title: Islamic architecture

text: The Deccan sultanates in the southern regions of the Indian subcontinent also developed their local Indo-Islamic Deccani architectural styles, exemplified by monuments such as the Charminar in Hyderabad (1591) and Gol Gumbaz in Bijapur (1656). In the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent, the Bengali region developed a distinct regional style under the independent Bengal Sultanate, which flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. It incorporated influences from Persia, Byzantium and North India, which were with blended indigenous Bengali elements, such as curved roofs, corner towers and complex terracotta ornamentation. One feature in the sultanate was the relative absence of minarets. Many small and medium-sized medieval mosques, with multiple domes and artistic niche mihrabs, were constructed throughout the region. The grand mosque of Bengal was the Adina Mosque (1374–75), the largest mosque in the Indian subcontinent, though partially ruined today. Built of stone demolished from temples, it featured a monumental ribbed barrel vault over the central nave, the first such giant vault used anywhere in the subcontinent. The mosque was modeled on the imperial Sasanian style of Persia. Another exceptional example which survives in present-day Bangladesh is the Sat Gumbaz ("Sixty-Dome") Mosque in Bagerhat (). Later, a provincial style influenced by North India evolved in Mughal Bengal during the 17th and 18th centuries. The Mughals also copied the Bengali "do-chala" roof tradition for mausoleums in North India.


title: Islamic architecture

text: Islam spread gradually in the Malay-Indonesia archipelago from the 12th century onwards, and especially during the 15th century as the Sultanate of Malacca dominated the region. The introduction of Islam was slow and gradual. The advent of Islam did not lead to the introduction of a new building tradition but saw the appropriation of existing architectural forms, which were reinterpreted to suit Muslim requirements. Existing architectural features in Malay-Indonesia such as the candi bentar gate, paduraksa (normally marks the entrance to the most sacred precincts), balai nobat (a tower supposedly used to store royal musical instruments) and the sacred pyramidal roof was used for Islamic architecture. For centuries, Malay-Indonesian mosques lacked domes or minarets, both considered of Middle Eastern origin. Malay-Indonesian original mosques feature multi-layered pyramidal roofs and no minaret. Prayer is called by striking a prayer's drum known as beduk. The minaret of the Menara Kudus Mosque is a great example of Malay-Indonesian architecture. Malay-Indonesian mosque architecture also features strong influence from the Middle Eastern architecture styles. This style of architecture can be found on the design of mosques in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, the Philippines and Thailand. Today, with increasing Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca, Malay-Indonesian mosques are developing a more standard, international style, with a dome and minaret.


title: Islamic architecture

text: The oldest surviving mosque in Indonesia is the Great Mosque of Demak which is the royal mosque of the Sultanate of Demak, although this is not the oldest Islamic structure. The oldest Islamic structure in Indonesia are parts of the royal palace in Sultanate of Cirebon, Cirebon. The palace complex contains a chronogram which can be read as the Saka equivalent of 1454 CE. Early Islamic palaces retain many features of pre-Islamic architecture which is apparent in the gates or drum towers. The Kasepuhan Palace was probably begun in the late pre-Islamic period and continued to grow during the Hinduism-to-Islam transitional period. The complex contains clues to the stages of the process of the gradual changes as Islam become incorporated into Indonesian architecture. Two of the Hindu features adopted into Islam in the Palace is the two types of gateways - the split portal ("candi bentar") which provides access to the public audience pavilion and the lintel gate ("paduraksa") which leads to the frontcourt.


title: Islamic architecture

text: The original mosque in Malaysia had a basic architectural style and structure: with four pillars for the foundation and palm fronds for the roof. In Malacca, the architectural design is a cross between local Malay, Indian and Chinese architecture. Traditionally, the minaret resembles a pagoda with the style of "Balai Nobat". An ancient cemetery also usually lies next to the mosque is where some notable preachers and missionaries are buried.


title: Islamic architecture

text: The first Chinese mosque was established in the seventh century during the Tang Dynasty in Xi'an. The Great Mosque of Xi'an, whose current buildings date from the Ming Dynasty, does not replicate many of the features often associated with traditional mosques. Instead, it follows traditional Chinese architecture. Some Chinese mosques in parts of western China were more likely to incorporate minarets and domes while eastern Chinese mosques were more likely to look like pagodas.


title: Islamic architecture

text: As in other regions, Chinese Islamic architecture reflects the local architecture in its style; some Chinese mosques resemble temples. In western China, mosques resemble those of the Arab World, with tall, slender minarets, curvy arches and dome shaped roofs. In northwest China where the Chinese Hui have built their mosques, there is a combination of eastern and western styles. The mosques have flared Buddhist style roofs set in walled courtyards entered through archways with miniature domes and minarets.


title: Islamic architecture

text: Tatar architecture has evolved through the periods of the Golden Horde, the Tatar khanates and under the rule of the Russian Empire. Many traditional Tatar mosques built by the Volga Tatars have a gabled roof and a minaret placed in the center of the mosque, above the roof, rather than at the side or corner of the building. Examples of such mosques survive from the 18th and 19th centuries and were restored in modern times. This style is also found among the wooden mosques of the Lithuanian Tatars, whose mosque architecture was influenced by the Kazan (Volga) Tatars. Another type of mosque, with a domed roof and a minaret standing above the entrance, appeared in the mid-19th century.


title: Islamic architecture

text: In West Africa, Muslim merchants played a vital role in the Western Sahel region since the Kingdom of Ghana. At Kumbi Saleh, locals lived in domed-shaped dwellings in the king's section of the city, surrounded by a great enclosure. Traders lived in stone houses in a section which possessed 12 beautiful mosques (as described by al-bakri), one centered on Friday prayer. The king is said to have owned several mansions, one of which was 66 feet long, 42 feet wide, contained seven rooms, was two stories high, and had a staircase; with the walls and chambers filled with sculpture and painting. Sahelian architecture initially grew from the two cities of Djenné and Timbuktu. The Sankore Mosque in Timbuktu, constructed from mud on timber, was similar in style to the Great Mosque of Djenné.


title: Islamic architecture

text: The spread of Islam in the early medieval era of Somalia's history brought Islamic architectural influences from Arabia and Persia, which stimulated a shift from drystone and other related materials in construction to coral stone, sundried bricks, and the widespread use of limestone in Somali architecture. Many of the new architectural designs such as mosques were built on the ruins of older structures, a practice that would continue over and over again throughout the following centuries. Concordant with the ancient presence of Islam in the Horn of Africa region, mosques in Somalia are some of the oldest on the entire continent. One architectural feature that made Somali mosques distinct from other mosques in Africa were minarets.


title: Islamic architecture

text: For centuries, Arba Rukun (1269), the Friday mosque of Merca (1609) and Fakr ad-Din (1269) were, in fact, the only mosques in East Africa to have minarets. Fakr ad-Din, which dates back to the Mogadishan Golden Age, was built with marble and coral stone and included a compact rectangular plan with a domed mihrab axis. Glazed tiles were also used in the decoration of the mihrab, one of which bears a dated inscription. The 13th century "Al Gami University" consisted of a rectangular base with a large cylindrical tower architecturally unique in the Islamic world.


title: Islamic architecture

text: Shrines to honor Somali patriarchs and matriarchs evolved from ancient Somali burial customs. In Southern Somalia the preferred medieval shrine architecture was the Pillar tomb style while the North predominantly built structures consisting of domes and square plans.


title: Islamic architecture

text: In modern times, the architecture of Islamic buildings, not just religious ones, has gone through some changes. The new architectural style doesn't stick with the same fundamental aspects that were seen in the past, but mosques for the most part still feature the same parts—the "miḥrāb" (), the minarets, four-iwan plan, and the "pishtaq". A difference to note is the appearance of mosques without domes, as in the past mosques for the most part all had them, but these new dome-less mosques seem to follow a function over form design, and are created by those not of the Islamic faith, in most cases. The influence of Islam still pervades the style of creation itself, and provides a 'conceptual framework', for the making of a building that exemplifies the styles and beliefs of Islam. It has also been influenced by the now meeting of many different cultures, such as European styles meeting Islamic styles, leading to Islamic architects incorporating features of other architectural and cultural styles.


title: Islamic architecture

text: Urban design and the tradition of Islamic styled architecture have begun to combine to form a new 'neo-Islamic' style, where the efficiency of the urban style meshes with the spirituality and aesthetic characteristics of Islamic styles. Islamic Architecture in itself is a style that showcases the values, and the culture of Islam, but in modern times sticking to tradition is falling out of practice, so a combination style formed. Examples showing this are places such as the Marrakesh Menara Airport, the Islamic Cultural Center and Museum of Tolerance, "Masjid Permata Qolbu", the concept for The Vanishing Mosque, and the "Mazar-e-Quaid." All of these buildings show the influence of Islam over them, but also the movements of things like minimalism which are rising to popularity in the architectural field. Designers that use the aspects of both modern styles and the Islamic styles found a way to have the Western-inspired modernism with the classical cultural aspects of Islamic architecture. This concept though brings up the controversy of the identity of the Islamic community, of the traditional Islamic community, within a space that doesn't follow the way they knew it.


title: Islamic architecture

text: There are some who also debate whether Islamic Architecture can truly be called a style, as the religious aspect is seen as separate and having no bearing on the architectural style, while on the other side people also argue that the newfound trend and divergence from the style of old Islamic Architecture is what is causing the style to lose its status. There are scholars that also believe that the distinguishing features of the Islamic Architecture style were not necessarily found within the architecture, but were rather environmental markers, such as the sounds of prayer, the city around it, the events that occurred there. The example given is that we can only truly know that a building is a mosque by what happens there, rather than by visual cues. Specific features that are notably related to Islamic Architecture#—the Mihrab, the Minaret, and the Gate#—are seen in multiple locations and do not always serve the same use, and symbolism for being Islamic in nature is seen to be demonstrated more culturally than it is architecturally. Islamic Architecture is also sometimes referred to as a 'hidden architecture', one that doesn't necessarily show the physical traits of the style, rather it is something that is experienced.


