title: Preston, Lancashire

text: Originally the canal was isolated from the River Ribble, but this changed in 2002 with the opening of the Ribble Link.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: Opened in July 2002, the Ribble Link is a navigation waterway built along a section of the Savick Brook that connects the previously isolated Lancaster Canal to the River Ribble. Featuring a series of locks, the Link allows narrowboats and other small watercraft to transit between the two waterways.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: The Link is approximately in length, starting from the Lancaster Canal near Ingol and entering the Ribble (as the Savick Brook) south of Lea Gate. There are eight (8) locks in total, permitting boats up to length and in width to navigate its course.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: Unlike a canal, vessels are not free to travel in either direction at any time. Traffic flow is controlled so that the Link can only be navigated in a specific direction on alternate days. The Link is only open for approximately 90 days between April and October, and is used by approximately 200 boats a year.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: In 2006 the Preston City Council, in conjunction with the South Ribble Borough Council, proposed a major development estimated at £800 million to redevelop the city's docks and large sections of the River Ribble. Known as "Riverworks", the plan proposed new leisure facilities (watersports), landmark buildings, a new central park opposite Avenham Park, office and retail space, new residential developments and the re-opening of some of Preston's old canal with new facilities for a "park and boat ride" scheme. The proposal met with considerable resistance from the local community (with 74% of residents objecting) and leisure and environmental groups due to the potential loss of green space, impact upon ecosystems (especially fish populations) and increased risk of flooding resulted in protests and campaigns being organised to have the project cancelled.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: In December 2007 the Preston City Council pulled out of a major part of the Riversworks plan, the highly contentious Ribble Barrage, and stated the revised plan would only look at improving Preston Docklands (in particular, the on-going blue green algae problem) and extending the Lancaster Canal from its current terminus at Ashton into the city at the back of the University of Central Lancashire (near the site of the former boat basin which was filled in prior to the construction of the current campus).


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: A subsequent change in council's "Sustainable Community Strategy", especially in regards to "Environmental", "Health and Well-being" and "People and Communities" policies and targets, resulted in a ban on development on green belt land, and along with city's new Local Plan, the remaining (re)development proposals within the Riverworks plan were abandoned.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: Local, regional and national bus services operate from the Preston bus station, which is located on the southeast edge of the city centre off the A59 and claimed by some residents to be the largest or second largest station in Europe.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: In conjunction with car parking facilities at the bus station, local services operate to and from two park and rides located on the outskirts of the city to minimise private vehicular traffic in the city centre; one at Portway in the Riversway area, and the other off the A6 at Walton-le-Dale.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: Many services between Preston and the surrounding area were operated by Ribble Motor Services which became part of the Stagecoach Group, using the name Stagecoach in Lancashire. Several of its routes were branded "Preston Citi"; they operated to Fulwood, Ribbleton, Penwortham, Longton, Walton-le-dale, Walmer Bridge, New Longton, Bamber Bridge, Longridge, Chorley and Leyland. Preston Bus, formerly the city's municipal bus company, also served the district and operated a route between Preston and Penwortham.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: Competition for routes and passengers resulted in a bus war between the two companies after buses were deregulated in Great Britain. On 23 January 2009, Preston Bus was sold to Stagecoach for over £10.4 million. Routes were changed and the services were branded Stagecoach in Preston. Following a lengthy investigation which began soon after the takeover, the Competition Commission ruled on 11 November 2009 that the action by Stagecoach had adversely affected competition in the area and ordered it to sell Preston Bus. In January 2011, the Rotala Group announced they had agreed to take over Preston Bus.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: Stagecoach provides services to the nearby towns and cities of Blackpool, Blackburn, Bolton, Liverpool, Manchester, Southport and Wigan as well as Lancaster and Morecambe under the Stagecoach in Lancaster service.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: Blackburn Bus Company, part of the Transdev group, operates the 152 Hotline route to Blackburn and Burnley. An independent company, John Fishwick & Sons, that provided frequent services into the city centre for Lower Penwortham, Lostock Hall, Leyland, Euxton and Chorley, ceased trading in October 2015.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: The national operators National Express, Eurolines, and Megabus provide services from the bus station to and from various major cities and destination en-route across the United Kingdom.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: Preston was one of the first cities in the UK to have displays fitted to every bus stop which aim to provide an accurate time and destination of the next bus arriving using GPS tracking. The service, initially restricted to services within the borough, was expanded to cover Fishwick's 111 City Centre/Leyland route but was discontinued in 2011, and reinstated on some routes in 2013.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: Although not a public airport, Warton Aerodrome is an active airfield west of the city and is the airfield for the BAE Warton factory. BAE Samlesbury to the east of the town was an active aerodrome, with a gliding club, but today serves as a facility for BAE Systems and no longer supports flying activities.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: The nearest airports from Preston with scheduled service are Liverpool John Lennon Airport and Manchester Airport, about south-west and south-east of the city respectively. Manchester Airport is linked by a direct rail service operated by TransPennine Express. Blackpool Airport, approximately to the west of Preston, provides facilities for private aviation and charter flights.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: The Guild Wheel is a public footpath and cycle route, created in 2012 in celebration of the Preston Guild and officially opened in August of that year. in length, it encircles Preston, linking the city to the countryside and surrounding villages. Walking and cycling on the pathway along the banks of the Lancaster Canal is popular among the city's residents and visitors.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: The city is home to the University of Central Lancashire. Formerly known as The Harris Institute, Preston Polytechnic, and more recently (1985–1992) as Lancashire Polytechnic, "UCLan" is now the sixth largest university in the country, with over 33,000 students.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: Blog Preston is a hyperlocal news website which provides community news, views and information about the city.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: Television is provided by ITV Granada, the ITV franchise holder for the North West region, BBC North West, the regional BBC station for the North West region, and a local TV service for Blackpool and Preston, That's Lancashire, from studios at the Northern Lights Business Centre in the University of Central Lancashire's Media Factory building.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: "VisitPreston.com" is a website that "showcases everything that Preston has to offer to all audiences", providing information on topics such as business investment, education, tourism, etc. It is provided by key local stakeholders including the Preston City Council, Lancashire County Council, University of Central Lancashire, Preston Business Improvement District, and The Chase creative consultants.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: Preston North End F.C. were one of the founder members of the Football League and the first team to be crowned English football champions. They play at Deepdale Football Ground which was also the original site of the National Football Museum. The museum closed in 2011 in preparation for its move to Manchester due to funding issues.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: Dick, Kerr's Ladies, one of the most famous early women's football teams in Britain, called Preston home. Preston were champions of the Football League in its first two seasons, but have not won it since. Their last major trophy came in 1938 when they won the FA Cup, and they have not played top division football since 1961. They are one of the few English league clubs to have been champions of all four tiers of the English professional league.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: The UCLan Sports Arena is the University of Central Lancashire's multi-million pound sporting venue, catering for a wide range of outdoor sports such as football, rugby, athletics, hockey, tennis, netball and cycling on a 64-acre site. Open to students and the wider community, the arena is the city's premier multi-sports venue.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: The arena is located in Lea, approximately two miles from the university's main campus in Preston. A shuttle bus operates for students on Monday-Saturdays from outside the UCLAN Students' Union building in Fylde Road. As well as being the home of a number of university sporting clubs, the arena also hosts various public sporting clubs including the Preston Harriers Athletics Club and the Preston Springsfields Tennis Club.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: The arena has a 1.5km cycle track and a 0.75km junior cycle track, open for use by individuals, clubs and cycle races/meetings. It is often used for cycle racing by the university's cycling club, as well as local and regional events and at such times is closed to general users.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: Most clubs operate on a membership basis, and usually allow playing and non-playing visitors. Some also provide driving bays or ranges, and may provide further facilities such as restaurants and pro shops.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: The Ingol Village Golf Club operated in Ingol in Preston's northwest from 1981 until its closure in 2017, when it was deemed nonviable due to dwindling membership.


