title: John Sebastian

text: Much of Sebastian's material, especially his 1970s Reprise albums and the 1996 "King Biscuit Flower Hour" live recording, has been reissued and/or repackaged many times; therefore, this table is selective. Sebastian has also released various formats and packages of long-playing instructional materials for Homespun Tapes, which are not included in this table.


title: John Sebastian

text: This table lists songs written or performed by Sebastian that were originally released on — and in many cases, are only available on — compilations or collaborations of various artists, including but not limited to soundtrack albums. Contributions as a guest on albums released under the name of a specific artist or group are not included.


title: Apple Records

text: Apple Records is a record label founded by the Beatles in 1968 as a division of Apple Corps Ltd. It was initially intended as a creative outlet for the Beatles, both as a group and individually, plus a selection of other artists including Mary Hopkin, James Taylor, Badfinger, and Billy Preston. In practice, the roster had become dominated by the mid-1970s with releases of the former Beatles as solo artists. Allen Klein managed the label from 1969 to 1973, then it was managed by Neil Aspinall on behalf of the Beatles and their heirs. Aspinall retired in 2007 and was replaced by Jeff Jones.


title: Apple Records

text: Apple Corps Ltd was conceived by the Beatles in 1967 after the death of their manager Brian Epstein. It was intended to be a small group of companies (Apple Retail, Apple Publishing, Apple Electronics, and so on) as part of Epstein's plan to create a tax-effective business structure. The first project that the band released after forming the company was their film "Magical Mystery Tour", which was produced under the Apple Films division. Apple Records was officially founded by the group after their return from India in 1968 as another sub-division of Apple Corps.


title: Apple Records

text: At this time, the Beatles were contracted to EMI. In a new distribution deal, EMI and its US subsidiary Capitol Records agreed to distribute Apple Records until 1976, while EMI retained ownership of their recordings. Beatles recordings issued in the United Kingdom on the Apple label carried Parlophone catalogue numbers, while US issues carried Capitol catalogue numbers. Apple Records owns the rights to all of the Beatles' videos and movie clips, and the rights to recordings of other artists signed to the label. The first catalogue number Apple 1 was a single pressing of Frank Sinatra singing "Maureen Is a Champ" (with lyrics by Sammy Cahn) to the melody of "The Lady Is a Tramp" as a surprise gift for the 21st birthday of Ringo Starr's wife Maureen.


title: Apple Records

text: Apple Records and Apple Publishing signed a number of acts whom the Beatles personally discovered or supported, and one or more of the Beatles would be involved in the recording sessions in most cases. Several notable artists were signed in the first year, including James Taylor, Mary Hopkin, Billy Preston, the Modern Jazz Quartet, the Iveys (who became Badfinger), Doris Troy, and former Liverpool singer Jackie Lomax who recorded George Harrison's "Sour Milk Sea".


title: Apple Records

text: In 1969, the Beatles were in need of financial and managerial direction, and John Lennon was approached by Allen Klein, manager of The Rolling Stones. When Klein went on to manage Apple, three of the Beatles supported him with Paul McCartney being the only group member opposed to his involvement. McCartney had suggested his father-in-law Lee Eastman for the job.


title: Apple Records

text: Klein took control of Apple and shut down several sub-divisions, including Apple Electronics, and he dropped some of Apple Records' artistic roster. New signings to the label were not so numerous afterward and tended to arrive through the individual actions of the former Beatles. For example, Elephant's Memory were recruited through Lennon and Ravi Shankar through Harrison. McCartney had little input into Apple Records' roster after 1970. Klein managed Apple Corp. until March 1973, when his contract expired. The Beatles' entire pre-Apple catalogue on the Capitol label was re-issued on the Apple label in May 1971, including the singles from "I Want to Hold Your Hand" to "Lady Madonna", and the albums from "Meet the Beatles!" to "Magical Mystery Tour". The album covers remained unchanged with the Capitol logos.


title: Apple Records

text: After Klein's departure, Apple was managed by Neil Aspinall on behalf of the four Beatles and their heirs. Apple Records' distribution contract with EMI expired in 1976, when control of the Beatles' catalogue—including solo recordings to date by George Harrison, John Lennon and Ringo Starr—reverted to EMI (Paul McCartney had acquired ownership of his solo recordings when he re-signed with Capitol in 1975).


title: Apple Records

text: The original UK versions of the Beatles' albums were released worldwide on compact disc in 1987 and 1988 by Parlophone. Previously, "Abbey Road" had been issued on CD by the EMI-Odeon label in Japan in the early 1980s. Although this was a legitimate release, it was not authorised by the Beatles, EMI or Apple Corps. Following the settlement of Apple's ten-year lawsuit against EMI in 1989, new projects began to move forward, including the "Live at the BBC" album and "The Beatles Anthology" series. It was after the "Anthology" project (spearheaded by Neil Aspinall) that the company resumed making significantly large profits again and began its revival.


title: Apple Records

text: The label was again newsworthy in 2006, as the long-running dispute between Apple Records' parent company and Apple Inc. went to the High Court (see "Apple Corps v Apple Computer").


title: Apple Records

text: In 2007, longtime chief executive Neil Aspinall retired and was replaced by American music industry executive Jeff Jones. The Beatles' catalog was remastered and re-issued in September 2009 and was made available on iTunes in November 2010. In June 2009, Apple Records published their last album, . When Universal Music Group acquired EMI and the Beatles' recorded music catalogue, Calderstone Productions was formed in 2012 to administer the Beatles' catalogue.


title: Apple Records

text: Standard Apple album and single labels displayed a bright green Granny Smith apple on the A-side, while the flipside displayed the cross section of the apple. The bright green apple returned for Beatles CDs releases in the 1990s, following initial CD releases by Parlophone.


title: Apple Records

text: On the US issue of the Beatles' "Let It Be" album, the Granny Smith apple was red. The reason was that in the United States that album, being the soundtrack to the movie of the same name, was, for contractual reasons, being manufactured and distributed by United Artists Records and not Capitol Records, so the red apple was used to mark the difference. The red apple also appeared on the back cover, and on the 2009 remastered edition back cover. Capitol's parent company EMI purchased United Artists Records in the late 1970s, and Capitol gained the American rights to the "Let It Be" soundtrack album (along with the American rights to another, earlier, United Artists Beatles movie soundtrack LP, 1964's "A Hard Day's Night").


title: Apple Records

text: Aside from the red apple, other examples in which the apple has been altered include George Harrison's album "All Things Must Pass" triple album, on which the first two discs have orange apples while the third has a jar label reading "Apple Jam"; black and white apples on John Lennon's album "John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band" and Yoko Ono's album "Yoko Ono/Plastic Ono Band"; a blue apple on Ringo Starr's single "Back Off Boogaloo"; Harrison's album "Extra Texture (Read All About It)", on which the apple (in shrunken cartoon form) is eaten away at its core (this was intended to be a joke because it was released at a time when Apple Records was beginning to fold); and a red apple on Starr's compilation album "Blast from Your Past". Other types of apples were also used: in 1971, for Lennon's "Imagine" and Ono's "Fly", the apples respectively featured pictures of Lennon and Ono, as did the apples for Ono's 1973 "Approximately Infinite Universe" and the singles that were released from these three albums.


title: Apple Records

text: Zapple Records, an Apple Records subsidiary run by Barry Miles, a friend of McCartney, was intended as an outlet for the release of spoken word and avant-garde records, as a budget label in the style of a magazine or journal. It was active only from 3 February 1969 until June 1969; a string of projects were announced, and a number of recording sessions undertaken, but only two albums were released on the label both by solo Beatles, while another two LPs of finished material were issued by other labels after Zapple was closed down. The label was launched with the two Beatle related records firstly Lennon and Ono’s avant garde "" (Zapple 1) and George Harrison’s "Electronic Sound" (Zapple 2). An album of readings by Richard Brautigan was recorded and mixed for release as Zapple 3, and acetate disc copies and test pressings were cut but, said Miles, "The Zapple label was folded by [Allen] Klein before the record could be released. The first two Zapple records did come out. We just didn't have [Brautigan's record] ready in time before Klein closed it down. None of the Beatles ever heard it." Brautigan's record was eventually released as "Listening to Richard Brautigan" on Harvest Records, a subsidiary of Apple distributor EMI, in the US only.


title: Apple Records

text: The first recordings were made for Zapple in January 1969, as field recordings of poets in their homes by Miles on a portable tape recorder as he toured the east coast of America. This included poet and Fugs drummer Ken Weaver and Black Mountain poet Charles Olson. According to Miles, a spoken word album by Lawrence Ferlinghetti, which had been recorded and edited, would have been Zapple 4, and a spoken word album by Michael McClure had also been recorded. A planned Zapple release of a UK appearance by comedian Lenny Bruce was never completed. An early 1969 press release also named Pablo Casals as an expected guest on the label. American author Ken Kesey was given a tape recorder to record his impressions of London, but they were never released. Miles also had the intention of bringing world leaders to the label. Zapple was shut down in June 1969 by Klein, apparently with the backing of Lennon.


title: Apple Records

text: Also released were the soundtracks to "Come Together" and "El Topo" (in the US), the onetime Philles Records compilation "Phil Spector's Christmas Album" and the multi-artist "The Concert for Bangla Desh". Cassette and 8-track tape versions of "Bangla Desh" were marketed by Columbia Records after a deal that permitted the inclusion of Bob Dylan, a Columbia artist, on the album.


title: Apple Records

text: Artists who had considerable success in the pop and rock world after their initial sessions at Apple Records include Badfinger (originally known as the Iveys), James Taylor, Mary Hopkin, Hot Chocolate, Yoko Ono and Billy Preston.