title: Islamic architecture

text: Islamic architecture is a neglected subject within historical studies of world architecture. Many scholars that study historical architecture often gloss over, if not completely ignore Islamic structures. This is caused by multiple elements, one being that there are little historic literary works that express an Islamic architect's motives with their structures. Due to the wide geographic range of the Islamic religion, there is a large variation between thousands of existing mosques with little consistency between them. Lastly, since it is against the Islamic faith to idolize earthly beings, any depictions of earthly beings lack religious connection. These characteristics combine to make it difficult for historians to form symbolic connections from architecture in Islamic places of worship. Some authors have attempted to ascribe mystical or mathematical symbolisms to various aspects Islamic architecture. However, while these symbolic meanings may be plausible for certain specific buildings, they are not necessarily applicable to the rest of Islamic architecture.


title: Islamic architecture

text: Unlike Christianity, Islam does not sensationalize living beings because it is viewed as a conflict with the Qur'an. From an Islamic viewpoint, anything created by God is under his order and thus should not be idolized. This leaves typical religious Western symbols out of the picture, and replaces them with an emphasis on complex geometrical shapes and patterns.


title: Islamic architecture

text: There are several aspects of Islamic architecture that to modern knowledge lack a symbolic religious meaning, but there are connections that do exist. A repeated and significant motif in mosques is calligraphy. Calligraphy plays a huge role in delivering religious connections through artistic design. Calligraphy, in a mosque setting, is specifically used to reference excerpts from both the Qur'an and Muhammad's teachings. These references are one of the few religious connections architects include within their work.


title: Islamic architecture

text: Islamic architecture varies vastly across the world. Specifically, some mosques have different goals and intentions than others. These intentions often highlighted religious and social hierarchies within the mosque. Mosques are designed to have the least significant portions of the layout closest to the entrance, as people move deeper into the building more significant religious areas are revealed. Hierarchy is also present because certain Islamic architects are tasked to design specifically for the presence of royalty, although in Islamic belief all Muslims in the mosque are equal. Designated locations had been carefully chosen in the mosque to highlight an individual's position in society. This emphasis could be made by being within view to all attendees, by being placed in the focal point of artistry, or with a maqsurah.


title: Islamic architecture

text: Maintaining a sociological hierarchy within a mosque would typically represent a recognition by a higher being aware of a delegation of power. This hierarchy does exist but not with any sort of religious message as Hillenbrand points out, "in neither case is this hierarchy employed for especially portentous ends." Hierarchy exists in the church in different forms, but is meant for purely functional purposes.


title: Islamic architecture

text: Deeper meanings in Islamic architecture often take form as functional purposes. For example, mosques are built around the idea that it should not just be a place of mesmerizing aesthetics, but a place where the aesthetics' fluidity guide the person into proper worship.


title: Islamic architecture

text: A key feature of the mosque is the mihrab, a universal part of any Islamic place of worship. The mihrab is easily identifiable through a receding wall and a gable overhead often consisting of intricate patterns. Upon entering, the most crucial religious function the architecture of the mosque serves to deliver is the "qibla". The "qibla" is necessary for proper Islamic worship, and is revealed through architectural means.


title: Islamic architecture

text: Some prominent examples of Islamic architecture, like the Citadel and Great Mosque of Aleppo, have suffered significant damage in the ongoing Syrian Civil War and other wars in the Middle East.<ref name="unesco 20/6/13"></ref>


title: Cluster headache

text: Cluster headache (CH) is a neurological disorder characterized by recurrent severe headaches on one side of the head, typically around the eye(s). There is often accompanying eye watering, nasal congestion, or swelling around the eye on the affected side. These symptoms typically last 15 minutes to 3 hours. Attacks often occur in clusters which typically last for weeks or months and occasionally more than a year.


title: Cluster headache

text: The cause is unknown. Risk factors include a history of exposure to tobacco smoke and a family history of the condition. Exposures which may trigger attacks include alcohol, nitroglycerin, and histamine. They are a primary headache disorder of the trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias type. Diagnosis is based on symptoms.


title: Cluster headache

text: Recommended management includes lifestyle adaptations such as avoiding potential triggers. Treatments for acute attacks include oxygen or a fast-acting triptan. Measures recommended to decrease the frequency of attacks include steroid injections, civamide, or verapamil. Nerve stimulation or surgery may occasionally be used if other measures are not effective.


title: Cluster headache

text: The condition affects about 0.1% of the general population at some point in their life and 0.05% in any given year. The condition usually first occurs between 20 and 40 years of age. Men are affected about four times more often than women. Cluster headaches are named for the occurrence of groups of headache attacks (clusters). They have also been referred to as "suicide headaches".


title: Cluster headache

text: Cluster headaches are recurring bouts of severe unilateral headache attacks. The duration of a typical CH attack ranges from about 15 to 180 minutes. About 75% of untreated attacks last less than 60 minutes. However, females may have longer and more severe CH.


title: Cluster headache

text: The onset of an attack is rapid and typically without an aura. Preliminary sensations of pain in the general area of attack, referred to as "shadows", may signal an imminent CH, or these symptoms may linger after an attack has passed, or between attacks. Though CH is strictly unilateral, there are some documented cases of "side-shift" between cluster periods, or, rarely, simultaneous (within the same cluster period) bilateral cluster headaches.


title: Cluster headache

text: The pain occurs only on one side of the head, around the eye, particularly behind or above the eye, in the temple. The pain is typically greater than in other headache conditions, including migraines, and is usually described as burning, stabbing, drilling or squeezing. While suicide is rare, those with cluster headaches may experience suicidal thoughts (giving the alternative name "suicide headache" or "suicidal headache"). The term "headache" does not adequately convey the severity of the condition; the disease may be the most painful condition known to medical science.


title: Cluster headache

text: Dr. Peter Goadsby, Professor of Clinical Neurology at University College London, a leading researcher on the condition has commented:


title: Cluster headache

text: The typical symptoms of cluster headache include grouped occurrence and recurrence (cluster) of headache attack, severe unilateral orbital, supraorbital and/or temporal pain. If left untreated, attack frequency may range from one attack every two days to eight attacks per day. Cluster headache attack is accompanied by at least one of the following autonomic symptoms: drooping eyelid, pupil constriction, redness of the conjunctiva, tearing, runny nose and less commonly, facial blushing, swelling, or sweating, typically appearing on the same side of the head as the pain. Similar to a migraine, sensitivity to light (photophobia) or noise (phonophobia) may occur during a CH. Nausea is a rare symptom although it has been reported.


title: Cluster headache

text: Restlessness (for example, pacing or rocking back and forth) may occur. Secondary effects may include the inability to organize thoughts and plans, physical exhaustion, confusion, agitation, aggressiveness, depression, and anxiety.


title: Cluster headache

text: People with CH may dread facing another headache and adjust their physical or social activities around a possible future occurrence. Likewise they may seek assistance to accomplish what would otherwise be normal tasks. They may hesitate to make plans because of the regularity, or conversely, the unpredictability of the pain schedule. These factors can lead to generalized anxiety disorders, panic disorder, serious depressive disorders, social withdrawal and isolation.


title: Cluster headache

text: Cluster headaches may occasionally be referred to as "alarm clock headache" because of the regularity of their recurrence. CH attacks often awaken individuals from sleep. Both individual attacks and the cluster grouping can have a metronomic regularity; attacks typically striking at a precise time of day each morning or night. The recurrence of headache cluster grouping may occur more often around solstices, or seasonal changes, sometimes showing circannual periodicity. Conversely, attack frequency may be highly unpredictable, showing no periodicity at all. These observations have prompted researchers to speculate an involvement or dysfunction of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus controls the body's "biological clock" and circadian rhythm. In episodic cluster headache, attacks occur once or more daily, often at the same time each day for a period of several weeks, followed by a headache-free period lasting weeks, months, or years. Approximately 10–15% of cluster headaches are chronic, with multiple headaches occurring every day for years, sometimes without any remission.


title: Cluster headache

text: In accordance with the International Headache Society (IHS) diagnostic criteria, cluster headaches occurring in two or more cluster periods, lasting from 7 to 365 days with a pain-free remission of one month or longer between the headache attacks may be classified as episodic. If headache attacks occur for more than a year without pain-free remission of at least one month, the condition is classified as chronic.


title: Cluster headache

text: Chronic CH both occurs and recurs without any remission periods between cycles; there may be variation in cycles, meaning the frequency and severity of attacks may change without predictability for a period of time. The frequency, severity, and duration of headache attacks experienced by people during these cycles varies between individuals and does not demonstrate complete remission of the episodic form. The condition may change unpredictably from chronic to episodic and from episodic to chronic.


title: Cluster headache

text: The cause of cluster headache is unknown. Cluster headaches were historically described as vascular headaches, with the belief that intense pain was caused by dilation of blood vessels which in turn, was thought to create pressure on the trigeminal nerve. The vascular theory has been called into question and other mechanisms are being considered. The Third Edition of the International Classification of Headache disorders classifies CH as belonging to the trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias.


title: Cluster headache

text: Cluster headache may run in some families in an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern. People with a first degree relative with the condition are about 14–48 times more likely to develop it themselves, and around 8 to 10% of persons with CH have a positive family history. Several studies have found a higher number of relatives affected among female. Others have suggested these observations may be due to lower numbers of females in these studies. Possible genetic factors warrant further research, current evidence for genetic inheritance is limited.


title: Cluster headache

text: Genes that are thought to play a role in the disease are the hypocretin/orexin receptor type 2 (HCRTR2), alcohol dehydrogenase 4(ADH4), G protein beta 3 (GNB3), pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide type I receptor (ADCYAP1R1), and membrane metalloendopeptidase (MME) genes.


title: Cluster headache

text: About 65% of persons with CH are, or have been, tobacco smokers. Stopping smoking does not lead to improvement of the condition and CH also occurs in those who have never smoked (e.g. children); it is thought unlikely that smoking is a cause. People with CH may be predisposed to certain traits, including smoking or other lifestyle habits.