title: Preston, Lancashire

text: Speedway racing, then known as Dirt Track Racing was staged at Farringdon Park in the late 1920s and early 1930s. The Preston team raced in the English Dirt Track League of 1929 and the Northern League of 1930 and 1931. The best known rider of the team was Joe "Iron Man" Abbott who went on to Test Match successes riding before the war for Belle Vue. After the war Joe appeared for Harringay and Bradford.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: Disney's Animal Kingdom Theme Park is a zoological theme park at the Walt Disney World Resort in Bay Lake, Florida, near Orlando. Owned and operated by The Walt Disney Company through its Parks, Experiences and Products division, it is the largest theme park in the world, covering . The park opened on Earth Day, April 22, 1998, and was the fourth theme park built at the resort. The park is dedicated and themed around natural environment and animal conservation, a philosophy once pioneered by Walt Disney.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: Disney's Animal Kingdom distinguishes itself from the rest of Walt Disney World's theme parks by featuring traditional attractions as well as hundreds of species of live animals. Special designs and provisions were incorporated throughout the park to protect the animals' welfare. The park is located on the western edge of the resort and is isolated from the other theme parks and properties to minimize external disruptions to the animals; as a result, the park's former nighttime show did not feature fireworks that would otherwise disturb the animals. In efforts to be more eco-friendly, the park uses biodegradable paper straws and prohibits plastic straws, lids, and balloons. Disney's Animal Kingdom is accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums and the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums, indicating they have met or exceeded the standards in education, conservation, and research.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: In 2019, Disney's Animal Kingdom hosted 13.888 million guests, ranking it as the third-most-visited theme park in North America and the sixth-most-visited theme park in the world. It is the most-visited zoo in the world. The park is the second-most-visited at Walt Disney World Resort, behind Disney's Magic Kingdom. The park's icon is the Tree of Life, a , artificial baobab tree.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: Disney began planning a new park shortly after the opening of MGM Studios in 1989. Animal Kingdom was the brainchild of Imagineer Joe Rohde, who had previously designed the Adventurers Club at Pleasure Island. When presenting the idea of the new animal-themed park, Rohde brought a 400-pound Bengal tiger into the meeting with Disney CEO Michael Eisner. Originally slated as Disney's "Wild Animal Kingdom," Disney announced plans for the construction of the park in 1995 at an estimated cost of $600-$800 million. To design the theme park, Disney Imagineers traveled to Africa and Asia to study the landscapes and wildlife.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: In July 1996, construction was underway on the animal holding facilities, the installation of trees, shrubs, and grasses to shape the park's African Savanna-inspired landscape. Disney Imagineers collected seeds from 37 countries to be used for the plants and grasses in the park. The landscaping efforts included spreading four million cubic yards of dirt, planting 40,000 mature trees (a mix of real Savanna species and artificial Baobab trees), constructing 60 miles of underground utilities, and construction of various waterways, and structures built by over 2,600 construction workers. Many buildings contained thatched roofs assembled by Zulu workers from South Africa. About 1,500 hand-painted wooden horses were crafted in Bali under Disney supervision. Parts of the park were designed to have an aged appearance, with artificial potholes in the safari roads and boats peppered with dents and rust.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: Most of the park's animals were acquired in 1997 during the fall; they were held at a rented holding facility in northern Florida for quarantine and observation. Disney hired staff from 69 zoos around the United States to care for the animals.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: The park opened to the public on April 22, 1998. Several marketing events surrounded the day. ABC aired a two-hour prime time special about the making of Animal Kingdom, as part of its "The Wonderful World of Disney" anthology series. Eisner and Disney Vice Chairman Roy Disney hosted an opening day party for 14,000 corporate partners, travel agents, and media figures, which included celebrities such as Michael J. Fox, Drew Carey, Stevie Wonder, David Copperfield, and Jane Goodall. Broadcasts of "Good Morning America", "Today" and "Live with Regis and Kathie Lee" aired live from the park on April 22. ABC also filmed an episode "Sabrina the Teenage Witch" at Animal Kingdom before the opening of the park; the episode, named "Disneyworld", aired two days after the park's opening.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: In 2011, Disney announced a major expansion to the park, Pandora - The World of "Avatar", a joint venture with director James Cameron and his production company, Lightstorm Entertainment, with the intention of transforming Animal Kingdom into a full-day operation with added attraction capacity and nighttime experiences. Construction on the area began on January 10, 2014, and the area opened to the public on May 27, 2017.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: Disney's Animal Kingdom is divided into seven themed areas. The park's Discovery River separates Discovery Island from the other lands. The park is home to approximately 2000 animals representing around 200 species.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: The Oasis is the park's logistic equivalent to Main Street U.S.A. and provides the transition from the park's entrance to the world of animals. The main paths feature animal exhibits and dense vegetation and trees lead deeper into the park and then onto Discovery Island. Between the parking lot and the Oasis sits a Rainforest Cafe, which can be entered from both inside and outside the ticketed area.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: Discovery Island is located at the center of the park and is an island within the park's Discovery River waterway. It serves as the "central hub" connecting the other sections of the park by bridges, with the exception of Rafiki's Planet Watch. It was originally called Safari Village, as Discovery Island was the name for the small zoological park located in Walt Disney World's Bay Lake but was renamed after that area closed in 1999.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: The Tree of Life, the park's sculpted, man-made baobab tree, is located in this section and is surrounded by trails and animal enclosures. Inside the Tree of Life is "It's Tough to Be a Bug!", a 4D film inspired by the 1998 Disney·Pixar animated film, "A Bug's Life". The park's largest gift shops and two of its major restaurants are on Discovery Island.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: Pandora – The World of "Avatar" is themed to the fictional exoplanetary moon, Pandora, from James Cameron's "Avatar". The land's marquee attraction is "Avatar" Flight of Passage, a 3D flying thrill simulator that allows guests to fly on a banshee across the Pandoran landscape. Another attraction, the Na'vi River Journey, places guests aboard a boat dark ride through Pandora's bioluminescent rainforests. The area opened on May 27, 2017.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: Africa is one of the original areas of the park. Set in the fictional east African port village of "Harambe", this area contains several animal exhibits. Some snippets from Africa that were duplicated by the Disney Imagineers included a fortress that was found in Zanzibar, and a water-stained, crumbling old building that was found in Kenya. Harambe includes a "hotel”, restaurants, an outdoor bar with live entertainment, and different marketplaces.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: The village is the namesake of the "Harambe Wildlife Preserve", the fictional home of the area's main attraction, Kilimanjaro Safaris. Guests climb aboard an open-sided safari vehicle for an expedition to see African species in several large field enclosures, replicating the African savannas, rivers and rocky hills. The safari features the okapi, greater kudu, saddle-billed stork, bongo, black and white rhinoceros, hippopotamus, pink-backed pelican, Nile crocodile, Masai giraffe, blue wildebeest, springbok, Ankole cattle, common eland, sable antelope, and African bush elephant.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: On the adjacent Gorilla Falls Exploration Trail, visitors trek into the forest to see animals such as the Western lowland gorilla, black-and-white colobus monkey, okapi, gerenuk, yellow-backed duiker, pygmy hippopotamus, Grévy's zebra, South African meerkat, Kenyan sand boa, kori bustard, naked mole-rat, tarantulas, and, as well as an aviary. On the western side of the Africa area is the "Harambe Theater", which is home to the Festival of the Lion King, a stage attraction based on Disney's 1994 film, "The Lion King."


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: Rafiki's Planet Watch is the only section of the park not connected to Discovery Island; it connects only to Africa. Guests board the narrow-gauge Wildlife Express Train for the short trip to and from the area, which consists of three sub-areas.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: "Conservation Station" showcases the various conservation efforts supported by the Walt Disney Company. It also gives a behind-the-scenes glimpse into Disney's Animal Kingdom's animal care facilities, including a veterinary examination room complete with a two-way communications system so the veterinary staff can answer guest questions.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: Outside, "Affection Section" is a petting zoo featuring goats, sheep, cattle, domestic pigs, donkeys, and alpacas.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: Asia, the first expansion area added to Disney's Animal Kingdom, opened in 1999. This area is set in the fictional kingdom of ‘Anandapur’, which means "place of many delights" in Sanskrit. Anandapur evokes the traits of Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Mongolia, Nepal, and Thailand. According to Disney history, Anandapur was established as a royal hunting preserve in 1544. Asia contains both the riverside village of Anandapur and Serka Zong, which is set in the foothills of the Himalayas.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: The visual focal point of Asia is Expedition Everest, a steel roller coaster ride. Nearby is Kali River Rapids, a river rapids ride. The Maharajah Jungle Trek leads guests through the forests and ruins outside the village, which are home to species such as the Javan banteng, bar-headed goose, Sumatran tiger, Indian blackbuck, Sumatran orangutan, Eld's deer, white-handed gibbon, Indian flying fox, Komodo dragon and over 50 bird species. "UP! A Great Bird Adventure Show" is a live bird show featuring birds such as the black crowned crane and bald eagle.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: DinoLand U.S.A. is themed around dinosaurs and other extinct prehistoric life. The area is anchored by the Dino Institute, a fictitious palaeontological facility which is home to Dinosaur, a dark thrill ride loosely inspired by the 2000 Disney animated film of the same name, featuring a trip through time to the Late Cretaceous. Just outside the institute is "Dino-Sue", a casting of a "Tyrannosaurus rex" fossil that is the most complete yet found. At the nearby Boneyard, there is a playground area with a Columbian mammoth fossil and a cast skeleton of a "Brachiosaurus".


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: Adjacent to the Institute and its surrounding facilities is Chester and Hester's Dino-Rama, which recalls the many roadside attractions that were once scattered throughout the United States. The area features the TriceraTop Spin aerial carousel ride, carnival games and gift shops. At the eastern edge of DinoLand U.S.A. is the Theater in the Wild, which hosts Finding Nemo – The Musical, a live action musical stage show based on the story of the 2003 Disney·Pixar animated film "Finding Nemo".


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: Like the other sections of Disney's Animal Kingdom, there are animals on display. The animals, such as the American crocodile, red legged seriemas, Abdim's stork and Asian brown tortoise, have evolutionary links to the age of the dinosaurs. They are animal species that have survived since the dinosaur era and can be found along the Cretaceous Trail along with a collection of Mesozoic plants.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: Camp Minnie-Mickey was themed as a rustic summer camp, built as a placeholder on the location where Beastly Kingdom was intended to be built. The area closed on January 5, 2014, and was replaced by Pandora – The World of "Avatar".


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: When originally conceived, Disney's Animal Kingdom was to focus on three broad classifications of animals: those that exist in today's reality; those that did exist but are now extinct (i.e., dinosaurs); and those that only exist in the realm of fantasy such as unicorns and dragons. The original design for Animal Kingdom included a themed section called the Beastly Kingdom, devoted to creatures of legend and mythology. During the final stages of planning of development, Eisner decided that either Beastly Kingdom or Dinoland USA would be built first because of budget cuts after the failure of Euro Disney (known today as Disneyland Paris) and the higher cost of the upkeep and care of the animals at the park. Dinoland USA was chosen first mostly because of its lower budget. In 2000, Rohde said: "We had a vision and now it's become a placeholder. We have all kinds of ideas and not all of them fit with the theme of Beastly Kingdom. I'm not even convinced there will be a Beastly Kingdom."