title: Sequoia National Park

text: Sequoia National Park is an American national park in the southern Sierra Nevada east of Visalia, California. The park was established on September 25, 1890, and today protects of forested mountainous terrain. Encompassing a vertical relief of nearly , the park contains the highest point in the contiguous United States, Mount Whitney, at above sea level. The park is south of, and contiguous with, Kings Canyon National Park; both parks are administered by the National Park Service together as the Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks. UNESCO designated the areas as Sequoia-Kings Canyon Biosphere Reserve in 1976.


title: Sequoia National Park

text: The park is notable for its giant sequoia trees, including the General Sherman tree, the largest tree on Earth by volume. The General Sherman tree grows in the Giant Forest, which contains five of the ten largest trees in the world. The Giant Forest is connected by the Generals Highway to Kings Canyon National Park's General Grant Grove, home of the General Grant tree among other giant sequoias. The park's giant sequoia forests are part of of old-growth forests shared by Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks. The parks preserve a landscape that was first cultivated by the Monachee tribe, the southern Sierra Nevada before Euro-American settlement.


title: Sequoia National Park

text: The national park was partially closed in September 2020 due to the Sequoia Complex wildfire, and again from mid-September through mid-December 2021 due to the KNP Complex Fire.


title: Sequoia National Park

text: Many park visitors enter Sequoia National Park through its southern entrance near the town of Three Rivers at Ash Mountain at elevation. The lower elevations around Ash Mountain contain the only National Park Service-protected California Foothills ecosystem, consisting of blue oak woodlands, foothills chaparral, grasslands, yucca plants, and steep, mild river valleys. Seasonal weather results in a changing landscape throughout the foothills with hot summer yielding an arid landscape while spring and winter rains result in blossoming wildflowers and lush greens. The region is also home to abundant wildlife: bobcats, foxes, ground squirrels, rattlesnakes, and mule deer are commonly seen in this area, and more rarely, reclusive mountain lions and the Pacific fisher are seen as well. The last California grizzly was killed in this park in 1922 (at Horse Corral Meadow). The California Black Oak is a key transition species between the chaparral and higher elevation conifer forest.


title: Sequoia National Park

text: At higher elevations in the front country, between in elevation, the landscape becomes montane forest-dominated coniferous belt. Found here are Ponderosa, Jeffrey, sugar, and lodgepole pine trees, as well as abundant white and red fir. Found here too are the giant sequoia trees, the most massive living single-stem trees on earth. Between the trees, spring and summer snowmelts sometimes fan out to form lush, though delicate, meadows. In this region, visitors often see mule deer, Douglas squirrels, and American black bears, which sometimes break into unattended cars to eat food left by careless visitors. There are plans to reintroduce the bighorn sheep to this park.


title: Sequoia National Park

text: The vast majority of the park is roadless wilderness; no road crosses the Sierra Nevada within the park's boundaries. 84 percent of Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks is designated wilderness and is accessible only by foot or by horseback. The majority was designated Sequoia-Kings Canyon Wilderness in 1984 and the southwest portion was protected as John Krebs Wilderness in 2009.


title: Sequoia National Park

text: Sequoia's backcountry offers a vast expanse of high-alpine wonders. Covering the highest-elevation region of the High Sierra, the backcountry includes Mount Whitney on the eastern border of the park, accessible from the Giant Forest via the High Sierra Trail. On a traveler's path along this backcountry trail, one passes through about of montane forest before reaching the backcountry resort of Bearpaw Meadow, just short of the Great Western Divide.


title: Sequoia National Park

text: Continuing along the High Sierra Trail over the Great Western Divide via Kaweah Gap, one passes from the Kaweah River Drainage, with its characteristic V-shaped river valleys, and into the Kern River drainage, where an ancient fault line has aided glaciers in the last ice age to create a U-shaped canyon that is almost perfectly straight for nearly . On the floor of this canyon, at least two days hike from the nearest road, is the Kern Canyon hot spring, a popular resting point for weary backpackers. From the floor of Kern Canyon, the trail ascends again over to the summit of Mount Whitney. At Mount Whitney, the High Sierra Trail meets with the John Muir Trail and the Pacific Crest Trail, which continue northward along the Sierra crest and into the backcountry of Kings Canyon National Park.


title: Sequoia National Park

text: The area which now is Sequoia National Park shows evidence of Native American settlement as early as 1000 A.D. The area was first home to "Monachee" (Western Mono) Native Americans, who resided mainly in the Kaweah River drainage in the Foothills region of what is now the park, though evidence of seasonal habitation exists as high as the Giant Forest. Members of this tribe were permanent residents of the park, with a population estimate of around 2,000. In the summertime the Tubatulabal Native Americans used the eastern part of the area (the Kern River drainage) as their summer hunting grounds. During this time, the Western Mono tribe would travel over the high mountain passes to trade with tribes to the East. To this day, pictographs can be found at several sites within the park, notably at Hospital Rock and Potwisha, as well as bedrock mortars used to process acorns, a staple food for the Monachee people.


title: Sequoia National Park

text: The first European settler to homestead in the area was Hale Tharp, who famously built a home out of a hollowed-out fallen giant sequoia log in the Giant Forest next to Log Meadow. Tharp arrived in 1858 to the region and encountered several groups of Native Americans, the largest being around 600 with several other smaller groups found at higher elevations. After becoming friendly with the Western Mono tribe, Tharp was shown the Giant Forest Sequoia Grove. After his settlement, more settlers came around 1860. Shortly thereafter - between 1860 and 1863, epidemics of smallpox, measles, and scarlet fever killed the majority of the Native Americans living in the area. After this, the rest of the Native Americans left with the largest campsite (Hospital Rock) abandoned by 1865. During their time in the area, the Monachee used periodic fire burning to aid in hunting and agriculture. This technique played an important role in the ecology of the region and allowed for a "natural" vegetation cover development. After they left, Tharp and other settlers allowed sheep and cattle to graze the meadow, while at the same time maintaining a respect for the grandeur of the forest and led early battles against logging in the area. From time to time, Tharp received visits from John Muir, who would stay at Tharp's log cabin. Tharp's Log can still be visited today in its original location in the Giant Forest.


title: Sequoia National Park

text: However, Tharp's attempts to conserve the giant sequoias were at first met with only limited success. In the 1880s, white settlers seeking to create a utopian society founded the Kaweah Colony, which sought economic success in trading Sequoia timber. However, Giant Sequoia trees, unlike their coast redwood relatives, were later discovered to splinter easily and therefore were ill-suited to timber harvesting, though thousands of trees were felled before logging operations finally ceased. The National Park Service incorporated the Giant Forest into Sequoia National Park in 1890, the year of its founding, promptly ceasing all logging operations in the Giant Forest.


title: Sequoia National Park

text: Another consequence of the Giant Forest becoming Sequoia National Park was the shift in park employment. Prior to the incorporation by the National Park Service, the park was managed by US army troops of the 24th Regiment of Infantry and the 9th Regiment of Cavalry, better known as the Buffalo Soldiers. These segregated troops, founded in 1866, were African-American men from the South, an invaluable demographic to the military with the lowest rates of desertion. The Buffalo Soldiers completed park infrastructure projects as well as park management duties, helping to shape the role of the modern-day park ranger. The Buffalo Soldiers rose to this position due to a lack of funding for the park which led to an inability to hire civilians. The third African American West Point graduate, Captain Charles Young led the cavalries of Buffalo Soldiers in the Sequoia and General Grant Parks. Young landed this post as a result of the segregation rampant throughout the Army: as a black man, he was not permitted to head any combat units. He did, however, demonstrate his leadership capability through his initiatives in the National Park delegating park infrastructure projects, hosting tourists and politicians, and setting a standard of a strong work ethic into his men. Young was also a prominent figure regarding the early conservation of Sequoia National Park. He greenlighted the dedication of trees in honor of prominent figures as a means of promoting their preservation. One such example is the Redwood dedicated to the escaped slave and activist, Booker T Washington. Young also argued to the Secretary of the Interior that the lack of enforcement of forest protection laws allowed the detrimental practices of logging and the popular tourist hobby of carving names into the redwoods to continue. To combat this, Young increased patrolling of troops around heavily trafficked areas and initiated a proposal to buy out private landowners surrounding Sequoia to further buffer the protected area.


title: Sequoia National Park

text: The land buyouts Young initiated were just the beginning of increasing the area of Sequoia National Park. The park has expanded several times over the decades to its present size; one of the most significant expansions took place in 1926 and was advocated for by Susan Thew Parks. One of the most recent expansions occurred in 1978, when grassroots efforts, spearheaded by the Sierra Club, fought off attempts by the Walt Disney Corporation to purchase a high-alpine former mining site south of the park for use as a ski resort. This site known as Mineral King was annexed to the park. Its name dates back to early 1873 when the miners in the area formed the Mineral King Mining District. Mineral King is the highest-elevation developed site within the park and a popular destination for backpackers.


title: Sequoia National Park

text: According to the Köppen climate classification system, Sequoia National Park encompasses five climate types listed here from highest to lowest elevation; Tundra ("ET"), Mediterranean-influenced Subarctic climate ("Dsc"), Mediterranean-influenced warm-summer Humid continental climate ("Dsb"), Warm-summer Mediterranean climate ("Csb"), and Hot-summer Mediterranean climate ("Csa"). Precipitation also decreases with elevation. According to the United States Department of Agriculture, the Plant Hardiness zone at Giant Forest Visitor Center () is 8a with an average annual extreme minimum temperature of .


title: Sequoia National Park

text: Sequoia National Park contains a significant portion of the Sierra Nevada. The park's mountainous landscape includes the tallest mountain in the contiguous United States, Mount Whitney, which rises to above sea level. The Great Western Divide parallels the Sierran crest and is visible at various places in the park, for example, Mineral King, Moro Rock, and the Giant Forest. Peaks in the Great Western Divide rise to more than . Deep canyons lie between the mountains, including Tokopah Valley above Lodgepole, Deep Canyon on the Marble Fork of the Kaweah River, and Kern Canyon in the park's backcountry, which is more than deep for .


