title: Panspermia

text: Spores would therefore need to be heavily protected against UV radiation: exposure of unprotected DNA to solar UV and cosmic ionizing radiation would break it up into its constituent bases. Also, exposing DNA to the ultrahigh vacuum of space alone is sufficient to cause DNA damage, so the transport of unprotected DNA or RNA during interplanetary flights powered solely by light pressure is extremely unlikely.


title: Panspermia

text: The feasibility of other means of transport for the more massive shielded spores into the outer Solar System—for example, through gravitational capture by comets—is unknown. Rocks at least 1 meter in diameter are required to effectively shield resistant microorganisms, such as bacterial spores against galactic cosmic radiation. These results clearly negate the radiopanspermia hypothesis.


title: Panspermia

text: Lithopanspermia, the transfer of organisms in rocks from one planet to another either through interplanetary or interstellar space, such as in comets or asteroids, remains speculative. A variant would be for organisms to travel between star systems on nomadic exoplanets or exomoons.


title: Panspermia

text: Although there is no evidence that lithopanspermia has occurred in the Solar System, the various stages have become amenable to experimental testing.


title: Panspermia

text: Directed panspermia would be the deliberate transport of microorganisms in space, sent to Earth to start life here, or sent from Earth to seed new planetary systems with life by introduced species of microorganisms on lifeless planets. The Nobel prize winner Francis Crick, along with Leslie Orgel proposed that life may have been purposely spread by an advanced extraterrestrial civilization, but considering an early "RNA world" Crick noted later that life may have originated on Earth. The astronomer Thomas Gold suggested in 1960 the hypothesis of "Cosmic Garbage", that life on Earth might have originated accidentally from a pile of waste products dumped on Earth long ago by extraterrestrial beings.


title: Panspermia

text: Directed panspermia could, in theory, be demonstrated by finding a distinctive 'signature' message had been deliberately implanted into either the genome or the genetic code of the first microorganisms by our hypothetical progenitor, some 4 billion years ago. It has been suggested that the bacteriophage φX174 might represent such a message. However, there is no known mechanism that could prevent mutation and natural selection from removing such a message over long periods of time.


title: Panspermia

text: A separate fragment of the Orgueil meteorite (kept in a sealed glass jar since its discovery) was found in 1965 to have a seed capsule embedded in it, while the original glassy layer on the outside remained undisturbed. Despite great initial excitement, the seed was found to be that of a European Juncaceae or Rush plant that had been glued into the fragment and camouflaged using coal dust. The outer "fusion layer" was in fact glue. While the perpetrator of this hoax is unknown, it is thought that they sought to influence the 19th-century debate on spontaneous generation—rather than panspermia—by demonstrating the transformation of inorganic to biological matter.


title: Avon Products

text: Avon Products, Inc. or simply known as Avon, is an American-British multinational cosmetics, skin care, fragrance and personal care company, based in London. It sells directly to the public. Avon had annual sales of $9.1 billion worldwide in 2020.


title: Avon Products

text: It is the fourteenth-largest beauty company and, with 6.4 million representatives, is the second largest direct-selling enterprise in the world (after Amway). The company's CEO is Angela Cretu, who was appointed to the position in January 2020.


title: Avon Products

text: In May 2019, the multinational company Natura & Co announced its intent to acquire Avon; the deal closed in January 2020. Following the merger, existing Natura shareholders held 73% of the combined company, Natura Holding S.A., with former Avon shareholders owning 27%. At merger completion, Avon became a privately held company, common stock was removed from the NYSE trading.


title: Avon Products

text: Avon's founder, David H. McConnell, initially sold books as a door-to-door salesman to New York homes. In September 1886, he decided to sell perfumes rather than books. He started the new business in a small office at 126 Chambers Street, Manhattan, New York. McConnell changed the company name in 1892. His business partner suggested calling it the "California Perfume Company." His business partner was living in California at the time and suggested the name because of the abundance of flowers in California.


title: Avon Products

text: In May 1894, Alexander D. Henderson joined the company, became vice-president and treasurer, and helped shape its policies and assist in its growth. In 1897 they built a laboratory in Suffern, New York. On May 3, 1909, the California Perfume Company corporate office moved to 31 Park Place, New York. On June 16, 1909, McConnell and Henderson signed an agreement of Incorporation for the California Perfume Company in the state of New Jersey. On January 28, 1916, the California Perfume Company was incorporated in the state of New York. McConnell, Henderson, and William Scheele were listed as company officials. On October 6, 1939, the California Perfume Company changed its name to Avon Products Inc, after the birthplace of McConnell’s favorite playwright, William Shakespeare (Stratford-upon-Avon).


title: Avon Products

text: The "California Perfume Company, Inc." of New York filed its first trademark application for Avon on June 3, 1932, with the USPTO. Part of the description for goods and services provided to the USPTO included "perfumes, toilet waters, powder and rouge compacts, lipsticks", and other toiletry products. First use and commercial use for "Avon" by the California Perfume Company was on September 1, 1929. Registration was granted on August 30, 1932.


title: Avon Products

text: Avon sells products in over 100 countries. Brazil is the company's largest market, passing the United States in 2010. Avon entered the Chinese market in 1990. Direct selling was outlawed in China in 1998, which forced Avon to sell only through physical stores called Beauty Boutiques. The ban was lifted in 2001, and the company received a license for direct selling in 2006.


title: Avon Products

text: Avon purchased Silpada, a direct seller of silver jewelry, in 2010 for $650 million. In May 2012, perfume company Coty, Inc. offered $24.75 a share for Avon, which was nearly 20 percent above Avon's stock price at the time. While Fox Business Network reported that Avon delayed the process and Coty withdrew its offer, earlier reports said that Avon rejected the bid, stating "At the time, the board concluded, and it still believes, that Coty's indication of interest is opportunistic and not in the best interest of Avon's shareholders."


title: Avon Products

text: In March 2016, Cerberus Capital Management paid $435 million in cash for preferred stock in Avon Products. This move was the conclusion of a deal initiated in December 2015, when Avon sold 80.1 percent of its North American Business to Cerberus for $170 million. The total value of the deal was $605 million. The investment resulted in Cerberus having an almost 17 percent stake in Avon Products.


title: Avon Products

text: In January 2020, Natura &Co closed the acquisition of Avon Products, Inc. The Natura &Co group also includes Natura, Aesop, and The Body Shop, and with the acquisition of Avon has created the world's fourth-largest pure-play beauty company.


title: Avon Products

text: In 2014, Avon's global sales had fallen for five straight years, and its North American revenues fell 18% that year.


title: Avon Products

text: In 2016, Avon completed the separation of its United States, Canada, and Puerto Rico business as "New Avon LLC", which also trades with the "Avon" name. As part of a three-year plan, the global Avon Products moved its headquarters to London in the United Kingdom.


title: Avon Products

text: In August 2019, New Avon LLC, the privately held North American company that split from Avon Products, Inc. (Avon Worldwide) in 2016 entered into a definitive agreement with South Korean consumer goods giant LG Household & Health Care, Ltd., which will purchase the direct-selling cosmetics business for $125 million in cash. In January 2021, New Avon Company announced its corporate name change to The Avon Company.


title: Avon Products

text: Jan Zijderveld was appointed the company's CEO in February 2018. The former CEO, Sherilyn S. McCoy, stayed on as an adviser to the Board and to Zijderveld through March 31, 2018.


title: Avon Products

text: In 2019, the Brazilian beauty company Natura agreed to buy Avon Products for more than $2bn via a share swap, creating the world's fourth-largest beauty company. Under the deal's terms, Natura will hold 76% of the combined business with over $10 billion in annual revenue.


title: Avon Products

text: In June 2020, a new logo of Avon was released. In September 2020, the company launched a new marketing campaign entitled "Watch Me Now". The campaign included new brand visuals, including a revised logo.


title: Avon Products

text: During 2021, Avon had sales operations in 54 countries and territories, and distributed their products in 24 other countries and territories. At December 31, 2021, they had sales operations in 52 countries.


title: Avon Products

text: Avon uses both door-to-door salespeople ("Avon ladies", as well as "Avon men") and brochures to advertise its products. The first Avon lady was Persis Foster Eames Albee. Avon operates training centers for potential representatives. Some Avon training centers have a small retail section with skin care products, such as creams, serums, makeup, and washes. Avon recruits sales representatives who sell beauty products, jewelry, accessories, and clothing.


title: Avon Products

text: Some of the brand-names used by the company include Avon Color (also known as Avon True Color), mark., Imari, Far Away, Sweet Honesty, Little Dress Scents, Avon Fashions, Anew, Avon True NutraEffects, Naturals, Avon Care, Feelin Fresh and Skin So Soft. According to the U.S. government, Avon has 5 million to 6 million sales representatives operating in over 100 countries as of 2014. Avon and its subsidiaries have 40,000 to 50,000 employees, 6,000 of which are in the United States.


title: Avon Products

text: Avon was an early member of the U.S. Direct Selling Association, which was founded in 1910. The company left the association in 2014, saying that the trade group was not paying enough attention to the industry as a whole.


title: Avon Products

text: Beginning in 2008, the conduct of various employees and executives of Avon were investigated for possible violations of the law, including bribery and violations of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act.


title: Avon Products

text: Avon began a probe of its China division after an internal whistleblower alleged bribery in June 2008. At least four executives, both in Asia and in the United States, were suspended in 2010, and later fired for their roles in the activities being investigated. According to "The New York Times", Avon spent over $170 million on legal fees and costs related to the investigation: $59 million in 2009 and $95 million in 2010, and $22.5 million for the first quarter of 2011. The final tally was about $500 million.


title: Avon Products

text: The Times reported that Avon would report the findings to the United States Department of Justice and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and try to negotiate the penalties that those entities may impose. On February 24, 2011, Avon filed a report with the Securities and Exchange commission highlighting the investigation as a corporate risk factor that could cause investor loss.