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: As with other Walt Disney World theme parks, Disney's Animal Kingdom has other locations and carts that offer snacks and beverages.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: The park typically closes earlier in the day than other parks in the Walt Disney World Resort; Animal Kingdom began to stay open through the evening on May 27, 2016.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: Disney does not allow plastic straws, lids, or balloons to be used in the park, unlike the rest of the Disney parks. This is so that plastic does not inadvertently enter an animal's habitat and hurt them. Instead, the park uses biodegradable paper straws and offers lids for hot drinks only. The restrooms at Disney's Animal Kingdom all have doors at their entrances. This practice is in place so that, in the event of an animal escaping, guests are able to shelter safely inside.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: As a zoological park, Disney's Animal Kingdom is engaged in research and conservation efforts involving its animal species. Since the park's opening in 1998, the resident elephant herd has produced seven calves, with births in 2003, 2004, 2005, 2008, 2010, 2011 and 2016. In 2008, the park's giraffe herd produced four newborns, raising the total number of giraffe births since opening to eleven.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: In 1999, one of the park's white rhinoceros gave birth to a female calf named Nande. In 2006, Nande and Hasani, another of the park's rhinos, were transferred to Uganda's Ziwa animal sanctuary, in the first attempt to re-introduce white rhinos to the country. Civil strife had caused the white rhinoceros to be eradicated from the area. In June 2009, Nande gave birth to a male calf, the first such birth in Uganda in over 25 years. By January 2010, eight white rhinos had been born at Animal Kingdom since the park's opening; the most recent was born to another Animal Kingdom-born mother.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: Several Florida-based animal rights groups and PETA voiced concerns when the park originally opened, citing Walt Disney World's previous missteps in handling animals at the defunct Discovery Island. The groups protested, and PETA tried to convince travel agents not to book trips to the park. On opening day, the Orange County Sheriff's office sent about 150 deputies; about two dozen protesters showed up. The protest lasted two hours, and there were no arrests.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: Following a U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) inspection of the park, it was revealed that 31 animals died at Animal Kingdom between September 1997 and April 1998 from accidents, poisonings, fights, and other causes. Two Asian small-clawed otters died after ingesting loquat seeds from trees planted in their exhibit; two cheetah cubs died from ethylene glycol poisoning; nine herd animals died from injuries caused by fights, being entangled in fences while trying to escape, and, in one case, being kicked by an ostrich. Two crowned cranes were killed after being run over by safari vehicles in two separate incidents. The USDA ultimately found no violations of animal-welfare regulations. Disney responded to the report by hiring additional security to prevent animals from fighting, relocating the crowned cranes to walking paths, as well as adding mirrors to the safari vehicles.


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: One year after the park opened, Animal Rights Foundation of Florida complained that a New Year's Eve fireworks show could upset the animals. A USDA inspector came to the park and found no problems with launching low-noise fireworks half a mile away. In January 2015, the animal rights group In Defense of Animals listed the park at number 10 on its 2014 "list of worst zoos for elephants."


title: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: In October 2014, a snake dropped out of a tree and bit a boy, precipitating the death of his great-grandmother who suffered a cardiac arrest as a reaction to the attack. A lawsuit was threatened because of the incident but was never filed. The park confirmed that the snake that bit the boy was a non-venomous indigenous snake and that it did not escape from an enclosure.


title: National Investigation Agency

text: The National Investigation Agency (NIA) is the primary counter-terrorist task force of India. The agency is empowered to deal with the investigation of terror related crimes across states without special permission from the states under written proclamation from the Ministry of Home Affairs. The Agency came into existence with the enactment of the National Investigation Agency Act 2008 by the Parliament of India on 31 December 2008, which was passed after the deadly 26/11 terror attack in Mumbai. Such an attack revealed the failure of intelligence and ability to track such activities by existing agencies in India, hence the government of India realized the need of a specific body to deal with terror related activities in India, thereby establishing the NIA. Headquartered in New Delhi, the NIA has branches in Hyderabad, Guwahati, Kochi, Lucknow, Mumbai, Kolkata, Raipur, Jammu, Chandigarh, Ranchi, Chennai and Imphal. It maintains the NIA Most Wanted list.


title: National Investigation Agency

text: The founding Director-General of NIA was Radha Vinod Raju, and he served until 31 January 2010. Currently Dinkar Gupta serves as its Director-General since 28 June 2022.


title: National Investigation Agency

text: A bill for the formation of the National Investigation Agency was passed by Parliament in December 2008. As per the bill, NIA has concurrent jurisdiction which empowers the Central Agency to probe terror attacks in any part of the country, covering offences, including challenge to the country's sovereignty and integrity, bomb blasts, hijacking of aircraft and ships, attacks on nuclear installations. The amendments to the NIA Act have brought the offences relating to the smuggling in High-Quality Counterfeit Indian Currency under the definition of a terrorist act aimed at damaging the monetary stability of the country and therefore can be investigated by the NIA.


title: National Investigation Agency

text: The ground staff of the agency in the national capital could be drawn from existing central staff and security organisations while in the states, permanent deputation from the state police could be taken.


title: National Investigation Agency

text: The National Investigative Agency Bill and Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Amendment Bill on Tuesday, 30 December 2008, became a law as President Pratibha Patil gave her assent to the legislation which was passed in the last session of the parliament.


title: National Investigation Agency

text: The NIA (Amendment) Bill 2019 was passed by the parliament on 17 July 2019. The Bill aims to give more teeth to the investigating powers of the NIA. It empowers the NIA to probe terror attacks targeting Indians and Indian interests abroad. The amended legislation, which aims to primarily empower the anti-terror agency to investigate scheduled offences such as human trafficking; circulation of fake currency; manufacture and sale of prohibited arms; and cyber-terrorism, was passed with a majority of 278 votes in favour and six against in the Lok Sabha. It was also passed in the Rajya Sabha after those opposed to it staged a walkout. This amendment will now also allow NIA to investigate the Sri Lanka Easter Bombings and Kabul Gurudwara bombing.


title: National Investigation Agency

text: Agency aims to be a thoroughly professional investigative agency matching the best international standards. It aims to set the standards of excellence in counter terrorism and other national security related investigations at the national level by developing into a highly trained, partnership oriented workforce. It also aims at creating deterrence for existing and potential terrorist groups/individuals. It aims to develop as a storehouse of all terrorist related information.


title: National Investigation Agency

text: The Agency has been empowered to conduct investigation and prosecution of offences under the Acts specified in the Schedule of the NIA Act. A State Government may request the Central Government to hand over the investigation of a case to the NIA, provided the case has been registered for the offences as contained in the schedule to the NIA Act. Central Government can also order NIA to take over investigation of any scheduled offense anywhere in the India. Officers of the NIA who are drawn from the Indian Police Service and Indian Revenue Service have all powers, privileges and liabilities which the police officers have in connection with investigation of any offense.


title: National Investigation Agency

text: In 2016 Home Minister Rajnath Singh wanted to end the central agency's dependence on approval from state police chiefs before confiscating or attaching assets of people accused of crime.


title: National Investigation Agency

text: The National Investigation Agency (Amendment) Act, 2019 states that, officers of the NIA will have the power to investigate scheduled offences committed outside India, subject to international treaties and domestic laws of other countries. The central government may direct the NIA to investigate such cases, as if the offence has been committed in India. The Special Court in New Delhi will have jurisdiction over these cases.


title: National Investigation Agency

text: Various Special Courts have been notified by the Central Government of India for trial of the cases registered at various police stations of NIA under Section 11 and 22 of the NIA Act 2008. Any question as to the jurisdiction of these courts is decided by the Central Government. These are presided over by a judge appointed by the Central Government on the recommendation of the Chief Justice of the High Court with jurisdiction in that region. Supreme Court of India has also been empowered to transfer the cases from one special court to any other special court within or outside the state if the same is in the interest of justice in light of the prevailing circumstances in any particular state. The NIA Special Courts are empowered with all powers of the court of sessions under Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 for trial of any offense.


title: National Investigation Agency

text: Trial by this courts are held on day-to-day basis on all working days and have precedence over the trial of any other case against the accused in any other court (not being a Special Court) and have to be concluded in preference to the trial of such other case. An appeal from any judgement, sentence or order, not being an interlocutory order, of a Special Court lies to the High Court both on facts and on law. Such an appeal can be heard by a division bench of two Judges of the High Court. At present there are 38 Special NIA Courts. State Governments have also been empowered to appoint one or more such special courts in their states.


title: National Investigation Agency

text: In year 2012, NIA with the assistance of Interpol and Saudi Intelligence agencies has successfully arrested terrorists namely: Abu Jundal alias "Abu Hamza", (Indian national), "Fasih Mohammad" and Yaseen Bhatkal (Indian Mujahideen).


title: National Investigation Agency

text: In the year 2013, NIA was successful in arresting two senior members of Indian Mujahideen, namely Ahmed Siddibappa Zaraar alias Yasin Bhatkal and Asadullah Akhtar alias Haddi, from Indo Nepal border in Bihar on 29 August 2013. These two were instrumental in the commission of a number of terrorist attacks across the country for the past several years, under the banner of Indian Mujahideen, a proscribed terrorist organisation.


title: National Investigation Agency

text: NIA has been active in the war against terror in Jammu and Kashmir. On 18 January 2019, NIA filed a chargesheet against 12 people including Lashkar-e-Taiba terror group chief Hafiz Saeed and Hizbul Mujahideen chief Syed Salahuddin. This chargesheet was filed after nearly eight months of investigations spanning six states in India during which over 300 witnesses were examined, 950 "incriminating documents" and 600 electronic devices were seized. NIA has also stated that the war against terror in Kashmir is not about terror funding alone, it's about a conspiracy to wage war against India. During the investigation the NIA has arrested people allegedly involved in stone-pelting incidents for the first time including Kashmiri photojournalist Kamran Yusuf.


