title: Harold Bloom

text: Bloom was born in New York City on July 11, 1930, the son of Paula (née Lev) and William Bloom. He lived in the Bronx at 1410 Grand Concourse. He was raised as an Orthodox Jew in a Yiddish-speaking household, where he learned literary Hebrew; he learned English at the age of six. Bloom's father, a garment worker, was born in Odessa and his Lithuanian Jewish mother, a homemaker, near Brest Litovsk in what is today Belarus. Harold had three older sisters and an older brother; he was the last living sibling.


title: Harold Bloom

text: As a boy, Bloom read Hart Crane's "Collected Poems," a collection that inspired his lifelong fascination with poetry. Bloom went to the Bronx High School of Science (where his grades were poor but his standardized-test scores were high), and subsequently received a B.A. degree in Classics from Cornell in 1951, where he was a student of English literary critic M. H. Abrams, and a PhD from Yale in 1955. In 1954–55 Bloom was a Fulbright Scholar at Pembroke College, Cambridge.


title: Harold Bloom

text: Bloom was a standout student at Yale, where he clashed with the faculty of New Critics, including William K. Wimsatt. Several years later Bloom dedicated his book "The Anxiety of Influence" to Wimsatt"."


title: Harold Bloom

text: Bloom was a member of the Yale English Department from 1955 to 2019, teaching his final class four days before his death. He received a MacArthur Fellowship in 1985. From 1988 to 2004, Bloom was Berg Professor of English at New York University while maintaining his position at Yale. In 2010, he became a founding patron of Ralston College, a new institution in Savannah, Georgia, which focuses on primary texts. Fond of endearments, Bloom would address both male and female students and friends as "my dear".


title: Harold Bloom

text: Bloom married Jeanne Gould in 1958. They had two children. In a 2005 interview Jeanne said that she and Harold were both atheists, which he denied: "No, no I'm not an atheist. It's no fun being an atheist."


title: Harold Bloom

text: Bloom was the subject of a 1990 article in "GQ" titled "Bloom in Love," which accused him of having affairs with female graduate students. Bloom described the article as a "disgusting piece of character assassination." Bloom's friend and colleague, the biographer R. W. B. Lewis said in 1994 that "[Bloom's] wandering, I gather is a thing of the past. I hate to say it, but he rather bragged about it, so that wasn't very secret for a number of years." In a 2004 article for "New York" magazine, Naomi Wolf accused Bloom of placing his hand on her inner thigh while she was an undergraduate student at Yale University in 1983. Bloom "vigorously denied" the allegation.


title: Harold Bloom

text: Bloom taught well into his later years, swearing that he would need to be removed from the classroom "in a great big body bag." He had open heart surgery in 2002 and broke his back after experiencing a fall in 2008. He died at a hospital in New Haven, Connecticut, on October 14, 2019. He was 89 years old.


title: Harold Bloom

text: Bloom began his career with a sequence of highly regarded monographs on Percy Bysshe Shelley ("Shelley's Myth-making", Yale University Press, originally Bloom's doctoral dissertation), William Blake ("Blake's Apocalypse," Doubleday), W. B. Yeats ("Yeats", Oxford University Press), and Wallace Stevens ("Wallace Stevens: The Poems of Our Climate", Cornell University Press). In these, he defended the High Romantics against neo-Christian critics influenced by such writers as T. S. Eliot, who became a recurring intellectual foil. Bloom had a contentious approach: his first book, "Shelley's Myth-making", charged many contemporary critics with sheer carelessness in their reading of the poet.


title: Harold Bloom

text: After a personal crisis during the late 1960s, Bloom became deeply interested in Ralph Waldo Emerson, Sigmund Freud, and the ancient mystic traditions of Gnosticism, Kabbalah, and Hermeticism. In a 2003 interview with Bloom, Michael Pakenham, the book editor for "The Baltimore Sun", posited that Bloom had long referred to himself as a "Jewish Gnostic". Bloom explained: "I am using Gnostic in a very broad way. I am nothing if not Jewish... I really am a product of Yiddish culture. But I can't understand a Yahweh, or a God, who could be all-powerful and all knowing and would allow the Nazi death camps and schizophrenia." Influenced by his reading, he began a series of books that focused on the way in which poets struggled to create their own individual poetic visions without being overcome by the influence of the previous poets who inspired them to write.


title: Harold Bloom

text: The first of these books, "Yeats", challenged the conventional critical view of William Butler Yeats' poetic career. In the introduction to this volume, Bloom set out the basic principles of his new approach to criticism: "Poetic influence, as I conceive it, is a variety of melancholy or the anxiety-principle." New poets become inspired to write because they have read and admired the poetry of previous poets; but this admiration turns into resentment when the new poets discover that these poets whom they idolized have already said everything they wish to say. The poets become disappointed because they "cannot be Adam early in the morning. There have been too many Adams, and they have named everything."


title: Harold Bloom

text: In order to evade this psychological obstacle, according to Bloom, new poets must be convinced that previous poets have gone wrong somewhere and failed in their vision, thus leaving open the possibility that they may have something to add to the tradition after all. The new poets' love for their heroes turns into antagonism towards them: "Initial love for the precursor's poetry is transformed rapidly enough into revisionary strife, without which individuation is not possible." The book that followed "Yeats", "The Anxiety of Influence", which Bloom had started writing in 1967, drew upon the example of Walter Jackson Bate's "The Burden of the Past and The English Poet" and recast in systematic psychoanalytic form Bate's historicized account of the despair felt by 17th and 18th-century poets about their ability to match the achievements of their predecessors. Bloom attempted to trace the psychological process by which poets broke free from their precursors to achieve their own poetic vision. He drew a sharp distinction between "strong poets" who perform "strong misreadings" of their precursors, and "weak poets" who simply repeat the ideas of their precursors as though following a kind of doctrine. He described this process in terms of a sequence of "revisionary ratios", through which each strong poet passes in the course of their career.


title: Harold Bloom

text: "A Map of Misreading" picked up where "The Anxiety of Influence" left off, making several adjustments to Bloom's system of revisionary ratios. "Kabbalah and Criticism" attempted to invoke the esoteric interpretive system of the Lurianic Kabbalah, as explicated by scholar Gershom Scholem, as an alternate system of mapping the path of poetic influence. "Figures of Capable Imagination" collected odd pieces Bloom had written in the process of composing his "influence" books.


title: Harold Bloom

text: Bloom continued to write about influence theory throughout the 1970s and '80s, and penned little thereafter that did not invoke his ideas about influence.


title: Harold Bloom

text: Bloom's fascination with the fantasy novel "A Voyage to Arcturus" by David Lindsay led him to take a brief break from criticism in order to compose a sequel to Lindsay's novel. This novel, "The Flight to Lucifer", was Bloom's only work of fiction.


title: Harold Bloom

text: Bloom then entered a phase of what he called "religious criticism", beginning with "Ruin the Sacred Truths: Poetry and Belief from the Bible to the Present" (1989).


title: Harold Bloom

text: In "The Book of J" (1990), he and David Rosenberg (who translated the Biblical texts) portrayed one of the posited ancient documents that formed the basis of the first five books of the Bible (see documentary hypothesis) as the work of a great literary artist who had no intention of composing a dogmatically religious work (see Jahwist). They further envisaged this anonymous writer as a woman attached to the court of the successors of the Israelite kings David and Solomon—a piece of speculation which drew much attention. Later, Bloom said that the speculations did not go far enough, and perhaps he should have identified J with the Biblical Bathsheba. In "Jesus and Yahweh: The Names Divine" (2004), he revisits some of the territory he covered in "The Book of J" in discussing the significance of Yahweh and Jesus of Nazareth as literary characters, while casting a critical eye on historical approaches and asserting the fundamental incompatibility of Christianity and Judaism.


title: Harold Bloom

text: In "The American Religion" (1992), Bloom surveyed the major varieties of Protestant and post-Protestant religious faiths that originated in the United States and argued that, in terms of their psychological hold on their adherents, most shared more in common with gnosticism than with historical Christianity. The exception was the Jehovah's Witnesses, whom Bloom regards as non-Gnostic. He elsewhere predicted that the Mormon and Pentecostal strains of American Christianity would overtake mainstream Protestant divisions in popularity in the next few decades. In "Omens of Millennium" (1996), Bloom identifies these American religious elements as on the periphery of an old – and not inherently Christian – gnostic, religious tradition which invokes a complex of ideas and experiences concerning angelology, interpretation of dreams as prophecy, near-death experiences, and millennialism.


title: Harold Bloom

text: In his essay in "The Gospel of Thomas", Bloom states that none of Thomas' Aramaic sayings have survived in the original language. Marvin Meyer generally agreed and further confirmed that the earlier versions of that text were likely written in either Aramaic or Greek. Meyer ends his introduction with an endorsement of much of Bloom's essay. Bloom notes the other-worldliness of the Jesus in the Thomas sayings by making reference to "the paradox also of the American Jesus."


title: Harold Bloom

text: "The Western Canon" (1994), a survey of the major literary works of Europe and the Americas since the 14th century, focuses on 26 works he considered sublime and representative of their nations and of the Western canon. Besides analyses of the canon's various representative works, Bloom's major concern in the volume was reclaiming literature from those he referred to as the "School of Resentment", the mostly academic critics who espoused a social purpose in reading. Bloom asserted that the goals of reading must be solitary aesthetic pleasure and self-insight rather than the goal of improving one's society held by "forces of resentment". He cast the latter as an absurd aim, writing: "The idea that you benefit the insulted and injured by reading someone of their own origins rather than reading Shakespeare is one of the oddest illusions ever promoted by or in our schools." His position was that politics had no place in literary criticism, that a feminist or Marxist reading of "Hamlet" would tell us something about feminism and Marxism but probably nothing about "Hamlet" itself.


title: Harold Bloom

text: In addition to considering how much influence a writer had had on later writers, Bloom proposed the concept of "canonical strangeness" (cf. uncanny) as a benchmark of a literary work's merit. "The Western Canon" also included a list—which aroused more widespread interest than anything else in the volume—of all the Western works from antiquity to the present that Bloom considered either permanent members of the canon of literary classics, or (among more recent works) candidates for that status. Bloom said that he made the list off the top of his head at his editor's request, and that he did not stand by it.


