title: Stephen Jay Gould

text: In 1997, he voiced a cartoon version of himself on the television series "The Simpsons". In the episode "Lisa the Skeptic", Lisa finds a skeleton that many people believe is an apocalyptic angel. Lisa contacts Gould and asks him to test the skeleton's DNA. The fossil is discovered to be a marketing gimmick for a new mall. During production, the only phrase Gould objected to was a line in the script that introduced him as the "world's most brilliant paleontologist". In 2002, the show paid tribute to Gould after his death, dedicating the season 13 finale to his memory. Gould had died two days before the episode aired.


title: Stephen Jay Gould

text: Gould received many accolades for his scholarly work and popular expositions of natural history, but a number of biologists felt his public presentations were out of step with mainstream evolutionary thinking. The public debates between Gould's supporters and detractors have been so quarrelsome that they have been dubbed "The Darwin Wars" by several commentators.


title: Stephen Jay Gould

text: John Maynard Smith, the eminent British evolutionary biologist, was among Gould's strongest critics. Maynard Smith thought that Gould misjudged the vital role of adaptation in biology, and was critical of Gould's acceptance of species selection as a major component of biological evolution. In a review of Daniel Dennett's book "Darwin's Dangerous Idea", Maynard Smith wrote that Gould "is giving non-biologists a largely false picture of the state of evolutionary theory." But Maynard Smith was not consistently negative, writing in a review of "The Panda's Thumb" that "Stephen Gould is the best writer of popular science now active... Often he infuriates me, but I hope he will go right on writing essays like these." Maynard Smith was also among those who welcomed Gould's reinvigoration of evolutionary paleontology.


title: Stephen Jay Gould

text: One reason for criticism was that Gould appeared to be presenting his ideas as a revolutionary way of understanding evolution, and argued for the importance of mechanisms other than natural selection, mechanisms which he believed had been ignored by many professional evolutionists. As a result, many non-specialists sometimes inferred from his early writings that Darwinian explanations had been proven to be unscientific (which Gould never tried to imply). Along with many other researchers in the field, Gould's works were sometimes deliberately taken out of context by creationists as "proof" that scientists no longer understood how organisms evolved. Gould himself corrected some of these misinterpretations and distortions of his writings in later works.


title: Stephen Jay Gould

text: The conflicts between Richard Dawkins and Gould were popularized by philosopher Kim Sterelny in his 2001 book "Dawkins vs. Gould". Sterelny documents their disagreements over theoretical issues, including the prominence of gene selection in evolution. Dawkins argues that natural selection is best understood as competition among genes (or replicators), while Gould advocated multi-level selection, which includes selection amongst genes, nucleic acid sequences, cell lineages, organisms, demes, species, and clades.


title: Stephen Jay Gould

text: Dawkins accused Gould of deliberately underplaying the differences between rapid gradualism and macromutation in his published accounts of punctuated equilibrium. He also devoted entire chapters to critiquing Gould's account of evolution in his books "The Blind Watchmaker" and "Unweaving the Rainbow", as did Daniel Dennett in his 1995 book "Darwin's Dangerous Idea". Other biologists contemporary to Gould went further, as in the case of Robert Trivers who classified it as "intellectual fraud".


title: Stephen Jay Gould

text: In his book "Wonderful Life" (1989) Gould famously described the Cambrian fauna of the Burgess Shale, emphasizing their bizarre anatomical designs, their sudden appearance, and the role chance played in determining which members survived. He used the Cambrian fauna as an example of the role contingency has in shaping the broader pattern of evolution.


title: Stephen Jay Gould

text: His view of contingency was criticized by Simon Conway Morris in his 1998 book "The Crucible of Creation". Conway Morris stressed members of the Cambrian fauna that resemble modern taxa. He also argued that convergent evolution has a tendency to produce "similarities of organization" and that the forms of life are restricted and channelled. In his book "Life's Solution" (2003) Conway Morris argued that the appearance of human-like animals is also likely. Paleontologist Richard Fortey noted that prior to the release of "Wonderful Life", Conway Morris shared a similar thesis to Gould's, but after "Wonderful Life" Conway Morris revised his interpretation and adopted a more deterministic position on the history of life.


title: Stephen Jay Gould

text: Paleontologists Derek Briggs and Richard Fortey have also argued that much of the Cambrian fauna may be regarded as stem groups of living taxa, though this is still a subject of intense research and debate, and the relationship of many Cambrian taxa to modern phyla has not been established in the eyes of many palaeontologists.