title: Avon Products

text: In 2014, Avon settled the bribery charges for a total of $135 million; $68 million in criminal penalties, with the remainder in interest, disgorgement, and fines from a civil case brought by the SEC.


title: Avon Products

text: Avon vowed in 1989 that as a company located in the United States, it would no longer participate in animal testing. Avon has since claimed to be working globally to introduce safer methods of testing cosmetics that do not require animals. These methods include "in vitro" testing, computer simulations, and testing cosmetics on human volunteers.


title: Avon Products

text: Although Avon does not practice animal testing of its cosmetics that are sold in the United States, certain specialty products do require extensive testing in other countries. In China, specialty products that require degrees of animal testing include but are not limited to: sunscreen products, whitening/pigmentation products, and hair dye/perm or growth products. Despite laws that require animal testing in some countries, Avon chooses to distribute its products in those jurisdictions. Laws in various countries require companies to pay for animal testing through a commercial business in order to sell certain products in that country. Because Avon is not globally animal-testing free, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) has not included Avon on their cruelty-free list.


title: Avon Products

text: In 2019, Avon ended all regulatory-required animal testing, making it the first global beauty company selling in China to stop all animal testing of ingredients and products across all its brands by developing new ways to deliver products that do not require animal testing, such as reformulating products. PETA has since announced that it has added Avon Products Inc. to their list of companies "Working for Regulatory Change".


title: Avon Products

text: More than once, Avon has been sued by employees for misclassifying them as independent contractors. In the 2019 suit Rogel et al. v. Avon Products, Inc. et al., the suit alleges that Avon classified some of its employees as independent contractors. "[T]hese workers were designated by Avon as independent contractors when they should have instead been considered bona fide employees and entitled to the workplace protections afforded to such."


title: Avon Products

text: Nelson brought Nelson v. Avon Prods., Inc. to court with a class action suit with similar allegations.


title: Avon Products

text: Previously, Avon faced another class action suit Morrow v. Avon Products, Inc. which was settled for $800,000.


title: Avon Products

text: Ruiz brought suit against Avon for discriminating against pregnant employees. Ruiz, et al. v. New Avon LLC, et al. claimed that employees were penalized during and after their pregnancies.


title: Avon Products

text: In October 2013, Avon announced the closure of its branch in France at the end of that month. Its French employees accused it of keeping the workers in the dark for months and not acting in line with the company's publicly stated values of being a socially responsible company that upholds values of trust, respect and integrity and a culture of "open and candid communication." As of January 2014, Avon France was in receivership.


title: Avon Products

text: This was followed by an announcement via Facebook on 15 February 2018, that Avon Australia and New Zealand would close by the end of the year. This decision resulted in the loss of 220 jobs and 21,400 sales representatives. The company has attracted criticism for poor communication with its customers and employees.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: Shanthakumaran Nair Sreesanth (, born 6 February 1983) is an Indian former cricketer and film actor who played all forms of the game. He is a right-arm fast-medium-pace bowler and a right-handed tail-ender batsman. In first class cricket, he played for Kerala. In the Indian Premier League (IPL) he played for the Rajasthan Royals. He is also the first Kerala Ranji player to have played Twenty20 cricket for India. Initially banned for life after spot-fixing in the 2013 IPL, the ban was reduced to seven years in August 2019.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: In 2018, he participated in the popular reality show, "Bigg Boss" and became the runner up. In 2020 he was selected for the Kerala cricket team and resumed his career in national cricket. In March 2022, Sreesanth announced his retirement from domestic cricket.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: Sreesanth was born on 6 February 1983 to Nair Santhakumaran and Savithri Devi. He has one elder brother and two elder sisters. His brother Dipu Santhan owns a music company in Kochi and his eldest sister Nivedita is a television actress in Kerala. Sreesanth's elder sister Divya married Madhu Balakrishnan, a famous South Indian playback singer.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: On 12 December 2013, Sreesanth married his girlfriend Bhuvneshwari Kumari of Jaipur's Shekhawat family at Guruvayur Sri Krishna temple in Kerala. Bhuvneshwari Kumari aka Nain Shekhawat is the daughter of Hirendra Singh Shekhawat and Muktha Singh.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: Sreesanth initially was a leg-spinner in his childhood, modelling his action on India's leading Test wicket-taker Anil Kumble, who was to become his Test captain. However, his habit of bowling yorkers led him to convert to fast bowling, after being encouraged by his elder brother. Following in the footsteps of fellow Kerala fast bowler Tinu Yohannan, who earned selection to the National Cricket Academy in 2000, Sreesanth was selected for the MRF Pace Foundation in Chennai. He then made his first-class debut against Goa in the 2002–03 domestic season, claiming 22 wickets in seven matches in the Ranji Trophy and winning selection for South Zone in the Duleep Trophy squad in the same season.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: He was selected for India-A side in a tour match against the visiting New Zealand side at Rajkot. He claimed one wicket in twelve overs after being restricted with a hamstring injury. He also missed five Ranji Trophy games in that season, although he still travelled with the side for away games. This led to rumours that an astrologer convinced him to take a break from competition to preserve his longevity in the sport, which Sreesanth categorically denied, maintaining that he was training only to regain his fitness.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: In November 2004, Sreesanth entered the record books when he took a hat-trick against Himachal Pradesh in a Ranji trophy game. He was selected to represent India B in the Challenger Trophy in October 2005, a domestic limited-overs tournament. He performed impressively in that tournament, earning the Man of the Series award and being the leading wicket taker (7) with the third best bowling average. This led to his selection to Indian team for the home ODI series against Sri Lanka.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: Sreesanth was given the new ball in the first ODI against Sri Lanka in Nagpur. After being punished early by Kumar Sangakkara and Sanath Jayasuriya, Sreesanth returned to claim his first two ODI wickets at the end of the match. He was left out of the team and was later recalled for the fourth, fifth and sixth ODIs as coach Greg Chappell tinkered with the line-up. He was retained in the squad but did not play in the 5 match series against South Africa, but played all five matches in the tour to Pakistan, recording a haul of 4/58 in the fifth ODI against Pakistani cricket team in Karachi. A good home series against the England in April 2006, in which he claimed 10 wickets at an average of 16.3, including a career best 6/55 in the final match at Indore (in which he was awarded the man of the match award ), led to him subsequently being awarded a BCCI contract, in the C-grade in May.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: His disappointing economy rate led him to be left out of the ICC Champions Trophy squad of 14, with the beneficiary being R. P. Singh. He made an unexpected come back to the blue squad due to the injury to Ajit Agarkar later in the tournament. He was also out of the Indian ODI team for the England tour.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: In the 2011 Cricket World Cup, Sreesanth was selected due to injury to Praveen Kumar. He was expensive in the first game going wicketless at 53 runs in 5 overs. He was selected in the final where he gave away 52 runs in 8 wicketless overs.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: Sreesanth was selected for his first Test squad in the home series against England in March 2006, in place of Zaheer Khan. He claimed 4/95 in his debut appearance in the 1st Test in Nagpur, where he opened the bowling with Irfan Pathan. He was ruled out of the second Test in Mohali due to illness, but recovered and captured five wickets as well a 29* with the bat in the Third Test in Mumbai. With the axing of Pathan, Sreesanth became India's leading pace bowler on the tour of the West Indies. He missed the second Test due to an injury but managed to claim his best match figures of 5/72 in the 4th Test in Kingston, Jamaica.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: Sreesanth's most significant performance to date in Test cricket was his role in the first Test of India's 2006 tour to South Africa at Johannesburg. After losing the limited-overs series 4–0, Sreesanth produced took 5–40 in a display of pace and swing to help dismiss South Africa. This performance helped to bowl South Africans out for just 84, leading to first Indian win on South African soil, for which he was named man of the match. Again, Sreesanth's emotional antics, which have led him to be regarded by some commentators as eccentric, were frequently noted. He was fined after breaching the International Cricket Council's advertising logo policy, and also for "conduct contrary to the spirit of the game" after sending off Hashim Amla after dismissing him. He was also involved in a highly publicised confrontation while batting against paceman André Nel. Nel delivered a series of fast balls at Sreesanth's upper body and after Sreesanth ungainly evaded one delivery, taunted him by gesturing to his chest, indicating that he felt Sreesanth was lacking in courage. On the next ball, Sreesanth gave him the charge and hit the ball straight over the bowler's head into the stands for a six. He then whirled his bat in enthusiasm and danced down the wicket, making fun of Nel and performing a dance. Later, Sreesanth said that he would not repeat anything of the sort, since he could be suspended for violating the code of conduct. Even though he went unpunished for the Nel incident, he was fined 30% of the match fee for running towards Hashim Amla after picking up his wicket, and wearing a branded garment under the jersey.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: Sreesanth courted controversy once again during the fourth day of the second test of India's 2007 tour to England at Trent Bridge. He was fined half of his match fee for deliberately shoulder barging England captain Michael Vaughan whilst walking back to his mark. He also bowled a beamer at batsman Kevin Pietersen, which the latter had to take drastic action to avoid. Sreesanth however did immediately apologise afterwards. After the match he said that the ball had slipped from his hand. Soon afterwards, he bowled a no-ball where he overstepped the crease by roughly , leading to speculation it was deliberate; the delivery was a bouncer to Paul Collingwood. Former England captain Michael Atherton called for Sreesanth to be banned for the Pietersen beamer, saying that Sreesanth could not control his on-pitch emotions.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: After leaving out of the Indian team for about a year and half, Sreesanth was called back to play the home Test series against Sri Lanka in November 2009. Sreesanth played the second Test in Kanpur and picked up five wickets in the first innings, which helped India win the match by an innings and 144 runs. Sreesath was awarded the Man of the Match for taking six wickets in the match. After the match, Indian captain Mahendra Singh Dhoni praised him as one of the best bowlers of reverse swing.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: In September 2007, Sreesanth joined the Indian team in South Africa for the inaugural ICC T-20 world cup following his omission for the one-day series in England. Although his performance in the tournament lacked consistency, Sreesanth managed breakthroughs at critical junctures that were vital to his team's success. During the semifinal match against Australia which India won, Sreesanth got the vital wickets of the Australian openers Adam Gilchrist and Matthew Hayden. The latter proved to be decisive in turning the match round in India's favour. His spell of 2-12 was named as the third-best T20I bowling performance of the year by ESPN-Cricinfo voters. In the final against rival Pakistan, he was little bit expensive. In thrilling match, in the final over he took catch, while standing on fine leg.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: In August 2009, Sreesanth signed a deal to play for Warwickshire for the remainder of the English season.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: Sreesanth associated with the Rajasthan Royals in the Indian Premier League. In the inaugural edition of the IPL in 2008, Sreesanth became the second leading wicket taker in the tournament after Sohail Tanveer, claiming 18 wickets. Sreesanth appeared only in the second half of the 2009 edition of the IPL. He could not play the initial matches of the season owing to a stress fracture. He left Kings XI Punjab after the 2010 Indian Premier League and signed for Kochi for the 2011 competition. He signed for Rajasthan royals for the 2012 competition. But he didn't play in 2012 due to injuries. With his spot-fixing controversy coming into light during the 2013 IPL competition, Rajasthan Royals terminated his contract.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: On 25 April 2008, following the victory of his Kings XI Punjab's victory in the Indian Premier League over the Mumbai Indians at Mohali, Sreesanth was slapped under his eye by Harbhajan Singh, the captain of Mumbai. The incident came to light as Sreesanth was caught by TV cameras sobbing inconsolably on the field before the presentation ceremony. Sreesanth later downplayed the incident saying he had no complaints against Harbhajan who was "like an elder brother" to him. Harbhajan's team had lost their third consecutive match when he apparently reacted violently to Sreesanth's approaching him and saying "hard luck". The IPL banned Harbhajan from the remainder of the tournament and prohibited him from collecting his salary after finding him guilty. The BCCI launched a separate investigation into the incident and decided to ban Harbhajan for five ODIs, deeming him to have broken the code of conduct in his national contract.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: In Australia earlier that year, Sreesanth stated that he would maintain an aggressive attitude on the cricket field, "Sreesanth's way is to be aggressive. Sreesanth will always remain Sreesanth."