title: Cluster headache

text: A review suggests that the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus, which is the major biological clock in the human body, may be involved in cluster headaches, because CH occurs with diurnal and seasonal rhythmicity.


title: Cluster headache

text: Positron emission tomography (PET) scans indicate the brain areas which are activated during attack only, compared to pain free periods. These pictures show brain areas that are active during pain in yellow/orange color (called "pain matrix"). The area in the center (in all three views) is specifically activated during CH only. The bottom row voxel-based morphometry (VBM) shows structural brain differences between individuals with and without CH; only a portion of the hypothalamus is different.


title: Cluster headache

text: A detailed oral history aids practitioners in correct differential diagnosis, as there are no confirmatory tests for CH. A headache diary can be useful in tracking when and where pain occurs, how severe it is, and how long the pain lasts. A record of coping strategies used may help distinguish between headache type; data on frequency, severity and duration of headache attacks are a necessary tool for initial and correct differential diagnosis in headache conditions.


title: Cluster headache

text: Correct diagnosis presents a challenge as the first CH attack may present where staff are not trained in the diagnosis of rare or complex chronic disease. Experienced ER staff are sometimes trained to detect headache types. While CH attacks themselves are not directly life-threatening, suicide ideation has been observed.


title: Cluster headache

text: Individuals with CH typically experience diagnostic delay before correct diagnosis. People are often misdiagnosed due to reported neck, tooth, jaw, and sinus symptoms and may unnecessarily endure many years of referral to ear, nose and throat (ENT) specialists for investigation of sinuses; dentists for tooth assessment; chiropractors and manipulative therapists for treatment; or psychiatrists, psychologists, and other medical disciplines before their headaches are correctly diagnosed. Under-recognition of CH by health care professionals is reflected in consistent findings in Europe and the United States that the average time to diagnosis is around seven years.


title: Cluster headache

text: Cluster headache may be misdiagnosed as migraine or sinusitis. Other types of headache are sometimes mistaken for, or may mimic closely, CH. Incorrect terms like "cluster migraine" confuse headache types, confound differential diagnosis and are often the cause of unnecessary diagnostic delay, ultimately delaying appropriate specialist treatment.


title: Cluster headache

text: Management for cluster headache is divided into three primary categories: abortive, transitional, and preventive. Preventive treatments are used to reduce or eliminate cluster headache attacks; they are generally used in combination with abortive and transitional techniques.


title: Cluster headache

text: The recommended first-line preventive therapy is verapamil, a calcium channel blocker. Verapamil was previously underused in people with cluster headache.


title: Cluster headache

text: Improvement can be seen in an average of 1.7 weeks for episodic CH and 5 weeks for chronic CH when using a dosage of ranged between 160 and 720 mg (mean 240 mg/day). Preventive therapy with verapamil is believed to work because it has an effect on the circadian rhythm and on CGRPs. As CGRP-release is controlled by voltage-gated calcium channels.


title: Cluster headache

text: Since these compounds are steroids, there is little evidence to support long-term benefits from glucocorticoids, but they may be used until other medications take effect as they appear to be effective at three days. They are generally discontinued after 8–10 days of treatment. Prednisone is given at a starting dose of 60–80 milligrams daily; then it is reduced by 5 milligrams every day. Corticosteroids are also used to break cycles, especially in chronic patients.


title: Cluster headache

text: Nerve stimulators may be an option in the small number of people who do not improve with medications. Two procedures, deep brain stimulation or occipital nerve stimulation, may be useful; early experience shows a benefit in about 60% of cases. It typically takes weeks or months for this benefit to appear. A non-invasive method using transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) is being studied.


title: Cluster headache

text: A number of surgical procedures, such as a rhizotomy or microvascular decompression, may also be considered, but evidence to support them is limited and there are cases of people whose symptoms worsen after these procedures.


title: Cluster headache

text: Lithium, methysergide, and topiramate are recommended alternative treatments, although there is little evidence supporting the use of topiramate or methysergide. This is also true for tianeptine, melatonin, and ergotamine. Valproate, sumatriptan, and oxygen are not recommended as preventive measures. Botulinum toxin injections have shown limited success. Evidence for baclofen, botulinum toxin, and capsaicin is unclear.


title: Cluster headache

text: There are two primary treatments for acute CH: oxygen and triptans, but they are underused due to misdiagnosis of the syndrome. During bouts of headaches, triggers such as alcohol, nitroglycerine and naps during the day should be avoided.


title: Cluster headache

text: Oxygen therapy may help to abort attacks, though it does not prevent future episodes. Typically it is given via a non-rebreather mask at 12–15 liters per minute for 15–20 minutes. One review found about 70% of patients improve within 15 minutes. The evidence for effectiveness of 100% oxygen, however, is weak. Hyperbaric oxygen at pressures of ~2 times greater than atmospheric pressure may relieve cluster headaches.


title: Cluster headache

text: The other primarily recommended treatment of acute attacks is subcutaneous or intranasal sumatriptan. Sumatriptan and zolmitriptan have both been shown to improve symptoms during an attack with sumatriptan being superior. Because of the vasoconstrictive side-effect of triptans, they may be contraindicated in people with ischemic heart disease. The vasoconstrictor ergot compounds may be useful, but have not been well studied in acute attacks.


title: Cluster headache

text: The use of opioid medication in management of CH is not recommended and may make headache syndromes worse. Long-term opioid use is associated with well known dependency, addiction, and withdrawal syndromes. Prescription of opioid medication may additionally lead to further delay in differential diagnosis, undertreatment, and mismanagement.


title: Cluster headache

text: Intranasal lidocaine (sprayed in the ipsilateral nostril) may be an effective treatment with patient resistant to more conventional treatment.


title: Cluster headache

text: Octreotide administered subcutaneously has been demonstrated to be more effective than placebo for the treatment of acute attacks.


title: Cluster headache

text: Sub-occipital steroid injections have shown benefit and are recommended for use as a transitional therapy to provide temporary headache relief as more long term prophylactic therapies are instituted.


title: Cluster headache

text: Cluster headache affects about 0.1% of the general population at some point in their life. Males are affected about four times more often than females. The condition usually starts between the ages of 20 and 50 years, although it can occur at any age. About one in five of adults reports the onset of cluster headache between 10 and 19 years.


title: Cluster headache

text: The first complete description of cluster headache was given by the London neurologist Wilfred Harris in 1926, who named the disease "migrainous neuralgia". Descriptions of CH date to 1745 and probably earlier.


title: Cluster headache

text: The condition was originally named Horton's cephalalgia after Bayard Taylor Horton, a US neurologist who postulated the first theory as to their pathogenesis. His original paper describes the severity of the headaches as being able to take normal men and force them to attempt or die by suicide; his 1939 paper said:


title: Cluster headache

text: CH has alternately been called erythroprosopalgia of Bing, ciliary neuralgia, erythromelalgia of the head, Horton's headache, histaminic cephalalgia, petrosal neuralgia, sphenopalatine neuralgia, vidian neuralgia, Sluder's neuralgia, Sluder's syndrome, and hemicrania angioparalyticia.


title: Cluster headache

text: Robert Shapiro, a professor of neurology, says that while cluster headaches are about as common as multiple sclerosis with a similar disability level, as of 2013, the US National Institutes of Health had spent $1.872 billion on research into multiple sclerosis in one decade, but less than $2 million on CH research in 25 years.


title: Cluster headache

text: Some case reports suggest that ingesting tryptamines such as LSD, psilocybin (as found in hallucinogenic mushrooms), or DMT can abort attacks and interrupt cluster headache cycles. The hallucinogen DMT has a chemical structure that is similar to the triptan sumatriptan, indicating a possible shared mechanism in preventing or stopping migraine and TACs. In a 2006 survey of 53 individuals, 18 of 19 psilocybin users reported extended remission periods. The survey was not a blinded or a controlled study, and was "limited by recall and selection bias". The safety and efficacy of psilocybin is currently being studied in cluster headache.


title: Cluster headache

text: Fremanezumab, a humanized monoclonal antibody directed against calcitonin gene-related peptides alpha and beta, is in phase 3 clinical trials for CH.


title: ExtraTorrent

text: ExtraTorrent (commonly abbreviated ET) was an online index of digital content of entertainment media and software. Until its shut down it was among the top 5 BitTorrent indexes in the world, where visitors could search, download and contribute magnet links and torrent files, which facilitate peer-to-peer file sharing among users of the BitTorrent protocol.


title: ExtraTorrent

text: In November 2016, the website celebrated its 10-year anniversary. The website briefly changed their logo with a celebratory theme and launched a contest for users to guess the most downloaded movies on the site in exchange for prizes.


title: ExtraTorrent

text: On 17 May 2017, ExtraTorrent voluntarily ceased operations out of the blue. The entire website was replaced with a message from the administrator, stating that the website was to shut down permanently (as well as all mirror domains), and wipe all data relating to the website and its content. The website was already down for days due to an emergency maintenance situation, just two days before the website shut down permanently.


title: ExtraTorrent

text: At the time of its shutdown, ExtraTorrent's primary domain name was the 291st most viewed website globally, according to statistics from Alexa Internet.


title: ExtraTorrent

text: Shortly after the shutdown of the official ExtraTorrent website, multiple clones and imitations appeared online. Initially, the most popular one of these clones was located at extratorrent.cd. While this was at first speculated to be an official rehosting, it was later discovered to be a re-skinned of The Pirate Bay, serving exact information from their database, under an ExtraTorrent interface. Despite this however, the website still quickly gained a large userbase, reaching two million unique visitors in May 2017. To date, there are no new "official" ExtraTorrent mirrors as the database for the original was wiped during its shutdown in 2017. The site was blocked in Spain in 2019, with the blocking of other similar websites such as Lime Torrents and 1337x. Another one of these prominent imitators is extratorrent.ag, a website that has connections to the operator of eztv.ag (another clone website of the also defunct EZTV release group).