title: Sequoia National Park

text: Most of the mountains and canyons in the Sierra Nevada are composed of granitic rocks. These rocks, such as granite, diorite and monzonite, formed when molten rock cooled far beneath the surface of the earth. The molten rock was the result of a geologic process known as subduction. Powerful forces in the earth forced the landmass under the waters of the Pacific Ocean beneath and below an advancing North American Continent. Super-hot water driven from the subducting ocean floor migrated upward and melted rock as it proceeded. This process took place during the Cretaceous Period, 100 million years ago. Granitic rocks have a speckled salt-and-pepper appearance because they contain various minerals including quartz, feldspars and micas. Valhalla, or the Angel Wings, are prominent granitic cliffs that rise above the headwaters of the Middle Fork of the Kaweah River.


title: Sequoia National Park

text: The Sierra Nevada is a young mountain range, probably not more than 10 million years old. Forces in the earth, probably associated with the development of the Great Basin, forced the mountains to rise. During the last 10 million years, at least four ice ages have coated the mountains in a thick mantle of ice. Glaciers form and develop during long periods of cool and wet weather. Glaciers move very slowly through the mountains, carving deep valleys and craggy peaks. The extensive history of glaciation within the range and the erosion resistant nature of the granitic rocks that make up most of the Sierra Nevada have together created a landscape of hanging valleys, waterfalls, craggy peaks, alpine lakes (such as Tulainyo Lake) and glacial canyons.


title: Sequoia National Park

text: Park caves, like most caves in the Sierra Nevada of California, are mostly solutional caves dissolved from marble. Marble rock is essentially limestone that was metamorphosed by the heat and pressure of the formation and uplift of the Sierra Nevada Batholith. The batholith's rapid uplift over the past 10 million years led to a rapid erosion of the metamorphic rocks in the higher elevations, exposing the granite beneath; therefore, most Sierra Nevada caves are found in the middle and lower elevations (below ), though some caves are found in the park at elevations as high as such as the White Chief cave and Cirque Cave in Mineral King. These caves are carved out of the rock by the abundant seasonal streams in the park. Most of the larger park caves have, or have had, sinking streams running through them.


title: Sequoia National Park

text: The park contains more than 270 known caves, including Lilburn Cave which is California's longest cave with nearly of surveyed passages. The only commercial cave open to park visitors is Crystal Cave, the park's second-longest cave at over . Crystal Cave was discovered on April 28, 1918, by Alex Medley and Cassius Webster. The cave is a constant , and is only accessible by guided tour.


title: Sequoia National Park

text: Caves are discovered every year in the park with the most recently discovered major cave being Ursa Minor in August 2006.


title: Sequoia National Park

text: According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. Potential natural vegetation Types, Sequoia National Park encompasses five classifications listed here from highest to lowest elevation; Alpine tundra & barren vegetation type with an Alpine tundra vegetation form...Pinus contorta/ Subalpine zone vegetation type with a California Conifer Forest vegetation form...Abies magnifica vegetation type with a California Conifer Forest vegetation form...Mixed conifer vegetation type with a California Conifer Forest vegetation form...and Chaparral vegetation type with a California chaparral and woodlands vegetation form.


title: Sequoia National Park

text: Animals that inhabit this park are coyote, badger, black bear, bighorn sheep, deer, fox, cougar, eleven species of woodpecker, various species of turtle, three species of owl, opossum, various species of snake, wolverine, beaver, various species of frog, and muskrat.


title: Sequoia National Park

text: In addition to hiking, camping, fishing, and backpacking, the following attractions are highlights with many park visitors:


title: Doudrop

text: Kimberly Benson (born 6 May 1991) is a Scottish professional wrestler. She is currently signed to WWE, where she performs on the Raw brand under the ring name Doudrop. Benson began her career on the independent circuit under the name Viper; after joining WWE, she originally performed on its NXT UK brand as Piper Niven. She is a former two-time ICW Women's Champion, one-time Artist of Stardom Champion, one-time SWA World Champion, and two-time WWE 24/7 Champion.


title: Doudrop

text: Before turning into a wrestler, she kept her love for professional wrestling as a secret due to being worried that her female friends thought she was "weird" as they believed that was only a sport for men. It wasn't until she was 15, and when her oldest nephew began to watch wrestling, that Benson's passion was rekindled and she was open about enjoying wrestling. She was introduced to this sport at a training school near her Ayrshire home and, according to her, she debuted at age 16 one year after beginning her training; making accounts with her age, this was in 2007. About her training, she said: "I got beat up, totally beat up. I remember lying in bed the next day, being so sore and in absolute agony, but I just loved it, I had to go back."


title: Doudrop

text: She was part of the special program of ITV World of Sport Wrestling celebrated on New Year's Eve 2016, and until April of that year, she was programmed to appear on a revival of the series. However, a month later before filming was set to begin, the project was postponed indefinitely. Although not long after, she received a phone call from WWE, one of the largest wrestling companies in the world, asking her to be part of the women's tournament, Mae Young Classic 2017. The event took place in 2017 and was an all-women tournament. Benson asked World of Sport Wrestling to release her from her contract to participate in the competition. She competed as Piper Niven since the name she was using was Viper and that was already the name of a WWE star inside the company, deciding to choose that name because she played bagpipes as a child, and Niven is her dad's first name. She defeated Santana Garrett in the first round and Serena Deeb in the round two, before being defeated by Toni Storm in the quarterfinals.


title: Doudrop

text: Also in 2017, she worked in Japan as Viper for the company World Wonder Ring Stardom. On 7 January of that year, at the event Stardom New Years Stars 2017 – Tag 2, she was part of the team "Oedo Tai" with Kagetsu and Kyoko Kimura as a replacement for Hana Kimura who was injured, where she tried to help the team to retain the Artist of Stardom Championship against "Queen's Quest" a team integrated by HZK, Io Shirai and Momo Watanabe, in which they were defeated and they lost the title. On 13 August, she joined Queen's Quest along with Shirai and HZK to face the team "Team Jungle" integrated by Hiroyo Matsumoto, Jungle Kyona and Kaori Yoneyama in a match for the Artist of Stardom Championship at the event Midsummer Champions 2017, in which they achieved to win the title and Viper crown herself champion. On 16 September, Viper participated at the event 5★Star Grand Prix 2017 of Stardom, where she draw with Mayu Iwatani both with 10 points. Along with Queen's Quest, managed to defend and retain the Artistic Championship three times before they left it vacant on 15 April 2018 after a draft executed by Stardom, ending their reign with 245. One month before that same year, on 28 March, she faced Toni Storm at the Stardom Dream Slam in Tokyo event in a match for her SWA World Championship, in which the ICW Women's Championship of Viper was also in the line, where she defeated Storm to capture the title, emerging victorious with both championships. Defended and retained the championship twice before losing it in a match against Utami Hayashishita at the Stardom 8th Anniversary event held on 14 January 2019, in which she also put her EVE International Championship at stake, where she was defeated and lost both titles, ending her reign with the SWA Championship in 292 days and with the EVE Championship in 92 days.


title: Doudrop

text: In early 2019, a rumour started spreading in which it was said and expected that Niven signed with WWE, which came out to be true when she appeared and debuted on 27 March episode of "NXT UK" that year, where she confronted Rhea Ripley. Niven had her first televised match with WWE after being signed on a special program entitled WWE Worlds Collide on 24 April, which consisted on various matches that involved wrestlers from all the brands; Raw, SmackDown, NXT, 205 Live and NXT UK, this last one was the brand that she belonged to and represented, defeating Zelina Vega of SmackDown. On 19 June episode of "NXT UK", Niven competed in a battle royal to determine who would have a future opportunity to face the NXT UK Women's Champion Toni Storm. In the match, Niven was eliminated by Xia Brookside.


title: Doudrop

text: On 12 January 2020 at the event, Niven competed in a triple threat match against Toni Storm and Kay Lee Ray for the NXT UK Women's Championship, where Niven was defeated and pinned by Kay Lee. Niven returned to "NXT UK" television on 24 September of that year, where she challenged Kay Lee Ray in a match for the NXT UK Women's Championship, where she was defeated. On 19 November, Niven challenged Ray in a Falls Count Anywhere match for the NXT UK Women's Championship. Niven was again defeated by Kay Lee due to an interference made by Jinny.


title: Doudrop

text: Niven lost to Jinny in a No. 1 contenders match for the NXT UK Women's Championship on episode 7 January 2021 of "NXT UK". On 11 March, Niven and Jack Starz defeated Jinny and Joseph Conners in the NXT UK's first-ever mixed tag team match.


title: Doudrop

text: On 14 June 2021 episode of "Raw", Niven was traded to the brand as Eva Marie's unnamed protégé, defeating Naomi in her debut match. The following week on "Raw", Marie introduced her as "Doudrop". Later that night, she and Marie were defeated in a tag team match by Asuka and Naomi. At SummerSlam, Doudrop turned against Marie, and on the following episode of "Raw", Marie attacked Doudrop during an interview; starting a feud between them. After defeating Marie twice on 13 and 20 September episodes of "Raw", on the next episode, Doudrop challenged Charlotte Flair for the Raw Women's Championship in a losing effort due to a distraction by Marie. In October, Doudrop entered the Queen's Crown tournament, where she defeated Natalya in the first round and Shayna Baszler in the semi-finals, but lost to Zelina Vega in the finals at Crown Jewel.


title: Doudrop

text: In 2022, after winning a triple threat No. 1 contendership match against Bianca Belair and Liv Morgan on an episode of "Raw", Doudrop challenged Raw Women's Champion Becky Lynch for the title at Royal Rumble in a losing effort. At Elimination Chamber, she entered the Elimination Chamber match for a Raw Women's Championship match at WrestleMania 38, but was eliminated by Liv Morgan. Since June, she would chase the WWE 24/7 Championship, winning the title twice.