title: S. Sreesanth

text: On 16 May 2013, the Delhi police arrested Sreesanth and two of his Rajasthan Royals teammates, Ajit Chandila and Ankeet Chavan from Mumbai, on charges of spot-fixing during IPL 6. Jiju Janardhan, another key figure accused of spot-fixing, is reported to be Sreesanth's cousin and an under-22 Gujarat player. On 17 May 2013, Sreesanth confessed to spot-fixing, according to police. However, Sreesanth has always maintained that he is innocent and that he was forced to sign confession statements.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: Police reported that Sreesanth was drunk at the time of his arrest and thought he was being arrested for being drunk. When the Delhi police team intercepted him, he was reportedly accompanied with a woman in a SUV outside a five-star hotel in Carter Road Promenade, Mumbai.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: Sreesanth, and the two other players accused of spot fixing had their Rajasthan Royals contracts suspended while their inquiries were pending. On 13 September 2013, Sreesanth and Ankeet Chavan were banned for life by BCCI's disciplinary committee.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: In March 2019, the Supreme Court of India "set aside" the life ban imposed on him by the BCCI. The apex court of the country asked the BCCI to "reconsider" and "revisit" the length of any fresh ban. Following which the BCCI reduced his ban to 7 years, which meant that he could play all forms of the game from 13 September 2020.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: Since the life ban imposed on him, it had been reduced to a seven-years ban, Sreesanth had talked about doing "everything possible to get back on the field". The ban officially ended on 13 September 2020. Sreesanth was selected in the Kerala Team for the Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy and Vijay Hazare Trophy in 2021. He played the first match after his ban in the Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy in January 2021. On 9 March 2022, Sreesanth announced his retirement from domestic cricket.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: Sreesanth is noted for his exuberant and emotional behaviour, especially whilst appealing for and celebrating wickets. He has been warned several times for indiscipline both on and off the cricket field, and frequently fined for violating the player conduct guidelines of the International Cricket Council. In October 2009, the BCCI issued a final warning to Sreesanth that any repetition of his code of conduct violations might result in drastic actions such as a ban from domestic cricket. Subsequently, the Kerala Cricket Association also issued a final warning over repeated violations of their code of conduct after Sreesanth failed to turn up at the Kerala Ranji Trophy team camp in Kannur.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: In November 2009, however, after more than 18 months of omission from the national team, Sreesanth was recalled to the Test squad for the first two matches against Sri Lanka. He replaced Ishant Sharma for the second Test in Kanpur, where his five wicket haul in the first innings of the match earned him the Man of the Match award and helped India to win the Test match by an innings and 144 runs.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: In the English-language media, Sreesanth's full name has been the source of some confusion. He has been variously referred to as "Sree Sreesanth", "Sri Sreesanth", "Shantha Sreesanth". and "Shanthakumaran Sreesanth". He has also stated in the past that he wished to be known as "Sree Santh".


title: S. Sreesanth

text: In September 2007, Sreesanth said that his name was just "Sreesanth" and that the other variations were incorrect:


title: S. Sreesanth

text: "It's Sreesanth. There is no Shanthakumaran Sreesanth, there is no S. Sreesanth. There was this function recently where they called me Sree Sreesanth, then Sree, and finally S Sreesanth. It's just Sreesanth."


title: S. Sreesanth

text: When his form slumped in 2006, Sreesanth had tried to change his luck by changing his name to Sreesunth, on numerological advice. He later stated that he was not going to change the name due to sentimental reasons. The word 'santh' in his name is derived from his father's name Santhakumaran Nair.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: In 2014, Sreesanth participated in the dance reality show "Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa" in its seventh season. He survived for 5 weeks until he got eliminated.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: In 2018, Sreesanth participated as a celebrity contestant in the twelfth season of "Bigg Boss," the Indian version of the reality TV show "Big Brother", where he finished as the runner up of the show. His stay in the house was highly controversial and he ended up as the most controversial contestant of the season and one of the most controversial contestants of the show in general. While he formed close friendships with fellow housemates including season winner Dipika Kakar and Shivashish Mishra, he frequently engaged in ugly fights with most of the other housemates and even guests including Season 11 contestant Vikas Gupta and threatened to leave the house 299 times. His performance in tasks was questioned as well. However, none of these diminished his popularity and he was praised by a large number of supporters, celebrities, former contestants and even fellow housemates for his innocent nature and straightforward attitude. Sreesanth also relived many events of his cricket career in the show, including the slapgate and spot-fixing incidents.


title: S. Sreesanth

text: On 25 March 2016, Sreesanth joined the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). He contested and lost the Kerala Assembly elections from Thiruvananthapuram. He secured a total of 34,764 votes but lost the election to VS Sivakumar of the Congress by 11,710 votes.


title: Southern American English

text: Southern American English or Southern U.S. English is a regional dialect or collection of dialects of American English spoken throughout the Southern United States, though concentrated increasingly in more rural areas, and spoken primarily by White Southerners. In terms of accent, its most innovative forms include southern varieties of Appalachian English and certain varieties of Texan English. Popularly known in the United States as a Southern accent or simply Southern, Southern American English now comprises the largest American regional accent group by number of speakers. Formal, much more recent terms within American linguistics include Southern White Vernacular English and Rural White Southern English.


title: Southern American English

text: A diversity of earlier Southern dialects once existed: a consequence of the mix of English speakers from the British Isles (including largely Southern English and Scots-Irish immigrants) who migrated to the American South in the 17th and 18th centuries, with particular 19th-century elements also borrowed from the London upper class and African-American slaves. By the 19th century, this included distinct dialects in eastern Virginia, the greater lowcountry area surrounding Charleston, the Appalachian upcountry region, the Black Belt plantation region, and secluded Atlantic coastal and island communities.


title: Southern American English

text: Following the American Civil War, as the South's economy and migration patterns fundamentally transformed, so did Southern dialect trends. Over the next few decades, Southerners moved increasingly to Appalachian mill towns, to Texan farms, or out of the South entirely. The main result, further intensified by later upheavals such as the Great Depression, the Dust Bowl and perhaps World War II, is that a newer and more unified form of Southern American English consolidated, beginning around the last quarter of the 19th century, radiating outward from Texas and Appalachia through all the traditional Southern States until around World War II. This newer Southern dialect largely superseded the older and more diverse local Southern dialects, though it became quickly stigmatized in American popular culture. As a result, since around 1950, the notable features of this newer Southern accent have been in a gradual decline, particularly among younger and more urban Southerners, though less so among rural white Southerners.


title: Southern American English

text: Despite the slow decline of the modern Southern accent, it is still documented as widespread as of the 2006 "Atlas of North American English". Specifically, the "Atlas" definitively documents a Southern accent in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina (though not Charleston), Georgia (though Atlanta is inconsistent), Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, Arkansas, and Louisiana (co-occurring with Cajun and New Orleans accents), as well as almost all of Texas, southern West Virginia, the Springfield area of Missouri, the Jacksonville area of Florida, and southeastern New Mexico. A South Midland accent is documented by the "Atlas" as sharing key features with the Southern accent, though to a weaker extent; such features encompass the whole of Texas, Oklahoma, West Virginia, eastern and central Kansas, southern Missouri, southern Indiana, southern Ohio, and possibly southern Illinois. African-American accents across the United States have many common points with Southern accents due to the strong historical ties of African Americans to the South.


title: Southern American English

text: In the United States, there is a general negative stigma surrounding the Southern dialect. Non-Southern Americans tend to associate a Southern accent with lower social and economic class, cognitive and verbal slowness, lack of education, ignorance, bigotry, or religious or political conservatism, using common labels like "hick", "hillbilly", or "redneck" accent. Meanwhile, Southerners themselves tend to have mixed judgments of their own accent, some similarly negative but others positively associating it with a laid-back, plain, or humble attitude. The accent is also associated nationwide with the military, NASCAR, and country music. Furthermore, non-Southern American country singers typically imitate a Southern accent in their music. The sum negative associations nationwide, however, are the main presumable cause of a gradual decline of Southern accent features, since the middle of the 20th century onwards, particularly among younger and more urban residents of the South.