title: Constable

text: A constable is a person holding a particular office, most commonly in criminal law enforcement. The office of constable can vary significantly in different jurisdictions. A constable is commonly the rank of an officer within the police. Other people may be granted powers of a constable without holding this title.


title: Constable

text: Historically, the title comes from the Latin "comes stabuli" (attendant to the stables, literally "count of the stable") and originated from the Roman Empire; originally, the constable was the officer responsible for keeping the horses of a lord or monarch.


title: Constable

text: The title was imported to the monarchies of medieval Europe, and in many countries developed into a high military rank and great officer of State (e.g. the Constable of France, in French "Connétable de France", who was the commander-in-chief of all royal armed forces (second to the king) until prime minister Cardinal Richelieu abolished the charge in 1627).


title: Constable

text: Most constables in modern jurisdictions are law enforcement officers; in the United Kingdom, the Commonwealth of Nations and some Continental European countries, a constable is the lowest rank of police officer (it is also, when preceded by the term "sworn", used to describe any police officer with arrest and other powers), while in the United States a constable is generally an elected peace officer with lesser jurisdiction than a sheriff. However, in the Channel Islands a constable is an elected office-holder at the parish level.


title: Constable

text: Historically, a constable could also refer to a castellan, the officer charged with the defense of a castle. Even today, there is a Constable of the Tower of London.


title: Constable

text: An equivalent position is that of marshal, which derives from Old High German "marah" (horse) and "schalh" (servant), and originally meant "stable keeper", which has a similar etymology.


title: Constable

text: In Australia, as in the United Kingdom, constable is the lowest rank in most police services. It is often categorised into the following from lowest to highest: probationary constable, constable, constable first class, senior constable, leading senior constable. These variations depend on the individual state/territory police force in question.


title: Constable

text: "Senior constable" generally refers to a police officer of the rank above constable and is denoted by way of two chevrons/stripes.


title: Constable

text: The New South Wales Police Force has three grades of senior constable, namely senior constable (two chevrons), incremental senior constable (two chevrons and a horizontal bar) and leading senior constable (two chevrons and two horizontal bars). A senior constable is senior to a constable but junior to an incremental senior constable. promotion to senior constable can occur after a minimum of five years service, one year as a probationary constable in addition to four years as constable and then upon passing probity checks and an exam. Incremental senior constable is attained after ten years of service automatically. One is appointed the rank of leading senior constable on a qualification basis but must have a minimum of seven years service amongst other criteria in order to be eligible. Leading senior constable is a specialist position of which there are limited allocated numbers within any section/unit or local area command. If an officer is transferred to another duty type or station, the officer is then relieved of the position of leading senior constable. It is primarily a position for field training officers who oversee the training and development of inexperienced probationary constables or constables.


title: Constable

text: Within Victoria Police, a senior constable is the rank above a constable while above a senior constable is a leading senior constable. When first introduced into Victoria Police, the leading senior constable was a classification not a rank, somewhat like "detective". Leading senior constables were appointed specifically to assist in the training and mentoring of more junior members. The last round of wage negotiations however saw leading senior constable become a rank in its own right, one that a lot of members will pass on their way from constable to sergeant though it is not strictly necessary and is permissible to be promoted to sergeant direct from senior constable. The general form of address for both senior constable and leading senior constable is "senior" and this is acceptable even in courts.


title: Constable

text: In Canada, as in the United Kingdom, constable is the lowest rank with most law enforcement services, including the Royal Canadian Mounted Police.


title: Constable

text: In Newfoundland the provincial police are the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary whereby all officers are addressed by the term "constable".


title: Constable

text: In addition, the chief officers of some municipal police services in Canada, notably Vancouver Police Department, carry the title of chief constable


title: Constable

text: In Canadian French, constable is translated to "agent", except in the Royal Canadian Mounted Police where it is translated as "gendarme".)


title: Constable

text: Within the Danish Defence, constables are the lowest rank group. The ranks of , and are used for professional enlisted soldiers, sailors and airmen. However, is only used within the army, as both the navy and air force use a specialist rank instead.


title: Constable

text: In the Finnish Police, the lowest rank of police officer is called "nuorempi konstaapeli", translated into English as (junior) constable.


title: Constable

text: The next highest rank (equivalent to a police sergeant in the English-speaking world) is "ylikonstaapeli" ("yli-" "leading"), literally "over-constable".


title: Constable

text: Senior constable is not a rank – it is merely a designation for officers who have served for 18 years.


title: Constable

text: Police constable (abbreviated PC) is the lowest police rank in India, followed by head constable. General law and order being a state subject in India, each state government recruits police constables. A police constable has no shoulder insignia, while a head constable has one strip or one chevron, depending upon the state. In Kerala Police, A Civil Police Officer (abbreviated CPO) rank similar to the Police Constable rank exists. Kerala State Government has changed the nomenclature of Police Constable rank to Civil Police Officer. Similarly Head Constable rank is known as Senior Civil Police Officer. Since each state has its own police force, the uniforms and insignia of the police vary, though the rank structure is the same. The Central Armed Police Forces (CAPF) under the Ministry of Home Affairs of Government of India also maintain the same ranks as state police even though their jurisdiction varies considerably. The constables recruited to CAPF have to do duty all over India. Nearly all the police constables wear khaki-coloured uniforms which indicate that he/she is a police personnel.


title: Constable

text: Generally there are three types of constables in India depending upon unit/wing/branch/section they are attached to. Civil police constables is attached to a police station, traffic police constables for control of road traffic, whereas armed police constables are attached to armed police units. The type of constables are based on nature of duties. The Indian police constables do wide range of duties like patrol, beat system, crime detection, escort of prisoners and VIPs, guarding vital offices and installations, vehicle traffic control on roads, riot control, assisting civil administration during disasters, epidemics and elections as well as other tasks. Generally a police constable does his duty in his jurisdiction area but can be assigned anywhere by his superiors depending on the situation or need. The duty hours of Indian police constables are erratic, many times without weekly off or leave.


title: Constable

text: Police recruitment is based on a written test, physical and medical tests. After appointment all police constables have to undergo compulsory training, duration of training may vary from nine months to one year depending on state. The training and duty of police is physically and mentally strenuous in India.


title: Constable

text: In the Norwegian Police Service the rank was until 2003 the lowest rank in the police, the next ranks being "politioverkonstabel", "politibetjent", "politiførstebetjent", "politioverbetjent" and "politistasjonssjef", "lensmann" or "sysselmannsoverbetjent" (all officially translated as chief superintendent). In 2003, the ranks "politikonstabel", "politioverkonstabel" and "politibetjent" were renamed "politibetjent 1", "politibetjent 2" and "politibetjent 3", where "politibetjent 1" is the entry-level rank for a policeman and most junior rank of the police service. All ranks higher than chief superintendent are commissioned ranks, known simply as "higher ranks," and traditionally required a law degree.


title: Constable

text: The Norwegian Police Service has an integrated prosecution service in which the police lawyers, who all hold higher ranks, require the law degree "candidatus/candidata juris" or "Master of Laws" ("master i rettsvitenskap"), awarded after five or six years of law studies. Following reforms of the police, a law degree is no longer required by law for all higher ranks, although only lawyers can act as prosecutors and supervise criminal investigations, for which reason it is still common for those holding higher ranks to be lawyers. The entry-level rank for a lawyer, junior police prosecutor, outranks the most senior rank for a policeman, chief superintendent, as the former is the most junior of the "higher ranks" whereas the latter is the most senior of the "lower ranks."


title: Constable

text: In 2016 the Royal Norwegian Navy started using the "konstabel" to describe the enlisted ranks in the navy. Other ranks (OR) 2 - 4+ all uses the term "konstabel".


title: Constable

text: In Pakistan, constable and head constable are, respectively, the lowest and second lowest ranks in police force. The police constables in Pakistan do wide range of duties like patrol, crime detection, escort of prisoners and VIPs, vehicle traffic control on roads, riot control, assisting civil administration during disasters, epidemic, elections and other tasks.


title: Constable

text: In Singapore, a police constable (abbreviated to PC) is the lowest rank in the Singapore Police Force.


title: Constable

text: The rank of special constable exists, but is centralised under the Volunteer Special Constabulary in Singapore.


title: Constable

text: The latter usage is mainly used in formal contexts, including legislation such as the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984. By this definition, all police officers are constables, even those that do not hold the actual rank of constable. Thus the head of most police forces is a chief constable, volunteer officers of any rank are known as special constables and some police forces have the word "Constabulary" in their name.


title: Constable

text: Within the police itself, there are three eponymous offices bearing the legal power of constable: police constable, detective constable and special constable. The former two of these are paid, mostly full-time positions, while those holding the role of special constable volunteer their time unpaid and do so around their normal working commitments. The ranks of police constable and detective constable are often abbreviated in everyday use to PC and DC respectively. From 1919 when they were first recruited in the UK, female police officers were distinguished from their male counterparts by the prefix 'woman' before their rank (WPC or WDC). This was officially discontinued in 1999, although is still sometimes used informally by members of the public.


title: Constable

text: Constable is the first rank, one rank below a sergeant and five ranks below chief superintendent in all police forces in the United Kingdom.


title: Constable

text: Within the British Police, all police officers are sworn in as and hold the basic powers of a constable. Upon being sworn in, each officer starts at the rank of constable and is required to undergo a two-year probationary period. Upon successful completion, constables can remain at their current rank, specialise in criminal investigations or one of many other specialist units, or apply for promotion to sergeant, the first supervisory rank. Constables wear an epaulette attached to the uniform, displaying their collar number (also called a shoulder number). Within Greater London's Metropolitan Police, all constables and sergeants display a divisional identifier, as well as an individual number.


title: Constable

text: A new probationary constable within a county police force is paid an annual salary of either £21,402 or £24,780 (dependent on entry route), with this rising to £27,030 after training, reaching a ceiling level of £41,130. Constables within the Metropolitan Police Service and City of London Police are paid an additional London weighting allowance which is currently set at £2,277.