title: Doudrop

text: On 2 May episode of "Raw", Doudrop approached Nikki A. S. H. backstage, suggesting to align together, which A. S. H. accepted. The following week on "Raw", Doudrop alongside A. S. H. challenged the WWE Women's Tag Team Champions Naomi and Sasha Banks in a non-title match, but they were unsuccessful. After the Women's Tag Team Championship was vacated on May, A. S. H. and Doudrop entered a tournament to crown a new champions which beguned at August. They lost in the first round to Alexa Bliss and Asuka. On 26 August episode of "SmackDown", A. S. H. and Doudrop entered a second chance four-way match to return to the tournament among other thee teams, which was won by Natalya and Sonya Deville. On 30 August episode of "NXT 2.0", A. S. H. and Doudrop made a surprise appearance as they challenged the NXT Women's Tag Team Champions Katana Chance and Kayden Carter for their titles at Worlds Collide. At the event, they failed to win the titles following interference from Toxic Attraction.


title: Doudrop

text: Benson is the subject of the episode "Fight Like a Girl" of the documentary series "Our Lives" by BBC. The episode is about her life as a professional wrestler.


title: Doudrop

text: On Celebrate Bisexuality Day 2019, Benson came out as bisexual. Benson shared that she has Bell's palsy. Benson got married in September 2021.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: The Wilcoxon signed-rank test is a non-parametric statistical hypothesis test used either to test the location of a population based on a sample of data, or to compare the locations of two populations using two matched samples. The one-sample version serves a purpose similar to that of the one-sample Student's "t"-test. For two matched samples, it is a paired difference test like the paired Student's "t"-test (also known as the ""t"-test for matched pairs" or ""t"-test for dependent samples"). The Wilcoxon test can be a good alternative to the "t"-test when population means are not of interest; for example, when one wishes to test whether a population's median is nonzero, or whether there is a better than 50% chance that a sample from one population is greater than a sample from another population.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: The test is named for Frank Wilcoxon (1892–1965) who, in a single paper, proposed both it and the rank-sum test for two independent samples. The test was popularized by Sidney Siegel (1956) in his influential textbook on non-parametric statistics. Siegel used the symbol "T" for the test statistic, and consequently, the test is sometimes referred to as the Wilcoxon "T"-test.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: There are two variants of the signed-rank test. From a theoretical point of view, the one-sample test is more fundamental because the paired sample test is performed by converting the data to the situation of the one-sample test. However, most practical applications of the signed-rank test arise from paired data.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: For a paired sample test, the data consists of samples formula_1. Each sample is a pair of measurements. In the simplest case, the measurements are on an interval scale. Then they may be converted to real numbers, and the paired sample test is converted to a one-sample test by replacing each pair of numbers formula_2 by its difference formula_3. In general, it must be possible to rank the differences between the pairs. This requires that the data be on an "ordered metric" scale, a type of scale that carries more information than an ordinal scale but may have less than an interval scale.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: The data for a one-sample test is a set of real number samples formula_4. Assume for simplicity that the samples have distinct absolute values and that no sample equals zero. (Zeros and ties introduce several complications; see below.) The test is performed as follows:


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: The ranks are defined so that formula_17 is the number of formula_18 for which formula_19. Additionally, if formula_20 is such that formula_21, then formula_22 for all formula_23.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: The signed-rank sum formula_13 is closely related to two other test statistics. The "positive-rank sum" formula_25 and the "negative-rank sum" formula_26 are defined by


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: Because formula_28 equals the sum of all the ranks, which is formula_29, these three statistics are related by:


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: Because formula_13, formula_25, and formula_26 carry the same information, any of them may be used as the test statistic.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: The positive-rank sum and negative-rank sum have alternative interpretations that are useful for the theory behind the test. Define the "Walsh average" formula_34 to be formula_35. Then:


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: The one-sample Wilcoxon signed-rank test can be used to test whether data comes from a symmetric population with a specified median. If the population median is known, then it can be used to test whether data is symmetric about its center.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: To explain the null and alternative hypotheses formally, assume that the data consists of independent and identically distributed samples from a distribution formula_37. If formula_38 and formula_39 are IID formula_37-distributed random variables, define formula_41 to be the cumulative distribution function of formula_42. Set


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: Assume that formula_37 is continuous. The one-sample Wilcoxon signed-rank sum test is a test for the following null hypothesis against one of the following alternative hypotheses:


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: The alternative hypothesis being tested depends on whether the test statistic is used to compute a one-sided or two-sided "p"-value (and if one-sided, which side). If formula_49 is a fixed, predetermined quantity, then the test can also be used as a test for the value of formula_50 by subtracting formula_49 from every data point.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: The above null and alternative hypotheses are derived from the fact that formula_52 is a consistent estimator of formula_53. It can also be derived from the description of formula_25 and formula_26 in terms of Walsh averages, since that description shows that the Wilcoxon test is the same as the sign test applied to the set of Walsh averages.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: Restricting the distributions of interest can lead to more interpretable null and alternative hypotheses. One mildly restrictive assumption is that formula_41 has a unique median. This median is called the pseudomedian of formula_37; in general it is different from the mean and the median, even when all three exist. If the existence of a unique pseudomedian can be assumed true under both the null and alternative hypotheses, then these hypotheses can be restated as:


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: Most often, the null and alternative hypotheses are stated under the assumption of symmetry. Fix a real number formula_49. Define formula_37 to be "symmetric about formula_49" if a random variable formula_68 with distribution formula_37 satisfies formula_70 for all formula_71. If formula_37 has a density function formula_73, then formula_37 is symmetric about formula_49 if and only if formula_76 for every formula_71.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: If the null and alternative distributions of formula_37 can be assumed symmetric, then the null and alternative hypotheses simplify to the following:


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: If in addition formula_87, then formula_49 is a median of formula_37. If this median is unique, then the Wilcoxon signed-rank sum test becomes a test for the location of the median. When the mean of formula_37 is defined, then the mean is formula_49, and the test is also a test for the location of the mean.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: The restriction that the alternative distribution is symmetric is highly restrictive, but for one-sided tests it can be weakened. Say that formula_37 is "stochastically smaller than a distribution symmetric about zero" if an formula_37-distributed random variable formula_68 satisfies formula_95 for all formula_96. Similarly, formula_37 is "stochastically larger than a distribution symmetric about zero" if formula_98 for all formula_96. Then the Wilcoxon signed-rank sum test can also be used for the following null and alternative hypotheses:


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: The hypothesis that the data are IID can be weakened. Each data point may be taken from a different distribution, as long as all the distributions are assumed to be continuous and symmetric about a common point formula_104. The data points are not required to be independent as long as the conditional distribution of each observation given the others is symmetric about formula_104.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: Because the paired data test arises from taking paired differences, its null and alternative hypotheses can be derived from those of the one-sample test. In each case, they become assertions about the behavior of the differences formula_3.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: Let formula_107 be the joint cumulative distribution of the pairs formula_2. If formula_37 is continuous, then the most general null and alternative hypotheses are expressed in terms of


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: Like the one-sample case, under some restrictions the test can be interpreted as a test for whether the pseudomedian of the differences is located at zero.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: A common restriction is to symmetric distributions of differences. In this case, the null and alternative hypotheses are:


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: The null hypothesis of exchangeability can arise from a matched pair experiment with a treatment group and a control group. Randomizing the treatment and control within each pair makes the observations exchangeable. For an exchangeable distribution, formula_3 has the same distribution as formula_137, and therefore, under the null hypothesis, the distribution is symmetric about zero.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: Because the one-sample test can be used as a one-sided test for stochastic dominance, the paired difference Wilcoxon test can be used to compare the following hypotheses:


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: In real data, it sometimes happens that there is a sample formula_145 which equals zero or a pair formula_2 with formula_147. It can also happen that there are tied samples. This means that for some formula_148, we have formula_149 (in the one-sample case) or formula_150 (in the paired sample case). This is particularly common for discrete data. When this happens, the test procedure defined above is usually undefined because there is no way to uniquely rank the data. (The sole exception is if there is a single sample formula_145 which is zero and no other zeros or ties.) Because of this, the test statistic needs to be modified.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: Wilcoxon's original paper did not address the question of observations (or, in the paired sample case, differences) that equal zero. However, in later surveys, he recommended removing zeros from the sample. Then the standard signed-rank test could be applied to the resulting data, as long as there were no ties. This is now called the "reduced sample procedure."


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: Pratt observed that the reduced sample procedure can lead to paradoxical behavior. He gives the following example. Suppose that we are in the one-sample situation and have the following thirteen observations:


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: This has a one-sided "p"-value of formula_152, and therefore the sample is not significantly positive at any significance level formula_153. Pratt argues that one would expect that decreasing the observations should certainly not make the data appear more positive. However, if the zero observation is decreased by an amount less than 2, or if all observations are decreased by an amount less than 1, then the signed ranks become:


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: This has a one-sided "p"-value of formula_154. Therefore the sample would be judged significantly positive at any significance level formula_155. The paradox is that, if formula_156 is between formula_154 and formula_152, then "decreasing" an insignificant sample causes it to appear significantly "positive".