title: Southern American English

text: Most of the Southern United States underwent several major sound changes from the beginning to the middle of the 20th century, during which a more unified, region-wide sound system developed, markedly different from the sound systems of the 19th-century Southern dialects.


title: Southern American English

text: The South as a present-day dialect region generally includes all of these pronunciation features below, which are popularly recognized in the United States as a "Southern accent". However, there is still variation in Southern speech regarding potential differences based on factors like a speaker's exact sub-region, age, ethnicity, etc. The following phonological phenomena focus on the developing sound system of the 20th-century Southern dialects of the United States that altogether largely (though certainly not entirely) superseded the older Southern regional patterns:


title: Southern American English

text: William Labov et al. identify the "Inland South" as a large linguistic sub-region of the South located mostly in southern Appalachia (specifically naming the cities of Greenville, South Carolina, Asheville, North Carolina, Knoxville and Chattanooga, Tennessee, and Birmingham and Linden, Alabama), inland from both the Gulf and Atlantic Coasts, and the originating region of the Southern Vowel Shift. The Inland South, along with the "Texas South" (an urban core of central Texas: Dallas, Lubbock, Odessa, and San Antonio) are considered the two major locations in which the Southern regional sound system is the most highly developed, and therefore the core areas of the current-day South as a dialect region.


title: Southern American English

text: The accents of Texas are actually diverse, for example with important Spanish influences on its vocabulary; however, much of the state is still an unambiguous region of modern rhotic Southern speech, strongest in the cities of Dallas, Lubbock, Odessa, and San Antonio, which all firmly demonstrate the first stage of the Southern Shift, if not also further stages of the shift. Texan cities that are noticeably "non-Southern" dialectally are Abilene and Austin; only marginally Southern are Houston, El Paso, and Corpus Christi. In western and northern Texas, the cot–caught merger is very close to completed.


title: Southern American English

text: Some sub-regions of the South, and perhaps even a majority of the biggest cities, are showing a gradual shift away from the Southern accent (toward a more Midland or General American accent) since the second half of the 20th century to the present. Such well-studied cities include Houston, Texas, and Raleigh, North Carolina; in Raleigh, for example, this retreat from the accent appears to have begun around 1950. Other sub-regions are unique in that their inhabitants have never spoken with the Southern regional accent, instead having their own distinct accents.


title: Southern American English

text: The "Atlas of North American English" identified Atlanta, Georgia, as a dialectal "island of non-Southern speech", Charleston, South Carolina, likewise as "not markedly Southern in character", and the traditional local accent of Savannah, Georgia, as "giving way to regional [Midland] patterns", despite these being three prominent Southern cities. The dialect features of Atlanta are best described today as sporadic from speaker to speaker, with such variation increased due to a huge movement of non-Southerners into the area during the 1990s. Modern-day Charleston speakers have leveled in the direction of a more generalized Midland accent (and speakers in other Southern cities too like Greenville, Richmond, and Norfolk), away from the city's now-defunct, traditional Charleston accent, whose features were "diametrically opposed to the Southern Shift... and differ in many other respects from the main body of Southern dialects". The Savannah accent is also becoming more Midland-like. The following vowel sounds of Atlanta, Charleston, and Savannah have been unaffected by typical Southern phenomena like the Southern drawl and Southern Vowel Shift:


title: Southern American English

text: Today, the accents of Atlanta, Charleston, and Savannah are most similar to Midland regional accents or at least Southeastern super-regional accents. In all three cities, some speakers (though most consistently documented in Charleston and least consistently in Savannah) demonstrate the Southeastern fronting of and the status of the pin–pen merger is highly variable. Non-rhoticity ("r"-dropping) is now rare in these cities, yet still documented in some speakers.


title: Southern American English

text: Most of southern Louisiana constitutes Acadiana, a cultural region dominated for hundreds of years by monolingual speakers of Cajun French, which combines elements of Acadian French with other French and Spanish words. Today, this French dialect is spoken by many older Cajun ethnic group and is said to be dying out. A related language, Louisiana Creole French, also exists. Since the early 1900s, Cajuns additionally began to develop their own vernacular dialect of English, which retains some influences and words from French, such as "cher" (dear) or "nonc" (uncle). This dialect fell out of fashion after World War II, but experienced a renewal in primarily male speakers born since the 1970s, who have been the most attracted by, and the biggest attractors for, a successful Cajun cultural renaissance. The accent includes:


title: Southern American English

text: A separate historical English dialect from the above Cajun one, spoken only by those raised in the Greater New Orleans area, is traditionally non-rhotic and noticeably shares more pronunciation commonalities with a New York accent than with other Southern accents, due to commercial ties and cultural migration between the two cities. Since at least the 1980s, this local New Orleans dialect has popularly been called "Yat", from the common local greeting "Where you at?". The New York accent features shared with the Yat accent include: non-rhoticity, a short-"a" split system (so that "bad" and "back", for example, have different vowels), as high gliding , as rounded , and the coil–curl merger (traditionally, though now in decline). Yat also lacks the typical vowel changes of the Southern Shift and the pin–pen merger that are commonly heard elsewhere throughout the South. Yat is associated with the working and lower-middle classes, though a spectrum with fewer notable Yat features is often heard the higher one's socioeconomic status; such New Orleans affluence is associated with the New Orleans Uptown and the Garden District, whose speech patterns are sometimes considered distinct from the lower-class Yat dialect.


title: Southern American English

text: Prior to becoming a phonologically unified dialect region, the South was once home to an array of much more diverse accents at the local level. Features of the deeper interior Appalachian South largely became the basis for the newer Southern regional dialect; thus, older Southern American English primarily refers to the English spoken outside of Appalachia: the coastal and former plantation areas of the South, best documented before the Civil War, on the decline during the early 1900s, and basically non-existent in speakers born since the civil rights movement.


title: Southern American English

text: Little unified these older Southern dialects, since they never formed a single homogeneous dialect region to begin with. Some older Southern accents were rhotic (most strongly in Appalachia and west of the Mississippi), while the majority were non-rhotic (most strongly in plantation areas); however, wide variation existed. Some older Southern accents showed (or approximated) Stage 1 of the Southern Vowel Shift—namely, the glide weakening of —however, it is virtually unreported before the very late 1800s. In general, the older Southern dialects clearly lacked the Mary–marry–merry, cot–caught, horse–hoarse, wine–whine, full–fool, fill–feel, and do–dew mergers, all of which are now common to, or encroaching on, all varieties of present-day Southern American English. Older Southern sound systems included those local to the:


title: Southern American English

text: Standard English would prefer "existential "there"", as in "There's one lady who lives in town". This construction is used to say that something exists (rather than saying where it is located). The construction can be found in Middle English as in Marlowe's "Edward II": "Cousin, it is no dealing with him now".


title: Southern American English

text: Standard English has a strict word order. In the case of modal auxiliaries, standard English is restricted to a single modal per verb phrase. However, some Southern speakers use double or more modals in a row ("might could, might should, might would, used to could," etc.--also called "modal stacking") and sometimes even triple modals that involve "oughta" (like "might should oughta")


title: Southern American English

text: The origin of multiple modals is controversial; some say it is a development of Modern English, while others trace them back to Middle English and again others to Scots-Irish settlers. There are different opinions on which class preferably uses the term. for example, finds that educated people try to avoid multiple modals, whereas suggests the opposite. In some Southern regions, multiple modals are quite widespread and not particularly stigmatized. Possible multiple modals are:


title: Southern American English

text: As the table shows, there are only possible combinations of an epistemic modal followed by deontic modals in multiple modal constructions. Deontic modals express permissibility with a range from obligated to forbidden and are mostly used as markers of politeness in requests whereas epistemic modals refer to probabilities from certain to impossible. Multiple modals combine these two modalities.


title: Southern American English

text: People from the South often make use of conditional or evidential syntaxes as shown below (italicized in the examples):


title: Southern American English

text: Conditional syntax creates a distance between the speaker's claim and the hearer. It serves to soften obligations or suggestions, make criticisms less personal, and to overall express politeness, respect, or courtesy.


title: Southern American English

text: Southerners also often use "evidential" predicates such as think, reckon, believe, guess, have the feeling, etc.:


title: Southern American English

text: Evidential predicates indicate an uncertainty of the knowledge asserted in the sentence. According to , evidential predicates nearly always hedge the assertions and allow the respondents to hedge theirs. They protect speakers from the social embarrassment that appears, in case the assertion turns out to be wrong. As is the case with conditional syntax, evidential predicates can also be used to soften criticisms and to afford courtesy or respect.


title: Southern American English

text: In the United States, the following vocabulary is mostly unique to, or best associated with, Southern U.S. English:


title: Southern American English

text: Unique words can occur as Southern nonstandard past-tense forms of verbs, particularly in the Southern highlands and Piney Woods, as in "yesterday they riz up, come outside, drawed, and drownded", as well as participle forms like "they have took it, rode it, blowed it up, and swimmed away". "Drug" is traditionally both the past tense and participle form of the verb "drag".


title: Southern American English

text: "Y'all" is a second person plural pronoun and the usual Southern plural form of the word "you". It is originally a contraction"you all"which is used less frequently. This term popularized with the modern Southern dialect and was only rarely used in older Southern dialects.


title: Southern American English

text: Southern Louisiana English especially is known for some unique vocabulary: long sandwiches are often called "poor boys" or "po' boys", woodlice/roly-polies called "doodle bugs", the end of a bread loaf called a "nose", pedestrian islands and median strips alike called "neutral ground", and sidewalks called "banquettes".