title: Harold Bloom

text: Bloom had a deep appreciation for William Shakespeare and considered him to be the supreme center of the Western canon. The first edition of "The Anxiety of Influence" almost completely avoided Shakespeare, whom Bloom then considered barely touched by the psychological drama of anxiety. The second edition, published in 1997, added a long preface that mostly expounded Shakespeare's debt to Ovid and Chaucer, and his agon with contemporary Christopher Marlowe, who set the stage for him by breaking free of ecclesiastical and moralizing overtones.


title: Harold Bloom

text: In his later survey, "Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human" (1998), Bloom provided an analysis of each of Shakespeare's 38 plays, "twenty-four of which are masterpieces." Written as a companion to the general reader and theater-goer, Bloom declared that bardolatry "ought to be even more a secular religion than it already is." He also contended in the work (as in the title) that Shakespeare "invented" humanity, in that he prescribed the now-common practice of "overhearing" ourselves, which drives our changes. The two paragons of his theory were Sir John Falstaff of "Henry IV" and Hamlet, whom Bloom saw as representing self-satisfaction and self-loathing, respectively. These two characters, as well as Iago and Cleopatra, were believed by Bloom (citing A. C. Bradley) to be "the four Shakespearean characters most inexhaustible to meditation."


title: Harold Bloom

text: Throughout "Shakespeare", characters from disparate plays were imagined alongside and interacting with each other. This has been decried by numerous contemporary academics and critics as harking back to the out of fashion character criticism of Bradley (and others), who gathered explicit praise in the book. As in "The Western Canon", Bloom criticized what he called the "School of Resentment" for its failure to live up to the challenge of Shakespeare's universality and for balkanizing the study of literature through multicultural and historicist departments. Asserting Shakespeare's singular popularity throughout the world, Bloom proclaimed him the only truly multicultural author. Repudiating the "social energies" to which historicists ascribed Shakespeare's authorship, Bloom pronounced his modern academic foes – and indeed, all of society – to be but "a parody of Shakespearean energies."


title: Harold Bloom

text: Bloom consolidated his work on the western canon with the publication of "How to Read and Why" (2000) and "Genius: A Mosaic of One Hundred Exemplary Creative Minds" (2003). "Hamlet: Poem Unlimited" (also 2003) is an amendment to "Shakespeare: Invention of the Human" written after he decided the chapter on "Hamlet" in that earlier book had been too focused on the textual question of the "Ur-Hamlet" to cover his most central thoughts on the play itself. Some elements of religious criticism were combined with his secular criticism in "Where Shall Wisdom Be Found" (2004), and a more complete return to religious criticism was marked by the publication of "Jesus and Yahweh: The Names Divine" (2005). Throughout the decade he also compiled, edited and introduced several major anthologies of poetry.


title: Harold Bloom

text: Bloom took part in the documentary, the "Apparition of the Eternal Church" (2006), made by Paul Festa. This documentary centered on many individuals' reactions to hearing, for the first time, Olivier Messiaen's organ piece "Apparition de l'église éternelle".


title: Harold Bloom

text: Bloom began a book under the working title of "Living Labyrinth", centering on Shakespeare and Walt Whitman, which was published as "The Anatomy of Influence: Literature as a Way of Life" (2011).


title: Harold Bloom

text: In July 2011, after the publication of "The Anatomy of Influence" and after finishing work on "The Shadow of a Great Rock", Bloom was working on three further projects:


title: Harold Bloom

text: In 1986, Bloom credited Northrop Frye as his nearest precursor. He told Imre Salusinszky in 1986: "In terms of my own theorizations ... the precursor proper has to be Northrop Frye. I purchased and read "Fearful Symmetry" a week or two after it had come out and reached the bookstore in Ithaca, New York. It ravished my heart away. I have tried to find an alternative father in Mr. Kenneth Burke, who is a charming fellow and a very powerful critic, but I don't come from Burke, I come out of Frye."


title: Harold Bloom

text: However, in "Anatomy of Influence" (2011), he wrote "I no longer have the patience to read anything by Frye" and nominated Angus Fletcher of the City University of New York among his living contemporaries as his "critical guide and conscience" and elsewhere that year recommended Fletcher's "Colors of the Mind" and "The Mirror and the Lamp" by M. H. Abrams. In this late phase of his career, Bloom also emphasized the tradition of earlier critics such as William Hazlitt, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Walter Pater, A. C. Bradley, and Samuel Johnson, describing Johnson in "The Western Canon" as "unmatched by any critic in any nation before or after him". In his 2012 Foreword to the book "The Fourth Dimension of a Poem" (WW Norton, 2012), Bloom indicated the influence which M. H. Abrams had upon him in his years at Cornell University.


title: Harold Bloom

text: Bloom's theory of poetic influence regards the development of Western literature as a process of borrowing and misreading. Writers find their creative inspiration in previous writers and begin by imitating those writers in order to develop a poetic voice of their own; however, they must make their own work different from that of their precursors. As a result, Bloom argues, authors of real power must inevitably "misread" their precursors' works in order to make room for fresh imaginings.


title: Harold Bloom

text: Observers often identified Bloom with deconstruction in the past, but he himself never admitted to sharing more than a few ideas with the deconstructionists. He told Robert Moynihan in 1983, "What I think I have in common with the school of deconstruction is the mode of negative thinking or negative awareness, in the technical, philosophical sense of the negative, but which comes to me through negative theology ... There is no escape, there is simply the given, and there is nothing that we can do."


title: Harold Bloom

text: Bloom's association with the Western canon provoked a substantial interest in his opinion concerning the relative importance of contemporary writers. In the late 1980s, Bloom told an interviewer: "Probably the most powerful living Western writer is Samuel Beckett. He's certainly the most authentic." After Beckett died in 1989, Bloom pointed towards other authors as the new main figures of the Western literary canon.


title: Harold Bloom

text: Concerning British writers: "Geoffrey Hill is the strongest British poet now active", and "no other contemporary British novelist seems to me to be of Iris Murdoch's eminence". After Murdoch died, Bloom expressed admiration for novelists such as Peter Ackroyd, Will Self, John Banville, and A. S. Byatt.


title: Harold Bloom

text: In "Genius: A Mosaic of One Hundred Exemplary Creative Minds" (2003), he named the Portuguese writer and Nobel Prize winner José Saramago as "the most gifted novelist alive in the world today", and as "one of the last titans of an expiring literary genre".


title: Harold Bloom

text: Of American novelists, he declared in 2003 that "there are four living American novelists I know of who are still at work and who deserve our praise". He claimed that "they write the Style of our Age, each has composed canonical works," and he identified them as Thomas Pynchon, Philip Roth, Cormac McCarthy, and Don DeLillo. He named their strongest works as, respectively, "Gravity's Rainbow", "The Crying of Lot 49" and "Mason & Dixon"; "American Pastoral" and "Sabbath's Theater"; "Blood Meridian"; and "Underworld". He added to this estimate the work of John Crowley, with special interest in his Aegypt Sequence and novel "Little, Big" saying that "only a handful of living writers in English can equal him as a stylist, and most of them are poets ... only Philip Roth consistently writes on Crowley's level". Shortly before his death, he expressed admiration for the works of Joshua Cohen, William Giraldi and Nell Freudenberger.


title: Harold Bloom

text: In "Kabbalah and Criticism" (1975), Bloom identified Robert Penn Warren, James Merrill, John Ashbery, and Elizabeth Bishop as the most important living American poets. By the 1990s, he regularly named A. R. Ammons along with Ashbery and Merrill, and he later identified Henri Cole as the crucial American poet of the generation following those three. He expressed great admiration for the Canadian poets Anne Carson, particularly her verse novel "Autobiography of Red," and A. F. Moritz, whom Bloom called "a true poet." Bloom also listed Jay Wright as one of only a handful of major living poets and the best living American poet after Ashbery's death.


title: Harold Bloom

text: Bloom's introduction to "Modern Critical Interpretations: Thomas Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow" (1986) features his canon of the "twentieth-century American Sublime", the greatest works of American art produced in the 20th century. Playwright Tony Kushner sees Bloom as an important influence on his work.


title: Harold Bloom

text: For many years, Bloom's writings have drawn polarized responses, even among established literary scholars. Bloom was called "probably the most celebrated literary critic in the United States" and "America's best-known man of letters". A "New York Times" article in 1994 said that many younger critics understand Bloom as an "outdated oddity," whereas a 1998 "New York Times" article called him "one of the most gifted of contemporary critics."


title: Harold Bloom

text: James Wood described Bloom as "Vatic, repetitious, imprecisely reverential, though never without a peculiar charm of his own—a kind of campiness, in fact—Bloom as a literary critic in the last few years has been largely unimportant." Bloom responded to questions about Wood in an interview by saying: "There are period pieces in criticism as there are period pieces in the novel and in poetry. The wind blows and they will go away ... There's nothing to the man ... I don't want to talk about him".


title: Harold Bloom

text: In the early 21st century, Bloom often found himself at the center of literary controversy after criticizing popular writers such as Adrienne Rich, Maya Angelou, and David Foster Wallace. In the pages of "The Paris Review", he criticized the populist-leaning poetry slam, saying: "It is the death of art." When Doris Lessing was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, he bemoaned the "pure political correctness" of the award to an author of "fourth-rate science fiction," although he conceded his appreciation of Lessing's earlier work.


title: Harold Bloom

text: MormonVoices, a group associated with Foundation for Apologetic Information & Research, included Bloom on its Top Ten Anti-Mormon Statements of 2011 list for stating "The current head of the Mormon Church, Thomas S. Monson, known to his followers as 'prophet, seer and revelator,' is indistinguishable from the secular plutocratic oligarchs who exercise power in our supposed democracy." This was despite Bloom's sympathy for Joseph Smith, the founding prophet of Mormonism, whom he called a "religious genius."


title: Clitoral hood

text: In the female human body, the clitoral hood (also called preputium clitoridis and clitoral prepuce) is a fold of skin that surrounds and protects the glans of the clitoris; it also covers the external shaft of the clitoris, develops as part of the labia minora and is homologous with the foreskin (also called the "prepuce") in the male reproductive system.


title: Clitoral hood

text: The clitoral hood is composed of muccocutaneous tissues; these tissues are between the mucous membrane and the skin, and they may have immunological importance because they may be a point of entry of mucosal vaccines. The clitoral hood is also important not only in the protection of the clitoral glans, but also in pleasure, as its tissue forms part of the erogenous zones of the vulva.