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: Pratt therefore proposed the "signed-rank zero procedure." This procedure includes the zeros when ranking the samples. However, it excludes them from the test statistic, or equivalently it defines formula_159. Pratt proved that the signed-rank zero procedure has several desirable behaviors not shared by the reduced sample procedure:


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: Pratt remarks that, when the signed-rank zero procedure is combined with the average rank procedure for resolving ties, the resulting test is a consistent test against the alternative hypothesis that, for all formula_148, formula_164 and formula_165 differ by at least a fixed constant that is independent of formula_23 and formula_18.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: The signed-rank zero procedure has the disadvantage that, when zeros occur, the null distribution of the test statistic changes, so tables of "p"-values can no longer be used.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: When the data is on a Likert scale with equally spaced categories, the signed-rank zero procedure is more likely to maintain the Type I error rate than the reduced sample procedure.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: From the viewpoint of statistical efficiency, there is no perfect rule for handling zeros. Conover found examples of null and alternative hypotheses that show that neither Wilcoxon's and Pratt's methods are uniformly better than the other. When comparing a discrete uniform distribution to a distribution where probabilities linearly increase from left to right, Pratt's method outperforms Wilcoxon's. When testing a binomial distribution centered at zero to see whether the parameter of each Bernoulli trial is formula_168, Wilcoxon's method outperforms Pratt's.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: When the data does not have ties, the ranks formula_17 are used to calculate the test statistic. In the presence of ties, the ranks are not defined. There are two main approaches to resolving this.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: The most common procedure for handling ties, and the one originally recommended by Wilcoxon, is called the "average rank" or "midrank procedure." This procedure assigns numbers between 1 and "n" to the observations, with two observations getting the same number if and only if they have the same absolute value. These numbers are conventionally called ranks even though the set of these numbers is not equal to formula_170 (except when there are no ties). The rank assigned to an observation is the average of the possible ranks it would have if the ties were broken in all possible ways. Once the ranks are assigned, the test statistic is computed in the same way as usual.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: In this case, formula_172 is assigned rank 1, formula_39 and formula_174 are assigned rank formula_175, formula_176 is assigned rank 4, and formula_38, formula_178, and formula_179 are assigned rank formula_180. Formally, suppose that there is a set of observations all having the same absolute value formula_181, that formula_182 observations have absolute value less than formula_181, and that formula_184 observations have absolute value less than or equal to formula_181. If the ties among the observations with absolute value formula_181 were broken, then these observations would occupy ranks formula_187 through formula_184. The average rank procedure therefore assigns them the rank formula_189.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: Under the average rank procedure, the null distribution is different in the presence of ties. The average rank procedure also has some disadvantages that are similar to those of the reduced sample procedure for zeros. It is possible that a sample can be judged significantly positive by the average rank procedure; but increasing some of the values so as to break the ties, or breaking the ties in any way whatsoever, results in a sample that the test judges to be not significant. However, increasing all the observed values by the same amount cannot turn a significantly positive result into an insignificant one, nor an insignificant one into a significantly negative one. Furthermore, if the observations are distributed symmetrically, then the values of formula_49 which the test does not reject form an interval.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: The other common option for handling ties is a tiebreaking procedure. In a tiebreaking procedure, the observations are assigned distinct ranks in the set formula_170. The rank assigned to an observation depends on its absolute value and the tiebreaking rule. Observations with smaller absolute values are always given smaller ranks, just as in the standard rank-sum test. The tiebreaking rule is used to assign ranks to observations with the same absolute value. One advantage of tiebreaking rules is that they allow the use of standard tables for computing "p"-values.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: "Random tiebreaking" breaks the ties at random. Under random tiebreaking, the null distribution is the same as when there are no ties, but the result of the test depends not only on the data but on additional random choices. Averaging the ranks over the possible random choices results in the average rank procedure. One could also report the probability of rejection over all random choices. Random tiebreaking has the advantage that the probability that a sample is judged significantly positive does not decrease when some observations are increased. "Conservative tiebreaking" breaks the ties in favor of the null hypothesis. When performing a one-sided test in which negative values of formula_13 tend to be more significant, ties are broken by assigning lower ranks to negative observations and higher ranks to positive ones. When the test makes positive values of formula_13 significant, ties are broken the other way, and when large absolute values of formula_13 are significant, ties are broken so as to make formula_195 as small as possible. Pratt observes that when ties are likely, the conservative tiebreaking procedure "presumably has low power, since it amounts to breaking all ties in favor of the null hypothesis."


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: The average rank procedure can disagree with tiebreaking procedures. Pratt gives the following example. Suppose that the observations are:


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: This sample is significantly positive at the one-sided level formula_196. On the other hand, any tiebreaking rule will assign the ranks


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: Two other options for handling ties are based around averaging the results of tiebreaking. In the "average statistic" method, the test statistic formula_13 is computed for every possible way of breaking ties, and the final statistic is the mean of the tie-broken statistics. In the "average probability" method, the "p"-value is computed for every possible way of breaking ties, and the final "p"-value is the mean of the tie-broken "p"-values.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: Computing "p"-values requires knowing the distribution of formula_13 under the null hypothesis. There is no closed formula for this distribution. However, for small values of formula_200, the distribution may be computed exactly. Under the null hypothesis that the data is symmetric about zero, each formula_145 is exactly as likely to be positive as it is negative. Therefore the probability that formula_202 under the null hypothesis is equal to the number of sign combinations that yield formula_202 divided by the number of possible sign combinations formula_204. This can be used to compute the exact distribution of formula_13 under the null hypothesis.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: Computing the distribution of formula_13 by considering all possibilities requires computing formula_204 sums, which is intractable for all but the smallest formula_200. However, there is an efficient recursion for the distribution of formula_25. Define formula_210 to be the number of sign combinations for which formula_211. This is equal to the number of subsets of formula_170 which sum to formula_213. The base cases of the recursion are formula_214, formula_215 for all formula_216, and formula_217 for all formula_218 or formula_219. The recursive formula is


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: The formula is true because every subset of formula_170 which sums to formula_213 either does not contain formula_200, in which case it is also a subset of formula_224, or it does contain formula_200, in which case removing formula_200 from the subset produces a subset of formula_224 which sums to formula_228. Under the null hypothesis, the probability mass function of formula_25 satisfies formula_230. The function formula_231 is closely related to the integer partition function.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: If formula_232 is the probability that formula_211 under the null hypothesis when there are formula_200 samples, then formula_232 satisfies a similar recursion:


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: with similar boundary conditions. There is also a recursive formula for the cumulative distribution function formula_237.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: For very large formula_200, even the above recursion is too slow. In this case, the null distribution can be approximated. The null distributions of formula_13, formula_25, and formula_26 are asymptotically normal with means and variances:


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: Better approximations can be produced using Edgeworth expansions. Using a fourth-order Edgeworth expansion shows that:


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: The technical underpinnings of these expansions are rather involved, because conventional Edgeworth expansions apply to sums of IID continuous random variables, while formula_25 is a sum of non-identically distributed discrete random variables. The final result, however, is that the above expansion has an error of formula_246, just like a conventional fourth-order Edgeworth expansion.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: When zeros are present and the signed-rank zero procedure is used, or when ties are present and the average rank procedure is used, the null distribution of formula_13 changes. Cureton derived a normal approximation for this situation. Suppose that the original number of observations was formula_200 and the number of zeros was formula_251. The tie correction is


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: where the sum is over all the sizes formula_253 of each group of tied observations. The expectation of formula_13 is still zero, while the expectation of formula_25 is


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: Wilcoxon originally defined the Wilcoxon rank-sum statistic to be formula_259. Early authors such as Siegel followed Wilcoxon. This is appropriate for two-sided hypothesis tests, but it cannot be used for one-sided tests.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: Instead of assigning ranks between 1 and "n", it is also possible to assign ranks between 0 and formula_260. These are called "modified ranks". The modified signed-rank sum formula_261, the modified positive-rank sum formula_262, and the modified negative-rank sum formula_263 are defined analogously to formula_13, formula_25, and formula_26 but with the modified ranks in place of the ordinary ranks. The probability that the sum of two independent formula_37-distributed random variables is positive can be estimated as formula_268. When consideration is restricted to continuous distributions, this is a minimum variance unbiased estimator of formula_53.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: formula_8 is the sign function, formula_271 is the absolute value, and formula_17 is the rank. Notice that pairs 3 and 9 are tied in absolute value. They would be ranked 1 and 2, so each gets the average of those ranks, 1.5.


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: If the test statistic "T" is reported, the rank correlation r is equal to the test statistic "T" divided by the total rank sum "S", or "r" = "T"/"S".


title: Wilcoxon signed-rank test

text: If the test statistic "T" is reported, an equivalent way to compute the rank correlation is with the difference in proportion between the two rank sums, which is the Kerby (2014) simple difference formula. To continue with the current example, the sample size is 9, so the total rank sum is 45. "T" is the smaller of the two rank sums, so "T" is 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 18. From this information alone, the remaining rank sum can be computed, because it is the total sum "S" minus "T", or in this case 45 − 18 = 27. Next, the two rank-sum proportions are 27/45 = 60% and 18/45 = 40%. Finally, the rank correlation is the difference between the two proportions (.60 minus .40), hence "r" = .20.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: Georges Henri Joseph Édouard Lemaître ( ; ; 17 July 1894 – 20 June 1966) was a Belgian Catholic priest, theoretical physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and professor of physics at the Catholic University of Louvain. He was the first to theorize that the recession of nearby galaxies can be explained by an expanding universe, which was observationally confirmed soon afterwards by Edwin Hubble. He first derived "Hubble's law", now called the Hubble–Lemaître law by the IAU, and published the first estimation of the Hubble constant in 1927, two years before Hubble's article. Lemaître also proposed the "Big Bang theory" of the origin of the universe, calling it the "hypothesis of the primeval atom", and later calling it "the beginning of the world".