title: Southern American English

text: Discussion of "Southern dialect" in the United States popularly refers to those English varieties spoken by white Southerners; however, as a geographic term, it may also encompass the dialects developed among other social or ethnic groups in the South, most prominently including African Americans. Today, African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) is a fairly unified variety of English spoken by working- and middle-class African Americans throughout the United States. AAVE exhibits an evident relationship with both older and newer Southern dialects, though the exact nature of this relationship is poorly understood. It is clear that AAVE was influenced by older speech patterns of the Southern United States, where Africans and African Americans were held as slaves until the American Civil War. These slaves originally spoke a diversity of indigenous African languages but picked up English to communicate with one another, their white masters, and the white servants and laborers they often closely worked alongside. Many features of AAVE suggest that it largely developed from nonstandard dialects of colonial English (with some features of AAVE absent from other modern American dialects, yet still existing in certain modern British dialects). However, there is also evidence of the influence of West African languages on AAE vocabulary and grammar.


title: Southern American English

text: It is uncertain to what extent early white Southern English borrowed elements from early African-American Vernacular English versus the other way around. Like many white accents of English once spoken in Southern plantation areas—namely, the Lowcountry, Virginia Piedmont and Tidewater and lower Mississippi Valley—the modern-day AAVE accent is mostly non-rhotic (or ""r"-dropping" ). The presence of non-rhoticity in both black English and older white Southern English is not merely coincidence, though, again, which dialect influenced which is unknown. It is better documented, however, that white Southerners borrowed some morphological processes from black Southerners.


title: Southern American English

text: Many grammatical features were used alike by older speakers of white Southern English and African-American Vernacular English more so than by contemporary speakers of the same two varieties. Even so, contemporary speakers of both continue to share these unique grammatical features: "existential "it"", the word "y'all", double negatives, "was" to mean "were", deletion of "had" and "have", "them" to mean "those", the term "fixin' to", stressing the first syllable of words like "hotel" or "guitar", and many others. Both dialects also continue to share these same pronunciation features: tensing, raising, upgliding , the pin–pen merger, and the most defining sound of the current Southern accent (though rarely documented in older Southern accents): the glide weakening of . However, while this glide weakening has triggered among white Southerners a complicated "Southern Vowel Shift", black speakers in the South and elsewhere on the other hand are "not participating or barely participating" in much of this shift. AAVE speakers also do not front the vowel starting positions of and , thus aligning these characteristics more with the speech of 19th-century white Southerners than 20th-century white Southerners.


title: Southern American English

text: One strong possibility for the divergence of black American English and white Southern American English (i.e., the disappearance of older Southern American English) is that the civil rights struggles caused these two racial groups "to stigmatize linguistic variables associated with the other group". This may explain some of the differences outlined above, including why most traditionally non-rhotic white Southern accents have shifted to now becoming intensely rhotic.


title: Jolt (film)

text: Jolt is a 2021 American action comedy film directed by Tanya Wexler and written by Scott Wascha. The film stars Kate Beckinsale, Bobby Cannavale, Laverne Cox, Stanley Tucci, and Jai Courtney. It was released on July 23, 2021, by Amazon Studios.


title: Jolt (film)

text: An ex-bouncer, Lindy Lewis (Kate Beckinsale) suffers from intermittent explosive disorder, which is triggered by interactions with people. She has been seeing a psychiatrist, Dr. Ivan Munchin, who has been attempting to treat her disorder with an electroshock vest, which is slowly becoming less effective. He advises that she try forming a relationship with someone as another path to treatment. Against her better judgement, she goes on a date with an accountant named Justin, with whom she gets on very well. Just before their next date, she discovers he has been murdered. After the police seem indifferent to his killing, she goes on a hunt for the killer. She steals his belongings from the police station, and escapes from Detectives Vicars and Nevin in Justin's McLaren 600LT Spider, ending in a crash which puts Vicars in the hospital. She uses Justin's phone to discover who he had been working for, which leads her to an arms dealer, who after interrogation tells her it was his boss, Gareth Fizal.


title: Jolt (film)

text: She tells the police of the information she has uncovered, and Vicars give her Fizal's location, but Nevin tries to stop her. She escapes Nevin and travels to Fizal's office building, where the head of security, Delacroix, detains her and confiscates her vest before releasing her. Delacroix informs Fizal, who asks for Lindy to be dealt with, while Lindy goes to see her psychiatrist to be provided with another electroshock vest. While she is there her home is boobytrapped with explosives, but she disarms them and takes them with her, setting her own explosion in her apartment to make Delacroix and Fizal believe they have been successful. Lindy then attempts to break into Fizal's building, but is found by Delacroix and taken to see Fizal, who admits to having had many people killed. She is again detained by Delacroix who attempts to kill her by exsanguination, but she escapes and uses Delacroix's own equipment to torture him to find out how to access Fizal's office. She fights her way through security to get back to Fizal's office, where she finds he is already dead - shot in the head by Justin, who reveals himself to be a CIA agent who had faked his death to use Lindy to kill Fizal, having paid for Munchin's research. Justin attempts to kill her by electrocuting her with her own vest, but she has become immune to its effects from overuse, and she uses the explosives taken from her apartment to kill Justin.


title: Jolt (film)

text: Lindy returns to Dr. Munchin, who admits that he had been doing as Justin had said. Vicars and Nevin arrive to find Lindy holding Munchin at gunpoint against the wall. Assuming she is trying to kill him, they shoot her in the leg, but they discover she was handcuffing him to hand over to them. In hospital after receiving treatment, Vicars asks Lindy on a date. After leaving the hospital Lindy returns to her burnt out apartment and is met by a mysterious woman, who tells her she was a superior to both Munchin and Justin and tries to convince Lindy to join her.


title: Jolt (film)

text: In a mid-credits scene, a hacker who helped Lindy break into Justin's phone discovers that Lindy's payment to her - a set of keys - is to the car of Justin's that Lindy had taken.


title: Jolt (film)

text: In April 2019, it was announced Kate Beckinsale had joined the cast of the film as the lead, with Tanya Wexler directing from a screenplay by Scott Wascha. In July 2019, Bobby Cannavale, Laverne Cox, Stanley Tucci and Jai Courtney joined the cast of the film.


title: Jolt (film)

text: Principal photography began in July 2019. Per the credits, filming took place in Bulgaria and the United Kingdom.


title: Jolt (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds a 40% approval rating based on 77 reviews, with an average rating of 4.90/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "In spite of a crackling premise and a star who's always ready for action, "Jolt" never manages to deliver much more than a mild buzz". On Metacritic, the film holds a rating of 48 out of 100, based on review from 16 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Jolt (film)

text: Bob Strauss of "The San Francisco Chronicle" gave the film 2.5 out of 5 stars writing: "While it's not always as sharp as it could be, the energy in "Jolt" never falters, and there are definitely amusing bits." Leslie Felperin of "The Guardian" gave the film 3 out of 5 stars writing: "Kate Beckinsale’s furious heroine is electrically entertaining". Calum Marsh of "The New York Times" gave the film a negative review writing: "The plot, stretched thin even at just 90 minutes, is extremely predictable, and therefore boring, and the film doesn't do enough with its high-concept shock-therapy conceit to feel fresh or novel." Tomris Laffly of RogerEbert.com also gave the film a negative review giving the film two stars writing: "An action-packed, sci-fi adjacent dark comedy that leaves a lot to be desired in its neon-soaked wake."


title: False vacuum decay

text: In quantum field theory, a false vacuum is a hypothetical vacuum that is relatively stable, but not in the most stable state possible. This condition is known as metastable. It may last for a very long time in that state, but could eventually decay to the more stable state, an event known as false vacuum decay. The most common suggestion of how such a decay might happen in our universe is called bubble nucleation – if a small region of the universe by chance reached a more stable vacuum, this "bubble" (also called "bounce") would spread.


title: False vacuum decay

text: A false vacuum exists at a local minimum of energy and is therefore not completely stable, in contrast to a true vacuum, which exists at a global minimum and is stable.


title: False vacuum decay

text: A vacuum is defined as a space with as little energy in it as possible. Despite the name, the vacuum still has quantum fields. A true vacuum is stable because it is at a global minimum of energy, and is commonly assumed to coincide with the physical vacuum state we live in. It is possible that a physical vacuum state is a configuration of quantum fields representing a local minimum but not global minimum of energy. This type of vacuum state is called a "false vacuum".


title: False vacuum decay

text: If our universe is in a false vacuum state rather than a true vacuum state, then the decay from the less stable false vacuum to the more stable true vacuum (called false vacuum decay) could have dramatic consequences. The effects could range from complete cessation of existing fundamental forces, elementary particles and structures comprising them, to subtle change in some cosmological parameters, mostly depending on the potential difference between true and false vacuum. Some false vacuum decay scenarios are compatible with survival of structures like galaxies and stars or even biological life while others involve the full destruction of baryonic matter or even immediate gravitational collapse of the universe, although in this more extreme case the likelihood of a "bubble" forming may be very low (i.e., false vacuum decay may be impossible).


title: False vacuum decay

text: A paper by Coleman and de Luccia which attempted to include simple gravitational assumptions into these theories noted that if this was an accurate representation of nature, then the resulting universe "inside the bubble" in such a case would appear to be extremely unstable and would almost immediately collapse:


title: False vacuum decay

text: In a 2005 paper published in "Nature", as part of their investigation into global catastrophic risks, MIT physicist Max Tegmark and Oxford philosopher Nick Bostrom calculate the natural risks of the destruction of the Earth at less than 1/10 per year from all natural (i.e. non-anthropogenic) events, including a transition to a lower vacuum state. They argue that due to observer selection effects, we might underestimate the chances of being destroyed by vacuum decay because any information about this event would reach us only at the instant when we too were destroyed. This is in contrast to events like risks from impacts, gamma-ray bursts, supernovae and hypernovae, the frequencies of which we have adequate direct measures.