title: National Investigation Agency

text: It has identified two Naxalite commanders in Bastar who were part of the ambush that killed almost the entire Congress' Chhattisgarh top brass.


title: National Investigation Agency

text: Under the constitution of India, law and order is a state subject. There have been questions raised on how NIA is usurping state rights under the guise of fighting terror. In 2020 Chhatishgarh state filed a case against the act in the supreme court that the said act violates the constitution. A US Embassy cable accessed by "The Hindu" says that union home minister P Chidambaram, in his discussion with FBI Director Robert Mueller, was coming 'perilously close to crossing constitutional limits' in empowering the NIA, and also that the National Investigation Agency's powers could be challenged in the courts as violating constitutional provisions on Centre-State relations. These ambiguities that the states' privilege is being encroached upon by the Centre using this act are resolved using the 'doctrine of Pith and Substance'.


title: National Investigation Agency

text: NIA has been depicted in the Amazon Prime Video's series "The Family Man" featuring Manoj Bajpayee in the role of an NIA officer named Srikant Tiwari.


title: Grimgar of Fantasy and Ash

text: Mutsumi Okubashi began serializing a manga adaptation in "Gangan Joker" in 2015. The novels were adapted into a 12-episode anime television series that ran from January to March 2016. An original video animation was released in March 2016. The anime is licensed in North America by Funimation as Grimgar, Ashes and Illusions, while J-Novel Club has acquired the rights to publish the original novels in English and Yen Press published the manga adaptation.


title: Grimgar of Fantasy and Ash

text: The story begins by showing a group of novice adventurers battling goblins in a forest. The party seems utterly out of their element and is forced to flee. It is revealed through a flashback that the party, which likely originates from modern Earth, awoke with a large group of people on this world just a few weeks ago.


title: Grimgar of Fantasy and Ash

text: With no memory of how they arrived and no other options they are quickly pressed into service as Trainee Volunteer Soldiers by a mysterious individual named Chief Britney. Some take to this better than others. The lead party is composed of the leftover individuals who did not.


title: Grimgar of Fantasy and Ash

text: Led by a man named Manato they have banded together, joined class guilds, and begun hunting weak monsters as a way to grow stronger and earn the money they need to survive. Initially things do not go well. Eventually, the party learns to work as a unit and experiences enough success hunting goblins to move from the forest to a ruined city. There, Manato dies saving them from ambush and leaves the responsibility for the group to the thief, Haruhiro.


title: Grimgar of Fantasy and Ash

text: Thrown into despair, the party is fractured and grieves for their lost friend, never having realized just how much Manato did to hold them all together. Once the party comes to terms with their loss, they take in a new Priest named Merry.


title: Grimgar of Fantasy and Ash

text: Merry is initially distant and broken from the loss of her own party, for which she blames herself, but gradually comes to regard Haruhiro and the party as friends though she remains distant. Back to full strength the party seeks to avenge Manato by striking at the heart of the goblin encampment in the ruins. After slaying the goblin king the party finds closure and decides to help Merry do the same by moving their monster hunting to the kobold-infested mines where her old party fell.


title: Grimgar of Fantasy and Ash

text: The season ends with Merry's past behind her and the surviving heroes coming to terms with the life and death nature of their time on the world of Grimgar.


title: Grimgar of Fantasy and Ash

text: The light novels are written by Ao Jūmonji and illustrated by Eiri Shirai, and are published by Overlap. The first volume was published in 2013. Online English light novel publisher J-Novel Club announced their acquisition of the series on October 28, 2016, and Seven Seas Entertainment publishes a print version as part of their collaboration with J-Novel Club.


title: Grimgar of Fantasy and Ash

text: A manga adaptation by Mutsumi Okubashi began serialization in Square Enix's magazine "Gangan Joker" on 22 April 2015. North American publisher Yen Press announced their acquisition of the manga on 23 November 2016.


title: Grimgar of Fantasy and Ash

text: An anime television series was written and directed by Ryosuke Nakamura and produced by A-1 Pictures. Mieko Hosoi acted as character designer. Both the opening theme song, "Knew day", and the ending theme, "Harvest", were performed by (K)NoW_NAME. The series was broadcast on AT-X, Tokyo MX, Nippon BS Broadcasting, and the Asahi Broadcasting Corporation from 11 January 2016 to 28 March 2016. Funimation acquired the rights to simulcast the series with an English dub in North America. The anime is listed with 6 Blu-ray and DVD volumes containing 2 episodes each, having a total of 12 episodes. Anime Limited will release the series in the UK.


title: Grimgar of Fantasy and Ash

text: A 10-minute original video animation numbered "episode 2.5" was bundled with the first Blu-ray and DVD volume of the anime, which was released on 16 March 2016. Toho streamed a promotional video for the OVA on 5 February 2016.


title: Exploding head syndrome

text: Exploding head syndrome (EHS) is an abnormal sensory perception during sleep in which a person experiences auditory hallucinations that are loud and of short duration when falling asleep or waking up. The noise may be frightening, typically occurs only occasionally, and is not a serious health concern. People may also experience a flash of light. Pain is typically absent.


title: Exploding head syndrome

text: The cause is unknown. Potential organic explanations that have been investigated but ruled out include ear problems, temporal lobe seizure, nerve dysfunction, or specific genetic changes. The cause of the phenomenon is psychological in nature. Potential risk factors include psychological stress. It is classified as a sleep disorder or headache disorder. People often go undiagnosed.


title: Exploding head syndrome

text: There is no high-quality evidence to support treatment. Reassurance may be sufficient. Clomipramine and calcium channel blockers have been tried. While the frequency of the condition is not well studied, some have estimated that it occurs in about 10% of people. Women are reportedly more commonly affected. The condition was initially described at least as early as 1876. The current name came into use in 1988.


title: Exploding head syndrome

text: Individuals with exploding head syndrome hear or experience loud imagined noises as they are falling asleep or waking up, have a strong, often frightened emotional reaction to the sound, and do not report significant pain; around 10% of people also experience visual disturbances like perceiving visual static, lightning, or flashes of light. Some people may also experience heat, strange feelings in their torso, or a feeling of electrical tinglings that ascends to the head before the auditory hallucinations occur. With the heightened arousal, people experience distress, confusion, myoclonic jerks, tachycardia, sweating, and the feeling that they have stopped breathing and need to make a conscious effort to breathe again.


title: Exploding head syndrome

text: The pattern of the auditory hallucinations is variable. Some people report having a total of two or four attacks followed by a prolonged or total remission, having attacks over the course of a few weeks or months before the attacks spontaneously disappear, or the attacks may even recur irregularly every few days, weeks, or months for much of a lifetime.


title: Exploding head syndrome

text: The cause of EHS is unknown. A number of hypotheses have been put forth with the most common being dysfunction of the reticular formation in the brainstem responsible for transition between waking and sleeping.


title: Exploding head syndrome

text: Exploding head syndrome was first described in the 19th century, and may have first been mentioned in the 17th century. Despite evidence of EHS across the centuries, some individuals hold the belief that EHS episodes are not natural events, but are the effects of directed energy weapons which create an auditory effect. Thus, EHS has been worked into conspiracy theories, but there is no scientific evidence that EHS has non-natural origins.


title: Exploding head syndrome

text: Exploding head syndrome is classified under other parasomnias by the 2014 International Classification of Sleep Disorders (ICSD, 3rd.Ed.) and is an unusual type of auditory hallucination in that it occurs in people who are not fully awake.


title: Exploding head syndrome

text: According to ICD-10 and DSM-5 EHS is classified as either other specified sleep-wake disorder (codes:780.59 or G47.8) or unspecified sleep-wake disorder (codes: 780.59 or G47.9).


title: Exploding head syndrome

text: , no clinical trials had been conducted to determine what treatments are safe and effective; a few case reports had been published describing treatment of small numbers of people (two to twelve per report) with clomipramine, flunarizine, nifedipine, topiramate, carbamazepine. Studies suggest that education and reassurance can reduce the frequency of EHS episodes. There is some evidence that individuals with EHS rarely report episodes to medical professionals.


title: Exploding head syndrome

text: There have not been sufficient studies to make conclusive statements about how common or who is most often affected. One study found that 14% of a sample of undergrads reported at least one episode over the course of their lives, with higher rates in those who also have sleep paralysis.


title: Exploding head syndrome

text: Case reports of EHS have been published since at least 1876, which Silas Weir Mitchell described as "sensory discharges" in a patient. However, it has been suggested that the earliest written account of EHS was described in the biography of the French philosopher René Descartes in 1691. The phrase "snapping of the brain" was coined in 1920 by the British physician and psychiatrist Robert Armstrong-Jones. A detailed description of the syndrome and the name "exploding head syndrome" was given by British neurologist John M. S. Pearce in 1989. More recently, Peter Goadsby and Brian Sharpless have proposed renaming EHS "episodic cranial sensory shock" as it describes the symptoms more accurately and better attributes to Mitchell.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: Ferromagnetism is a property of certain materials (such as iron) which results in a large observed magnetic permeability, and in many cases a large magnetic coercivity allowing the material to form a permanent magnet. Ferromagnetic materials are the familiar metals noticeably attracted to a magnet, a consequence of their large magnetic permeability. Magnetic permeability describes the induced magnetization of a material due to the presence of an "external" magnetic field, and it is this temporarily induced magnetization inside a steel plate, for instance, which accounts for its attraction to the permanent magnet. Whether or not that steel plate acquires a permanent magnetization itself, depends not only on the strength of the applied field, but on the so-called coercivity of that material, which varies greatly among ferromagnetic materials.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: In physics, several different types of material magnetism are distinguished. Ferromagnetism (along with the similar effect ferrimagnetism) is the strongest type and is responsible for the common phenomenon of magnetism in magnets encountered in everyday life. Substances respond weakly to magnetic fields with three other types of magnetism—paramagnetism, diamagnetism, and antiferromagnetism—but the forces are usually so weak that they can be detected only by sensitive instruments in a laboratory. An everyday example of a permanent magnet formed of a ferromagnetic material is a refrigerator magnet used to hold notes on a refrigerator door. The attraction between a magnet and a ferromagnetic material like iron has been described as "the quality of magnetism first apparent to the ancient world, and to us today".