title: Clitoral hood

text: The clitoral hood is formed during the fetal stage by the cellular lamella. The cellular lamella grows down on the dorsal side of the clitoris and is eventually fused with the clitoris. The clitoral hood is formed from the same tissues that form the foreskin in human males.


title: Clitoral hood

text: The clitoral hood varies in the size, shape, thickness, and other aesthetic aspects. Some women have large clitoral hoods that completely cover the clitoral glans. Some of these can be retracted to expose the clitoral glans, such as for hygiene purposes or for pleasure; others do not retract. Other women have smaller hoods that do not cover the full length of the clitoral glans, leaving the clitoral glans exposed all the time. Sticky bands of tissue called "adhesions" can form between the hood and the glans; these stick the hood onto the glans so the hood cannot be pulled back to expose the glans, and, as in the male, strongly scented smegma can accumulate.


title: Clitoral hood

text: Normally, the clitoral glans itself is too sensitive to be stimulated directly, such as in cases where the hood is retracted. Women with hoods covering most of the clitoral glans can often masturbate by stimulating the hood over the clitoral glans; those with smaller, or more compact, structures tend to rub the clitoral glans and hood together.


title: Clitoral hood

text: The clitoral hood additionally provides protection to the clitoral glans, like foreskin on the penile glans. During sexual stimulation, the hood may also prevent the penis from coming into direct contact with the glans clitoridis, which is usually stimulated by the pressure of the partners' pubis.


title: Clitoral hood

text: Most mammals and primates approach copulation from the rear instead of the common frontal position that humans often assume, so the clitoral stimulation is directly created by glans contact with the scrotum at the base of the penis and the different contractions of its corrugated dartos muscles. The clitoral glans, like the foreskin, must be lubricated by the naturally provided sebum. If the clitoral glans is not lubricated, the hood may not properly stimulate it during sexual activity, and it may cause pain.


title: Clitoral hood

text: In most of the world, clitoral modifications are uncommon. In some cultures, female genital mutilation (FGM) is practiced as a rite of passage into womanhood, is perceived as an improvement to the appearance of the genitalia, or is used to suppress or reduce female sexual desire and pleasure (including masturbation). FGM was performed on many children in Western countries, including previously in the United States, to discourage masturbation and reduce diseases believed to relate to it.


title: Clitoral hood

text: One modification that women sometimes perform of their free will is to have the hood pierced and insert jewellery, both for adornment and physical pleasure. Though much less common, other women opt to have their own hood surgically trimmed or removed so as to permanently expose part or all of the clitoral glans.


title: Voltage divider

text: In electronics, a voltage divider (also known as a potential divider) is a passive linear circuit that produces an output voltage ("V") that is a fraction of its input voltage ("V"). Voltage division is the result of distributing the input voltage among the components of the divider. A simple example of a voltage divider is two resistors connected in series, with the input voltage applied across the resistor pair and the output voltage emerging from the connection between them.


title: Voltage divider

text: Resistor voltage dividers are commonly used to create reference voltages, or to reduce the magnitude of a voltage so it can be measured, and may also be used as signal attenuators at low frequencies. For direct current and relatively low frequencies, a voltage divider may be sufficiently accurate if made only of resistors; where frequency response over a wide range is required (such as in an oscilloscope probe), a voltage divider may have capacitive elements added to compensate load capacitance. In electric power transmission, a capacitive voltage divider is used for measurement of high voltage.


title: Voltage divider

text: A voltage divider referenced to ground is created by connecting two electrical impedances in series, as shown in Figure 1. The input voltage is applied across the series impedances Z and Z and the output is the voltage across Z.


title: Voltage divider

text: If the current in the output wire is zero then the relationship between the input voltage, V, and the output voltage, V, is:


title: Voltage divider

text: Any ratio "V"/"V" greater than 1 is not possible. That is, using resistors alone it is not possible to either invert the voltage or increase "V" above "V".


title: Voltage divider

text: where X is the reactance of the capacitor, C is the capacitance of the capacitor, "j" is the imaginary unit, and "ω" (omega) is the radian frequency of the input voltage.


title: Voltage divider

text: The ratio then depends on frequency, in this case decreasing as frequency increases. This circuit is, in fact, a basic (first-order) lowpass filter. The ratio contains an imaginary number, and actually contains both the amplitude and phase shift information of the filter. To extract just the amplitude ratio, calculate the magnitude of the ratio, that is:


title: Voltage divider

text: The above equation is for non-interacting inductors; mutual inductance (as in an autotransformer) will alter the results.


title: Voltage divider

text: Inductive dividers split AC input according to the resistance of the elements as for the resistive divider above.


title: Voltage divider

text: Any leakage current in the capactive elements requires use of the generalized expression with two impedances. By selection of parallel R and C elements in the proper proportions, the same division ratio can be maintained over a useful range of frequencies. This is the principle applied in compensated oscilloscope probes to increase measurement bandwidth.


title: Voltage divider

text: The output voltage of a voltage divider will vary according to the electric current it is supplying to its external electrical load. The effective source impedance coming from a divider of Z and Z, as above, will be Z in parallel with Z (sometimes written Z // Z), that is: (Z Z) / (Z + Z)=HZ.


title: Voltage divider

text: To obtain a sufficiently stable output voltage, the output current must either be stable (and so be made part of the calculation of the potential divider values) or limited to an appropriately small percentage of the divider's input current. Load sensitivity can be decreased by reducing the impedance of both halves of the divider, though this increases the divider's quiescent input current and results in higher power consumption (and wasted heat) in the divider. Voltage regulators are often used in lieu of passive voltage dividers when it is necessary to accommodate high or fluctuating load currents.


title: Voltage divider

text: Voltage dividers are used for adjusting the level of a signal, for bias of active devices in amplifiers, and for measurement of voltages. A Wheatstone bridge and a multimeter both include voltage dividers. A potentiometer is used as a variable voltage divider in the volume control of many radios.


title: Voltage divider

text: Voltage dividers can be used to allow a microcontroller to measure the resistance of a sensor. The sensor is wired in series with a known resistance to form a voltage divider and a known voltage is applied across the divider. The microcontroller's analog-to-digital converter is connected to the center tap of the divider so that it can measure the tap voltage and, by using the measured voltage and the known resistance and voltage, compute the sensor resistance. This technique is commonly used to measure the resistance of temperature sensors such as thermistors and RTDs.


title: Voltage divider

text: Another example that is commonly used involves a potentiometer (variable resistor) as one of the resistive elements. When the shaft of the potentiometer is rotated the resistance it produces either increases or decreases, the change in resistance corresponds to the angular change of the shaft. If coupled with a stable voltage reference, the output voltage can be fed into an analog-to-digital converter and a display can show the angle. Such circuits are commonly used in reading control knobs.


title: Voltage divider

text: A voltage divider can be used to scale down a very high voltage so that it can be measured by a volt meter. The high voltage is applied across the divider, and the divider output—which outputs a lower voltage that is within the meter's input range—is measured by the meter. High voltage resistor divider probes designed specifically for this purpose can be used to measure voltages up to 100 kV. Special high-voltage resistors are used in such probes as they must be able to tolerate high input voltages and, to produce accurate results, must have matched temperature coefficients and very low voltage coefficients. Capacitive divider probes are typically used for voltages above 100 kV, as the heat caused by power losses in resistor divider probes at such high voltages could be excessive.


title: Voltage divider

text: A voltage divider can be used as a crude logic level shifter to interface two circuits that use different operating voltages. For example, some logic circuits operate at 5V whereas others operate at 3.3V. Directly interfacing a 5V logic output to a 3.3V input may cause permanent damage to the 3.3V circuit. In this case, a voltage divider with an output ratio of 3.3/5 might be used to reduce the 5V signal to 3.3V, to allow the circuits to interoperate without damaging the 3.3V circuit. For this to be feasible, the 5V source impedance and 3.3V input impedance must be negligible, or they must be constant and the divider resistor values must account for their impedances. If the input impedance is capacitive, a purely resistive divider will limit the data rate. This can be roughly overcome by adding a capacitor in series with the top resistor, to make both legs of the divider capacitive as well as resistive.


title: Brian Posehn

text: Brian Edmund Posehn (; born July 6, 1966) is an American stand-up comedian, actor, voice actor, musician, and writer. After numerous appearances as a television guest star, Posehn acquired his first major recurring role in HBO's "Mr. Show with Bob and David" (1995–1998). He is known for his roles as Jim Kuback on The WB's "Mission Hill" and Brian Spukowski on Comedy Central's "The Sarah Silverman Program". Posehn had a recurring role on "The Big Bang Theory" as geologist Bert Kibbler.


title: Brian Posehn

text: As a stand-up comedian, Posehn has released four comedy albums and one standalone music album. He has hosted the online "Dungeons & Dragons" podcast "Nerd Poker" since 2012. He has also done voice work for video games such as "Halo 2", "FusionFall", "Brütal Legend", and "".


title: Brian Posehn

text: Posehn received nominations for two Primetime Emmy Awards in 1998 and 1999 for Outstanding Writing for a Variety or Music Program for his work on "Mr. Show with Bob and David", which he shared with the series' writing crew. Posehn also received a nomination for a DVDX Award for Best Original Song in a DVD Premiere Movie in 2003 for "Run Ronnie Run!".


title: Brian Posehn

text: Posehn was born and raised in Sacramento, California. He is of German and Irish descent. He graduated from Sonoma Valley High School in 1984. He attended college at California State University, Sacramento.


title: Brian Posehn

text: Posehn began with guest appearances and mainly small roles in TV shows. He was on 28 episodes of "Mr. Show with Bob and David" (1995–1998), a sketch comedy series on HBO. In a 1996 episode of "Friends", he delivered the manuscript in which Joey Tribbiani's soap opera character "Dr. Drake Ramoray" is killed. He appeared as two different characters in "NewsRadio": a fan with questions for Jimmy James at a book reading (1997), and a member of Dave's a cappella group "Chock Full o' Notes" (1998). In the "Seinfeld" episode "The Burning" (1998), he played a patient, when Kramer "was given" gonorrhea. His character was instructed to "act out" to a group of medical students how a surgeon left a sponge in him post surgery. Posehn also wrote the "" episode "Cahill" (1998) with Ben Karlin. He appeared on 29 episodes of the NBC series "Just Shoot Me!" (1999–2003). He played the voice of Jim in "Mission Hill" on the WB (1999–2002), and Del Swanson in "3 South" on MTV (2002–2003). On an Adult Swim production, "Aqua Teen Hunger Force", he voiced the Wisdom Cube in the 2003 episode "The Cubing".