title: False vacuum decay

text: A number of theories suggest that cosmic inflation may be an effect of a false vacuum decaying into the true vacuum. The inflation itself may be the consequence of the Higgs field trapped in a false vacuum state with Higgs self-coupling λ and its β function very close to zero at the planck scale. A future electron-positron collider would be able to provide the precise measurements of the top quark needed for such calculations.


title: False vacuum decay

text: Chaotic inflation theory suggests that the universe may be in either a false vacuum or a true vacuum state. Alan Guth, in his original proposal for cosmic inflation, proposed that inflation could end through quantum mechanical bubble nucleation of the sort described above. See history of Chaotic inflation theory. It was soon understood that a homogeneous and isotropic universe could not be preserved through the violent tunneling process. This led Andrei Linde and, independently, Andreas Albrecht and Paul Steinhardt, to propose "new inflation" or "slow roll inflation" in which no tunnelling occurs, and the inflationary scalar field instead graphs as a gentle slope.


title: False vacuum decay

text: In 2014, researchers at the Chinese Academy of Sciences' Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics suggested that the universe could have been spontaneously created from nothing (no space, time, nor matter) by quantum fluctuations of metastable false vacuum causing an expanding bubble of true vacuum.


title: False vacuum decay

text: The stability criteria for the electroweak interaction was first formulated in 1979 as a function of the masses of the theoretical Higgs boson and the heaviest fermion. Discovery of the top quark in 1995 and the Higgs boson in 2012 have allowed physicists to validate the criteria against experiment, therefore since 2012 the electroweak interaction is considered as the most promising candidate for a metastable fundamental force. The corresponding false vacuum hypothesis is called either 'Electroweak vacuum instability' or 'Higgs vacuum instability'. The present false vacuum state is called formula_1 (de Sitter space), while tentative true vacuum is called formula_2 (Anti-de Sitter space).


title: False vacuum decay

text: The diagrams show the uncertainty ranges of Higgs boson and top quark masses as oval-shaped lines. Underlying colors indicate if the electroweak vacuum state is likely to be stable, merely long-lived or completely unstable for given combination of masses. The "electroweak vacuum decay" hypothesis was sometimes misreported as the Higgs boson "ending" the universe.


title: False vacuum decay

text: A 125.18±0.16   Higgs boson mass is likely to be on the metastable side of stable-metastable boundary (estimated in 2012 as .) However, a definitive answer requires much more precise measurements of the top quark's pole mass, although improved measurement precision of Higgs boson and top quark masses further reinforced the claim of physical electroweak vacuum being in the metastable state as of 2018. Nonetheless, new physics beyond the Standard Model of Particle Physics could drastically change the stability landscape division lines, rendering previous stability and metastability criteria incorrect.


title: False vacuum decay

text: If measurements of the Higgs boson and top quark suggest that our universe lies within a false vacuum of this kind, this would imply, more than likely in many billions of years, that the bubble's effects will propagate across the universe at nearly the speed of light from its origin in space-time.


title: False vacuum decay

text: When the false vacuum decays, the lower-energy true vacuum forms through a process known as bubble nucleation. In this process, instanton effects cause a bubble containing the true vacuum to appear. The walls of the bubble (or domain walls) have a positive surface tension, as energy is expended as the fields roll over the potential barrier to the true vacuum. The former tends as the cube of the bubble's radius while the latter is proportional to the square of its radius, so there is a critical size formula_3 at which the total energy of the bubble is zero; smaller bubbles tend to shrink, while larger bubbles tend to grow. To be able to nucleate, the bubble must overcome an energy barrier of height


title: False vacuum decay

text: where formula_4 is the difference in energy between the true and false vacuums, formula_5 is the unknown (possibly extremely large) surface tension of the domain wall, and formula_6 is the radius of the bubble. Rewriting gives the critical radius as


title: False vacuum decay

text: A bubble smaller than the critical size can overcome the potential barrier via quantum tunnelling of instantons to lower energy states. For a large potential barrier, the tunneling rate per unit volume of space is given by


title: False vacuum decay

text: where formula_7 is the reduced Planck constant. As soon as a bubble of lower-energy vacuum grows beyond the critical radius defined by , the bubble's wall will begin to accelerate outward. Due to the typically large difference in energy between the false and true vacuums, the speed of the wall approaches the speed of light extremely quickly. The bubble does not produce any gravitational effects because the negative energy density of the bubble interior is cancelled out by the positive kinetic energy of the wall.


title: False vacuum decay

text: Small bubbles of true vacuum can be inflated to critical size by providing energy, although required energy densities are several orders of magnitude larger than what is attained in any natural or artificial process. It is also thought that certain environments can catalyze bubble formation by lowering the potential barrier.


title: False vacuum decay

text: Bubble wall has a finite thickness, depending on ratio between energy barrier and energy gain obtained by creating true vacuum. In the case when potential barrier height between true and false vacua is much smaller than energy difference between vacua, shell thickness become comparable with critical radius.


title: False vacuum decay

text: In general, gravity is believed to stabilize a false vacuum state, at least for transition from formula_1 (de Sitter space) to formula_2 (Anti-de Sitter space), while topological defects including cosmic strings and magnetic monopoles may enhance decay probability.


title: False vacuum decay

text: In a study in 2015, it was pointed out that the vacuum decay rate could be vastly increased in the vicinity of black holes, which would serve as a nucleation seed. According to this study, a potentially catastrophic vacuum decay could be triggered at any time by primordial black holes, should they exist. The authors note however that if primordial black holes cause a false vacuum collapse then it should have happened long before humans evolved on Earth. A subsequent study in 2017 indicated that the bubble would collapse into a primordial black hole rather than originate from it, either by ordinary collapse or by bending space in such a way that it breaks off into a new universe. In 2019, it was found that although small non-spinning black holes may increase true vacuum nucleation rate, rapidly spinning black holes will stabilize false vacuums to decay rates lower than expected for flat space-time.


title: False vacuum decay

text: If particle collisions produce mini black holes then energetic collisions such as the ones produced in the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) could trigger such a vacuum decay event, a scenario which has attracted the attention of the news media. It is likely to be unrealistic, because if such mini black holes can be created in collisions, they would also be created in the much more energetic collisions of cosmic radiation particles with planetary surfaces or during the early life of the universe as tentative primordial black holes. Hut and Rees note that, because cosmic ray collisions have been observed at much higher energies than those produced in terrestrial particle accelerators, these experiments should not, at least for the foreseeable future, pose a threat to our current vacuum. Particle accelerators have reached energies of only approximately eight tera electron volts (8×10 eV). Cosmic ray collisions have been observed at and beyond energies of 5×10 eV, six million times more powerful – the so-called Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin limit – and cosmic rays in vicinity of origin may be more powerful yet. John Leslie has argued that if present trends continue, particle accelerators will exceed the energy given off in naturally occurring cosmic ray collisions by the year 2150. Fears of this kind were raised by critics of both the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider and the Large Hadron Collider at the time of their respective proposal, and determined to be unfounded by scientific inquiry.


title: False vacuum decay

text: In a 2021 paper by Rostislav Konoplich and others it was postulated that the area between a pair of large black holes on the verge of colliding could provide the conditions to create bubbles of "true vacuum". Intersecting surfaces between these bubbles could then become infinitely dense and form micro-black holes. These would in turn evaporate by emitting Hawking radiation in the 10 milliseconds or so before the larger black holes collided and devoured any bubbles or micro-black holes in their way. The theory could be tested by looking for the Hawking radiation emitted just before the black holes merge.


title: False vacuum decay

text: Bubble wall, propagating outward at nearly the speed of light, has a finite thickness, depending on ratio between energy barrier and energy gain obtained by creating true vacuum. In the case when potential barrier height between true and false vacua is much smaller than energy difference between vacua, bubble wall thickness become comparable with critical radius.


