 4–0 in Bari on 22 December 2007.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: Lecce have had many coaches throughout the history of a club, in some seasons more than one coach was in charge. Here is a chronological list of them from 1927 onwards.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: "List of foreign football players who had at least one cup in their national team while playing for Lecce"


title: U.S. Lecce

text: The following players have been selected by their country in the World Cup Finals, while playing for Lecce.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: The following players have been selected by their country in the European Championship Finals, while playing for Lecce.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: The following players have been selected by their country in the Copa América Finals, while playing for Lecce.


title: U.S. Lecce

text: Lecce is mentioned in many famous Italian movies and TV series. Among these there are the movies "Al bar dello sport", "Benvenuti al Nord" and Eccezzziunale veramente - Capitolo secondo... me and the TV series "I Cesaroni".


title: Elementary charge

text: The elementary charge, usually denoted by is the electric charge carried by a single proton or, equivalently, the magnitude of the negative electric charge carried by a single electron, which has charge −1 . This elementary charge is a fundamental physical constant.


title: Elementary charge

text: In the SI system of units, the value of the elementary charge is exactly defined as formula_1 =  coulombs, or 160.2176634 zeptocoulombs (zC). Since the 2019 redefinition of SI base units, the seven SI base units are defined by seven fundamental physical constants, of which the elementary charge is one.


title: Elementary charge

text: Robert A. Millikan and Harvey Fletcher's oil drop experiment first directly measured the magnitude of the elementary charge in 1909, differing from the modern accepted value by just 0.6%. Under assumptions of the then-disputed atomic theory, the elementary charge had also been indirectly inferred to ~3% accuracy from blackbody spectra by Max Planck in 1901 and (through the Faraday constant) at order-of-magnitude accuracy by Johann Loschmidt's measurement of Avagadro's number in 1865.


title: Elementary charge

text: In some natural unit systems, such as the system of atomic units, "e" functions as the unit of electric charge. The use of elementary charge as a unit was promoted by George Johnstone Stoney in 1874 for the first system of natural units, called Stoney units. Later, he proposed the name "electron" for this unit. At the time, the particle we now call the electron was not yet discovered and the difference between the particle "electron" and the unit of charge "electron" was still blurred. Later, the name "electron" was assigned to the particle and the unit of charge "e" lost its name. However, the unit of energy electronvolt is a remnant of the fact that the elementary charge was once called "electron".


title: Elementary charge

text: In some other natural unit systems the unit of charge is defined as , with the result that , where "α" is the fine-structure constant, "c" is the speed of light, "ε" is the electric constant, and "ħ" is the reduced Planck constant.


title: Elementary charge

text: "Charge quantization" is the principle that the charge of any object is an integer multiple of the elementary charge. Thus, an object's charge can be exactly 0 "e", or exactly 1 "e", −1 "e", 2 "e", etc., but not  "e", or −3.8 "e", etc. (There may be exceptions to this statement, depending on how "object" is defined; see below.)


title: Elementary charge

text: This is the reason for the terminology "elementary charge": it is meant to imply that it is an indivisible unit of charge.


title: Elementary charge

text: There are two known sorts of exceptions to the indivisibility of the elementary charge: quarks and quasiparticles.


title: Elementary charge

text: All known elementary particles, including quarks, have charges that are integer multiples of  "e". Therefore, the "quantum of charge" is  "e". In this case, one says that the "elementary charge" is three times as large as the "quantum of charge".


title: Elementary charge

text: On the other hand, all "isolatable" particles have charges that are integer multiples of "e". (Quarks cannot be isolated: they exist only in collective states like protons that have total charges that are integer multiples of "e".) Therefore, the "quantum of charge" is "e", with the proviso that quarks are not to be included. In this case, "elementary charge" would be synonymous with the "quantum of charge".


title: Elementary charge

text: In fact, both terminologies are used. For this reason, phrases like "the quantum of charge" or "the indivisible unit of charge" can be ambiguous unless further specification is given. On the other hand, the term "elementary charge" is unambiguous: it refers to a quantity of charge equal to that of a proton.


title: Elementary charge

text: Paul Dirac argued in 1931 that if magnetic monopoles exist, then electric charge must be quantized; however, it is unknown whether magnetic monopoles actually exist. It is currently unknown why isolatable particles are restricted to integer charges; much of the string theory landscape appears to admit fractional charges.