title: Constable

text: The first female constables were employed by railway constabularies during World War I with, for example, the North East Railway Police swearing in four during late 1917. The term woman police constable (WPC) was used across British forces.


title: Constable

text: The rank of detective constable (DC) is a special type but not senior to that of a uniformed constable; the 'detective' prefix identifies the officer as having undertaken and passed the National Investigators' Examination.


title: Constable

text: From 1673 to 1831, a special constable was a citizen who was appointed to act as constable on special occasions, such as to quell a riot. In 1831 this evolved to a permanent volunteer police force. Special constables generally had powers within a designated area. However, legislation changed to give them identical powers as constables that are no longer regional but are enforceable across England and Wales.


title: Constable

text: During World War II, there was an additional volunteer War Reserve Police introduced in 1939, consisting at its height in 1944 of 17,000 War Reserve constables (or WRC, War Reserve Police Constable, WRPC). The rank of WRC/WRPC was dissolved on 31 December 1948, and most of these were then recruited for service as regular or special constables.


title: Constable

text: Head constable is a title for a police sergeant in some Commonwealth police forces. It was also previously a senior rank in the Royal Irish Constabulary, with authority lying somewhere between the ranks of inspector and superintendent in later British and Irish police forces.


title: Constable

text: Legislation existed to appoint constables, but often did not direct how such bodies should operate and what organisational form they should take. The Police Act 1964 standardised arrangements through establishing wider geographical police forces, which merged many constabularies. The Police Act 1964 gave direction on the organisational form of police forces, the appointment of officers and disciplinary matters; in the broadest sense it provided a statutory governance framework. The Act established the 'tripartite' model of policing, which formed police authorities. This established a three-way balance of power between the Authority's Chairman, the Chief Constable and the Home Secretary. This arrangement varied within London for the Metropolitan Police and the City of London Police.


title: Constable

text: The Police Act 1964 was superseded by the Police Act 1996, which contained similar provisions. Further legislation was introduced for the British Transport Police and the Civil Nuclear Constabulary that was similar in defining their organisational form and embedding governance arrangements.


title: Constable

text: Legislation exists allowing specific roles to enjoy the full powers and privileges of a constable while carrying out their duty, though these employees do not hold the office of Constable.


title: Constable

text: Ports, tunnels, Oxford and Cambridge Universities, Epping Forest, Anglican cathedrals (Cathedral constables), and markets can also appoint constables to police on their land. These are often referred to as 'private police forces/constabularies'.


title: Constable

text: Local authorities can appoint constables to enforce local by-laws, as seen in a number of London boroughs.


title: Constable

text: Within Scotland, a grazings constable has powers to manage a crofting common grazings and can be appointed by the Crofting Commission where the crofters fail to appoint a grazings committee. A grazings constable has the same powers as a grazings committee. A grazings constable may receive an annual remuneration which is paid for by the crofters sharing in the common grazings.


title: Constable

text: In Jersey and Guernsey, the elected heads of the Parishes ("paroisse(s)" in French) are titled "constables" ("connétable(s)" in French). The constables are entitled each to carry a silver-tipped baton of office.


title: Constable

text: In Jersey, each parish elects a constable for a three-year mandate to run the parish and also represent the parish in the legislature, the States of Jersey. The constable presides over the Roads Committee, the Conseil Paroissial (Parish Council, the only exception being St. Helier) and Parish Assemblies. The twelve constables also collectively sit as the Comité des Connétables (Committee of Constables). The constable is the titular head of the Honorary Police. With the Roads Inspectors, Roads Committee and other officers, the constable of each parish also carries out the "visites du branchage" twice a year.


title: Constable

text: In Guernsey, each parish elects two constables, the senior constable and the junior constable. Persons elected generally serve a year as junior and then senior constable. The senior constable presides over the Douzaine (Dozen) that runs the parish. The constables are responsible for enforcing the "brancage" (summer hedge-cutting) and also have the power to declare any parishioner insane.


title: Constable

text: In the United States, use of the term constable is inconsistent, and use may even vary within a state. A constable may be an official responsible for service of process: such as summonses and subpoenas for people to appear in court in criminal and/or civil matters. On the other hand, they can be fully empowered law enforcement officers. Constables may also have additional specialized duties unique to the office. In some states, a constable may be appointed by the governor or a judge or magistrate of the court which he or she serves; in others the constable is an elected or appointed position at the state or local level of local government. Their jurisdiction can vary from statewide to county/parish and local township boundaries based on the state's laws.


title: Constable

text: The office developed from its British counterpart during the colonial period. Prior to the modernization of law enforcement which took place in the middle 19th century, local law enforcement was performed by constables and watchmen. Constables were appointed or elected at the local level for specific terms and, like their UK counterparts the parish constable, were not paid and did not wear a uniform. However, they were often paid a fee by the courts for each writ served and warrant executed. Following the example of the British Metropolitan Police established in 1829, the states gradually enacted laws to permit municipalities to establish police departments. This differed from the UK in that the old system was not uniformly abolished in every state. Often the enacting legislation of the state conferred a police officer with the powers of a constable, the most important of these powers being the common law power of arrest. Police and constables exist concurrently in many jurisdictions. Perhaps because of this, the title "constable" is not used for police of any rank. The lowest rank in a police organization would be officer, deputy, patrolman, trooper, and historically, private, depending on the particular organization.


title: Constable

text: In many states, constables do not conduct patrols or preventive policing activities. In such states the office is relatively obscure to its citizens.


title: Constable

text: A constable may be assisted by deputy constables as sworn officers or constable's officers as civil staff, usually as process servers. In some states, villages or towns, an office with similar duties is marshal.


title: Constable

text: The titles of "sparapet" and "spaspet", derived from the ancient Iranian "spahbod", were used to designate the supreme commander of the armed forces in the medieval kingdoms of Armenia and Georgia, respectively.


title: Constable

text: The position of constable originated from the Roman Empire; by the 5th century AD the Count of the Stable () was responsible for the keeping of horses at the imperial court. The West European term "constable" itself was adopted, via the Normans, as "konostaulos" in the Komnenian and Palaiologan periods, when it became a high military office of dignity.


title: Constable

text: Late Roman administrative titles were used by Charlemagne in developing his empire; the position of Constable, along with the similar office of Marshal, spread throughout the emerging states of Western Europe during this period. In most medieval nations, the constable was the highest-ranking officer of the army, and was responsible for the overseeing of martial law.


title: Constable

text: Village-level Chinese officialsknown as "tingzhang" during the Qin and Han dynasties, "lizheng", during the Sui and Tang, "baozheng" during the Song, and "dibao" and "shoubao" during the Qingare sometimes translated constable for their functions of reporting crimes and administering local justice, although they also served as tax agents and notaries.


title: Constable

text: The Constable of France ("Connétable de France"), under the French monarchy, was the First Officer of the Crown of France and was originally responsible for commanding the army. His symbol of office was a longsword held by a hand issuing out of a cloud, a reference to the constable's duty of carrying the king's sword during a coronation ceremony. Some constables were prominent military commanders in the medieval period, such as Bertrand du Guesclin who served from 1370 to 1380.


title: Constable

text: The office of the constable was introduced in England following the Norman Conquest of 1066 and was responsible for the keeping and maintenance of the king's armaments and those of the villages as a measure of protecting individual settlements throughout the country. Some authorities place the origins of constables in England earlier, attributing the creation of the office during the reign of King Alfred (871, A.D.).


title: Constable

text: The office of Lord High Constable, one of the Great Officers of State, was established in the kingdoms of England and Scotland during the reigns of King Stephen (1135–1154) and King David (1124–1154) respectively, and was responsible for the command of the army. The term was also used at the local level within the feudal system however, describing an officer appointed to keep order. One of the first descriptions of one of the legal duties of a constable, that of the collation of evidence, comes from Bracton, a jurist writing between 1220 and 1250:


title: Constable

text: In whatever way they come and on whatever day, it is the duty of the constable to enroll everything in order, for he has record as to the things he sees; but he cannot judge, because there is no judgment at the Tower, since there the third element of a judicial proceeding is lacking, namely a judge and jurisdiction. He has record as to matters of fact, not matters of judgment and law. In Bracton's time, anyone seeing a "misdeed" was empowered to make an arrest. The role of the constable in Bracton's description was as the "eyes and ears" of the court, finding evidence and recording facts on which judges could make a ruling. By extension, the constable was also the "strong arm" of the court (i.e., of the common law), marking the basic role of the constable that continues into the present day.


title: Constable

text: In 1285, King Edward I of England passed the Statute of Winchester, with provisions which "constituted two constables in every hundred to prevent defaults in towns and [on] highways". Records of their narrower area successors, parish constables, appear in the early 17th century in the records of Buckinghamshire; traditionally they were elected by the parishioners, but from 1617 onwards were typically appointed by justices of the peace (magistrates) in each county.


title: Constable

text: The system of policing by unpaid parish constables continued in England until the 19th century; in the London metropolitan area it started to be ended by the creation of the Metropolitan Police by the Metropolitan Police Act 1829 and completely ended by the Metropolitan Police Act 1839. Outside London, the mandatory introduction of county police forces by the County and Borough Police Act 1856 after nearly 20 years of the permissive County Police Act 1839, finally ended parish constables. After 1856, all areas of England and Wales were covered by a police force. The lowest rank of the police forces and constabularies is "constable", and most outside London are headed by a chief constable.


title: Constable

text: The unique office of 'Parks Constable' was first created when Liverpool Corporation Act 1921 (Section 221) allowed for their appointment; although a body of constables had previously policed the parks whom were attested as special constables. Specific legislation for the Royal Parks of London continued the unique office of 'Parks Constable'. However, the Royal Parks Constabulary was disbanded in 2001. The Kew Constabulary are sworn in under the same legislation and remain as the holders of the office of Parks Constable. Whilst some local authorities have parks constabularies, their officers are attested as constables, not parks constables.


title: Constable

text: The position of hereditary constable persists in some current or former monarchies of Europe. The position of Lord High Constable of Scotland is hereditary in the family of the Earl of Erroll. There is also a hereditary constable of Navarre in Spain; this position is presently held by the Duke of Alba.