title: Ferromagnetism

text: Permanent magnets (materials that can be magnetized by an external magnetic field and remain magnetized after the external field is removed) are either ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic, as are the materials that are noticeably attracted to them. Relatively few materials are ferromagnetic, and usually are pure forms, alloys, or compounds of iron, cobalt, nickel, and certain rare-earth metals. Beyond its chemical composition, a material's ferromagnetic properties (or lack thereof) is affected by its crystal structure. Ferromagnetism is very important in industry and modern technology and is the basis for many electrical and electromechanical devices such as electromagnets, electric motors, generators, transformers, and magnetic storage such as tape recorders, and hard disks, and nondestructive testing of ferrous materials.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: Ferromagnetic materials can be divided into magnetically "soft" materials like annealed iron, which can be magnetized but do not tend to stay magnetized, and magnetically "hard" materials, which do. Permanent magnets are made from "hard" ferromagnetic materials such as alnico and ferrimagnetic materials such as ferrite that are subjected to special processing in a strong magnetic field during manufacture to align their internal microcrystalline structure, making them very hard to demagnetize. To demagnetize a saturated magnet, a certain magnetic field must be applied, and this threshold depends on coercivity of the respective material. "Hard" materials have high coercivity, whereas "soft" materials have low coercivity. The overall strength of a magnet is measured by its magnetic moment or, alternatively, the total magnetic flux it produces. The local strength of magnetism in a material is measured by its magnetization.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: Historically, the term "ferromagnetism" was used for any material that could exhibit spontaneous magnetization: a net magnetic moment in the absence of an external magnetic field; that is any material that could become a magnet. This general definition is still in common use.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: However, in a landmark paper in 1948, Louis Néel showed that there are two levels of magnetic alignment that result in this behavior. One is ferromagnetism in the strict sense, where all the magnetic moments are aligned. The other is "ferrimagnetism", where some magnetic moments point in the opposite direction but have a smaller contribution, so there is still a spontaneous magnetization.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: In the special case where the opposing moments balance completely, the alignment is known as "antiferromagnetism". Therefore antiferromagnets do not have a spontaneous magnetization.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: Ferromagnetism is an unusual property that occurs in only a few substances. The common ones are the transition metals iron, nickel, cobalt and their alloys, and alloys of rare-earth metals. It is a property not just of the chemical make-up of a material, but of its crystalline structure and microstructure. Their ferromagnetism results from having many unpaired electrons in their d-block in the case of iron and its relatives, or the f-block in the case of the rare-earth metals, a result of Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity. There are ferromagnetic metal alloys whose constituents are not themselves ferromagnetic, called Heusler alloys, named after Fritz Heusler. Conversely, there are non-magnetic alloys, such as types of stainless steel, composed almost exclusively of ferromagnetic metals.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: Amorphous (non-crystalline) ferromagnetic metallic alloys can be made by very rapid quenching (cooling) of a liquid alloy. These have the advantage that their properties are nearly isotropic (not aligned along a crystal axis); this results in low coercivity, low hysteresis loss, high permeability, and high electrical resistivity. One such typical material is a transition metal-metalloid alloy, made from about 80% transition metal (usually Fe, Co, or Ni) and a metalloid component (B, C, Si, P, or Al) that lowers the melting point.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: A relatively new class of exceptionally strong ferromagnetic materials are the rare-earth magnets. They contain lanthanide elements that are known for their ability to carry large magnetic moments in well-localized f-orbitals.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: The table lists a selection of ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic compounds, along with the temperature above which they cease to exhibit spontaneous magnetization (see Curie temperature).


title: Ferromagnetism

text: Most ferromagnetic materials are metals, since the conducting electrons are often responsible for mediating the ferromagnetic interactions. It is therefore a challenge to develop ferromagnetic insulators, especially multiferroic materials, which are both ferromagnetic and ferroelectric.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: A number of actinide compounds are ferromagnets at room temperature or exhibit ferromagnetism upon cooling. PuP is a paramagnet with cubic symmetry at room temperature, but which undergoes a structural transition into a tetragonal state with ferromagnetic order when cooled below its "T" = 125 K. In its ferromagnetic state, PuP's easy axis is in the ⟨100⟩ direction.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: In NpFe the easy axis is ⟨111⟩. Above , NpFe is also paramagnetic and cubic. Cooling below the Curie temperature produces a rhombohedral distortion wherein the rhombohedral angle changes from 60° (cubic phase) to 60.53°. An alternate description of this distortion is to consider the length "c" along the unique trigonal axis (after the distortion has begun) and "a" as the distance in the plane perpendicular to "c". In the cubic phase this reduces to . Below the Curie temperature