title: Elementary charge

text: Before reading, it must be remembered that the elementary charge is exactly defined since 20 May 2019 by the International System of Units.


title: Elementary charge

text: If the Avogadro constant "N" and the Faraday constant "F" are independently known, the value of the elementary charge can be deduced using the formula


title: Elementary charge

text: This method is "not" how the "most accurate" values are measured today. Nevertheless, it is a legitimate and still quite accurate method, and experimental methodologies are described below.


title: Elementary charge

text: The value of the Avogadro constant "N" was first approximated by Johann Josef Loschmidt who, in 1865, estimated the average diameter of the molecules in air by a method that is equivalent to calculating the number of particles in a given volume of gas. Today the value of "N" can be measured at very high accuracy by taking an extremely pure crystal (often silicon), measuring how far apart the atoms are spaced using X-ray diffraction or another method, and accurately measuring the density of the crystal. From this information, one can deduce the mass ("m") of a single atom; and since the molar mass ("M") is known, the number of atoms in a mole can be calculated: "N" = "M"/"m".


title: Elementary charge

text: The value of "F" can be measured directly using Faraday's laws of electrolysis. Faraday's laws of electrolysis are quantitative relationships based on the electrochemical researches published by Michael Faraday in 1834. In an electrolysis experiment, there is a one-to-one correspondence between the electrons passing through the anode-to-cathode wire and the ions that plate onto or off of the anode or cathode. Measuring the mass change of the anode or cathode, and the total charge passing through the wire (which can be measured as the time-integral of electric current), and also taking into account the molar mass of the ions, one can deduce "F".


title: Elementary charge

text: The limit to the precision of the method is the measurement of "F": the best experimental value has a relative uncertainty of 1.6 ppm, about thirty times higher than other modern methods of measuring or calculating the elementary charge.


title: Elementary charge

text: A famous method for measuring "e" is Millikan's oil-drop experiment. A small drop of oil in an electric field would move at a rate that balanced the forces of gravity, viscosity (of traveling through the air), and electric force. The forces due to gravity and viscosity could be calculated based on the size and velocity of the oil drop, so electric force could be deduced. Since electric force, in turn, is the product of the electric charge and the known electric field, the electric charge of the oil drop could be accurately computed. By measuring the charges of many different oil drops, it can be seen that the charges are all integer multiples of a single small charge, namely "e".


title: Elementary charge

text: The necessity of measuring the size of the oil droplets can be eliminated by using tiny plastic spheres of a uniform size. The force due to viscosity can be eliminated by adjusting the strength of the electric field so that the sphere hovers motionless.


title: Elementary charge

text: Any electric current will be associated with noise from a variety of sources, one of which is shot noise. Shot noise exists because a current is not a smooth continual flow; instead, a current is made up of discrete electrons that pass by one at a time. By carefully analyzing the noise of a current, the charge of an electron can be calculated. This method, first proposed by Walter H. Schottky, can determine a value of "e" of which the accuracy is limited to a few percent. However, it was used in the first direct observation of Laughlin quasiparticles, implicated in the fractional quantum Hall effect.


title: Elementary charge

text: Another accurate method for measuring the elementary charge is by inferring it from measurements of two effects in quantum mechanics: The Josephson effect, voltage oscillations that arise in certain superconducting structures; and the quantum Hall effect, a quantum effect of electrons at low temperatures, strong magnetic fields, and confinement into two dimensions. The Josephson constant is


title: Elementary charge

text: where "h" is the Planck constant, "α" is the fine-structure constant, "μ" is the magnetic constant, "ε" is the electric constant, and "c" is the speed of light. Presently this equation reflects a relation between "ε" and "α", while all others are fixed values. Thus the relative standard uncertainties of both will be same.


title: Sasural Simar Ka 2

text: Sasural Simar Ka 2 () is an Indian Hindi-language Supernatural television series that premiered on 26 April 2021 on Colors TV. It is a spiritual sequel to the 2011 long-running soap opera "Sasural Simar Ka". Produced by Rashmi Sharma Telefilms, it stars Radhika Muthukumar, Avinash Mukherjee, Tanya Sharma, Karan Sharma and Jayati Bhatia.