title: Brian Posehn

text: Posehn performed the voice of Gibbons, a tiny man, on several episodes of the Cartoon Network's "Tom Goes to the Mayor" (2005–2006). He also appeared in the 2005 pilot for "The Showbiz Show with David Spade", in a segment called "The Nerd Perspective", in which he gave a scathing criticism of MTV and its declining quality. He also played a mortician in several episodes of Comedy Central's "Reno 911!". He was featured on the 2005 documentary series "The Comedians of Comedy" on Comedy Central and Showtime. He was in a 2007 episode of the improv series "Thank God You're Here" on NBC and was a celebrity judge on the revived 1970s game show "The Gong Show with Dave Attell" (2008), on Comedy Central. He co-stars on "The Sarah Silverman Program" with Steve Agee as a gay couple who is friends with Silverman, and also wrote the season three finale "". He played himself in the episode "Spagett" of "Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!", appeared at the "Comedy Central Roast" of Bob Saget, played the role of a physically disabled man (Scooter Man) in the second season's premiere episode "Slip of the Tongue" of "Californication" (2008), on Showtime, and played Dethklok's second manager in the "Metalocalypse" episode "Dethsources", he also wrote the episode "Fatherklok". In 2007 he joined the first season of the MTV sketch comedy series "Human Giant", as a writer and performer, and voices Glen Furlblam, the biggest fan of Dr. Two-Brains on the PBS Kids animated series "WordGirl". In 2012 he co-wrote the fourth season of "Metalocalypse". From 2013 to 2019, Posehn portrayed the recurring character Bert on "The Big Bang Theory".


title: Brian Posehn

text: Movie appearances from Posehn include the 2003 comedy film sequel "", "Grind", the 2005 Rob Zombie horror film "The Devil's Rejects", "Sleeping Dogs Lie", "", and the 2007 animated feature "Surf's Up", where he played Glen Maverick. Posehn appeared as himself in the 2007 documentary " Super High Me" starring 'marijuana comedian' Doug Benson, the 2008 documentary "Nerdcore Rising" about MC Frontalot and in a supporting role in "".


title: Brian Posehn

text: Posehn voices the character of Murray, a robot, in Rob Zombie's animated "The Haunted World of El Superbeasto". He also voiced the character Hayashi in the English dub of "Pom Poko".


title: Brian Posehn

text: In 2002, Posehn appeared on "Comedy Central Presents", followed by the release of 2005's "The Comedians of Comedy", a documentary/live special chronicling a 2004 small-club comedy tour he participated in. The film was followed up by a television series on Comedy Central of the same name. Posehn's debut comedy album "" was released in 2006. He participated in the Comedy Lineup of the 2008 Bonnaroo Music and Arts Festival, which included Louis C.K., Janeane Garofalo and Zach Galifianakis. Posehn performed as part of the Rock N' Roll Comedy set with Jim Norton and Michelle Buteau. During his 2008 routine on "Comedy Central Presents" he referred to his Wikipedia article, which he supposedly vandalized. In 2010, Posehn released his second album "Fart and Wiener Jokes". In 2011, Posehn agreed to perform at the Gathering of the Juggalos. Some of his fans criticized this decision as being "not metal". Posehn countered that "getting a paycheck is metal", and expressed respect towards the Juggalo fan culture, as well as the independent music success of Insane Clown Posse and Psychopathic Records. In 2013, Posehn released his third comedy album and first DVD, "The Fartist", and in 2017 his fourth comedy album, "Posehn 25x2".


title: Brian Posehn

text: In 2006, Relapse Records released his first album, "". It includes "Metal by Numbers", a song mocking the formulaic nature of modern "metal" at the time of its release. The instrumental tracks feature musicians such as guitarist Scott Ian (of Anthrax), bassist Joey Vera (then of Anthrax, but also of Armored Saint and Fates Warning), drummer John Tempesta (of The Cult and White Zombie), and lead guitarist Jonathan Donais (of Shadows Fall). Posehn also appeared in the Anthrax music videos for "What Doesn't Die" and "Blood Eagle Wings". Posehn appeared on a Season 4 episode of the music talk show "That Metal Show" and Lamb of God's "Walk With Me In Hell" DVD, and performed "More Metal Then You", a song that was included on his non-musical stand-up comedy album "Fart & Weiner Jokes", with "Brian Posehn's All-Star Band" on the "2010 Revolver Golden Gods Awards". Posehn appeared in The Damned Things music video for "We've Got A Situation Here". He provided backing vocals for Evile's album "Five Serpent's Teeth".


title: Brian Posehn

text: In 2020, Posehn released his first music-only album, "Grandpa Metal", which featured guest appearances from Brendon Small of Dethklok, Scott Ian, Corey Taylor of Slipknot and Stone Sour, Weird Al Yankovic, Phil Demmel of Machine Head, Michael Starr of Steel Panther and others. The album consists of comedy metal songs, as well as metal covers of "Take On Me" by A-Ha and "The Fox (What Does the Fox Say?)" by Ylvis.


title: Brian Posehn

text: Posehn has provided voice work for video games "Brütal Legend" as The Hunter and "Star Warped" as co-narrator Brian. Posehn has also voiced Grunts and various Marines in the 2004 video game "Halo 2".


title: Brian Posehn

text: Posehn appeared in the commercial "Ink Fairy" for Staples office supply store in its ad campaign featuring the "Easy Button."


title: Brian Posehn

text: In 2006, Posehn co-wrote the comic book "The Last Christmas" with writer Gerry Duggan, published by Image Comics ().


title: Brian Posehn

text: In April 2009 Posehn hosted the first American "Golden Gods Awards" for metal music hosted by Revolver Magazine.


title: Brian Posehn

text: As part of the Marvel NOW! initiative Posehn and Gerry Duggan co-wrote the Deadpool ongoing comic series which launched in November 2012, lasting 45 issues. His run ended in April 2015. The first six issues were illustrated by Tony Moore.


title: Brian Posehn

text: Since 2012, Posehn has hosted a podcast called Nerd Poker, where a group of comedians play Dungeons & Dragons. Co-hosts include comic book writer Gerry Duggan and comedian Blaine Capatch, among others.


title: Brian Posehn

text: Posehn has also participated in the Dungeons & Dragons campaign "Force Grey: Lost City of Omu", hosted by Matthew Mercer.


title: Brian Posehn

text: Posehn married Melanie Truhett in 2004 and has a son with her. While once known for his use of cannabis, Posehn quit smoking marijuana in 2011, but resumed smoking about three years later.


title: Brian Posehn

text: Posehn has been nominated for two Primetime Emmys and one DVDX Award. His first Primetime Emmy nomination in 1998 for Outstanding Writing for a Variety or Music Program was for his writing on "Mr. Show with Bob and David", which he shared with crew members Scott Aukerman, Jerry Collins, David Cross, Jay Johnston, Bob Odenkirk, Bill Odenkirk, B. J. Porter, and Dino Stamatopoulos. The television series' writing staff, including Posehn, received another nomination in the same category in 1999, which Posehn shared with Mike Stoyanov, Paul F. Tompkins, Mike Upchurch, and past writing staff from the previous year.


title: Brian Posehn

text: For his work on "Run Ronnie Run!", Posehn was nominated at the 2003 DVD Exclusive Awards for Best Original Song in a DVD Premiere Movie for "The Golden Rule Song" along with performer Jack Black (with the Joey Cheesy Reunion Band) and fellow lyricists David Cross, Bob Odenkirk, Scott Aukerman, B. J. Porter, and Eban Schletter.


title: Hairstyle

text: A hairstyle, hairdo, haircut or coiffure refers to the styling of hair, usually on the human scalp. Sometimes, this could also mean an editing of facial or body hair. The fashioning of hair can be considered an aspect of personal grooming, fashion, and cosmetics, although practical, cultural, and popular considerations also influence some hairstyles.


title: Hairstyle

text: The oldest known depiction of hair styling is hair braiding which dates back about 30,000 years. In history, women's hair was often elaborately and carefully dressed in special ways, though it was also often kept covered outside the home, especially for married women. From the time of the Roman Empire until the Middle Ages, most women grew their hair as long as it would naturally grow. Between the late 15th century and the 16th century, a very high hairline on the forehead was considered attractive. Around the same period, European men often wore their hair cropped no longer than shoulder-length. In the early 17th century, male hairstyles grew longer, with waves or curls being considered desirable.


title: Hairstyle

text: The male wig was pioneered by King Louis XIII of France (1601–1643) in 1624. Mullets or periwigs for men were introduced into the English-speaking world with other French styles in 1660. Late 17th century wigs were very long and wavy, but became shorter in the mid-18th century, by which time they were normally white. Short hair for fashionable men was a product of the Neoclassical movement. In the early 19th century the male beard, and also moustaches and sideburns, made a strong reappearance. From the 16th to the 19th century, European women's hair became more visible while their hair coverings grew smaller. In the middle of the 18th century the pouf style developed. During the First World War, women around the world started to shift to shorter hairstyles that were easier to manage. In the early 1950s women's hair was generally curled and worn in a variety of styles and lengths. In the 1960s, many women began to wear their hair in short modern cuts such as the pixie cut, while in the 1970s, hair tended to be longer and looser. In both the 1960s and 1970s many men and women wore their hair very long and straight. In the 1980s, women pulled back their hair with scrunchies. During the 1980s, punk hairstyles were adopted by many people.


title: Hairstyle

text: Throughout times, people have worn their hair in a wide variety of styles, largely determined by the fashions of the culture they live in. Hairstyles are markers and signifiers of social class, age, marital status, racial identification, political beliefs, and attitudes about gender.


title: Hairstyle

text: Some people may cover their hair totally or partially for cultural or religious reasons. Notable examples of head covering include women in Islam who wear the hijab, married women in Haredi Judaism who wear the sheitel or tichel, married Himba men who cover their hair except when in mourning, Tuareg men who wear a veil, and baptized men and women in Sikhism who wear the dastar.