title: Ferromagnetism

text: which is the largest strain in any actinide compound. NpNi undergoes a similar lattice distortion below , with a strain of (43 ± 5) × 10. NpCo is a ferrimagnet below 15 K.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: In 2009, a team of MIT physicists demonstrated that a lithium gas cooled to less than one kelvin can exhibit ferromagnetism. The team cooled fermionic lithium-6 to less than (150 billionths of one kelvin) using infrared laser cooling. This demonstration is the first time that ferromagnetism has been demonstrated in a gas.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: In 2018, a team of University of Minnesota physicists demonstrated that body-centered tetragonal ruthenium exhibits ferromagnetism at room temperature.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: Recent research has shown evidence that ferromagnetism can be induced in some materials by an electric current or voltage. Antiferromagnetic LaMnO and SrCoO have been switched to ferromagnetic by a current. In July 2020 scientists reported inducing ferromagnetism in the abundant diamagnetic material iron pyrite ("fool's gold") by an applied voltage. In these experiments the ferromagnetism was limited to a thin surface layer.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: The Bohr–Van Leeuwen theorem, discovered in the 1910s, showed that classical physics theories are unable to account for any form of material magnetism, including ferromagnetism; the explanation rather depends on the quantum mechanical description of atoms. Each of an atom's electrons has a magnetic moment according to its spin state, as described by quantum mechanics. The Pauli exclusion principle, also a consequence of quantum mechanics, restricts the occupancy of electrons' spin states in atomic orbitals, generally causing the magnetic moments from an atom's electrons to largely or completely cancel. An atom will have a "net" magnetic moment when that cancellation is incomplete.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: One of the fundamental properties of an electron (besides that it carries charge) is that it has a magnetic dipole moment, i.e., it behaves like a tiny magnet, producing a magnetic field. This dipole moment comes from the more fundamental property of the electron that it has quantum mechanical spin. Due to its quantum nature, the spin of the electron can be in one of only two states; with the magnetic field either pointing "up" or "down" (for any choice of up and down). The spin of the electrons in atoms is the main source of ferromagnetism, although there is also a contribution from the orbital angular momentum of the electron about the nucleus. When these magnetic dipoles in a piece of matter are aligned, (point in the same direction) their individually tiny magnetic fields add together to create a much larger macroscopic field.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: However, materials made of atoms with filled electron shells have a total dipole moment of zero: because the electrons all exist in pairs with opposite spin, every electron's magnetic moment is cancelled by the opposite moment of the second electron in the pair. Only atoms with partially filled shells (i.e., unpaired spins) can have a net magnetic moment, so ferromagnetism occurs only in materials with partially filled shells. Because of Hund's rules, the first few electrons in a shell tend to have the same spin, thereby increasing the total dipole moment.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: These unpaired dipoles (often called simply "spins", even though they also generally include orbital angular momentum) tend to align in parallel to an external magnetic field leading to a macroscopic effect called paramagnetism. In ferromagnetism, however, the magnetic interaction between neighboring atoms' magnetic dipoles is strong enough that they align with "each other" regardless of any applied field, resulting in the spontaneous magnetization of so-called domains. This results in the large observed magnetic permeability of ferromagnetics, and the ability of "hard" magnetic materials to form permanent magnets.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: When two nearby atoms have unpaired electrons, whether the electron spins are parallel or antiparallel affects whether the electrons can share the same orbit as a result of the quantum mechanical effect called the exchange interaction. This in turn affects the electron location and the Coulomb (electrostatic) interaction and thus the energy difference between these states.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: The exchange interaction is related to the Pauli exclusion principle, which says that two electrons with the same spin cannot also be in the same spatial state (orbital). This is a consequence of the spin–statistics theorem and that electrons are fermions. Therefore, under certain conditions, when the orbitals of the unpaired outer valence electrons from adjacent atoms overlap, the distributions of their electric charge in space are farther apart when the electrons have parallel spins than when they have opposite spins. This reduces the electrostatic energy of the electrons when their spins are parallel compared to their energy when the spins are antiparallel, so the parallel-spin state is more stable. This difference in energy is called the exchange energy. In simple terms, the outer electrons of adjacent atoms, which repel each other, can move further apart by aligning their spins in parallel, so the spins of these electrons tend to line up.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: This energy difference can be orders of magnitude larger than the energy differences associated with the magnetic dipole–dipole interaction due to dipole orientation, which tends to align the dipoles antiparallel. In certain doped semiconductor oxides RKKY interactions have been shown to bring about periodic longer-range magnetic interactions, a phenomenon of significance in the study of spintronic materials.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: The materials in which the exchange interaction is much stronger than the competing dipole–dipole interaction are frequently called "magnetic materials". For instance, in iron (Fe) the exchange force is about 1000 times stronger than the dipole interaction. Therefore, below the Curie temperature virtually all of the dipoles in a ferromagnetic material will be aligned. In addition to ferromagnetism, the exchange interaction is also responsible for the other types of spontaneous ordering of atomic magnetic moments occurring in magnetic solids, antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: There are different exchange interaction mechanisms which create the magnetism in different ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic, and antiferromagnetic substances. These mechanisms include direct exchange, RKKY exchange, double exchange, and superexchange.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: Although the exchange interaction keeps spins aligned, it does not align them in a particular direction. Without magnetic anisotropy, the spins in a magnet randomly change direction in response to thermal fluctuations and the magnet is superparamagnetic. There are several kinds of magnetic anisotropy, the most common of which is magnetocrystalline anisotropy. This is a dependence of the energy on the direction of magnetization relative to the crystallographic lattice. Another common source of anisotropy, inverse magnetostriction, is induced by internal strains. Single-domain magnets also can have a "shape anisotropy" due to the magnetostatic effects of the particle shape. As the temperature of a magnet increases, the anisotropy tends to decrease, and there is often a blocking temperature at which a transition to superparamagnetism occurs.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: The above would seem to suggest that every piece of ferromagnetic material should have a strong magnetic field, since all the spins are aligned, yet iron and other ferromagnets are often found in an "unmagnetized" state. The reason for this is that a bulk piece of ferromagnetic material is divided into tiny regions called "magnetic domains" (also known as "Weiss domains"). Within each domain, the spins are aligned, but (if the bulk material is in its lowest energy configuration; i.e. "unmagnetized"), the spins of separate domains point in different directions and their magnetic fields cancel out, so the object has no net large scale magnetic field.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: Ferromagnetic materials spontaneously divide into magnetic domains because the "exchange interaction" is a short-range force, so over long distances of many atoms the tendency of the magnetic dipoles to reduce their energy by orienting in opposite directions wins out. If all the dipoles in a piece of ferromagnetic material are aligned parallel, it creates a large magnetic field extending into the space around it. This contains a lot of magnetostatic energy. The material can reduce this energy by splitting into many domains pointing in different directions, so the magnetic field is confined to small local fields in the material, reducing the volume of the field. The domains are separated by thin domain walls a number of molecules thick, in which the direction of magnetization of the dipoles rotates smoothly from one domain's direction to the other.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: Thus, a piece of iron in its lowest energy state ("unmagnetized") generally has little or no net magnetic field. However, the magnetic domains in a material are not fixed in place; they are simply regions where the spins of the electrons have aligned spontaneously due to their magnetic fields, and thus can be altered by an external magnetic field. If a strong enough external magnetic field is applied to the material, the domain walls will move by the process of the spins of the electrons in atoms near the wall in one domain turning under the influence of the external field to face in the same direction as the electrons in the other domain, thus reorienting the domains so more of the dipoles are aligned with the external field. The domains will remain aligned when the external field is removed, creating a magnetic field of their own extending into the space around the material, thus creating a "permanent" magnet. The domains do not go back to their original minimum energy configuration when the field is removed because the domain walls tend to become 'pinned' or 'snagged' on defects in the crystal lattice, preserving their parallel orientation. This is shown by the Barkhausen effect: as the magnetizing field is changed, the magnetization changes in thousands of tiny discontinuous jumps as the domain walls suddenly "snap" past defects.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: This magnetization as a function of the external field is described by a hysteresis curve. Although this state of aligned domains found in a piece of magnetized ferromagnetic material is not a minimal-energy configuration, it is metastable, and can persist for long periods, as shown by samples of magnetite from the sea floor which have maintained their magnetization for millions of years.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: Heating and then cooling (annealing) a magnetized material, subjecting it to vibration by hammering it, or applying a rapidly oscillating magnetic field from a degaussing coil tends to release the domain walls from their pinned state, and the domain boundaries tend to move back to a lower energy configuration with less external magnetic field, thus "demagnetizing" the material.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: Commercial magnets are made of "hard" ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic materials with very large magnetic anisotropy such as alnico and ferrites, which have a very strong tendency for the magnetization to be pointed along one axis of the crystal, the "easy axis". During manufacture the materials are subjected to various metallurgical processes in a powerful magnetic field, which aligns the crystal grains so their "easy" axes of magnetization all point in the same direction. Thus the magnetization, and the resulting magnetic field, is "built in" to the crystal structure of the material, making it very difficult to demagnetize.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: As the temperature increases, thermal motion, or entropy, competes with the ferromagnetic tendency for dipoles to align. When the temperature rises beyond a certain point, called the Curie temperature, there is a second-order phase transition and the system can no longer maintain a spontaneous magnetization, so its ability to be magnetized or attracted to a magnet disappears, although it still responds paramagnetically to an external field. Below that temperature, there is a spontaneous symmetry breaking and magnetic moments become aligned with their neighbors. The Curie temperature itself is a critical point, where the magnetic susceptibility is theoretically infinite and, although there is no net magnetization, domain-like spin correlations fluctuate at all length scales.


title: Ferromagnetism

text: The study of ferromagnetic phase transitions, especially via the simplified Ising spin model, had an important impact on the development of statistical physics. There, it was first clearly shown that mean field theory approaches failed to predict the correct behavior at the critical point (which was found to fall under a "universality class" that includes many other systems, such as liquid-gas transitions), and had to be replaced by renormalization group theory.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Daytona Beach, or simply Daytona, is a coastal resort-city in the U.S. state of Florida. Located on the eastern edge of Volusia County near the Atlantic coastline, its population was 72,647 at the 2020 census. Daytona Beach is approximately northeast of Orlando, southeast of Jacksonville, and northwest of Miami. It is part of the Deltona–Daytona Beach–Ormond Beach metropolitan area which has a population of about 600,000 and is also a principal city of the Fun Coast region of Florida.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Daytona Beach is historically known for its beach, where the hard-packed sand allows motorized vehicles on the beach in restricted areas. This hard-packed sand made Daytona Beach a mecca for motorsports, and the old Daytona Beach and Road Course hosted races for over 50 years. This was replaced in 1959 by Daytona International Speedway. The city is also the headquarters of NASCAR.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Daytona Beach hosts large groups of out-of-towners during the year, who visit the city for various events, notably Speedweeks in early February when over 200,000 NASCAR fans come to attend the season-opening Daytona 500. Other events include the NASCAR Coke Zero Sugar 400 race in August, Bike Week in early March, Biketoberfest in late October, and the 24 Hours of Daytona endurance race in January.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: The area where Daytona Beach is located was once inhabited by the indigenous Timucuan Indians who lived in fortified villages. The Timucuas were nearly exterminated by contact with Europeans through war, enslavement and disease and became extinct as a racial entity through assimilation and attrition during the 18th century. The Seminole Indians, descendants of Creek Indians from Georgia and Alabama, frequented the area prior to the Second Seminole War.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: During the era of British rule of Florida between 1763 and 1783, the King's Road passed through present-day Daytona Beach. The road extended from Saint Augustine, the capital of East Florida, to Andrew Turnbull's experimental colony in New Smyrna. In 1804 Samuel Williams received a land grant of from the Spanish Crown, which had regained Florida from the British after the American Revolutionary War. This land grant encompassed the area that would become Daytona Beach. Williams built a slave-labor-based plantation to grow cotton, rice and sugar cane. His son Samuel Hill Williams would abandon the plantation during the Second Seminole War, when the Seminoles burned it to the ground.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: The area now known as the Daytona Beach Historical District was once the Orange Grove Plantation, a citrus and sugar cane plantation granted to Samuel Williams in 1787. The plantation was situated on the west bank of the tidal channel known as the Halifax River, 12 miles north of Mosquito Inlet. Williams was a British loyalist from North Carolina who fled to the Bahamas with his family until the Spanish reopened Florida to non-Spanish immigration. After his death in 1810, the plantation was run by his family until it was burned down in 1835. In 1871, Mathias Day Jr. of Mansfield, Ohio, purchased the 3,200-acre tract of the former Orange Grove Plantation. He built a hotel around which the initial section of town arose. In 1872, due to financial troubles, Day lost title to his land; nonetheless, residents decided to name the city Daytona in his honor, and incorporated the town in 1876.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: In 1886, the St. Johns & Halifax River Railway arrived in Daytona. The line would be purchased in 1889 by Henry M. Flagler, who made it part of his Florida East Coast Railway. The separate towns of Daytona, Daytona Beach, Kingston, and Seabreeze merged as "Daytona Beach" in 1926, at the urging of civic leader J. B. Kahn and others. By the 1920s, it was dubbed "The World's Most Famous Beach".