title: Sasural Simar Ka 2

text: Set in Agra, the story revolves around Simar and Reema Narayan, two sisters with different personalities. While Simar dreams of becoming a singer, Reema aspires to be a model. Aarav Oswal and Vivaan Oswal are cousins who love and respect one another. They fall for Reema, but Simar falls for Aarav. Reema is chosen to be his bride but leaves on the wedding day for an event for her modeling career. Simar instead is requested to marry Aarav, but the Oswals reject her. Geetanjali fixes Vivan's marriage with Kajal but on their wedding day, he leaves for the temple and marries Reema as he loves Reema. Yamini Devi is a renowned classical singer. Unaware she is the second wife of Geetanjali's late husband Gopichand, Simar considers her a singing idol. Aarav starts falling for her. Reema realizes her love for Vivaan, who evades her after knowing her motives to marry him. However, Aditi's (Aarav’s sister) marriage was fixed with Mohit Rana. But he misbehaves with her on the wedding day and Sandhya slaps him saying stay away from my daughter. Their (Aditi and Mohit) marriage breaks down. Simar and Aarav divorce on Geetanjali's insistence.


title: Sasural Simar Ka 2

text: Simar begins to focus on her musical dreams. While giving an audition, Simar meets Samar, Yamini Devi's adopted son. Simar and Aarav yearn for each other. However, Reema, on Geetanjali's instructions (and her greed) finds Samar for Simar's second marriage. Simar agrees to the marriage as Reema manipulates her. When Aarav listens to the news, he gets heartbroken. However, before their wedding day he arrives at Simar's home he asks her to run away with him but she rejects him. However, Geetanjali Devi gets Aarav arrested by the police to prevent him from stopping the marriage. However, he escapes from jail with the help of his sister Aditi and Simar's brother Gagan and confesses his love to Simar in front of everyone in the mandap. As Simar reciprocates the same, Aarav takes Simar to a temple and they finally get married.


title: Sasural Simar Ka 2

text: Their family throws them out of the house. Samar was still heartbroken because Simar left him alone in mandap. Geetanjali asks the family members that Aarav’s name be moved from her “will” and write Vivaan Oswal’s name on his place. Badi Maa tells Gajendra that she is naming everything on Vivaan’s name. Reema gets excited and goes to Vivaan. But Vivaan scolds her for Aarav has been removed from the family. Simar She demands from Aarav that she wants both Narayan's and Oswals together. Aarav promises to fulfill her wish. Chitra tells that Vivaan will be the CEO of the company and asks her to make him sign the proposal. Aarav holds her hand and says you have understood our love when nobody did. Yamini leaves. Giriraj and Chitra come home and apologize to Geetanjali Devi. Badi Maa gives them a chance, Giriraj promises that they will not do anything wrong. Giriraj apologizes and touches her feet. Gajendra welcomes them. Vivaan agrees to become CEO with a hidden aim. Aarav and Simar come to the Oswal Mansion. She says who is having nothing to do with the house, he is not Gajendra and Sandhya’s son anymore and has no bond with us. Vivan rejected CEO responsibilities and says he can't match with Aarav. Giriraj and Chitra tries to convince Vivaan.


title: Sasural Simar Ka 2

text: Reema starts creating problems in Simar's life. Sandhya starts hating Reema. However family slowly accepts Aarav and Simar. However, Aditi falls in love with Gagan, both the family does not accept their love and gets Gagan engaged to Radhika. Geetanjali Devi wants Aditi to marry Mayank. She refuses, But on the wedding day, Aditi comes with simar to Narayan's house and sees that Gagan is engaged she thought he has cheated on her, and Aditi heartbroken, gets married to the evil man Mayank. Aarav and Simar do their best to get her married to Gagan but are unable to help her. But Gagan broke his engagement with Radhika. After Aditi is married, they find that Aditi gets pregnant with Gagan's child. After Mayank finds out, he insults them. The family decides to kill Gagan but is later saved by Simar. Aditi is hospitalized due to tension. Gagan kidnaps Geetanjali Devi and demands that he wants Aditi and his unborn child. However, Gajendra loses his memory. Simar does her best to bring back Gajendra's memory. But Aarav starts hating her. Samar also returns to help Simar in sangeet. However, Simar is exposed by everyone in the family and is thrown out of the house. Later it is revealed that Giriraj attempted to kill Gajendra after Gajendra gains his memory. The family realizes that they made mistakes by pushing Simar out of the house and getting Giriraj arrested. Simar and Samar starts to focus on sangeet. Geetanjali accepts Simar as granddaughter-in-law.