title: Constable

text: Historically, many other hereditary constables existed as officers of state in former monarchies. Examples are the Constable of Castile ("Condestable de Castilla") and the Constable of Portugal ("Condestável do Reino").


title: Tyrese Maxey

text: Tyrese Kendrid Maxey (born November 4, 2000), nicknamed "Mad Max" and "The Franchise", is an American professional basketball player for the Philadelphia 76ers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He previously played college basketball for the Kentucky Wildcats.


title: Tyrese Maxey

text: Born in Dallas, Texas, Maxey was inspired to play basketball by his favorite childhood player, Dwyane Wade. He was a shooting guard for South Garland High School, helping the team to their first ever Texas state high school basketball tournament appearance in 2018. A five-star recruit as early as his sophomore year of high school, Maxey contemplated leaving high school early to play for Kentucky, but ultimately stayed at South Garland, where he was a McDonald's All-American and Texas Mr. Basketball during his senior year. He then played for the Wildcats, where he set a school record of 26 points in his collegiate debut.


title: Tyrese Maxey

text: After Maxey's freshman season at Kentucky was interrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic, he elected to enter the 2020 NBA draft, where the 76ers selected him 21st overall with their first-round pick. Maxey received limited playing time during his rookie season, making his first NBA start in a game where the 76ers could only field the league's minimum number of players. The following season, however, Ben Simmons's refusal to play for Philadelphia gave Maxey an opportunity to become the team's starting point guard.


title: Tyrese Maxey

text: Maxey was born on November 4, 2000, in Dallas, Texas, to Denyse and Tyrone Maxey. His father had been a college basketball player for the Washington State Cougars under head coach Kelvin Sampson before turning to coaching himself. Maxey's favorite childhood basketball player was Dwyane Wade, and when he told his father that he wanted to be like Wade, Tyrone created a training regimen for his son inspired by his video analysis of NBA players Stephen Curry and Kyrie Irving. In sixth grade, Maxey won a national championship with his Amateur Athletic Association (AAU) team. He had previously broken his pinky finger during the AAU city championship in Garland, Texas, but chose to complete the game by only dribbling with his non-injured hand.


title: Tyrese Maxey

text: At South Garland High School, Maxey was a shooting guard for the Colonels basketball team. During his sophomore year, he averaged 22.5 points, 5.5 rebounds, 3.6 assists, and 2.5 steals per game. The following season, Maxey averaged 22.5 points, 7 rebounds, 3.1 assists, and 2.3 steals per game, and South Garland made its first ever Texas state basketball tournament appearance. He scored 46 points in the state championship semifinals, but the team nevertheless lost to Obra D. Tompkins High School in overtime. He contemplated leaving high school early after the 2018 season in order to enter the NBA sooner, but ultimately decided to finish his four-year South Garland career in the hopes of becoming a McDonald's All-American. He finished his high school basketball career averaging 21.8 points, 6.3 rebounds, and 3.6 assists per game as a senior. In addition to graduating at the top of his class, Maxey was named First-Team All-Area, a McDonald's All-American, and was crowned Texas Mr. Basketball. South Garland reached the 2019 Texas 6A Region II tournament finals, where despite 25 points from Maxey, they lost 64–53 to Klein Forest High School.


title: Tyrese Maxey

text: Maxey was considered a five-star recruit as early as his sophomore year of high school, at the end of which Rivals.com ranked him No. 14 in the country among high school basketball prospects. By his senior year, he was ranked 10th overall by Rivals.com and 247Sports, and 13th overall by ESPN. He entertained offers from a number of college basketball programs, including Michigan State, the University of California, Los Angeles, and Southern Methodist University, but made an oral commitment to the University of Kentucky in May 2018, just before his senior year of high school. Maxey signed a National Letter of Intent with Kentucky that November.


title: Tyrese Maxey

text: Maxey made his college debut at Madison Square Garden for Kentucky's Champions Classic win over the Michigan State Spartans. Playing the day after his 19th birthday, Maxey came off the bench to score 26 points, a school record for a freshman debut, in the Wildcats' 69–62 victory. This outing was followed by a cold streak during which he only went 3-for-15 on three pointers across four games. The stretch was broken on November 23, when he scored 21 points, including four three-pointers, in an 81–56 rout of the Lamar Cardinals. After scoring 27 points and recording seven rebounds in a 78–70 overtime win over the Louisville Cardinals on December 28, Maxey was named the NCAA Division I National Player of the Week, the Southeastern Conference (SEC) Freshman of the Week, and the United States Basketball Writers Association Wayman Tisdale Freshman of the Week.


title: Tyrese Maxey

text: On February 29, 2020, Kentucky clinched the SEC regular season championship with a 73–66 victory over the Auburn Tigers, during which Maxey scored 17 points. In clinching the regular season title, the Wildcats were meant to enter the 2020 SEC men's basketball tournament as the number one seed, but two weeks later, both the SEC Tournament and the 2020 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament were cancelled due to concerns over the emergent COVID-19 pandemic, bringing a premature end to Maxey's freshman season. Appearing in 31 games for Kentucky, including 28 starts, Maxey averaged 14 points, 4.3 rebounds, and 3.2 assists per game while leading the team with 34.5 minutes per contest. At the end of the season, he was named to both the All-SEC Second Team and the SEC All-Freshman Team. On April 6, 2020, shortly after the COVID-19 pause, Maxey declared for the 2020 NBA draft.


title: Tyrese Maxey

text: Originally anticipated to be a lottery pick, Maxey remained available late in the first round of the 2020 NBA draft. Instead, he was selected 21st overall by the Philadelphia 76ers, in one of the first decisions that Daryl Morey made as the team's president of basketball operations. Maxey signed his rookie scale contract with the team on December 3, 2020. After collecting 8 and 11 points with limited minutes during two preseason games, head coach Doc Rivers decided that Maxey would be "one of our main bench guys" going into the season. He made his NBA debut on December 23, the first game of the season, and recorded six points on a 3-for-6 shooting rate, two assists, and two rebounds in eleven minutes of the 76ers' game against the Washington Wizards.


title: Tyrese Maxey

text: With injuries to stars Joel Embiid and Ben Simmons and a number of positive COVID-19 tests on the team, the 76ers were only able to field the league-minimum eight players for their January 9 game against the Denver Nuggets. The depleted roster allowed Maxey to make his first NBA start. Although the Nuggets won the game 115–103, Maxey had a strong performance with 39 points in 44 minutes on 18-of-33 shooting. He scored the most points of any rookie in his first career start since 1970, as well as the most points by any 76ers rookie since Allen Iverson scored 40 points against the Washington Bullets in 1997. In 61 regular season games, including eight starts, Maxey averaged eight points per game with a 46 percent shooting rate and 30 percent three-point field goal percentage in 15 minutes per game. He did not start in any postseason games during the 2021 NBA playoffs but did make eight appearances, during which he averaged six points per game on a 44 percent shooting rate. The Atlanta Hawks defeated the 76ers in a seven-game Eastern Conference semifinal series, eliminating Philadelphia from the NBA postseason.


title: Tyrese Maxey

text: Following the 76ers' playoff elimination, Maxey spent the 2021 offseason in the NBA Summer League to continue his development. When Ben Simmons refused to play for the 76ers at the start of the season, Maxey and Shake Milton platooned the starting point guard position. After averaging 16.9 points, 3.5 rebounds, and 4.6 assists in 35.6 minutes through the first 51 games of the season, Maxey was named to the 2022 NBA Rising Stars Challenge as a member of Team Worthy. At the NBA trade deadline, the 76ers acquired James Harden in a trade with the Brooklyn Nets, a movement that had an immediate positive impact for Maxey. The acquisition of point guard Harden allowed Maxey to return to his natural shooting guard position, which afforded him more shooting opportunities, and he averaged 24.5 points in his first two games after Harden's arrival. He scored 25 points in the 76ers' regular-season finale against the Detroit Pistons, finishing his sophomore season with 17.5 points per game while shooting 48.5 percent from the field, and 42.7 percent from three-point range.


title: Tyrese Maxey

text: The 76ers faced the Toronto Raptors in the opening round of the 2022 NBA playoffs. Maxey had a breakout performance in the first game of the series, scoring a postseason career-high 38 points in the 131–111 Philadelphia victory. In doing so, he became the youngest Philadelphia player to score 30 or more points in a postseason game. The 76ers defeated the Raptors in six games, with Maxey averaging 21.3 points per game while shooting 51.1 percent shooting from the field and 40.5 percent from three-point range. Philadelphia went on to face the Miami Heat in the Eastern Conference semifinals. Despite a 34-point performance from Maxey in Game 2, the 76ers lost 119–103, and they ultimately lost the series in six games. Maxey finished the series as the 76ers' leading scorer, with 20.2 points per game to go with a 45.6 percent shooting and 34.4 percent three-point shooting.


title: Tyrese Maxey

text: On October 28, 2022, Maxey put up a career-high 44 points on 15 of 20 shoting from the field, including nine of his 12 attempts from deep in an 112–90 win over the Toronto Raptors. According to the Sixers’ stats department, Hall of Famers Hal Greer and Allen Iverson are the only other Philadelphia players to score 40 points before the age of 23. He also tied Danny Green and Dana Barros for the most 3-pointers made in a game in Sixers history and put up the highest true shooting percentage in a 40-point game from someone 21 years old or younger.


title: Tyrese Maxey

text: During his high school career, Maxey was named to the United States men's national under-19 basketball team for the 2018 FIBA Under-18 Americas Championship in Canada. He averaged 13 points, 3.5 rebounds, 3 assists, and 3 steals in roughly 24 minutes per game during the preliminary round-robin tournament but injured his ankle in a game against Puerto Rico and was considered unlikely to return for the remainder of the tournament. After missing the quarter- and semifinals, Maxey returned for the gold medal match against Canada, scoring two points in 12 minutes of play. The United States won the game 113–74 to take the gold medal.