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Daytona's wide beach of smooth, compacted sand attracted automobile and motorcycle races beginning in 1902, as pioneers in the industry tested their inventions. It hosted land speed record attempts beginning in 1904, when William K. Vanderbilt set an unofficial record of . Land speed racers from Barney Oldfield to Henry Segrave to Malcolm Campbell would visit Daytona repeatedly and make the beach course famous. Record attempts, including numerous fatal endeavors such as Frank Lockhart (Stutz Black Hawk, 1928) and Lee Bible ("Triplex Special", 1929), would continue until Campbell's March 7, 1935 effort, which set the record at and marked the end of Daytona's land speed racing days.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: On March 8, 1936, the first stock car race was held on the Daytona Beach Road Course, located in the present-day Town of Ponce Inlet. In 1958, William France Sr. and NASCAR created the Daytona International Speedway to replace the beach course. Automobiles are still permitted on most areas of the beach, at a maximum speed of .


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Daytona Beach is located at 29°12′N 81°2′W (29.2073, −81.0379). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of . of which is land and is water, with water thus comprising 9.6% of the total area.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: The city of Daytona Beach is split in two by the Halifax River lagoon, part of the Intracoastal Waterway, and sits on the Atlantic Ocean. It is bordered on the north by Holly Hill and Ormond Beach and on the south by Daytona Beach Shores, South Daytona and Port Orange.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Daytona Beach has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification "Cfa"), which is typical of the Gulf and South Atlantic states. As is typical of much of Florida, there are two seasons in Daytona Beach; the warmer, wetter season (late May through October) and the cooler and drier season (November through April).


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: In summer, temperatures are relatively stable and there is an average of only 8 days annually with a maximum at or above ; the last reading was seen on August 2, 1999. The Bermuda High pumps hot and unstable tropical air from the Bahamas and Gulf of Mexico, resulting in daily, but brief thundershowers. This results in the months of June through September accounting for a majority of the average annual rainfall of .


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: In winter, Daytona Beach has weather conditions typical of other cities on the Florida peninsula. On average, the coolest month is January, with a normal monthly mean temperature of . It is the only month where the average high temperature falls below . Occasional cold fronts can bring freezes, which from 1991 to 2020 were seen on an average of 3.0 nights annually; however, minima below are very rare, and were last seen on December 28, 2010. Like much of Florida, Daytona Beach often can be very dry in late winter and early spring, and brush fires and water restrictions can be an issue.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Official record temperatures range from on January 21, 1985, up to on July 15, 1981, and June 24, 1944; the record cold daily maximum is on Christmas day 1983, while, conversely, the record warm daily minimum is on September 1 and 10–11, 2008 and August 25, 2020. Annual rainfall has ranged from in 2006 and 1956, up to in 1953. The most rainfall to have occurred in a calendar day was on October 10, 1924, which contributed to of rain that fell that month, the most of any calendar month.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Typically tropical cyclones pass offshore once they reach the northern portion of the Atlantic coast of Florida. As such, the hurricane risk for Daytona Beach is significantly lower than areas of southern Florida like Miami and Key West. The 2004 hurricane season was by far the most active in the Daytona Beach area in the last 50 years. However, since 1950 there has only been one direct hit by a tropical cyclone to the Daytona Beach area, Hurricane Donna in 1960.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Although Daytona Beach has a significantly lesser tornado risk than areas like the Great Plains and Midwest, there have been a few deadly and destructive tornadoes in the last 100 years in Daytona Beach area. Most recently, on February 22, 1998, a tornado killed three people, injured 70, and caused $31 million in damages.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: On July 3, 1992, a long rogue wave hit the Volusia County beaches. The wave's range was from Ormond Beach in the north, to New Smyrna Beach on the south. The crest was high and centered at Daytona Beach. Sailboats crashed ashore onto cars and many people suffered cuts and bruises from glass and debris. Two people required hospitalization and 200 vehicles were damaged. Seventy five injuries were reported. The prevailing theory is that an underwater landslide caused the rogue wave, although others have theorized that it was the result of a squall line.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Under Daytona Beach's commission-manager form of government, voters elect a City commission which consists of seven members who serve four-year, staggered terms. Six are elected by district, the mayor is elected citywide.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: The city commission establishes ordinances and policies for the city. It also reviews and approves the city budget annually. The commission appoints a city manager, who carries out the will of the commission and handles day-to-day business.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Law enforcement in Daytona Beach is provided by the 241-member Daytona Beach Police Department (DBPD) headed by police chief Craig Capri. In a unique and controversial program to help fund the Police Explorer program, run by a subsidiary of the Boy Scouts of America, T-shirts with the words "Scumbag Eradication Team": "Not in Our Town" are sold at the police headquarters.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: The T-shirts contain a caricature of Retired Chief Chitwood standing next to a toilet bowl with the legs of multiple individuals sticking out. The T-shirt has been cited in at least one lawsuit against the DBPD alleging police brutality, the lawyer in the case in which the client sustained broken ribs and a fractured eye socket during an arrest for an open container of beer, claims the T-shirt shows the DBPD condones violence.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: The Volusia County Sheriff's office, headed by Mike Chitwood is a countywide law enforcement agency with 446 sworn positions, 438 civilian employees, 300 volunteers and an annual operating budget of $73 million that has jurisdiction in unincorporated areas of Volusia County and provides additional law enforcement support to Daytona Beach during such events as the Daytona 500 and aids in joint investigations of certain crimes.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: The Volusia County Beach Patrol provides law enforcement as well as EMT services along Volusia County beaches including the beaches in the city of Daytona Beach.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: The city of Daytona Beach made national headlines when it designated the several–mile radius around Main Street on the barrier island portion of the city as a blighted area and has targeted it for redevelopment by private developers. This follows the Supreme Court decision of the eminent domain case in "Kelo v. City of New London", which upheld the right of municipalities to use eminent domain to take private property for redevelopment by private entities.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: The United States Postal Service operates a post office at 500 Bill France Boulevard in Daytona Beach.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: The Daytona Beach Armed Forces Reserve Center is home of the Florida Army National Guard 1st Battalion, 265th Air Defense Artillery Regiment, Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, Battery D.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Daytona Beach is part of Florida's 6th congressional district. It is part of Florida's 25th and 26th State House of Representatives Districts and the 6th and 8th State Senate Districts.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Florida's 6th congressional district, which extends from the southern Jacksonville suburbs to New Smyrna Beach and includes St. Augustine and Daytona Beach, is currently represented by Republican Michael Waltz.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: As of 2010, there were 33,920 households, out of which 19.5% were vacant. As of 2000, 18.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.1% were married couples living together, 14.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 51.6% were non-families. Of all households, 39.4% were made up of individuals, and 14.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.06 and the average family size was 2.77.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: In 2000, the city the population was spread out, with 17.6% under the age of 18, 16.6% from 18 to 24, 25.6% from 25 to 44, 20.5% from 45 to 64, and 19.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.5 males.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: In 2000, the median income for a household in the city was $25,439, and the median income for a family was $33,514. Males had a median income of $25,705 versus $20,261 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,530. 23.6% of the population and 16.9% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 34.9% of those under the age of 18 and 12.1% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: As of 2000, English spoken as a first language accounted for 90.37% of all residents, while 9.62% spoke other languages as their mother tongue. The most significant were Spanish speakers who made up 4.01% of the population, while French came up as the third most spoken language, which made up 0.90%, and German was at fourth, at 0.86%, as well as, Arabic with 0.66% of the population.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: The Museum of Arts and Sciences is the primary cultural facility for Daytona Beach and Volusia County. Other museums located in the city include the Southeast Museum of Photography and the Halifax Historical Museum. The Museum of Arts and Sciences is actually a collection of museums and galleries and includes the Klancke Environmental Complex, the Cuban Museum, Root Family Museum featuring one of the largest Coca-Cola collections in the world, the Dow American Gallery and the Bouchelle Center for Decorative Arts which together form what is probably one of the finest collections of furniture and decorative arts in the Southeast. It also includes the Cici and Hyatt Brown Museum of Art, which houses the largest collection of Florida art in the world. There are also changing exhibitions and a children's science center opened in 2008. Since 1952, the non-profit Daytona Beach Symphony Society has sponsored performances by U.S. and international orchestras, opera and dance companies each season at the Peabody Auditorium.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Daytona Beach has over of white sandy beaches open to pedestrians without time restrictions. Cars can be driven on some of the beaches during daylight hours. There are more than ten waterfront parks in Daytona Beach. Thong bikinis are prohibited in all areas of Daytona Beach, with a penalty of up to $500 and 60 days in jail.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Daytona Beach is home to the headquarters of the LPGA, NASCAR, IMSA, International Speedway Corporation, in Florida.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: The Daytona International Speedway hosts the annual 24 Hours of Daytona (Rolex 24 at Daytona) and Daytona 500 races, among other events.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: In addition to motorsports, Daytona is also the home of the Daytona Tortugas, a minor league baseball team of the Low-A Southeast who play at Jackie Robinson Ballpark; it was established in 1993 and currently has 6 championships.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: The city attracts over 8 million tourists each year. Special events that draw visitors to Daytona Beach include:


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: During motorcycle events (Bike Week and Biketoberfest), several hundred thousand bikers from all over the world visit the greater Daytona Beach area. The city is also often associated with spring break, though the efforts of the local government to discourage rowdiness, combined with the rise of other spring break destinations, have affected Daytona's preeminence as a spring break destination. It is the destination of Dayton 2 Daytona, an annual event that draws over 3,000 University of Dayton college students since 1977.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: A major part of the Daytona Beach area economy is involved in the tourist industry. Over 8 million visitors came to the Daytona Beach area in 2004.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: The area's economy includes other industries besides tourism, such as manufacturing. Daytona Beach has industrial sites within an enterprise zone and sites within a foreign trade zone adjacent to Daytona Beach International Airport. Prime Interstate 4 and Interstate 95 sites are available with access to road, air, rail and water transportation.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: According to the City's 2019 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Public primary and secondary education is handled by Volusia County Schools. Daytona Beach has two public traditional high schools, two middle schools and six elementary schools. Some of the larger private schools include Father Lopez Catholic High School.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Healthcare in Daytona Beach is dominated by Halifax Health (formerly known as Halifax Hospital). The Halifax Hospital Taxing District was established in 1927 by an Act of the Florida Legislature as a public hospital district. There are dozens of individual practitioners and Professional Associations (PA) in the Daytona Beach area.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: The city has a successful recycling program with separate pickups for garbage, yard waste and recycling. Collection is provided by several private companies under contract to Volusia County, Florida.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Passenger airline services are located at Daytona Beach International Airport (DAB), which is centrally located within the city adjacent to Daytona International Speedway. The site was first used as an airport with terminals being constructed in 1952 and 1958. The present facility was constructed in 1992 at the cost of $46 million, and includes both a domestic terminal and an International terminal. Despite the new facilities, DAB has found difficulty in attracting and retaining carriers; Continental Airlines, AirTran Airways, and United Airlines discontinued flights to Daytona in 2007 and 2008. LTU & American Airlines also serviced Daytona Beach during the 1980s and 1990s, both of which ended all flights in 1994 & 1997.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Current passenger airlines serving DAB include Delta Air Lines (with nonstop service to Atlanta) and American Airlines (with non-stop service to Charlotte). Both carriers offer connecting service from those cities to destinations worldwide. International flights from DAB fly to destinations in the Bahamas through air taxi and charter services Airgate Aviation and IslandPass; non-stop flights are available from DAB to Marsh Harbour, Treasure Cay, and North Eleuthera. Sunwing Airlines also operates seasonal flights from Toronto Pearson International Airport. DAB is also heavily used for general aviation, largely due to Embry–Riddle Aeronautical University, whose campus is located at the airport.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Larger airports nearby are Orlando International Airport and Jacksonville International Airport, each of which is approximately 90 minutes away.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Daytona Beach is easily accessible by I-95 that runs north and south and I-4 connecting Daytona Beach with Orlando and Tampa. US 1 (Ridgewood Avenue) also passes north–south through Daytona Beach. US 92 (International Speedway Boulevard) runs east–west through Daytona Beach. SR A1A is a scenic north–south route along the beach.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: The Volusia County Parking Garage is located at 701 Earl Street at North Atlantic Avenue (SR A1A). The garage is strategically located, next to the Ocean Center, Daytona Lagoon, and across the street from the Hilton Hotel and Ocean Walk Shoppes. Over one thousand parking spaces are available inside the garage, which also houses an intermodal transfer station for VoTran.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: There are four bridges over the Halifax River (and Intracoastal Waterway) at Daytona Beach. They include (starting from furthest downstream) the Veterans Memorial Bridge (which carries CR 4050 traffic), the Broadway Bridge (which carries US 92 traffic), the Main Street Bridge (which carries CR 4040 traffic), and the Seabreeze Bridge (which carries SR 430 traffic). All four bridges charge no toll to traffic. In June, 2016, the Veterans Memorial Bridge was closed as part of a three-year project to demolish the drawbridge and replace it with a high span bridge.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Passenger railroad service to Daytona Beach was established no later than 1889 by the Jacksonville, St. Augustine and Halifax River Railway, predecessor of the Florida East Coast Railroad (FEC). Long-distance trains such as the "City of Miami" and the "South Wind" (both from Chicago), "East Coast Champion" (from New York City) and the "Havana Special" (New York City) made stops at Daytona Beach. Long distance routes were diverted to Atlantic Coast Line Railroad and Seaboard Air Line Railroad routes on the Florida interior south of the Jacksonville Union Station, following the beginning of a labor dispute on the FEC in 1963. Passenger trains continued calling at Daytona Beach until July 31, 1968, when the FEC terminated passenger operations system-wide. The FEC currently operates freight trains through Daytona Beach.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Daytona Beach is served by Amtrak by way of a Thruway Motorcoach connection between the beachside and Amtrak's DeLand Station, to the west. There, the service connects northbound with train 92, the "Silver Star", and train 98, the "Silver Meteor". Southbound connections from Daytona Beach are limited to "Silver Meteor" southbound train 97. The DeLand – Daytona Beach service is Amtrak's only Florida Thruway Motorcoach route provided by a taxi-cab, rather than a bus.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: There have been a number of movies based on Daytona Beach, usually with a racing theme. The most recent example was the 1990 hit "Days of Thunder", parts of which were filmed in Daytona Beach and nearby DeLand. Chris Rea wrote the song "Daytona" which was in his 1989 album "The Road to Hell". Suzi Quatro's song "Daytona Demon" is often believed to refer to the city. Also, about half of the video for the song "Steal My Sunshine" by Len was filmed at Daytona Beach.


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Daytona Beach was also the destination of a group of plagued teenagers in the movie "Final Destination 2".


title: Daytona Beach, Florida

text: Daytona Beach was the setting of the Season 2 finale of the web series "The Most Popular Girls in School".


title: Economically Weaker Section

text: Economically Weaker Section (EWS) in India is a subcategory of people having an annual family income less than and who do not belong to any category such as SC/ST/OBC across India, nor to MBC in Tamil Nadu. A candidate who does not fall under SC/ST/OBC and fulfils the EWS economic criteria are to be part of the EWS category.


title: Economically Weaker Section

text: On 7 January 2019, Union Council of Ministers approved a 10% reservation in government jobs and educational institutions for the Economically Weaker Section (EWS) in the General category. The cabinet decided that this would be over and above the existing 50% reservation for SC/ST/OBC categories.


title: Economically Weaker Section

text: On 8 January 2019, The Constitution (One Hundred and Twenty-fourth Amendment) Bill, 2019, was tabled in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament of India and it was passed on the same day. The bill was passed by the upper house Rajya Sabha on 9 January. President Ram Nath Kovind gave assent to the bill on 12 January 2019, and a gazette was released on the bill, which turned it into law. Coming into force on 14 January 2019, the One Hundred and Third Amendment of the Constitution of India amended articles 15(6) and 16(6) of the Constitution of India to permit 10% reservations to the EWS category. A number of state cabinets approved the law and announced their intention to implement the 10% EWS reservations.


title: Economically Weaker Section

text: On 10 January 2019, Youth For Equality, an NGO that opposes caste-based policies, challenged the proposed amendment at the Supreme Court of India on grounds that it breaches the 50% reservations ceiling set by the same court; the group said it fully supports EWS reservations but wants this to be done by converting the existing 27% OBC quota into an economic means-tested non-caste-based quota instead, thus staying within the 50% cap set by the apex court. Conversely, leaders of Backward Classes welfare groups also approached the Supreme Court, opposing reservations for EWS groups altogether, arguing that EWS groups did not meet the reservations criteria that the same court had specified in an earlier case.


title: Economically Weaker Section

text: On 25 January 2019, the Supreme Court refused to stay the 10% reservation given to GEN-EWS category in government jobs and educational institutions. On 6 August 2020, the court decided that a 5-member bench would hear the case.


title: Economically Weaker Section

text: On 7 November 2022, Supreme Court of India by a 3:2 verdict in Janhit Abhiyan vs Union Of India Writ Petition (Civil) No(S). 55 OF 2019, upheld the validity of the 103rd constitutional amendment carried out to provide legal sanction carve out 10% reservation for the economically weaker sections from unreserved classes for admission in educational institutions and government jobs and held that the 50% cap on quota is not inviolable and affirmative action on economic basis may go a long way in eradicating caste-based reservation. This constitutional amendment pushed the total reservation to 59.50% in central institutions.


title: Economically Weaker Section

text: The Union Government of India tabled the Constitution (One Hundred third, 103rd CAA) Bill, 2019,by amending article 15(6) and 16(6) of constitution which provided 10% additional quota for the EWS students amongst the erstwhile Unreserved category or General category students.


title: Economically Weaker Section

text: The terms Economically Weaker Section (EWS) and Economically Backward Class (EBC) are not meant to be confused with each other in India. The definition of EWS has been defined by the Government of India, whereas the definition of EBC and Most Economically Backward Class (MEBC) vary in different states as well as institutions.


title: Economically Weaker Section

text: The eligibility to get the EWS certificate is not only purely based on annual family income but also based on the held property. The income limit has been set by the central government for admission to central government-owned colleges and jobs offered by the central government. State governments are given the authority to change the eligibility criteria and also to extend the income limit further for candidates seeking reservation under EWS category, which will be valid only in state-owned colleges and state government's jobs as deemed fit for the respective states.


title: Economically Weaker Section

text: People belonging to the Economically Weaker Section since 1 February 2019 now get 10% reservation in education and government jobs of India (vertical reservations) similar to OBC, SC, ST.


title: Economically Weaker Section

text: This reservation weakened the pace of many reservation agitations such as the Jat reservation moment, Patidar reservation movement, and Kapu reservation movement. Aspirants from the EWS category are not fully satisfied with this reservation because it does not include many benefits like age relaxation, fee relaxation, post metric scholarship and house criteria from the very beginning.


title: Economically Weaker Section

text: The definition of Family in EWS reservation means:-"The "person who seeks the benefit of reservation, his/her parents and siblings below the age of 18 years as also his/her spouse and children below the age of 18 years"".


title: Economically Weaker Section

text: EWS certificate can be used to avail the 10% reservation for the GEN-Economically Weaker Section in higher education all over the India and government jobs.


title: Economically Weaker Section

text: While the eligibility criteria for EWS reservations in the union government programmes are uniform across the country, its implementation in various states differ. Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and West Bengal have adopted EWS quota.