title: Georges Lemaître

text: After a classical education at a Jesuit secondary school, the Collège du Sacré-Coeur, in Charleroi, in Belgium, Lemaître began studying civil engineering at the Catholic University of Louvain at the age of 17. In 1914, he interrupted his studies to serve as an artillery officer in the Belgian army for the duration of World War I. At the end of hostilities, he received the Belgian War Cross with palms.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: After the war, he studied physics and mathematics, and began to prepare for the diocesan priesthood, not for the Jesuits. He obtained his doctorate in 1920 with a thesis entitled "l'Approximation des fonctions de plusieurs variables réelles" ("Approximation of functions of several real variables"), written under the direction of Charles de la Vallée-Poussin. He was ordained a priest on 22 September 1923 by Cardinal Désiré-Joseph Mercier.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: In 1923, he became a research associate in astronomy at the University of Cambridge, spending a year at St Edmund's House (now St Edmund's College, University of Cambridge). There he worked with Arthur Eddington, a devout Quaker and physicist who introduced him to modern cosmology, stellar astronomy, and numerical analysis. He spent the next year at Harvard College Observatory in Cambridge, Massachusetts, with Harlow Shapley, who had just gained renown for his work on nebulae, and at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he registered for the doctoral program in sciences.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: On his return to Belgium in 1925, he became a part-time lecturer at the Catholic University of Louvain and began the report that was published in 1927 in the "Annales de la Société Scientifique de Bruxelles" ("Annals of the Scientific Society of Brussels") under the title "Un Univers homogène de masse constante et de rayon croissant rendant compte de la vitesse radiale des nébuleuses extragalactiques" ("A homogeneous Universe of constant mass and growing radius accounting for the radial velocity of extragalactic nebulae"), that was later to bring him international fame . In this report, he presented the new idea that the universe is expanding, which he derived from General Relativity. This later became known as Hubble's law, even though Lemaître was the first to provide an observational estimate of the Hubble constant. The initial state he proposed was taken to be Einstein's own model of a finitely sized static universe. The paper had little impact because the journal in which it was published was not widely read by astronomers outside Belgium. Arthur Eddington reportedly helped translate the article into English in 1931, but the part of it pertaining to the estimation of the "Hubble constant" was not included in the translation for reasons that remained unknown for a long time. This issue was clarified in 2011 by Mario Livio: Lemaître omitted those paragraphs himself when translating the paper for the Royal Astronomical Society, in favour of reports of newer work on the subject, since by that time Hubble's calculations had already improved on Lemaître's earlier ones.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: At this time, Einstein, while not taking exception to the mathematics of Lemaître's theory, refused to accept that the universe was expanding; Lemaître recalled his commenting "" ("Your calculations are correct, but your physics is atrocious"). In the same year, Lemaître returned to MIT to present his doctoral thesis on "The gravitational field in a fluid sphere of uniform invariant density according to the theory of relativity". Upon obtaining his Ph.D., he was named ordinary professor at the Catholic University of Louvain.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: In 1931, Arthur Eddington published in the "Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society" a long commentary on Lemaître's 1927 article, which Eddington described as a "brilliant solution" to the outstanding problems of cosmology. The original paper was published in an abbreviated English translation later on in 1931, along with a sequel by Lemaître responding to Eddington's comments. Lemaître was then invited to London to participate in a meeting of the British Association on the relation between the physical universe and spirituality. There he proposed that the universe expanded from an initial point, which he called the "Primeval Atom". He developed this idea in a report published in "Nature". Lemaître's theory appeared for the first time in an article for the general reader on science and technology subjects in the December 1932 issue of Popular Science. Lemaître's theory became better known as the "Big Bang theory," a picturesque term playfully coined during a 1949 BBC radio broadcast by the astronomer Fred Hoyle, who was a proponent of the steady state universe and remained so until his death in 2001.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: Lemaître's proposal met with skepticism from his fellow scientists. Eddington found Lemaître's notion unpleasant. Einstein thought it unjustifiable from a physical point of view, although he encouraged Lemaître to look into the possibility of models of non-isotropic expansion, so it is clear he was not altogether dismissive of the concept. Einstein also appreciated Lemaître's argument that Einstein's model of a static universe could not be sustained into the infinite past.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: With Manuel Sandoval Vallarta, Lemaître discovered that the intensity of cosmic rays varied with latitude because these charged particles are interacting with the Earth's magnetic field. In their calculations, Lemaître and Vallarta made use of MIT's differential analyzer computer developed by Vannevar Bush. They also worked on a theory of primary cosmic radiation and applied it to their investigations of the sun's magnetic field and the effects of the galaxy's rotation.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: Lemaître and Einstein met on four occasions: in 1927 in Brussels, at the time of a Solvay Conference; in 1932 in Belgium, at the time of a cycle of conferences in Brussels; in California in January 1933; and in 1935 at Princeton. In 1933 at the California Institute of Technology, after Lemaître detailed his theory, Einstein stood up, applauded, and is supposed to have said, "This is the most beautiful and satisfactory explanation of creation to which I have ever listened." However, there is disagreement over the reporting of this quote in the newspapers of the time, and it may be that Einstein was not referring to the theory as a whole, but only to Lemaître's proposal that cosmic rays may be the leftover artifacts of the initial "explosion".


title: Georges Lemaître

text: In 1933, when he resumed his theory of the expanding universe and published a more detailed version in the "Annals of the Scientific Society of Brussels", Lemaître achieved his greatest public recognition. Newspapers around the world called him a famous Belgian scientist and described him as the leader of new cosmological physics. Also in 1933, Lemaître served as a visiting professor at The Catholic University of America.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: On July 27, 1935, he was named an honorary canon of the Malines cathedral by Cardinal Josef Van Roey.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: He was elected a member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences in 1936, and took an active role there, serving as its president from March 1960 until his death.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: In 1941, he was elected a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences and Arts of Belgium. In 1946, he published his book on "L'Hypothèse de l'Atome Primitif" ("The Primeval Atom Hypothesis"). It was translated into Spanish in the same year and into English in 1950.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: In relation to Catholic teaching on the origin of the Universe, Lemaître viewed his theory as neutral with neither a connection nor a contradiction of the Faith; as a devoted Catholic priest, Lemaître was opposed to mixing science with religion, although he held that the two fields were not in conflict.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: During the 1950s, he gradually gave up part of his teaching workload, ending it completely when he took emeritus status in 1964. In 1962, strongly opposed to the expulsion of French speakers from the Catholic University of Louvain, he created the ACAPSUL movement together with Gérard Garitte to fight against the split.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: During the Second Vatican Council of 1962–65 he was asked by Pope John XXIII to serve on the 4th session of the Pontifical Commission on Birth Control. However, since his health made it impossible for him to travel to Rome – he suffered a heart attack in December 1964 – Lemaître demurred, expressing surprise that he was chosen. He told a Dominican colleague, Père Henri de Riedmatten, that he thought it was dangerous for a mathematician to venture outside of his area of expertise. He was also named domestic prelate (Monsignor) in 1960 by Pope John XXIII.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: At the end of his life, he was increasingly devoted to problems of numerical calculation. He was a remarkable algebraicist and arithmetical calculator. Since 1930, he had used the most powerful calculating machine of the time, the Mercedes-Euklid. In 1958, he was introduced to the University's Burroughs E 101, its first electronic computer. Lemaître maintained a strong interest in the development of computers and, even more, in the problems of language and computer programming.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: He died on 20 June 1966, shortly after having learned of the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation, which provided further evidence for his proposal about the birth of the universe.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: Lemaître was a pioneer in applying Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity to cosmology. In a 1927 article, which preceded Edwin Hubble's landmark article by two years, Lemaître derived what became known as Hubble's law and proposed it as a generic phenomenon in relativistic cosmology. Lemaître was also the first to estimate the numerical value of the Hubble constant.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: Einstein was skeptical of this paper. When Lemaître approached Einstein at the 1927 Solvay Conference, the latter pointed out that Alexander Friedmann had proposed a similar solution to Einstein's equations in 1922, implying that the radius of the universe increased over time. (Einstein had also criticized Friedmann's calculations, but withdrew his comments.) In 1931, his "annus mirabilis", Lemaître published an article in "Nature" setting out his theory of the "primeval atom."


title: Georges Lemaître

text: Friedmann was handicapped by living and working in the USSR, and died in 1925, soon after inventing the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric. Because Lemaître spent almost his entire career in Europe, his scientific work is not as well known in the United States as that of Hubble or Einstein, both well known in the U.S. by virtue of residing there. Nevertheless, Lemaître's theory changed the course of cosmology. This was because Lemaître:


title: Georges Lemaître

text: Both Friedmann and Lemaître proposed relativistic cosmologies featuring an expanding universe. However, Lemaître was the first to propose that the expansion explains the redshift of galaxies. He further concluded that an initial "creation-like" event must have occurred. In the 1980s, Alan Guth and Andrei Linde modified this theory by adding to it a period of inflation.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: Einstein at first dismissed Friedmann, and then (privately) Lemaître, out of hand, saying that not all mathematics lead to correct theories. After Hubble's discovery was published, Einstein quickly and publicly endorsed Lemaître's theory, helping both the theory and its proposer get fast recognition.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: Lemaître was also an early adopter of computers for cosmological calculations. He introduced the first computer to his university (a Burroughs E 101) in 1958 and was one of the inventors of the Fast Fourier transform algorithm.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: In 1931, Lemaître was the first scientist to propose the expansion of the universe was actually accelerating, which was confirmed observationally in the 1990s through observations of very distant Type IA supernova with the Hubble Space Telescope which led to the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: In 1933, Lemaître found an important inhomogeneous solution of Einstein's field equations describing a spherical dust cloud, the Lemaître–Tolman metric.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: In 1948 Lemaître published a polished mathematical essay "Quaternions et espace elliptique" which clarified an obscure space. William Kingdon Clifford had cryptically described elliptic space in 1873 at a time when versors were too common to mention. Lemaître developed the theory of quaternions from first principles so that his essay can stand on its own, but he recalled the Erlangen program in geometry while developing the metric geometry of elliptic space.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: Lemaître was the first theoretical cosmologist ever nominated in 1954 for the Nobel Prize in Physics for his prediction of the expanding universe. Remarkably, he was also nominated for the 1956 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his primeval atom theory.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: On 17 March 1934, Lemaître received the Francqui Prize, the highest Belgian scientific distinction, from King Leopold III. His proposers were Albert Einstein, Charles de la Vallée-Poussin and Alexandre de Hemptinne. The members of the international jury were Eddington, Langevin, Théophile de Donder and Marcel Dehalu. The same year he received the Mendel Medal of the Villanova University.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: In 1936, Lemaître received the Prix Jules Janssen, the highest award of the Société astronomique de France, the French astronomical society.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: Another distinction that the Belgian government reserves for exceptional scientists was allotted to him in 1950: the decennial prize for applied sciences for the period 1933–1942.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: In 2005, Lemaître was voted to the 61st place of ("The Greatest Belgian"), a Flemish television program on the VRT. In the same year he was voted to the 78th place by the audience of the ("The Greatest Belgians"), a television show of the RTBF.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: On 26 October 2018, an electronic vote among all members of the International Astronomical Union voted 78% to recommend changing the name of the Hubble law to the Hubble–Lemaître law.