title: Hairstyle

text: The oldest known reproduction of hair braiding lies back about 30,000 years: the Venus of Willendorf, now known in academia as the Woman of Willendorf, of a female figurine from the Paleolithic, estimated to have been made between about 28,000 and 25,000 BCE.


title: Hairstyle

text: In the Bronze Age, razors were known and in use by some men, but not on a daily basis since the procedure was rather unpleasant and required resharpening of the tool which reduced its endurance.


title: Hairstyle

text: In ancient civilizations, women's hair was often elaborately and carefully dressed in special ways. Women coloured their hair, curled it, and pinned it up (ponytail) in a variety of ways. They set their hair in waves and curls using wet clay, which they dried in the sun and then combed out, or else by using a jelly made of quince seeds soaked in water, or curling tongs and curling irons of various kinds.


title: Hairstyle

text: Between 27 BC and 102 AD, in Imperial Rome, women wore their hair in complicated styles: a mass of curls on top, or in rows of waves, drawn back into ringlets or braids. Eventually noblewomen's hairstyles grew so complex that they required daily attention from several slaves and a stylist in order to be maintained. The hair was often lightened using wood ash, unslaked lime and sodium bicarbonate, or darkened with copper filings, oak-apples or leeches marinated in wine and vinegar. It was augmented by wigs, hairpieces and pads, and held in place by nets, pins, combs and pomade. Under the Byzantine Empire, noblewomen covered most of their hair with silk caps and pearl nets.


title: Hairstyle

text: From the time of the Roman Empire until the Middle Ages, most women grew their hair as long as it would naturally grow. It was normally just styled through cutting, as women's hair was tied up on the head and covered on most occasions when outside the home by using a snood, kerchief or veil; for an adult woman to wear uncovered and loose hair in the street was often restricted to prostitutes. Braiding and tying the hair was common. In the 16th century, women began to wear their hair in extremely ornate styles, often decorated with pearls, precious stones, ribbons, and veils. Women used a technique called "lacing" or "taping," in which cords or ribbons were used to bind the hair around their heads. During this period, most of the hair was braided and hidden under wimples, veils or couvrechefs. In the later half of the 15th century and on into the 16th century, a very high hairline on the forehead was considered attractive, and wealthy women frequently plucked out hair at their temples and the napes of their necks, or used depilatory cream to remove it, if it would otherwise be visible at the edges of their hair coverings. Working-class women in this period wore their hair in simple styles.


title: Hairstyle

text: During the 15th and 16th centuries, European men wore their hair cropped no longer than shoulder-length, with very fashionable men wearing bangs or fringes. In Italy, it was common for men to dye their hair. In the early 17th century male hairstyles grew longer, with waves or curls being considered desirable in upper-class European men.


title: Hairstyle

text: The male wig was supposedly pioneered by King Louis XIII of France (1601–1643) in 1624 when he had prematurely begun to bald. This fashion was largely promoted by his son and successor Louis XIV of France (1638–1715) that contributed to its spread in European and European-influenced countries. The beard had been in a long decline and now disappeared among the upper classes.


title: Hairstyle

text: Perukes or periwigs for men were introduced into the English-speaking world with other French styles when Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660, following a lengthy exile in France. These wigs were shoulder-length or longer, imitating the long hair that had become fashionable among men since the 1620s. Their use soon became popular in the English court. The London diarist Samuel Pepys recorded the day in 1665 that a barber had shaved his head and that he tried on his new periwig for the first time, but in a year of plague he was uneasy about wearing it:3rd September 1665: Up, and put on my coloured silk suit, very fine, and my new periwig, bought a good while since, but darst not wear it because the plague was in Westminster when I bought it. And it is a wonder what will be the fashion after the plague is done as to periwigs, for nobody will dare to buy any hair for fear of the infection? That it had been cut off the heads of people dead of the plague.


title: Hairstyle

text: Late 17th-century wigs were very long and wavy (see George I below), but became shorter in the mid-18th century, by which time they were normally white (George II). A very common style had a single stiff curl running round the head at the end of the hair. By the late 18th century the natural hair was often powdered to achieve the impression of a short wig, tied into a small tail or "queue" behind (George III).


title: Hairstyle

text: Short hair for fashionable men was a product of the Neoclassical movement. Classically inspired male hair styles included the Bedford Crop, arguably the precursor of most plain modern male styles, which was invented by the radical politician Francis Russell, 5th Duke of Bedford as a protest against a tax on hair powder; he encouraged his friends to adopt it by betting them they would not. Another influential style (or group of styles) was named by the French "à la Titus" after Titus Junius Brutus (not in fact the Roman Emperor Titus as often assumed), with hair short and layered but somewhat piled up on the crown, often with restrained quiffs or locks hanging down; variants are familiar from the hair of both Napoleon and George IV. The style was supposed to have been introduced by the actor François-Joseph Talma, who upstaged his wigged co-actors when appearing in productions of works such as Voltaire's "Brutus" (about Lucius Junius Brutus, who orders the execution of his son Titus). In 1799, a Parisian fashion magazine reported that even bald men were adopting Titus wigs, and the style was also worn by women, the "Journal de Paris" reporting in 1802 that "more than half of elegant women were wearing their hair or wig "à la Titus"."


title: Hairstyle

text: In the early 19th century the male beard, and also moustaches and sideburns, made a strong reappearance, associated with the Romantic movement, and all remained very common until the 1890s, after which younger men ceased to wear them, with World War I, when the majority of men in many countries saw military service, finally despatching the full beard except for older men retaining the styles of their youth, and those affecting a Bohemian look. The short military-style moustache remained popular.


title: Hairstyle

text: From the 16th to the 19th century, European women's hair became more visible while their hair coverings grew smaller, with both becoming more elaborate, and with hairstyles beginning to include ornamentation such as flowers, ostrich plumes, ropes of pearls, jewels, ribbons and small crafted objects such as replicas of ships and windmills. Bound hair was felt to be symbolic of propriety: loosening one's hair was considered immodest and sexual, and sometimes was felt to have supernatural connotations. Red hair was popular, particularly in England during the reign of the red-haired Elizabeth I, and women and aristocratic men used borax, saltpeter, saffron and sulfur powder to dye their hair red, making themselves nauseated and giving themselves headaches and nosebleeds. During this period in Spain and Latin cultures, women wore lace mantillas, often worn over a high comb, and in Buenos Aires, there developed a fashion for extremely large tortoise-shell hair combs called peinetón, which could measure up to three feet in height and width, and which are said by historians to have reflected the growing influence of France, rather than Spain, upon Argentinians.


title: Hairstyle

text: In the middle of the 18th century the pouf style developed, with women creating volume in the hair at the front of the head, usually with a pad underneath to lift it higher, and ornamented the back with seashells, pearls or gemstones. In 1750, women began dressing their hair with perfumed pomade and powdering it white. Just before World War I, some women began wearing silk turbans over their hair.


title: Hairstyle

text: In the early 1870s, in a shift that historians attribute to the influence of the West, Japanese men began cutting their hair into styles known as or (which roughly means "random cropping"). During this period, Japanese women were still wearing traditional hairstyles held up with combs, pins, and sticks crafted from tortoise, metal, wood and other materials, but in the middle 1880s, upper-class Japanese women began pushing back their hair in the Western style (known as ), or adopting Westernized versions of traditional Japanese hairstyles (these were called , or literally, "soirée chignon").


title: Hairstyle

text: During the First World War, women around the world started to shift to shorter hairstyles that were easier to manage. In the 1920s women started for the first time to bob, shingle and crop their hair, often covering it with small head-hugging cloche hats. In Korea, the bob was called . Women began marcelling their hair, creating deep waves in it using heated scissor irons. Durable permanent waving became popular also in this period: it was an expensive, uncomfortable and time-consuming process, in which the hair was put in curlers and inserted into a steam or dry heat machine. During the 1930s women began to wear their hair slightly longer, in pageboys, bobs or waves and curls.


title: Hairstyle

text: During this period, Western men began to wear their hair in ways popularized by movie stars such as Douglas Fairbanks, Jr. and Rudolph Valentino. Men wore their hair short, and either parted on the side or in the middle, or combed straight back, and used pomade, creams and tonics to keep their hair in place. At the beginning of the Second World War and for some time afterwards, men's haircuts grew shorter, mimicking the military crewcut.


title: Hairstyle

text: During the 1920s and 1930s, Japanese women began wearing their hair in a style called (literally, "ear hiding"), in which hair was pulled back to cover the ears and tied into a bun at the nape of the neck. Waved or curled hair became increasingly popular for Japanese women throughout this period, and permanent waves, though controversial, were extremely popular. Bobbed hair also became more popular for Japanese women, mainly among actresses and , or "cut-hair girls," young Japanese women who followed Westernized fashions and lifestyles in the 1920s.


title: Hairstyle

text: After the war, women started to wear their hair in softer, more natural styles. In the early 1950s women's hair was generally curled and worn in a variety of styles and lengths. In the later 1950s, high bouffant and beehive styles, sometimes nicknamed B-52s for their similarity to the bulbous noses of the B-52 Stratofortress bomber, became popular. During this period many women washed and set their hair only once a week, and kept it in place by wearing curlers every night and reteasing and respraying it every morning. In the 1960s, many women began to wear their hair in short modern cuts such as the pixie cut, while in the 1970s, hair tended to be longer and looser. In both the 1960s and 1970s many men and women wore their hair very long and straight. Women straightened their hair through chemical straightening processes, by ironing their hair at home with a clothes iron, or by rolling it up with large empty cans while wet. African-American men and women began wearing their hair naturally (unprocessed) in large Afros, sometimes ornamented with Afro picks made from wood or plastic. By the end of the 1970s the Afro had fallen out of favour among African-Americans, and was being replaced by other natural hairstyles such as corn rows and dreadlocks.


title: Hairstyle

text: Since the 1960s and 70s, women have worn their hair in a wide variety of fairly natural styles. In the 1980s, women pulled back their hair with scrunchies, stretchy ponytail holders made from cloth over fabric bands. Women also often wear glittery ornaments today, as well as claw-style barrettes used to secure ponytails and other upswept or partially upswept hairstyles. Today, women and men can choose from a broad range of hairstyles, but they are still expected to wear their hair in ways that conform to gender norms: in much of the world, men with long hair and women whose hair does not appear carefully groomed may face various forms of discrimination, including harassment, social shaming or workplace discrimination. This is somewhat less true of African-American men, who wear their hair in a variety of styles that overlap with those of African-American women, including box braids and cornrows fastened with rubber bands and dreadlocks.