title: Tyrese Maxey

text: Maxey is one of four children; he has three sisters. During the 2017–18 college basketball season, their father Tyrone was the director of player development for Southern Methodist University, one of the schools that attempted to recruit his son. During the NBA season, he lives in Voorhees Township, New Jersey. His Voorhees home caught fire on Christmas Eve in 2021, while his family was visiting for the holiday, but nobody was injured, and the 76ers provided Maxey with housing accommodations and other resources for him and his family.


title: Tyrese Maxey

text: Maxey is childhood friends with fellow NBA player R. J. Hampton. Although they played basketball in the same geographic region since first grade, they were never teammates, only opponents. He is also one of the "Baggage Claim Boys", a loose group of star high school basketball players from the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex who became friends during their college recruiting season. The group also includes Isaac Likekele and Drew Timme.


title: Tyrese Maxey

text: Outside of basketball, Maxey is a devoted fan of Marvel Comics and the Marvel Cinematic Universe. His favorite Marvel Cinematic Universe films include "" and "The Avengers", and he has previously compared himself to the character Spider-Man. He also runs a charitable foundation, the Tyrese Maxey Foundation, which has partnered with Youth Services, Inc., to help prevent truancy in Philadelphia-area schools.


title: Jhulan Goswami

text: Jhulan Nishit Goswami (born 25 November 1982) is an Indian cricketer. She plays as a right-arm medium fast bowler and right-handed batter. She is one of the fastest (female) bowler of all times and considered one of the greatest bowlers to ever play the sport. She played 204 ODI matches before her retirement from international cricket in 2022, taking 255 wickets, and holds the record for taking the most number of wickets in Women's One Day International cricket.


title: Jhulan Goswami

text: Goswami won the ICC Women's Player of the Year award in 2007 and the M.A. Chidambaram trophy for Best Women's Cricketer in 2011. She rose to number one in the ICC Women's ODI bowling rankings in January 2016.


title: Jhulan Goswami

text: Goswami was born to a middle-class family in the town of Chakdaha in the Nadia district of West Bengal on 25 November 1982. She took up cricket at the age of 15, and was previously a football fan. Goswami began to take interest in cricket when she watched the 1992 Cricket World Cup on TV. She took further interest in the sport after watching Australian batter Belinda Clark in the 1997 Women’s Cricket World Cup. As Chakdaha did not have any cricket facilities at the time, Goswami travelled to Kolkata to play cricket.


title: Jhulan Goswami

text: Soon after finishing her training in Kolkata, Goswami was called up to the Bengal women's cricket team. At the age of 19, she made her international debut in 2002 in a one-day International Match against England in Chennai. Her Test debut came on 14 January 2002 against England in Lucknow.


title: Jhulan Goswami

text: Goswami along with Mithali Raj guided Indian Women’s Cricket team to first Test series win in England in 2006–07 season. During the same season, Goswami helped Indian Women Cricket team to get their first victory against England, making a fifty as nightwatchman in the first Test at Leicester and taking her career best match figures of 10 for 78–5 for 33 and 5 for 45 – in the second test at Taunton. In 2007 Jhulan was a member of Asian squad in the Afro-Asia tournament in India and also won the ICC Women’s Cricketer of the Year (when no Indian male cricketer bagged an individual award).


title: Jhulan Goswami

text: Later in 2008, she took over the captaincy from Mithali Raj and held till 2011. In 2008, she also became the fourth woman to reach 100 wickets in ODIs at Asia Cup. She led India in 25 ODIs. In 2010 she was awarded the Arjun Award and in 2012 she became second Indian women cricketer to receive Padma Shri after Diana Edulji.


title: Jhulan Goswami

text: She has 40 Test wickets in her name in 10 matches. Overall she has 271 international wickets in 223 games and has scored 1593 runs with three 50s. She is the highest wicket taker in WODIs going past Australian Cathryn Fitzpatrick record of 180 wickets. She achieved the feat during the Women’s Quadrangular Series in South Africa. On 7 February 2018 Jhulan became the first woman cricketer to reach 200 wickets in one day cricket. She has 200 wickets in 166 matches at an average of 21.76 with two 5 wickets and 4 four wickets hauls. In ODIs she has 995 runs in 166 matches. In 2011 where India failed to win, she took 6 for 31 against New Zealand.


title: Jhulan Goswami

text: In May 2017, Goswami became the leading wicket-taker in ODIs when she took her 181st wicket against South Africa at PUK Oval, Potchefstroom, surpassing Australia's Cathryn Fitzpatrick.


title: Jhulan Goswami

text: Goswami was part of the Indian team to reach the final of the 2017 Women's Cricket World Cup where the team lost to England by nine runs.


title: Jhulan Goswami

text: Jhulan Goswami said on 19 September 2017 that a biopic on her is in the making with the working title "Chakdaha Express". The biopic will be directed by Sushanta Das, it will trace Goswami's journey from the Vivekananda Park nets in Kolkata to the Lord's cricket ground in London, where India lost the World Cup final against England in July.


title: Jhulan Goswami

text: In February 2018, she became the first bowler to take 200 wickets in WODIs. In April 2018, an Indian postage stamp was issued in her honour. In March 2022, in the 2022 Women's Cricket World Cup, Goswami became the first bowler to take 250 wickets in WODI cricket.


title: Jhulan Goswami

text: In September 2018, against Sri Lanka, she took her 300th wicket in international cricket. In November 2020, Goswami was nominated for the ICC Women's ODI Cricketer of the Decade award.


title: Jhulan Goswami

text: In May 2021, she was named in India's Test squad for their one-off match against the England women's cricket team. In January 2022, she was named in India's team for the 2022 Women's Cricket World Cup in New Zealand.


title: Jhulan Goswami

text: On 12 March 2022, she became the highest wicket taker in Women's World Cup overtaking previous record of Lyn Fullston.


title: Jhulan Goswami

text: Goswami retired from international cricket in September 2022, with her final match coming against England at Lord's, with India winning by 16 runs. She will continue to be in the Bengal squad as a mentor/player.


title: Jhulan Goswami

text: She was appointed as a bowling consultant for India women's national cricket team under the head coach Ramesh Powar. She is playing as a player-coach in Indian Team.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: Hamlet is a 1996 film adaptation of William Shakespeare's play "Hamlet", adapted and directed by Kenneth Branagh, who also stars as Prince Hamlet. The film also features Derek Jacobi as King Claudius, Julie Christie as Queen Gertrude, Kate Winslet as Ophelia, Michael Maloney as Laertes, Richard Briers as Polonius, and Nicholas Farrell as Horatio. Other cast members include Robin Williams, Gérard Depardieu, Jack Lemmon, Billy Crystal, Rufus Sewell, Charlton Heston, Richard Attenborough, Judi Dench, John Gielgud, and Ken Dodd.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: The film is the first unabridged theatrical film version of "Hamlet", running just over four hours. The setting is updated to the 19th century, but its Elizabethan English text remains the same. Blenheim Palace is the setting used for the exterior grounds of Elsinore Castle and interiors were all photographed at Shepperton Studios, blended with the footage shot at Blenheim. "Hamlet" was also the last major dramatic motion picture to be filmed entirely on 70 mm film until 2011, with the release of the documentary "Samsara".


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: "Hamlet" has been regarded as one of the best Shakespeare film adaptations ever made. However, it was not a box office success, mostly due to its limited release, grossing just under $5 million on a budget of $18 million. The film received four Oscar nominations for the 69th Academy Awards for Best Art Direction (Tim Harvey), Best Costume Design (Alexandra Byrne), Best Original Score (Patrick Doyle), and Best Writing (Adapted Screenplay) (Kenneth Branagh).