title: Georges Lemaître

text: In 2019, he was the subject of a survey question: "Should schools in America teach the creation theory of Catholic priest Georges Lemaitre as part of their science curriculum?" 53% of respondents said "No", presumably confusing his theory with Creationism.


title: Gameloft

text: Gameloft SE is a French video game publisher based in Paris, founded in December 1999 by Ubisoft co-founder Michel Guillemot. The company operates 18 development studios worldwide, and publishes games with a special focus on the mobile games market. Formerly a public company traded at the Paris Bourse, Gameloft was acquired by media conglomerate Vivendi in 2016.


title: Gameloft

text: Gameloft was founded by Michel Guillemot, one of the five founders of Ubisoft, on 14 December 1999. By February 2009, Gameloft had shipped over 200 million copies of its games since its IPO, as well as 2 million daily downloads of its games via the App Store for iOS. Gameloft's chief financial officer (CFO), Alexandre de Rochefort, noted that the company's games generated about 400 times more revenue on iOS than on Android, partially because Google did not develop its Google Play storefront to "entice customers to actually buy products"; as a result of which Gameloft heavily cut its investments in Android games development in November 2009. In July 2010, Gameloft instead attempted to sell Android games directly through its website, avoiding the use of Google Play.


title: Gameloft

text: In a May 2011 keynote, de Rochefort stated that he wanted to avoid moving the company to the NASDAQ stock exchange, as the U.S. games market appeared to be nothing more than a large economic bubble, especially when seeing Zynga's then total stock value.


title: Gameloft

text: Gameloft's games have often been accused of being clones of other properties; when asked about it at the November 2011 Consumer Electronics Show, chief executive officer (CEO) Michel Guillemot stated "The videogame industry has always played around a limited number of themes. There is maybe one new idea a year." In response to many users commenting on Guillemot's remarks, Levi Buchanan of IGN defended Gameloft, stating that its games were usually well-polished, in contrary to the original concepts' games.


title: Gameloft

text: By July 2014, Gameloft announced that they would focus more strongly on quality than on quantity, as was stated to have previously been the case.


title: Gameloft

text: In April 2013, Texan company Lodsys filed a lawsuit against Gameloft, among other mobile game developers, for infringing its patent on in-app purchases. Similar lawsuits were previously intervened by Apple Inc., who claim to have licensed the technology from Lodsys for usage in its App Store.


title: Gameloft

text: In February 2012 and February 2016, Gameloft penned publishing contracts with GREE, Inc. and GungHo Online Entertainment, respectively, to facilitate its presence in the Asian market.


title: Gameloft

text: In October 2015, French media conglomerate Vivendi announced that they had acquired a 6.2% stake in Gameloft's stock, which was quickly raised to 10.2% a few days later. By February 2016, Vivendi had acquired 30% in the company, and launched a hostile takeover bid. In accordance with French law, Vivendi started a tender offer to acquire further shares.


title: Gameloft

text: Following the announcement, Gameloft's board of directors strongly advised shareholders against selling stock to Vivendi to avoid the hostile takeover. By May 2016, Vivendi had won over the majority of shareholders, enabling them to move forward in the takeover.


title: Gameloft

text: The acquisition was completed on 1 June 2016, with Vivendi having acquired 56%, an absolute majority over Gameloft's ownership. Employees of Gameloft were presented with an open letter welcoming them to the new parent company's family.


title: Gameloft

text: Analysts believed that the takeover was just the first step towards also purchasing Ubisoft, another video game venture founded by Guillemot and his brothers, although Vivendi only held a 17.7% minority in that company at the time. In response to Vivendi's actions, Guillemot announced that he would step down from his company and join his brother Yves Guillemot at Ubisoft to prevent it from also being taken over. Guillemot later clarified that his stepping-down would take effect on 29 June.


title: Gameloft

text: On 8 June, the Guillemot brothers announced that they were regretfully selling their ownership in Gameloft to Vivendi. The transaction awarded Vivendi another 21.7% in Gameloft's capital. After Guillemot departed from Gameloft on 29 June, Vivendi set up a new board of directors for the company, with Vivendi's present chief operating officer (COO), Stéphane Roussel, appointed Gameloft's chairman and CEO, and Gameloft's previous CFO, de Rochefort, additionally taking over the management of the company's 39 subsidiaries. At that point, Vivendi owned 95.94% of Gameloft's share capital.


title: Gameloft

text: Gameloft operates 17 video game development studios worldwide. In July 2011, Glenn Watson, lead programmer of Gameloft's Auckland offshoot, stated that the company's management created a "constant sense of urgency" at its studio, having employees regularly work 12- to 14-hour days. A new studio in New Orleans was opened in August 2011, taking advantage of tax breaks granted by the government of Louisiana in July 2009 to establish 150 new jobs. On 29 January 2013, Gameloft's India studio in Hyderabad was closed midway through the workday, leaving 250 people unemployed. Between June and August 2015, Gameloft's Tokyo location made roughly 80 people, effectively being closed. Additionally, on 8 July 2015, all operations at the company's New York City office were halted, and as many as 100 employees were laid off. Shortly after, in September 2015, Gameloft's Seattle studio was closed down and its 15 employees were let go. The studio was opened just a year prior to its closure. Seven studios were closed in total in 2015. Guillemot stated that these actions were taken to accommodate its "ambitious cost reduction program", instantiated after the company saw a net loss of in the fiscal year that ended on 30 June 2015. In January 2016, Gameloft opened a Nigerian marketing office for regional expansions, and shut down its Auckland studio, firing roughly 160 employees. At the time, Gameloft Auckland was New Zealand's largest video game studio. Gameloft's Valencia, Spain, location was shuttered in April 2016. In July 2017, Gameloft appointed John-Paul Burke as country manager for its subsidiaries in the United Kingdom and Ireland. Gameloft UK later closed in December 2019.


title: Gameloft

text: In October 2019, Gameloft announced a partnership with mobile operator Telecom Italia to open TIM I Love Games, a games subscription service for Android and iOS, exclusive to Italy and TIM Italy customers.


title: Jared Diamond

text: Jared Mason Diamond (born September 10, 1937) is an American geographer, historian, ornithologist, and author best known for his popular science books "The Third Chimpanzee" (1991); "Guns, Germs, and Steel" (1997, awarded a Pulitzer Prize); "" (2005), "The World Until Yesterday" (2012), and "" (2019). Originally trained in biochemistry and physiology, Diamond is known for drawing from a variety of fields, including anthropology, ecology, geography, and evolutionary biology. He is a professor of geography at UCLA.


title: Jared Diamond

text: In 2005, Diamond was ranked ninth on a poll by "Prospect" and "Foreign Policy" of the world's top 100 public intellectuals.


title: Jared Diamond

text: Diamond was born on September 10, 1937, in Boston, Massachusetts, United States. Both of his parents were from Ashkenazi Jewish families who had emigrated to the United States. His father, Louis Diamond, was a physician who emigrated from Chișinău, (present-day Moldova, then known as Bessarabia), and his mother, Flora (Kaplan), a teacher, linguist, and concert pianist. Diamond began studying piano at age six. Years later, he would propose to his wife after playing the Brahms Intermezzo in A major for her.


title: Jared Diamond

text: Already at the age of seven he developed an interest in bird-watching. This became one of his major life-passions and resulted in a number of works published in ornithology.


title: Jared Diamond

text: At the age of 15 for the first time his parents took him outside of the eastern U.S., to Montana, where they spent holidays at the Hirschy's family ranch on Big Hole River. In summer 1956, as a college student, he returned to the ranch to work. Later, impressed by the beauty of the state, he regularly spent here his own family holidays, and Montana and the Bitterroot Valley became one of the key examples in his book ""


title: Jared Diamond

text: He attended the Roxbury Latin School and earned a Bachelor of Arts in Biochemical Sciences from Harvard College in 1958 and a PhD on the physiology and biophysics of membranes in the gall bladder from Trinity College, Cambridge in 1961.


title: Jared Diamond

text: After graduation from Cambridge, Diamond returned to Harvard as a Junior Fellow until 1965, and, in 1968, became a professor of physiology at UCLA Medical School. While in his twenties he developed a second, parallel, career in ornithology and ecology, specialising in New Guinea and nearby islands, which he began visiting from 1964. Later, in his fifties, Diamond developed a third career in environmental history and became a professor of geography at UCLA, his position. He also teaches at LUISS Guido Carli in Rome. He won the National Medal of Science in 1999 and Westfield State University granted him an honorary doctorate in 2009.


title: Jared Diamond

text: Diamond originally specialized in salt absorption in the gall bladder. He has also published scholarly works in the fields of ecology and ornithology, but is arguably best known for authoring a number of popular-science books combining topics from diverse fields other than those he has formally studied. Because of this academic diversity, Diamond has been described as a polymath.


title: Jared Diamond

text: Diamond's first popular book, "" (1991), examines human evolution and its relevance to the modern world, incorporating evidence from anthropology, evolutionary biology, genetics, ecology, and linguistics. The book traces how humans evolved to be so different from other animals, despite sharing over 98% of our DNA with our closest animal relatives, the chimpanzees. The book also examines the animal origins of language, art, agriculture, smoking and drug use, and other apparently uniquely human attributes. It was well received by critics and won the 1992 Rhône-Poulenc Prize for Science Books and the Los Angeles Times Book Prize.