title: Hairstyle

text: A hairstyle's aesthetic considerations may be determined by many factors, such as the subject's physical attributes and desired self-image and/or the stylist's artistic instincts.


title: Hairstyle

text: Physical factors include natural hair type and growth patterns, face and head shape from various angles, and overall body proportions; medical considerations may also apply. Self-image may be directed toward conforming to mainstream values (military-style crew cuts or current "fad" hairstyles such as the Dido flip), identifying with distinctively groomed subgroups (e.g., punk hair), or obeying religious dictates (e.g., Orthodox Jewish have payot, Rastafari have Dreadlocks, North India jatas, or the Sikh practice of Kesh), though this is highly contextual such that "mainstream" look in one setting may be limited to a "subgroup" in another.


title: Hairstyle

text: A hairstyle is achieved by arranging hair in a certain way, occasionally using combs, a blow-dryer, gel, or other products. The practice of styling hair is often called "hairdressing", especially when done as an occupation.


title: Hairstyle

text: Hairstyling may also include adding accessories (such as headbands or barrettes) to the hair to hold it in place, enhance its ornamental appearance, or partially or fully conceal it with coverings such as a kippa, hijab, tam or turban.


title: Hairstyle

text: Hair dressing may include cuts, weaves, coloring, extensions, perms, permanent relaxers, curling, and any other form of styling or texturing.


title: Hairstyle

text: Stylists often wash a subject's hair first, so that the hair is cut while still slightly damp. Compared to dry hair, wet hair can be easier to manage in a cut/style situation because the added weight and surface tension of the water cause the strands to stretch downward and cling together along the hair's length, holding a line and making it easier for the stylist to create a form. It is important to note that this method of cutting hair while wet, may be most suitable (or common) for straight hair types. Curly, kinky and other types of hair textures with considerable volume may benefit from cutting while dry, as the hair is in a more natural state and the hair can be cut evenly.


title: Hairstyle

text: Hair cutting or hair trimming is intended to create or maintain a specific shape and form. There are ways to trim one's own hair but usually another person is enlisted to perform the process, as it is difficult to maintain symmetry while cutting hair at the back of one's head.


title: Hairstyle

text: Cutting hair is often done with hair clipper, scissors, and razors. Combs and hair grips are often employed to isolate a section of hair which is then trimmed.


title: Hairstyle

text: Brushes and combs are used to organize and untangle the hair, encouraging all of the strands to lie in the same direction and removing debris such as lint, dandruff, or hairs that have already shed from their follicles but continue to cling to the other hairs.


title: Hairstyle

text: There are all manner of detangling tools available in a wide variety of price ranges. Combs come in all shapes and sizes and all manner of materials including plastics, wood, and horn. Similarly, brushes also come in all sizes and shapes, including various paddle shapes. Most benefit from using some form of a wide tooth comb for detangling. Most physicians advise against sharing hair care instruments like combs and clips, to prevent spreading hair conditions like dandruff and head lice.


title: Hairstyle

text: The historical dictum to brush hair with one hundred strokes every day is somewhat archaic, dating from a time when hair was washed less frequently; the brushstrokes would spread the scalp's natural oils down through the hair, creating a protective effect. Now, however, this does not apply when the natural oils have been washed off by frequent shampoos. Also, hairbrushes are now usually made with rigid plastic bristles instead of the natural boar's bristles that were once standard; the plastic bristles increase the likelihood of actually injuring the scalp and hair with excessively vigorous brushing. However, traditional brushes with boar's bristles are still commonly used among African Americans and those with coarse or kinky textures to soften and lay down curls and waves.


title: Hairstyle

text: Hair dryers speed the drying process of hair by blowing air, which is usually heated, over the wet hair shaft to accelerate the rate of water evaporation.


title: Hairstyle

text: Excessive heat may increase the rate of shaft-splitting or other damage to the hair. Hair dryer diffusers can be used to widen the stream of air flow so it is weaker but covers a larger area of the hair.


title: Hairstyle

text: Hair dryers can also be used as a tool to sculpt the hair to a very slight degree. Proper technique involves aiming the dryer such that the air does not blow onto the face or scalp, which can cause burns.


title: Hairstyle

text: Tight or frequent braiding may pull at the hair roots and cause traction alopecia. Rubber bands with metal clasps or tight clips, which bend the hair shaft at extreme angles, can have the same effect.


title: Hairstyle

text: An "updo" is a hair style that involves arranging the hair so that it is pointing up. It can be as simple as a ponytail, but is more commonly associated with more elaborate styles intended for special occasions such as a prom or weddings.


title: Hairstyle

text: If hair is pinned too tightly, or the whole updo slips causing pulling on the hair in the follicle at the hair root, it can cause aggravation to the hair follicle and result in headaches. Although some people of African heritage may use braiding extensions (long term braiding hairstyle) as a form of convenience and/or as a reflection of personal style, it is important not to keep the braids up longer than needed to avoid hair breakage or hair loss. Proper braiding technique and maintenance can result in no hair damage even with repeated braid styles.


title: Hairstyle

text: Curling and straightening hair requires the stylist to use a curling rod or a flat iron to get a desired look. These irons use heat to manipulate the hair into a variety of waves, curls and reversing natural curls and temporarily straightening the hair. Straightening or even curling hair can damage it due to direct heat from the iron and applying chemicals afterwards to keep its shape.


title: Hairstyle

text: There are irons that have a function to straighten or curl hair even when it's damp (from showering or wetting the hair), but this requires more heat than the average iron (temperatures can range from 300 to 450 degrees). Heat protection sprays and hair-repairing shampoos and conditioners can protect hair from damage caused by the direct heat from the irons.


title: Hairstyle

text: Hair styling is a major world industry, from the salon itself to products, advertising, and even magazines on the subject. In the United States, most hairstylists are licensed after obtaining training at a cosmetology or beauty school.


title: Hairstyle

text: In recent years, competitive events for professional stylists have grown in popularity. Stylists compete on deadline to create the most elaborate hairstyle using props, lights and other accessories.


title: Hairstyle

text: Styling tools may include hair irons (including flat, curling, and crimping irons), hair dryers, hair brushes and hair rollers. Hair dressing might also include the use of hair product to add texture, shine, curl, volume or hold to a particular style. Hairpins are also used when creating particular hairstyles. Their uses and designs vary over different cultural backgrounds.


title: Hairstyle

text: Styling products aside from shampoo and conditioner are many and varied. Leave-in conditioner, conditioning treatments, mousse, gels, lotions, waxes, creams, clays, serums, oils, and sprays are used to change the texture or shape of the hair, or to hold it in place in a certain style. Applied properly, most styling products will not damage the hair apart from drying it out; most styling products contain alcohols, which can dissolve oils. Many hair products contain chemicals which can cause build-up, resulting in dull hair or a change in perceived texture.


title: Hairstyle

text: Care of human or other natural hair wigs is similar to care of a normal head of hair in that the wig can be brushed, styled, and kept clean using haircare products. Wigs can serve as a form of protective styling that allows freedom of control of the hairstyling.


title: Hairstyle

text: Synthetic wigs are usually made from a fine fiber that mimics human hair. This fiber can be made in almost any color and hairstyle, and is often glossier than human hair. However, this fiber is sensitive to heat and cannot be styled with flat irons or curling irons. There is a newer synthetic fiber that can take heat up to a certain temperature.


title: Hairstyle

text: Human hair wigs can be styled with heat, and they must be brushed only when dry. Synthetic and human hair wigs should be brushed dry before shampooing to remove tangles. To clean the wig, the wig should be dipped into a container with water and mild shampoo, then dipped in clear water and moved up and down to remove excess water. The wig must then be air dried naturally into its own hairstyle. Proper maintenance can make a human hair wig last for many years.


title: Hairstyle

text: There are many options to embellish and arrange the hair. Hairpins, clasps, barrettes, headbands, ribbons, rubber bands, scrunchies, and combs can be used to achieve a variety of styles. There are also many decorative ornaments that, while they may have clasps to affix them to the hair, are used solely for appearance and do not aid in keeping the hair in place. In India for example, the Gajra (flower garland) is common there are heaps on hair.


title: Hairstyle

text: At most times in most cultures, men have worn their hair in styles that are different from women's. American sociologist Rose Weitz once wrote that the most widespread cultural rule about hair is that women's hair must differ from men's hair. An exception is the men and women living in the Orinoco-Amazon Basin, where traditionally both genders have worn their hair cut into a bowl shape. In Western countries in the 1960s, both young men and young women wore their hair long and natural, and since then it has become more common for men to grow their hair. During most periods in human history when men and women wore similar hairstyles, as in the 1920s and 1960s, it has generated significant social concern and approbation.


title: Hairstyle

text: Hair in religion also plays an important role since women and men, when deciding to dedicate their life to faith, often change their haircut. Catholic nuns often cut their hair very short, and men who joined Catholic monastic orders in the eighth century adopted what was known as the tonsure, which involved shaving the tops of their heads and leaving a ring of hair around the bald crown. Many Buddhists, Hajj pilgrims and Vaisnavas, especially members of the Hare Krishna movement who are "brahmacharis" or "sannyasis", shave their heads. Some Hindu and most Buddhist monks and nuns shave their heads upon entering their order, and Korean Buddhist monks and nuns have their heads shaved every 15 days. Adherents of Sikhism are required to wear their hair unshorn. Women usually wear it in a braid or a bun and men cover it with a turban.


title: Hairstyle

text: In the 1800s, American women started wearing their hair up when they became ready to get married. Among the Fulani people of west Africa, unmarried women wear their hair ornamented with small amber beads and coins, while married women wear large amber ornaments. Marriage is signified among the Toposa women of South Sudan by wearing the hair in many small pigtails. Unmarried Hopi women have traditionally worn a "butterfly" hairstyle characterized by a twist or whorl of hair at each side of the face. Hindu widows in India used to shave their heads as part of their mourning, although this practice has mostly disappeared now.