title: False vacuum decay

text: Elementary particles entering the wall will likely decay to other particles or black holes. If all decay paths leads to very massive particles, energy barrier of such decay may result in stable bubble of false vacuum (called Fermi ball) enclosing the false-vacuum particle instead of immediate decay. Multi-particle objects can be stabilized as Q-balls, although these objects will eventually collide and decay either to the black holes or true-vacuum particles.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: Odion Jude Ighalo (born 16 June 1989) is a Nigerian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Saudi club Al Hilal and the Nigeria national team.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: After starting his career at Nigerian clubs Prime and Julius Berger, Ighalo moved to Norwegian club Lyn in 2007. A year later, he was signed by Italian club Udinese, spending most of his tenure on two separate loan spells with Spanish club Granada. In 2014, he signed for Championship club Watford and was integral in the club's promotion to the Premier League in the 2014–15 season. In January 2017, Ighalo joined Chinese Super League club Changchun Yatai for a reported £20 million, before moving onto Shanghai Shenhua. In January 2020, Ighalo returned to the Premier League, joining Manchester United on loan, initially until the end of the 2019–20 season; the loan was then extended until January 2021.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: Ighalo made his debut for the Nigeria national team in March 2015 against Uganda. He represented the nation at the 2018 World Cup and was the highest goalscorer in the 2019 Africa Cup of Nations qualification campaign. He eventually led Nigeria to a third place finish at the 2019 Africa Cup of Nations, where he finished in the competition's Team of the Tournament and was crowned top scorer.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: Born in Lagos and raised in Edo, Ighalo played in his country with Prime and Julius Berger, where he was discovered by FIFA agent Marcelo Houseman who recommended him to Atta Aneke, being subsequently taken on trial by Norway's Lyn.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: He made his Tippeligaen debut on 16 September 2007 at the age of just 18, scoring in a 2–0 home win against Viking. He scored six goals in 13 matches in his second year to help his team to the seventh position, and subsequently arose interest from other clubs in the country, with Brann reporting Lyn to the Norwegian Football Federation for unfairness in the negotiation process.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: On 30 July 2008, Ighalo signed for Udinese in Italy, moving alongside teammate Jo Inge Berget and agreeing to a five-year contract. He appeared rarely in Serie A in his debut season, scoring against Cagliari in a 6–2 home routing. Four of his five league appearances came as a late substitute.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: Ighalo was loaned to Granada in summer 2009, as part of the partnership agreement between Udinese and the Spaniards. He scored 17 times in his first year (playoffs included) and five in the second, as both seasons ended in promotion; this was interspersed with a brief loan stint back in Italy, with Cesena.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: Ighalo continued playing with Granada in the following years, still owned by the Udine club. He played his first La Liga match on 27 August 2011, starting and playing the full 90 minutes in a 0–1 home loss to Real Betis.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: Ighalo joined Watford on a season-long loan deal from Udinese, on 29 July 2014. He made his debut for the English club in the first round of the League Cup away to Stevenage on 12 August, and scored his first goal in the Championship against Brentford on 30 September by tucking the ball home after his initial penalty was saved by David Button, in a 2–1 home win.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: On 24 October 2014, Watford terminated Ighalo's loan and re-signed him on a permanent deal the same day after Udinese released him from his contract. Exactly three months later, he scored four-second-half goals and was voted Man of the match in a 7–2 home routing of Blackpool, who led 0–2 at half time; he took his league tally to 14 on 10 February 2015, after netting a brace to help his team come from behind at Brentford to win it 2–1 – his second came through an injury time header.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: Ighalo scored in his Premier League debut on 8 August 2015, replacing José Manuel Jurado 16 minutes from time and putting the visitors ahead 2–1 in an eventual 2–2 draw away against Everton for the season opener. He netted twice in a 2–0 home win over West Ham United on 31 October, reaching seven goals for the season and becoming the highest club scorer in the competition after just 11 matches. On 20 December, Ighalo scored in a Watford victory for the fourth consecutive time, netting a brace in a 3–0 win over Liverpool. His five-goal haul earned him December's Premier League Player of the Month, while his manager Quique Sánchez Flores won the equivalent award.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: Ighalo broke a 599-minute personal scoring drought on 13 March 2016, with a goal in a 2–1 win at holders Arsenal in the quarter-finals of the FA Cup, putting the Hornets into the last four for the first time in nine years. On 12 August he signed a new five-year contract but, the following season, he scored just one league goal and did not find the net in any of his last 15 games.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: On 31 January 2017, Ighalo joined Chinese Super League club Changchun Yatai for a reported £20 million. He ranked second in the scoring charts in his second season at 21, but his team suffered relegation.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: Ighalo transferred to Shanghai Shenhua on 14 February 2019. In March, he said he turned down a move to Barcelona the previous month.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: On 31 January 2020, Ighalo returned to the Premier League, joining Manchester United on loan until the end of the season. In doing so, he became the first Nigerian player, and the seventh African, to join the club. After the move was confirmed, Ighalo revealed that he had taken a pay cut to make the move happen, calling it a "dream" to join the club he has long supported. He opted to wear the number 25 shirt, previously worn by United's first and longest-serving African player, Quinton Fortune of South Africa.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: His presence within the first team was initially blocked as a precautionary measure due to ongoing fears over the COVID-19 outbreak in China. After three substitute appearances, Ighalo made his full debut for United in their Europa League round-of-32 second-leg match against Club Brugge on 27 February. He scored his first United goal, which was also his maiden goal in a European competition, as the hosts won 5–0. A week later, he scored his first brace for the club as United beat Derby County 3–0 in the FA Cup. In United's final game before the suspension of football due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Ighalo scored a half-volley after juggling the ball in a 5–0 win over LASK; it was voted United's goal of the month for March.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: With football suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic and Ighalo's loan set to expire at the end of May, United announced that they had agreed to extend Ighalo's loan deal until 30 January 2021. On 26 January 2021, Ighalo posted a farewell message on social media, ahead of his imminent departure from United at the end of the month. United confirmed Ighalo's departure the following day.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: On 4 February 2021, Ighalo joined Saudi Professional League club Al Shabab on a two-and-a-half-year contract.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: On 24 March 2015, after a series of strong performances for Watford, newly appointed Nigeria interim coach Daniel Amokachi selected Ighalo for the first time, and the latter stated, "I feel good because it is my dream to play for my country". He won his first cap two days later, starting in a 0–1 friendly home loss to Uganda.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: Ighalo was initially named as one of three overage players in Nigeria's squad for the 2016 Olympic tournament, but he eventually did not make the trip to Brazil. In June 2018, he was named in the 23-man squad for the upcoming edition of the FIFA World Cup in Russia, making his first appearance in the competition by playing 73 minutes in the 0–2 group stage defeat against Croatia; in October, he revealed that his family had received death threats after he failed to score in the tournament.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: Ighalo scored seven goals in the 2019 Africa Cup of Nations qualification campaign, the most by any player, to help Nigeria qualify for the finals in Egypt later that year. He was included in Gernot Rohr's squad, taking part in all the matches and finding the net against Burundi in the group phase (1–0), Cameroon in the round of 16 (3–2 win), Algeria in the semi-finals (1–2 loss) and Tunisia in the third-place playoff (1–0). At the end of the competition, he announced his retirement from the international scene.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: Ighalo was recalled to the Nigeria team for the 2021 Africa Cup of Nations but his club, Al Shabab, blocked him from taking part.


title: Odion Ighalo

text: Ighalo is a devout Christian, who also often dedicates part of his wages for Nigerian charitable organisations to help impoverished children, schools and widows below the poverty line. He is a lifelong Manchester United supporter. Ighalo has three children, two sons and one daughter. On 22 June 2021, He was unveiled as an Ambassador of the National Principal's Cup in Abuja by the Ministry of Youth and Sports Development, Sunday Dare.


title: Jack (1996 film)

text: Jack is a 1996 American coming-of-age comedy-drama film directed by Francis Ford Coppola and starring Robin Williams. The film co-stars Diane Lane, Jennifer Lopez, Fran Drescher, Bill Cosby, and Brian Kerwin. Williams plays the role of Jack Powell, a boy who ages four times faster than normal as a result of Werner syndrome, a form of progeria.


title: Jack (1996 film)

text: The film begins as Karen Powell goes into labor during a costume party and is rushed to the hospital by her husband, Brian, and their friends. Although the delivery is successful, the baby is extremely premature, born after only ten weeks of pregnancy. Strangely, the infant seems to be a normal, healthy, full-term baby. After examinations and tests, the infant, now named Jack, is found to have an exaggerated form of Werner syndrome. Dr. Benfante and Dr. Lin diagnose a very rare autosomal recessive disorder. Their prognosis is that Jack will develop and age at a rate four times as fast as an average child, rendering him "sick as frick" as Dr. Lin explains colloquially.


title: Jack (1996 film)

text: Jack is next seen ten years later as a ten-year-old boy in the body of a forty-year-old man. Four boys lurk outside his house, swapping rumors of a "monstrosity" of a boy their age who cannot go to school. He scares them away by dipping a fake eye into slime and throwing it at them from his window. He is extremely childish due to his secluded life. He has only socialized with his parents and his tutor, Lawrence Woodruff, who introduces the idea that he should go to public school. His parents initially balk, for fear Jack could be emotionally traumatized.


title: Jack (1996 film)

text: When he first attends school, he is cast away by several kids since he looks like a 40-year-old man. His dad later gives him some encouragement by installing a basketball hoop to help him learn to fit in. At school the following days, Louis picks him for his team to play basketball with some bullies and they win the game. After school, Louis asks Jack to help him by pretending to be the school principal to help him avoid reprimand from his mom Dolores. Afterwards, they become friends and Louis invites him to a clubhouse with other kids, eventually enlisting him to get adult magazines and other such adult items for his group of friends. Jack attempts to be a normal kid, but when he deals with his first crush, and the heartbreak of confessing it to his teacher, Miss Marquez, he falls down a flight of stairs while attempting to leave, and is rushed to the hospital. His doctor explains that he suffered a shocking severe strain (which could've been a rare form of angina), and that, because of his Werner syndrome, his internal clock is starting to run out. Realizing the dangers it might entail for his health, his parents decide to withdraw him from school, which upsets him.


title: Jack (1996 film)

text: He sneaks out of the house and goes to a bar, where he gets drunk and befriends a man named Paulie, and tries to hit on Dolores. However, he gets into a fight with a bully and both are arrested. Dolores bails Jack out, and comforts Jack after dropping him off home. Upon returning home, he locks himself in his room and doesn't go out for weeks. Karen speculates that perhaps he realized the fragility of his life and is now scared of facing the outside world again. He also doubts the need to study as he realizes that he wouldn't have the time to use any of the knowledge.


title: Jack (1996 film)

text: Meanwhile, his friends continue coming to his house, hoping that he will come out and play, but he refuses. Finally, Louis has an idea: he brings the entire class over as they take turns yelling "Can Jack come out and play?" and participate in various games and fun activities right in front of the yard. The next day he decides to go back to school.


title: Jack (1996 film)

text: Seven years later, an elderly-looking Jack and his four best friends are at their high school graduation. He delivers the valedictory speech, in which he reminds his classmates that life is short, and urges them to "make your life spectacular," as the five of them drive off into the future.


title: Jack (1996 film)

text: John Travolta was interested in playing the lead role of Jack but due to an "apology" deal with Robin Williams over royalties from "Aladdin", Williams was guaranteed the role.


title: Jack (1996 film)

text: "Jack" received negative reviews. Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 17% of 35 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating is 4.4/10. The critical consensus reads, "Robin Williams' childlike energy is channeled in all the wrong places with "Jack", a bizarre tragedy that aims for uplift but sinks deep into queasy schmaltz." Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade of "B+" on a scale of A+ to F. Todd McCarthy of "Variety" called it a "tedious, uneventful fantasy" that wastes the talents of the filmmakers.


title: Jack (1996 film)

text: "Jack" was nominated for Worst Picture at the 1996 Stinkers Bad Movie Awards but lost to "Striptease".