title: Jared Diamond

text: His second and best known popular science book, "", was published in 1997. It asks why Eurasian peoples conquered or displaced Native Americans, Australians, and Africans, instead of vice versa. It argues that this outcome was not due to genetic advantages of Eurasian peoples themselves but instead to features of the Eurasian continent, in particular, its high diversity of wild plant and animal species suitable for domestication and its east/west major axis that favored the spread of those domesticates, people, technologies—and diseases—for long distances with little change in latitude.


title: Jared Diamond

text: The first part of the book focuses on reasons why only a few species of wild plants and animals proved suitable for domestication. The second part discusses how local food production based on those domesticates led to the development of dense and stratified human populations, writing, centralized political organization, and epidemic infectious diseases. The third part compares the development of food production and of human societies among different continents and world regions. "Guns, Germs, and Steel" became an international best-seller, was translated into 33 languages, and received several awards, including a Pulitzer Prize, an Aventis Prize for Science Books and the 1997 Phi Beta Kappa Award in Science. A television documentary series based on the book was produced by the National Geographic Society in 2005.


title: Jared Diamond

text: In his third book, "Why is Sex Fun?", also published in 1997, Diamond discusses evolutionary factors underlying features of human sexuality that are generally taken for granted but that are highly unusual among our animal relatives. Those features include a long-term pair relationship (marriage), coexistence of economically cooperating pairs within a shared communal territory, provision of parental care by fathers as well as by mothers, having sex in private rather than in public, concealed ovulation, female sexual receptivity encompassing most of the menstrual cycle (including days of infertility), female menopause, and distinctive secondary sexual characteristics.


title: Jared Diamond

text: Diamond's next book, "", published in 2005, examines a range of past societies in an attempt to identify why they either collapsed or continued to thrive and considers what contemporary societies can learn from these historical examples. As in "Guns, Germs, and Steel", he argues against explanations for the failure of past societies based primarily on cultural factors, instead focusing on ecology. Among the societies mentioned in the book are the Norse and Inuit of Greenland, the Maya, the Anasazi, the indigenous people of Rapa Nui (Easter Island), Japan, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and modern Montana.


title: Jared Diamond

text: The book concludes by asking why some societies make disastrous decisions, how big businesses affect the environment, what our principal environmental problems are today, and what individuals can do about those problems. Like "Guns, Germs, and Steel", "Collapse" was translated into dozens of languages, became an international best-seller, and was the basis of a television documentary produced by the National Geographic Society. "Collapse" was also nominated for the Royal Society Prize for Science Books.


title: Jared Diamond

text: Fifteen archaeologists, cultural anthropologists, and historians from the American Anthropological Association criticized Diamond's methods and conclusions, working together with the larger association to publish the book "Questioning Collapse" as a counter to Diamond's claims. In response, Diamond, as an editor at the time for the journal "Nature", published an official review in the journal negatively covering the book without mentioning that the book was meant to be a critique of his own works. The authors and the publisher, Cambridge University Press, called out Diamond for his conflict of interest on the subject.


title: Jared Diamond

text: In 2008, Diamond published an article in "The New Yorker" entitled "Vengeance Is Ours", describing the role of revenge in tribal warfare in Papua New Guinea. A year later, two indigenous people mentioned in the article filed a lawsuit against Diamond and "The New Yorker", claiming the article defamed them. In 2013, "The Observer" reported that the lawsuit "was withdrawn by mutual consent after the sudden death of their lawyer."


title: Jared Diamond

text: In 2010, Diamond co-edited (with James Robinson) "Natural Experiments of History", a collection of seven case studies illustrating the multidisciplinary and comparative approach to the study of history that he advocates. The book's title stems from the fact that it is not possible to study history by the preferred methods of the laboratory sciences, i.e., by controlled experiments comparing replicated human societies as if they were test tubes of bacteria. Instead, one must look at natural experiments in which human societies that are similar in many respects have been historically perturbed. The book's afterword classifies natural experiments, discusses the practical difficulties of studying them, and offers suggestions on how to address those difficulties.


title: Jared Diamond

text: In "The World Until Yesterday", published in 2012, Diamond asks what the western world can learn from traditional societies. It surveys 39 traditional small-scale societies of farmers and hunter-gatherers with respect to how they deal with universal human problems. The problems discussed include dividing space, resolving disputes, bringing up children, treatment of elders, dealing with dangers, formulating religions, learning multiple languages, and remaining healthy. The book suggests that some practices of traditional societies could be usefully adopted in the modern industrial world today, either by individuals or else by society as a whole.


title: Jared Diamond

text: In "" Diamond examines whether nations can find lessons during crises in a way like people do. The nations considered are Finland, Japan, Chile, Indonesia, Germany, Australia, and the U.S. Diamond identifies four modern threats: nuclear weapons, climate change, limited resources, and extreme inequality.


title: Jared Diamond

text: Anand Giridharadas, reviewing for "The New York Times", claimed the book contained many factual inaccuracies. Daniel Immerwahr, reviewing for "The New Republic", reports that Diamond has "jettisoned statistical analysis" and the associated rigour, even by the standards of his earlier books, which have themselves sometimes been challenged on this basis.


title: Jared Diamond

text: Diamond is married to Marie Cohen, granddaughter of Polish politician Edward Werner. They have twin sons, born in 1987.


title: Jared Diamond

text: Eastern long-beaked echidna "Zaglossus bartoni diamondi" was named in honor of Jared Diamond, as was the frog "Austrochaperina adamantina".


title: 2010 Winter Olympics

text: The 2010 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XXI Olympic Winter Games () and also known as Vancouver 2010 (), were an international winter multi-sport event held from February 12 to 28, 2010 in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, with some events held in the surrounding suburbs of Richmond, West Vancouver and the University of British Columbia, and in the nearby resort town of Whistler. It was regarded by the Olympic Committee to be among the most successful Olympic games in history, in both attendance and coverage. Approximately 2,600 athletes from 82 nations participated in 86 events in fifteen disciplines. Both the Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games were organized by the Vancouver Organizing Committee (VANOC), headed by John Furlong. The 2010 Winter Games were the third Olympics to be hosted by Canada, and the first to be held within the province of British Columbia. Canada had previously hosted the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, Quebec, and the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, Alberta.


title: 2010 Winter Olympics

text: Following Olympic tradition, incumbent Vancouver mayor Sam Sullivan received the Olympic flag during the closing ceremony of the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy. The flag was raised in a special ceremony on February 28, 2006, and was on display at Vancouver City Hall until the Vancouver opening ceremony. The event was officially opened by Governor General Michaëlle Jean, accompanied by the Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper and International Olympic Committee (IOC) president Jacques Rogge.


title: 2010 Winter Olympics

text: Vancouver 2010 was immensely successful, with the official Olympic Committee press release citing "Full venues, record public attendance: Over 97% of the 1.54 million tickets available were sold, with 71% to the Canadian public at an average price of $139. Adding in international public ticket sales, the percentage of ticket sales to the public exceeds 75% of all available tickets." Vancouver 2010 also achieved record global television coverage as per the Olympic Committee, more than double the viewership of the preceding Turin 2006 games and triple the available coverage of Salt Lake City 2002, and is "recognized in numerous post Games reports as being among the most widely viewed and well received Games in Olympic history, both in Canada and internationally." Vancouver 2010's gold medal final between Canada and USA "was the most watched hockey game ever with viewership of 114 million viewers around the world."


title: 2010 Winter Olympics

text: For the first time, Canada won gold in an official sport as the host nation of the Olympics, having failed to do so in 1976 and 1988 (although Canada won the 1988 woman's curling event in Calgary when it was still only a demonstration sport). Canada clinched their first gold medal on the second day of the competition, first topping the gold medal tally on the second-to-last day of competition, and went on to become the first host nation since Norway in 1952 to lead the gold medal count. Canada broke the record for the most gold medals won at a single Winter Olympics (14), which was previously set by the Soviet Union in 1976 and Norway in 2002 (13). The United States won the most medals in total, marking their second time doing so at the Winter Olympics, and broke the record for the most medals won during the Winter Games (37), a record held until then by Germany in 2002 (36). Athletes from Slovakia and Belarus won the first Winter Olympic gold medals for their nations.


title: 2010 Winter Olympics

text: The concept of a bid by Vancouver to host the Winter Olympic Games first appeared at the 1960 Games in Squaw Valley, where the Canadian representative of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) Sidney Dawes discusses the possibility of hosting a Games in British Columbia if a venue was found near Vancouver. Shortly afterwards, the Garibaldi Olympic Development Association (GODA) was created in order to prepare a bid to host the Winter Games in the region of Mount Garibaldi, near Whistler. In 1961, GODA considered developing a bid for the 1968 Winter Games, but the Canadian Olympic Committee (COC) preferred the cities of Calgary and Banff, in Alberta, as the best opportunity for a Canadian bid to succeed. Calgary's candidacy ultimately failed, and the 1968 Games were awarded to Grenoble.


title: 2010 Winter Olympics

text: A development program for the Whistler and Mount Garibaldi region was then launched to host the 1972 Games. It included the development of road infrastructure, electrical network and drinking water, which was still absent in this region. But once again, Banff was chosen to represent Canada as the potential host city for the 1972 Games, which are eventually awarded to Sapporo, Japan. In 1968, the GODA was finally chosen by the Canadian Olympic Committee with the aim of making a joint candidacy with the city of Vancouver for the organization of the 1976 Winter Olympics. However, the chances of Vancouver's candidacy dwindled when Montreal is selected to host the 1976 Summer Olympics, and the Vancouver-Garibaldi candidacy is thus eliminated in the first round of voting. Vancouver is again a candidate for the 1980 Games, but withdraws at the last moment. For 1988 Winter Olympics, Calgary is chosen as the preferred site for the Canadian bid, and Calgary wins the election and thus becomes the first Canadian city to host the Winter Olympics.