title: Hairstyle

text: In many cultures, including Hindu culture and among the Wayana people of the Guiana highlands, young people have historically shaved off their hair to denote coming-of-age. Women in India historically have signified adulthood by switching from wearing two braids to one. Among the Rendille of north-eastern Kenya and the Tchikrin people of the Brazilian rainforest, both men and women shave their heads after the death of a close family member. When a man died in ancient Greece, his wife cut off her hair and buried it with him, and in Hindu families, the chief mourner is expected to shave his or her head 3 days after the death.


title: Hairstyle

text: Upper-class people have always used their hairstyles to signal wealth and status. Wealthy Roman women wore complex hairstyles that needed the labours of several people to maintain them, and rich people have also often chosen hairstyles that restricted or burdened their movement, making it obvious that they did not need to work. Wealthy people's hairstyles used to be at the cutting edge of fashion, setting the styles for the less wealthy. But today, the wealthy are generally observed to wear their hair in conservative styles that date back decades prior.


title: Hairstyle

text: Middle-class hairstyles tend to be understated and professional. Middle-class people aspire to have their hair look healthy and natural, implying that they have the resources to live a healthy lifestyle and take good care of themselves.


title: Hairstyle

text: Historically, working-class people's haircuts have tended to be practical and simple. Working-class men have often shaved their heads or worn their hair close-cropped, and working-class women have typically pulled their hair up and off their faces in simple styles. However, today, working-class people often have more elaborate and fashion-conscious hairstyles than other social classes. Many working-class Mexican men in American cities wear their hair in styles like the Mongolian (shaved except for a tuft of hair at the nape of the neck) or the rat tail (crewcut on top, tuft at the nape), and African-Americans often wear their hair in complex patterns of box braids and cornrows, fastened with barrettes and beads, and sometimes including shaved sections or bright colour. Sociologists say these styles are an attempt to express individuality and presence in the face of social denigration and invisibility.


title: Hairstyle

text: Haircuts also occur in the International Space Station. During the various expeditions astronauts use hair clippers attached to vacuum devices for grooming their colleagues so that the cut hair will not drift inside the weightless environment of the space station and become a nuisance to the astronauts or a hazard to the sensitive equipment installations inside the station.


title: Hairstyle

text: Haircutting in space was also used for charitable purposes in the case of astronaut Sunita Williams who obtained such a haircut by fellow astronaut Joan Higginbotham inside the International Space Station. Sunita's ponytail was brought back to earth with the STS-116 crew and was donated to Locks of Love.


title: Phil Murphy

text: Philip Dunton Murphy (born August 16, 1957) is an American financier, diplomat, and politician serving as the 56th governor of New Jersey since January 2018. A member of the Democratic Party, he served as the United States ambassador to Germany from 2009 to 2013 under President Barack Obama.


title: Phil Murphy

text: Murphy had a 23-year career at Goldman Sachs, where he held several high-level positions and accumulated considerable wealth before retiring in 2006. He is involved in many civic organizations and philanthropic pursuits. He served as finance chairman for the Democratic National Committee in the mid-late 2000s under Howard Dean. In the Obama administration, Murphy served as the United States ambassador to Germany from 2009 to 2013, during which time he dealt with the international fallout from the United States diplomatic cables leak.


title: Phil Murphy

text: While planning to run for governor, Murphy and his wife Tammy Murphy launched New Start New Jersey, a progressive organization active from November 2014 to December 2017, intended to increase his political visibility in the state. He defeated then-Lieutenant Governor Kim Guadagno in the 2017 gubernatorial election. In December 2019, Murphy became the chairperson of the Democratic Governors Association, a position he held for a year. Murphy was reelected in 2021, defeating Republican nominee Jack Ciattarelli with 51% of the vote and becoming the first Democratic governor of New Jersey to win a second term since 1977. In July 2022, he became the first National Governors Association chair from New Jersey.


title: Phil Murphy

text: Murphy was born in Needham, Massachusetts, and was raised in both Needham and nearby Newton, the son of Dorothy Louise (Dunton) and Walter F. Murphy.


title: Phil Murphy

text: The family was Irish American, with Phil being third generation. According to Murphy, his household was "middle class on a good day;" by his recollection, his mother, a secretary, and father, a high-school dropout who took any job he could (including liquor store manager and for-pay pallbearer), lived paycheck to paycheck.


title: Phil Murphy

text: Both of his parents were enthusiastic supporters of John F. Kennedy and volunteered for his campaign in the 1952 United States Senate election in Massachusetts. Murphy played soccer as a boy, an interest that stayed with him in later life. His mother believed strongly in the importance of education, and Phil and his three older siblings all earned college degrees.


title: Phil Murphy

text: Murphy graduated from Needham High School, along with Massachusetts Governor Charlie Baker, in 1975. He graduated from Harvard University in 1979 with an AB degree in economics. At Harvard he aspired to become a professional musical theater performer and was elected president of the Hasty Pudding Theatricals, a theatrical student society. He then attended the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School, where he received a MBA in 1983.


title: Phil Murphy

text: Murphy's position at Goldman Sachs when the firm had its IPO brought his net worth above $50 million. By one estimate, reported in "Der Spiegel" in 2009, his wealth after leaving the firm was in the range of several hundred million dollars.


title: Phil Murphy

text: Murphy moved to Middletown Township, New Jersey, in the late 1990s. He and his family live in a riverside estate with a six-figure annual property tax bill. Murphy also owns homes in Germany and Italy.


title: Phil Murphy

text: In 2016 Murphy released five years' worth of federal tax returns. In 2014 he earned about $6 million, paid about $2 million in taxes for an effective tax rate of 34%, and directly or indirectly donated 24% of his income to charity. The returns for the other years showed effective tax rates ranging between 32% and 39%. Murphy's charitable donations during these five years averaged about $980,000 a year. Due to his wealth and the complicated nature of his holdings, his federal tax filings have been known to exceed 300 pages in length.


title: Phil Murphy

text: Murphy began his career with a summer associate internship at Goldman Sachs in 1982. He was hired after graduating in 1983. He rose in the ranks quickly, later attributing that success to his ability to make deals: "Two people may not like each other and can't work together. Their mutual dislike is their problem. I don't let it become mine. I'll be the man in the middle and the three of us can work out something everybody is happy with."


title: Phil Murphy

text: From 1993 to 1997 Murphy headed the firm's Frankfurt office. His business responsibilities were later expanded to encompass Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, as well as in the emerging post-Warsaw Pact economies of Central Europe. In this role he engaged in a number of transactions with the German government's Treuhandanstalt agency, whose purpose was to conduct the privatization of formerly state-owned enterprises within the boundaries of no-longer-extant East Germany. Murphy was also active in the Atlantik-Brücke organization, including co-founding its International Advisor Council.


title: Phil Murphy

text: From 1997 to 1999 Murphy served as the President of Goldman Sachs (Asia). In that capacity, he was officed in Hong Kong. During this time Goldman Sachs profited from its investment in Yue Yuen Industrial Holdings, a shoe manufacturer that became notorious for its harsh labor practices. The $55 million investment was made the year before Murphy took the Asia post and it is unclear to what extent Murphy was aware of the firm's operational characteristics. In 1998 Murphy told the "Wall Street Journal" that "We [at Goldman Sachs] are elite in the sense the Marine Corps is elite".


title: Phil Murphy

text: In 1999 Murphy secured a spot on the firm's Management Committee. There his colleagues included Hank Paulson and Gary Cohn, both of whom later served at highest levels of the federal government. This coincided with the ; the repeal allowed Murphy and his colleagues to make much greater use of leverage and profoundly changed how the company generated profits.


title: Phil Murphy

text: In 2001 Murphy became global co-head of the firm's Investment Management Division. This unit oversaw the investments of foundations, pensions, hedge funds, and wealthy personages, and by 2003 had amassed $373 billion in holdings. Hedge funds, in particular, received large lines of credit from Murphy's unit. Another company initiative that Murphy helped to undertake was the unit that did major business in the emerging markets within the EMEA region.


title: Phil Murphy

text: In 2003 Murphy's day-to-day responsibilities at the firm ended, and he became a Senior Director of the firm. He retired in 2005–06. Murphy spent 23 years at Goldman Sachs in all.


title: Phil Murphy

text: After leaving Goldman Sachs, Murphy served from 2006 to 2009 as the National Finance Chair of the Democratic National Committee (DNC), where he worked with DNC Chair Howard Dean. Murphy liked both Dean's vision for the party and the discipline Dean brought to the task, and the two became close friends.


title: Phil Murphy

text: It was Murphy who financed Dean's "50-state strategy". The strategy was opposed by powerful Democrats in Congress such as Charles Schumer and Rahm Emanuel, but Murphy refused to visibly engage in this dispute, saying, "I'm a sucker for the view that you have it out in the locker room, not in public." Former Goldman Sachs colleague and U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Robert Rubin said of Murphy's ability to handle the new position, "He has very substantial technical expertise from his corporate finance work, but he combines that with a wonderful facility for dealing with people." Dean later said that Murphy well learned the lesson not all such figures of commerce understand: that while in business you can command people to do things, in politics things are never so simple.


title: Phil Murphy

text: During his first year, Murphy focused on gaining donations from his contacts from his university years and Goldman Sachs; within that year he was able to substantially reduce the DNC's gap with the Republican National Committee. In all, Murphy says he raised $300 million for the DNC.


title: Phil Murphy

text: Murphy was also a big donor to Democratic candidates, giving them almost $1.5 million by 2009. This included modest contributions to individual candidates and several six-figure sums to party committees. During the hotly contested 2008 Democratic presidential primaries he was a superdelegate but remained uncommitted for most of the contest.


title: Phil Murphy

text: Murphy has been appointed to the boards or committees of various civic or philanthropic groups. Among these are the NAACP, the Local Initiatives Support Corporation, the Center for American Progress, 180 Turning Lives Around, and several programs of the University of Pennsylvania such as the Huntsman Program in International Studies and Business and the Wharton School Graduate Executive and Asian Program. Other such entities include the Goldman Sachs Foundation, the Investment Company Institute, and Prosperity New Jersey. He has served as the grand marshal of the St. Patrick's Day Parade in Rumson, New Jersey, several times.


title: Phil Murphy

text: Murphy has helped lead local charities to support troubled teens and domestic abuse survivors. He and his wife founded 2nd Floor, a teen helpline in New Jersey that had fielded 700,000 calls by 2015 and that has helped save lives.