title: Jack (1996 film)

text: About the film's reception, Francis Ford Coppola said: ""Jack" was a movie that everybody hated and I was constantly damned and ridiculed for. I must say I find "Jack" sweet and amusing. I don't dislike it as much as everyone, but that's obvious—I directed it. I know I should be ashamed of it but I'm not. I don't know why everybody hated it so much. I think it was because of the type of movie it was. It was considered that I had made "Apocalypse Now" and I'm like a Marty Scorsese type of director, and here I am making this dumb Disney film with Robin Williams. But I was always happy to do any type of film."


title: Animal sexual behaviour

text: Animal sexual behaviour takes many different forms, including within the same species. Common mating or reproductively motivated systems include monogamy, polygyny, polyandry, polygamy and promiscuity. Other sexual behaviour may be reproductively motivated (e.g. sex apparently due to duress or coercion and situational sexual behaviour) or non-reproductively motivated (e.g. homosexual sexual behaviour, bisexual sexual behaviour, cross-species sex, sexual arousal from objects or places, sex with dead animals, etc.).


title: Animal sexual behaviour

text: When animal sexual behaviour is reproductively motivated, it is often termed "mating" or "copulation"; for most non-human mammals, mating and copulation occur at oestrus (the most fertile period in the mammalian female's reproductive cycle), which increases the chances of successful impregnation. Some animal sexual behaviour involves competition, sometimes fighting, between multiple males. Females often select males for mating only if they appear strong and able to protect themselves. The male that wins a fight may also have the chance to mate with a larger number of females and will therefore pass on his genes to their offspring.


title: Animal sexual behaviour

text: Historically, it was believed that only humans and a small number of other species performed sexual acts other than for reproduction, and that animals' sexuality was instinctive and a simple "stimulus-response" behaviour. However, in addition to homosexual behaviours, a range of species masturbate and may use objects as tools to help them do so. Sexual behaviour may be tied more strongly to establishment and maintenance of complex social bonds across a population which support its success in non-reproductive ways. Both reproductive and non-reproductive behaviours can be related to expressions of dominance over another animal or survival within a stressful situation (such as sex due to duress or coercion).


title: Animal sexual behaviour

text: In sociobiology and behavioural ecology, the term "mating system" is used to describe the ways in which animal societies are structured in relation to sexual behaviour. The mating system specifies which males mate with which females, and under what circumstances. There are four basic systems:


title: Animal sexual behaviour

text: Monogamy occurs when one male mates with one female exclusively. A monogamous mating system is one in which individuals form long-lasting pairs and cooperate in raising offspring. These pairs may last for a lifetime, such as in pigeons, or it may occasionally change from one mating season to another, such as in emperor penguins. In contrast with tournament species, these pair-bonding species have lower levels of male aggression, competition and little sexual dimorphism. Zoologists and biologists now have evidence that monogamous pairs of animals are not always sexually exclusive. Many animals that form pairs to mate and raise offspring regularly engage in sexual activities with extra-pair partners. This includes previous examples, such as swans. Sometimes, these extra-pair sexual activities lead to offspring. Genetic tests frequently show that some of the offspring raised by a monogamous pair come from the female mating with an extra-pair male partner. These discoveries have led biologists to adopt new ways of talking about monogamy. According to Ulrich Reichard (2003):


title: Animal sexual behaviour

text: Social monogamy refers to a male and female's social living arrangement (e.g., shared use of a territory, behaviour indicative of a social pair, and/or proximity between a male and female) without inferring any sexual interactions or reproductive patterns. In humans, social monogamy takes the form of monogamous marriage. Sexual monogamy is defined as an exclusive sexual relationship between a female and a male based on observations of sexual interactions. Finally, the term genetic monogamy is used when DNA analyses can confirm that a female-male pair reproduce exclusively with each other. A combination of terms indicates examples where levels of relationships coincide, e.g., sociosexual and sociogenetic monogamy describe corresponding social and sexual, and social and genetic monogamous relationships, respectively.


title: Animal sexual behaviour

text: Whatever makes a pair of animals socially monogamous does not necessarily make them sexually or genetically monogamous. Social monogamy, sexual monogamy, and genetic monogamy can occur in different combinations.


title: Animal sexual behaviour

text: Social monogamy is relatively rare in the animal kingdom. The actual incidence of social monogamy varies greatly across different branches of the evolutionary tree. Over 90% of avian species are socially monogamous. This stands in contrast to mammals. Only 3% of mammalian species are socially monogamous, although up to 15% of primate species are. Social monogamy has also been observed in reptiles, fish, and insects.


title: Animal sexual behaviour

text: Sexual monogamy is also rare among animals. Many socially monogamous species engage in extra-pair copulations, making them sexually non-monogamous. For example, while over 90% of birds are socially monogamous, "on average, 30% or more of the baby birds in any nest [are] sired by someone other than the resident male." Patricia Adair Gowaty has estimated that, out of 180 different species of socially monogamous songbirds, only 10% are sexually monogamous.


title: Animal sexual behaviour

text: The incidence of genetic monogamy, determined by DNA fingerprinting, varies widely across species. For a few rare species, the incidence of genetic monogamy is 100%, with all offspring genetically related to the socially monogamous pair. But genetic monogamy is strikingly low in other species. Barash and Lipton note:


title: Animal sexual behaviour

text: The highest known frequency of extra-pair copulations are found among the fairy-wrens, lovely tropical creatures technically known as "Malurus splendens" and "Malurus cyaneus". More than 65% of all fairy-wren chicks are fathered by males outside the supposed breeding group.


title: Animal sexual behaviour

text: Such low levels of genetic monogamy have surprised biologists and zoologists, forcing them to rethink the role of social monogamy in evolution. They can no longer assume social monogamy determines how genes are distributed in a species. The lower the rates of genetic monogamy among socially monogamous pairs, the less of a role social monogamy plays in determining how genes are distributed among offspring.


title: Animal sexual behaviour

text: The term polygamy is an umbrella term used to refer generally to non-monogamous matings. As such, polygamous relationships can be polygynous, polyandrous or polygynandrous. In a small number of species, individuals can display either polygamous or monogamous behaviour depending on environmental conditions. An example is the social wasp "Apoica flavissima". In some species, polygyny and polyandry is displayed by both sexes in the population. Polygamy in both sexes has been observed in red flour beetle ("Tribolium castaneum"). Polygamy is also seen in many Lepidoptera species including "Mythimna unipuncta" (true armyworm moth).


title: Animal sexual behaviour

text: A tournament species is one in which "mating tends to be highly polygamous and involves high levels of male-male aggression and competition." Tournament behaviour often correlates with high levels of sexual dimorphism, examples of species including chimpanzees and baboons. Most polygamous species present high levels of tournament behaviour, with a notable exception being bonobos.


title: Animal sexual behaviour

text: Polygyny occurs when one male gets exclusive mating rights with multiple females. In some species, notably those with harem-like structures, only one of a few males in a group of females will mate. Technically, polygyny in sociobiology and zoology is defined as a system in which a male has a relationship with more than one female, but the females are predominantly bonded to a single male. Should the active male be driven out, killed, or otherwise removed from the group, in a number of species the new male will ensure that breeding resources are not wasted on another male's young. The new male may achieve this in many different ways, including:


title: Animal sexual behaviour

text: Von Haartman specifically described the mating behaviour of the European pied flycatcher as successive polygyny. Within this system, the males leave their home territory once their primary female lays her first egg. Males then create a second territory, presumably in order to attract a secondary female to breed. Even when they succeed at acquiring a second mate, the males typically return to the first female to exclusively provide for her and her offspring.


title: Animal sexual behaviour

text: Polygynous mating structures are estimated to occur in up to 90% of mammal species. As polygyny is the most common form of polygamy among vertebrates (including humans), it has been studied far more extensively than polyandry or polygynandry.


title: Animal sexual behaviour

text: Polyandry occurs when one female gets exclusive mating rights with multiple males. In some species, such as redlip blennies, both polygyny and polyandry are observed.


title: Animal sexual behaviour

text: The males in some deep sea anglerfishes are much smaller than the females. When they find a female they bite into her skin, releasing an enzyme that digests the skin of their mouth and her body and fusing the pair down to the blood-vessel level. The male then slowly atrophies, losing first his digestive organs, then his brain, heart, and eyes, ending as nothing more than a pair of gonads, which release sperm in response to hormones in the female's bloodstream indicating egg release. This extreme sexual dimorphism ensures that, when the female is ready to spawn, she has a mate immediately available. A single anglerfish female can "mate" with many males in this manner.


title: Animal sexual behaviour

text: Polygynandry occurs when multiple males mate indiscriminately with multiple females. The numbers of males and females need not be equal, and in vertebrate species studied so far, there are usually fewer males. Two examples of systems in primates are promiscuous mating chimpanzees and bonobos. These species live in social groups consisting of several males and several females. Each female copulates with many males, and vice versa. In bonobos, the amount of promiscuity is particularly striking because bonobos use sex to alleviate social conflict as well as to reproduce. This mutual promiscuity is the approach most commonly used by spawning animals, and is perhaps the "original fish mating system." Common examples are forage fish, such as herrings, which form huge mating shoals in shallow water. The water becomes milky with sperm and the bottom is draped with millions of fertilised eggs.


title: Animal sexual behaviour

text: Female and male sexual behaviour differ in many species. Often, males are more active in initiating mating, and bear the more conspicuous sexual ornamentation like antlers and colourful plumage. This is a result of anisogamy, where sperm are smaller and much less costly (energetically) to produce than eggs. This difference in physiological cost means that males are more limited by the number of mates they can secure, while females are limited by the quality of genes of her mates, a phenomenon known as Bateman's principle. Many females also have extra reproductive burdens in that parental care often falls mainly, or exclusively, on them. Thus, females are more limited in their potential reproductive success. In species where males take on more of the reproductive costs, such as sea horses and jacanas, the role is reversed, and the females are larger, more aggressive and more brightly coloured than the males.