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: Prince Hamlet of Denmark, is the son of the recently deceased King Hamlet, and nephew of King Claudius, his father's brother and successor. Claudius hastily married King Hamlet's widow, Gertrude, Hamlet's mother, and took the throne for himself. Denmark has a long-standing feud with neighbouring Norway, in which King Hamlet slew King Fortinbras of Norway in a battle some years ago. Although Denmark defeated Norway and the Norwegian throne fell to King Fortinbras's infirm brother, Denmark fears that an invasion led by the dead Norwegian king's son, Prince Fortinbras, is imminent.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: On a cold night on the ramparts of Elsinore, the Danish royal castle, the sentries Bernardo and Marcellus discuss a ghost resembling the late King Hamlet which they have recently seen, and bring Prince Hamlet's friend Horatio as a witness. After the ghost appears again, the three vow to tell Prince Hamlet what they have witnessed.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: As the court gathers the next day, while King Claudius and Queen Gertrude discuss affairs of state with their elderly adviser Polonius, Hamlet looks on glumly. During the court, Claudius grants permission for Polonius's son Laertes to return to school in France and sends envoys to inform the King of Norway about Fortinbras. Claudius also scolds Hamlet for continuing to grieve over his father and forbids him to return to his schooling in Wittenberg. After the court exits, Hamlet despairs of his father's death and his mother's hasty remarriage. Learning of the ghost from Horatio, Hamlet resolves to see it himself.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: As Polonius's son Laertes prepares to depart for a visit to France, Polonius offers him advice that culminates in the maxim "to thine own self be true." Polonius's daughter, Ophelia, admits her interest in Hamlet, but Laertes warns her against seeking the prince's attention, and Polonius orders her to reject his advances. That night on the rampart, the ghost appears to Hamlet, telling the prince that he was murdered by Claudius and demanding that Hamlet avenge him. Hamlet agrees, and the ghost vanishes. The prince confides to Horatio and the sentries that from now on he plans to "put an antic disposition on", or act as though he has gone mad, and forces them to swear to keep his plans for revenge secret; however, he remains uncertain of the ghost's reliability.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: Soon thereafter, Ophelia rushes to her father, telling him that Hamlet arrived at her door the prior night half-undressed and behaving erratically. Polonius blames love for Hamlet's madness and resolves to inform Claudius and Gertrude. As he enters to do so, the King and Queen finish welcoming Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, two student acquaintances of Hamlet, to Elsinore. The royal couple has requested that the students investigate the cause of Hamlet's mood and behaviour. Additional news requires that Polonius wait to be heard: messengers from Norway inform Claudius that the King of Norway has rebuked Prince Fortinbras for attempting to re-fight his father's battles. The forces that Fortinbras had conscripted to march against Denmark will instead be sent against Poland, though they will pass through Danish territory to get there.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: Polonius tells Claudius and Gertrude his theory regarding Hamlet's behaviour and speaks to Hamlet in a hall of the castle to try to uncover more information. Hamlet feigns madness and subtly insults Polonius all the while. When Rosencrantz and Guildenstern arrive, Hamlet greets his "friends" warmly but quickly discerns that they are spies. Hamlet admits that he is upset at his situation but refuses to give the true reason, instead of commenting on "What a piece of work is a man". Rosencrantz and Guildenstern tell Hamlet that they have brought along a troupe of actors that they met while travelling to Elsinore. Hamlet, after welcoming the actors and dismissing his friends-turned-spies, asks them to deliver a soliloquy about the death of King Priam and Queen Hecuba at the climax of the Trojan War. Impressed by their delivery of the speech, he plots to stage "The Murder of Gonzago", a play featuring a death in the style of his father's murder, and to determine the truth of the ghost's story, as well as Claudius's guilt or innocence, by studying Claudius's reaction.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: Polonius forces Ophelia to return Hamlet's love letters and tokens of affection to the prince while he and Claudius watch from afar to evaluate Hamlet's reaction. Hamlet is walking alone in the hall as the King and Polonius await Ophelia's entrance, musing whether "to be or not to be". When Ophelia enters and tries to return Hamlet's things, Hamlet accuses her of immodesty and cries "get thee to a nunnery", though it is unclear whether this, too, is a show of madness or genuine distress. His reaction convinces Claudius that Hamlet is not mad for love. Shortly thereafter, the court assembles to watch the play Hamlet has commissioned. After seeing the Player King murdered by his rival pouring poison in his ear, Claudius abruptly rises and runs from the room; for Hamlet, this is proof positive of his uncle's guilt.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: Gertrude summons Hamlet to her chamber to demand an explanation. Meanwhile, Claudius talks to himself about the impossibility of repenting, since he still has possession of his ill-gotten goods: his brother's crown and wife. He sinks to his knees. On his way to visit his mother, Hamlet sneaks up behind him but does not kill him, reasoning that killing Claudius while he is praying will send him straight to heaven while his father's ghost is stuck in purgatory. In the queen's bedchamber, Hamlet and Gertrude fight bitterly. Polonius, spying on the conversation from behind a tapestry, calls for help as Gertrude, believing Hamlet wants to kill her, calls out for help herself.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: Hamlet, believing it is Claudius, stabs wildly, killing Polonius, but he pulls aside the curtain and sees his mistake. In a rage, Hamlet brutally insults his mother for her apparent ignorance of Claudius's villainy, but the ghost enters and reprimands Hamlet for his inaction and harsh words. Unable to see or hear the ghost herself, Gertrude takes Hamlet's conversation with it as further evidence of madness. After begging the queen to stop sleeping with Claudius, Hamlet leaves, dragging Polonius's corpse away.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: Hamlet jokes with Claudius about where he has hidden Polonius's body, and the King, fearing for his life, sends Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to accompany Hamlet to England with a sealed letter to the King of England requesting that Hamlet be executed immediately.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: Unhinged by grief at Polonius's death, Ophelia wanders Elsinore. Laertes arrives back from France, enraged by his father's death and his sister's madness. Claudius convinces Laertes that Hamlet is solely responsible, but a letter soon arrives indicating that Hamlet has returned to Denmark, foiling Claudius's plan. Claudius switches tactics, proposing a fencing match between Laertes and Hamlet to settle their differences. Laertes will be given a poison-tipped foil, and, if that fails, Claudius will offer Hamlet poisoned wine as a congratulation. Gertrude interrupts to report that Ophelia has drowned, though it is unclear whether it was suicide or an accident caused by her madness.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: Horatio has received a letter from Hamlet, explaining that the prince escaped by negotiating with pirates who attempted to attack his England-bound ship, and the friends reunite offstage. Two gravediggers discuss Ophelia's apparent suicide while digging her grave. Hamlet arrives with Horatio and banters with one of the gravediggers, who unearths the skull of a jester from Hamlet's childhood, Yorick. Hamlet picks up the skull, saying "alas, poor Yorick" as he contemplates mortality. Ophelia's funeral procession approaches, led by Laertes. Hamlet and Horatio initially hide, but when Hamlet realizes that Ophelia is the one being buried, he reveals himself, proclaiming his love for her. Laertes and Hamlet fight by Ophelia's graveside, but the brawl is broken up.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: Back at Elsinore, Hamlet explains to Horatio that he had discovered Claudius's letter with Rosencrantz and Guildenstern's belongings and replaced it with a forged copy indicating that his former friends should be killed instead. A foppish courtier, Osric, interrupts the conversation to deliver the fencing challenge to Hamlet. Hamlet, despite Horatio's pleas, accepts it. Hamlet does well at first, leading the match by two hits to none, and Gertrude raises a toast to him using the poisoned glass of wine Claudius had set aside for Hamlet. Claudius tries to stop her but is too late: she drinks, and Laertes realizes the plot will be revealed. Laertes slashes Hamlet with his poisoned blade. In the ensuing scuffle, they switch weapons, and Hamlet wounds Laertes with his own poisoned sword. Gertrude collapses and, claiming she has been poisoned, dies. In his dying moments, Laertes reconciles with Hamlet and reveals Claudius's plan. Hamlet rushes at Claudius and kills him. As the poison takes effect, Hamlet, hearing that Fortinbras is marching through the area, names the Norwegian prince as his successor. Horatio, distraught at the thought of being the last survivor and living whilst Hamlet does not, says he will commit suicide by drinking the dregs of Gertrude's poisoned wine, but Hamlet begs him to live on and tell his story. Hamlet dies in Horatio's arms, proclaiming "the rest is silence". Fortinbras, who was ostensibly marching towards Poland with his army, arrives at the palace, along with an English ambassador bringing news of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern's deaths. Horatio promises to recount the full story of what happened, and Fortinbras, seeing the entire Danish royal family dead, takes the crown for himself and orders a military funeral to honour Prince Hamlet.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: Aspects of the film's staging are based on Adrian Noble's recent Royal Shakespeare Company production of the play, in which Branagh had played the title role.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: The film uses a conflated text based on the 1623 First Folio, with additions from the Second Quarto and amendments from other sources. According to a note appended to the published screenplay:


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: Despite using a full text, Branagh's film is also very visual; it makes frequent use of flashbacks to depict scenes that are either only described but not performed in Shakespeare's text, such as Hamlet's childhood friendship with Yorick, or scenes only implied by the play's text, such as Hamlet's sexual relationship with Kate Winslet's Ophelia. The film also uses very long single takes for numerous scenes.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: In a radical departure from previous "Hamlet" films, Branagh set the internal scenes in a vibrantly colourful setting, featuring a throne room dominated by mirrored doors; film scholar Samuel Crowl calls the setting ""film noir" with all the lights on". Branagh chose Victorian era costuming and furnishings, using Blenheim Palace, built in the early 18th century, as Elsinore Castle for the external scenes. Harry Keyishan has suggested that the film is structured as an epic, courting comparison with "Ben-Hur", "The Ten Commandments" and "Doctor Zhivago". As J. Lawrence Guntner points out, comparisons with the latter film are heightened by the presence of Julie Christie ("Zhivago" Lara) as Gertrude.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: "Hamlet" was shot in Panavision Super 70 by Alex Thomson. It was the last feature film to be entirely shot in 70 mm until production of "Samsara" in 2011. Branagh was among the very few to use 65mm film cameras after that, on his 2017 film "Murder on the Orient Express". Filming took place 25 January to 12 April 1996.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: The score to "Hamlet" was composed and co-produced by frequent Kenneth Branagh collaborator Patrick Doyle and conducted by Robert Ziegler. Doyle composed three primary themes for the film to accompany the characters of Ophelia, Claudius, and Hamlet, which are varied throughout the score. The "simple, childlike" theme for Ophelia is mostly string-dominant, often performed by a string quartet yet occasionally accompanied by a full string ensemble or mixed chorus. For Claudius, Doyle composed a theme in the form of a demented canon, using more 20th century harmonies. The theme for Hamlet was considered by Doyle to be "the most daunting and elusive" to conceive, before settling upon a more "simple" motif to accompany the contemplative character.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: The soundtrack was released 10 December 1996 through Sony Classical Records and features 26 tracks of score at a running time of over 76 minutes. For his work on the film, Doyle received an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Score.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: "Hamlet" was screened out of competition at the 1997 Cannes Film Festival. A shorter edit of the Branagh film, approximately two-and-a-half hours long, was also shown in some markets.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: A 2-Disc DVD was released in the US and Canada on 14 August 2007. It includes a full-length commentary by Branagh and Shakespeare scholar Russell Jackson. A Blu-ray Disc was released on 17 August 2010 in the US and Canada with similar additional features, including an introduction by Kenneth Branagh, the featurette "To Be on Camera: A History with Hamlet", the 1996 Cannes Film Festival Promo, and a Shakespeare Movies Trailer Gallery.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: "Hamlet" was not a success at the box office, mostly due to its limited release. The film earned just over $90,000 in its opening weekend playing on three screens. It made just over $30,000 in the Czech Republic, over $545,000 in Spain and ultimately played on fewer than 100 screens in the United States, bringing its total gross to just under $5 million on a budget of $18 million.


title: Hamlet (1996 film)

text: "Hamlet" received positive reviews. It currently holds a 95% rating at Rotten Tomatoes with the consensus, "Kenneth Branagh's sprawling, finely textured adaptation of Shakespeare's masterpiece lives up to its source material, using strong performances and a sharp cinematic focus to create a powerfully resonant film that wastes none of its 246 minutes."