title: Phil Murphy

text: In 2004-05 Murphy co-chaired a national task force on 21st-century public education for the Center for American Progress that featured fellow co-chairs Governor of Arizona Janet Napolitano and academic and civil rights figure Roger Wilkins.


title: Phil Murphy

text: The Renewing Our Schools, Securing Our Future task force issued a report called "Getting Smarter, Becoming Fairer: A Progressive Education Agenda For A Stronger Nation". It called for a longer school day, a reorganized school year, and extending learning scenarios to the pre-kindergarten and post-high school domains.


title: Phil Murphy

text: The Murphy family's time in Germany made them all soccer enthusiasts. Murphy has served on the boards of the U.S. Soccer Foundation and the U.S. Soccer Federation World Cup Bid Committee for 2018 and 2022. He owns a stake in the professional New Jersey women's soccer club Sky Blue FC; he has said that he knows the club is a money-losing venture but that he wanted to show his soccer-playing daughter that women's professional soccer can exist in the United States.


title: Phil Murphy

text: In May 2005 Acting Governor Richard Codey named Murphy to chair the New Jersey Benefits Task Force on public sector employee benefits in response to the New Jersey pension crisis, a particularly long-running instance of the state-level pensions crises taking place nationwide.


title: Phil Murphy

text: The task force reported its findings in December 2005. By this time Murphy was already considered to be retired from Goldman Sachs. The report decried past state practices, saying that "gimmicks" had been constructed instead of genuine solutions.


title: Phil Murphy

text: As chair, Murphy recommended the sale of publicly owned assets. For the most part that did not happen, but some of his other suggestions, such as raising the age of retirement and recalculating how pensions related to salary earned, were taken. Labor unions opposed the recommendations, with leader Carla Katz saying, "We will fight vigorously and loudly against any cuts to our pensions or health benefits proposed by the task force." The "New York Times" wrote that "no matter what happens, the report's legacy may well be that it tried to tackle the issues head-on."


title: Phil Murphy

text: Murphy served as United States Ambassador to Germany under President Barack Obama from 2009 to 2013. The possibility of his being named to the post was first reported by "Spiegel Online International" in May 2009. The former U.S. Ambassador John Kornblum supported the choice, saying, "Murphy has been involved in German-American relations for many years. He's a good choice." An agrément was issued, and Obama formally nominated him to the position on July 9. Murphy was confirmed by the United States Senate on August 7, and appeared with his family in Berlin on August 21. That they arrived in an expensive Gulfstream V executive jet irked Chancellor Merkel, who saw it as evidence of the long practice of presidents awarding wealthy donors with ambassadorships. Murphy presented his credentials in Berlin to German President Horst Koehler on September 3, which the State Department considers his effective start date. He was sworn into the position on September 13.


title: Phil Murphy

text: During his tenure, Murphy promoted American trade and focused on engaging Germany's youth through town hall meetings, exchange programs, and social media communication. He said, "The legacy of our time together in Germany will be measured by how well we 'set the table' for tomorrow, by how deeply today's youth understand the ongoing relevance of the transatlantic bridge. They are tomorrow's leaders and our investment in their future is our highest priority." In doing so he paid particular attention to children who had immigrated to Germany, who rarely had the opportunity to meet Americans.


title: Phil Murphy

text: The United States diplomatic cables leak, published by WikiLeaks in 2010, contained negative statements Murphy signed about senior German politicians, including a remark by Murphy that Merkel was "insecure" and unfavorable comments by embassy staff about Guido Westerwelle, the German foreign minister. Some German officials expressed desire that Murphy be recalled. In response, Murphy appeared on German television outlets such as ZDF in an attempt at damage control. In "Spiegel Online", he said, "I'm a big boy. At the end of the day, the buck stops with me," and that he would not "apologize for one speck" of what his staff had done. On December 5, he apologized for the leak in Welt am Sonntag. Murphy later said that the episode was "incredibly awkward and embarrassing" but that the two countries worked through it, and that in the end Germany-United States relations were stronger than ever.


title: Phil Murphy

text: Regarding the European debt crisis, Murphy said in 2013, "The big debate in Europe, which I think is a false debate, is either fiscal consolidation or growth. And the reality is that Europe needs both: it needs fiscal consolidation and growth." Regarding economic differences between the nations, he said, "Germany believes strongly that the first order of business is to cut your debts and deficits and from that, good things will come. We're more likely to say a little bit of stimulus will jump-start things, even if it means incurring more debt. But you work your way through those issues."


title: Phil Murphy

text: On May 29, 2013, it was announced that Murphy was stepping down from the post. He was still ambassador as of July 3; he returned to the United States at some point during July and formally stayed in the role until his mission terminated on August 26.


title: Phil Murphy

text: Murphy was mentioned as a potential candidate in the 2013 New Jersey gubernatorial election, but did not run. Rather, upon returning to the United States he returned to Murphy Endeavors LLC, a business management consultancy firm, of which he was the principal, with offices in Red Bank, New Jersey. He started the firm in 2009 after leaving the DNC position, but it was soon put on hold due to his ambassadorial nomination. He also gave speeches about his experiences in Germany, especially in connection with the 25th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall.


title: Phil Murphy

text: In 2014 Murphy created New Start New Jersey, a nonprofit progressive policy think tank that held a number of events around New Jersey. His wife was co-founder, chair, and secretary. The organization said it would neither endorse nor fund political candidates, as it was barred from doing so, but it did serve to raise Murphy's political visibility. Its events included an appearance by singer Jon Bon Jovi. One of its goals was to help displaced workers back into the work force. (Making reference to visibility, in 2016 hacked Podesta emails revealed that Murphy was already seriously considering a run for governor when the organization was founded, telling Podesta that his ambitions were ""very" serious but not yet committed" and that the new entity would improve his name recognition.)


title: Phil Murphy

text: In September 2015 Murphy launched a progressive organization named New Way for New Jersey, which held a number of town halls, including some by telephone on Sunday evenings, and encouraged Democrats to sign petitions critical of incumbent Governor Chris Christie. Unlike New Start New Jersey, New Way for New Jersey was an explicitly political organization.


title: Phil Murphy

text: On March 2, 2016, Murphy's organization New Way for New Jersey launched a petition that criticized Christie for neglecting his duties as governor due to his travel and support of Donald Trump's presidential campaign. The group implored Christie to "do your job or quit". Murphy supported Hillary Clinton in the 2016 Democratic primary and fundraised for her.


title: Phil Murphy

text: After Murphy announced his candidacy for governor, New Way for New Jersey folded. New Start New Jersey continued, albeit without Murphy on its board.


title: Phil Murphy

text: In May 2016 Murphy announced his candidacy for the Democratic nomination in the 2017 New Jersey gubernatorial election. He became the race's first announced candidate. He said of his rationale, "I am running for governor because New Jersey desperately needs adult leadership that puts our people first."


title: Phil Murphy

text: Announcing so early was unusual. Comparisons with unpopular former governor Jon Corzine, another wealthy former Goldman Sachs executive, were a challenge Murphy had to meet. Murphy also began the campaign with little name recognition. He initially planned to lend $10 million to the campaign but to also aggressively fund-raise. He said he would accept no so-called dark money and that "I'm holding our campaign to a higher standard."


title: Phil Murphy

text: Murphy was the first declared Democratic candidate for governor, although several other candidates were expected to run. Jersey City Mayor Steven Fulop, Assemblyman John Wisniewski of Sayreville, State Senator Raymond Lesniak, and State Senate President Stephen M. Sweeney of Gloucester County were often mentioned in news media along with other candidates. Fulop and Sweeney were geographic rivals, and in terms of state party organizational support, Max Pizarro of the "New York Observer" characterized Murphy as "everyone's number two choice. If Fulop or Sweeney stumbles, Murphy could rocket from zero to 100 overnight."


title: Phil Murphy

text: On September 28, 2016, Fulop announced he would not run for governor and endorsed Murphy. On October 6, Sweeney announced he too would not run, citing apparent party support for Murphy, whom he endorsed. The move came as Murphy was corralling dozens of endorsements, including all of those from North Jersey county party committees and the most populous Central Jersey county committees.


title: Phil Murphy

text: As a result of these withdrawals Murphy became the clear front-runner for the nomination, but Wisniewski and Lesniak, the two best-known remaining potential candidates, both said they still intended to run.


title: Phil Murphy

text: After the unexpected result of the 2016 United States presidential election, Murphy noted that the fortunes of the state Democratic Party had improved in the election, saying, "As with so many, I am disappointed by the [presidential] results from Tuesday. But I refuse to be discouraged. And I won't be dissuaded from working to make New Jersey a fairer, more just place for all of us." Murphy subsequently drew criticism from the New Jersey Lieutenant Governor and Republican candidate for governor, Kim Guadagno, for seeming to draw a comparison between the Trump campaign and the early years of the Nazi rise to power in Germany.


title: Phil Murphy

text: On November 15, Wisniewski, who gained visibility as a leader of the Fort Lee lane closure scandal investigations, announced his run for governor. In his message he implicitly criticized Murphy, saying "I'm not a Wall Street executive. I haven't made hundreds of millions of dollars by outsourcing jobs. I've learned the value of public service..."


title: Phil Murphy

text: In January 2017 Murphy was endorsed by New Jersey's two U.S. senators, Bob Menendez and Cory Booker. He also had the endorsements of all 21 county party organizations. In statewide races, these designations offer favorable ballot position, which some voters pick by default, and are often central to success.


title: Phil Murphy

text: By February 2017 Murphy was leading by a solid margin in a Quinnipiac Poll both for the Democratic nomination and in a putative general election matchup against Guadagno. Another poll was less certain, showing most voters undecided.


title: Phil Murphy

text: Two debates with his main Democratic rivals, including former U.S. Treasury official Jim Johnson along with Wiesiewski and Lesniak, were held within a short span of time in May; during the second Murphy found himself under sustained attack by his rivals, but defended himself by staking out very progressive positions. "Politico" wrote, "Underdogs Jim Johnson, Ray Lesniak and John Wisniewski savaged the front-runner, Phil Murphy, accusing him during the 90-minute televised contest of buying off party bosses and being disingenuous on environmental issues." Subsequent campaigning by those three continued to emphasize that Murphy was "buying" the election. Nonetheless, polls continued to show Murphy with a sizable lead over all rivals.