title: Stephen Jay Gould

text: Richard Dawkins disagrees with the view that new phyla suddenly appeared in the Cambrian, arguing that for a new phylum "to spring into existence, what actually has to happen on the ground is that a child is born which suddenly, out of the blue, is as different from its parents as a snail is from an earthworm. No zoologist who thinks through the implications, not even the most ardent saltationist, has ever supported any such notion." In the "Structure of Evolutionary Theory" Gould stresses the difference between phyletic splitting and large anatomical transitions, noting that the two events may be separated by millions of years. Gould argues that no paleontologist regards the Cambrian explosion "as a genealogical event—that is as the actual time of initial splitting", but rather it "marks an anatomical transition in the overt phenotypes of bilaterian organisms."


title: Stephen Jay Gould

text: Gould also had a long-running public feud with E. O. Wilson and other evolutionary biologists concerning the disciplines of human sociobiology and evolutionary psychology, both of which Gould and Lewontin opposed, but which Richard Dawkins, Daniel Dennett, and Steven Pinker advocated. These debates reached their climax in the 1970s, and included strong opposition from groups such as the Sociobiology Study Group and Science for the People. Pinker accuses Gould, Lewontin, and other opponents of evolutionary psychology of being "radical scientists", whose stance on human nature is influenced by politics rather than science. Gould stated that he made "no attribution of motive in Wilson's or anyone else's case" but cautioned that all human beings are influenced, especially unconsciously, by our personal expectations and biases. He wrote:


title: Stephen Jay Gould

text: Gould's primary criticism held that human sociobiological explanations lacked evidential support, and argued that adaptive behaviors are frequently assumed to be genetic for no other reason than their supposed universality, or their adaptive nature. Gould emphasized that adaptive behaviors can be passed on through culture as well, and either hypothesis is equally plausible. Gould did not deny the relevance of biology to human nature, but reframed the debate as "biological potentiality vs. biological determinism." Gould stated that the human brain allows for a wide range of behaviors. Its flexibility "permits us to be aggressive or peaceful, dominant or submissive, spiteful or generous… Violence, sexism, and general nastiness "are" biological since they represent one subset of a possible range of behaviors. But peacefulness, equality, and kindness are just as biological—and we may see their influence increase if we can create social structures that permit them to flourish."


title: Stephen Jay Gould

text: Gould was the author of "The Mismeasure of Man" (1981), a history and inquiry of psychometrics and intelligence testing, generating perhaps the greatest controversy of all his books and receiving both widespread praise and extensive criticism. Gould investigated the methods of nineteenth century craniometry, as well as the history of psychological testing. Gould wrote that both theories developed from an unfounded belief in biological determinism, the view that "social and economic differences between human groups—primarily races, classes, and sexes—arise from inherited, inborn distinctions and that society, in this sense, is an accurate reflection of biology." The book was reprinted in 1996 with the addition of a new foreword and a critical review of "The Bell Curve".


title: Stephen Jay Gould

text: In 2011, a study conducted by six anthropologists criticized Gould's claim that Samuel Morton unconsciously manipulated his skull measurements, arguing that his analysis of Morton was influenced by his opposition to racism. The group's paper was reviewed in an editorial in the journal "Nature", which pointed out that the paper's authors might have been influenced by their own motivations, recommending a degree of caution, stating "the critique leaves the majority of Gould's work unscathed," and noted that "because they couldn't measure all the skulls, they do not know whether the average cranial capacities that Morton reported represent his sample accurately. The journal stated that Gould's opposition to racism may have biased his interpretation of Morton's data, but also noted that "Lewis and his colleagues have their own motivations. Several in the group have an association with the University of Pennsylvania, to whom Morton donated his collection of skulls, and have an interest in seeing the valuable but understudied skull collection freed from the stigma of bias and did not accept Gould's theory "that the scientific method is inevitably tainted by bias."


title: Stephen Jay Gould

text: In 2014, the group's paper was critically reviewed in the journal "Evolution & Development" by University of Pennsylvania philosopher professor Michael Weisberg, who tended to support Gould's original accusations, concluding that "there is prima facie evidence of a racial bias in Morton's measurements". Weisberg concludes that although Gould did make several errors and overstated his case in a number of places, Morton's work "remains a cautionary example of racial bias in the science of human differences". In 2015, biologists and philosophers Jonathan Kaplan, Massimo Pigliucci, and Joshua Banta published an article arguing that no meaningful conclusions could be drawn from Morton's data. They agreed with Gould, and disagreed with the 2011 study, insofar as Morton's study was seriously flawed; but they agreed with the 2011 study insofar as Gould's analysis was in many ways not better than Morton's. University of Pennsylvania anthropology doctoral student Paul Wolff Mitchell published an analysis of Morton's original, unpublished data, which neither Gould nor subsequent commentators had directly addressed, and concluded that while Gould's specific argument about Morton's unconscious bias in measurement is not supported upon closer examination but concluded that it was true, as Gould had claimed, that Morton's racial biases influenced how he reported and interpreted his measurements, arguing that Morton's interpretation of his data was arbitrary and tendentious; he investigated averages and ignored variations in skull size so large that there was significant overlap. A contemporary of Morton, Friedrich Tiedemann, had collected almost identical skull data and drawn conclusions opposite to Morton's on the basis of this overlap, arguing strongly against any conception of a racial hierarchy.


title: Stephen Jay Gould

text: In his book "Rocks of Ages" (1999), Gould put forward what he described as "a blessedly simple and entirely conventional resolution to ... the supposed conflict between science and religion." He defines the term "magisterium" as "a domain where one form of teaching holds the appropriate tools for meaningful discourse and resolution." The non-overlapping magisteria (NOMA) principle therefore divides the magisterium of science to cover "the empirical realm: what the Universe is made of (fact) and why does it work in this way (theory). The magisterium of religion extends over questions of ultimate meaning and moral value. These two magisteria do not overlap, nor do they encompass all inquiry." He suggests that "NOMA enjoys strong and fully explicit support, even from the primary cultural stereotypes of hard-line traditionalism" and that NOMA is "a sound position of general consensus, established by long struggle among people of goodwill in both magisteria."


title: Stephen Jay Gould

text: This view has not been without criticism, however. In his book "The God Delusion", Richard Dawkins argues that the division between religion and science is not so simple as Gould claims, as few religions exist without claiming the existence of miracles, which "by definition violate the principles of science." Dawkins also opposes the idea that religion has anything meaningful to say about ethics and values, and therefore has no authority to claim a magisterium of its own. He goes on to say that he believes Gould is "bending over backwards to be nice to an unworthy but powerful opponent". Similarly, humanist philosopher Paul Kurtz argues that Gould was wrong to posit that science has nothing to say about questions of ethics. In fact, Kurtz claims that science is a much better method than religion for determining moral principles.


title: Stephen Jay Gould

text: Gould's publications were numerous. One review of his publications between 1965 and 2000 noted 479 peer-reviewed papers, 22 books, 300 essays, and 101 "major" book reviews.


title: Stephen Jay Gould

text: The following is a list of books either written or edited by Stephen Jay Gould, including those published posthumously, after his death in 2002. While some books have been republished at later dates, by multiple publishers, the list below comprises the original publisher and publishing date.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Ancient Celtic religion, commonly known as Celtic paganism, was the religion of the ancient Celtic peoples of Europe. Because the ancient Celts did not have writing, evidence about their religion is gleaned from archaeology, Greco-Roman accounts (some of it hostile and probably not well-informed), and literature from the early Christian period. Celtic paganism was one of a larger group of Iron Age polytheistic religions of Europe. It varied by region and over time, but underlying this were "broad structural similarities" and "a basic religious homogeneity" among the Celtic peoples.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: The names of over two hundred Celtic deities have survived (see list of Celtic deities), although it is likely that many of these were alternative names, regional names or titles for the same deity. Some deities were venerated only in one region, but others were more widely known. Deities found in many regions include Lugus, the tribal god Toutatis, the thunder god Taranis, the horned god Cernunnos, the horse and fertility goddess Epona, the divine son Maponos, as well as Belenos, Ogmios, and Sucellos. Celtic healing deities were often associated with sacred springs. Caesar says the Gauls believed they all descended from a god of the dead and underworld. Triplicity is a common theme, with a number of deities seen as threefold, for example the Three Mothers. Some figures from medieval Irish mythology have been interpreted as iterations of earlier deities. According to Miranda Aldhouse-Green, the Celts were also animists, believing that every part of the natural world had a spirit.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: The priests of Celtic religion were "magico-religious specialists" called druids, but little is definitively known about them. Greco-Roman writers said the Celts held ceremonies in sacred groves and other natural shrines, called nemetons, while some Celtic peoples also built temples or ritual enclosures. Celtic peoples often made votive offerings: treasured items deposited in water and wetlands, or in ritual shafts and wells. There is evidence that ancient Celtic peoples sacrificed animals, almost always livestock or working animals. There is also some evidence that ancient Celts sacrificed humans, and some Greco-Roman sources claim the Gauls sacrificed criminals by burning them in a wicker man.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: It is not clear what religious festivals the ancient Celts held, but the Insular Celtic peoples celebrated four seasonal festivals, known to the medieval Gaels as Beltaine (1 May), Lughnasadh (1 August), Samhain (1 November) and Imbolc (1 February).


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: After the Roman Empire's conquest of Gaul (58–51 BC) and southern Britain (43 AD), Celtic religion there underwent some Romanisation, resulting in a syncretic Gallo-Roman religion with deities such as Lenus Mars, Apollo Grannus, and Telesphorus.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: The Gauls gradually converted to Christianity from the third century onward. After the end of Roman rule in Britain (c.410 AD) Celtic paganism began to be replaced by Anglo-Saxon paganism over much of what became England. The Celtic populations of Britain and Ireland gradually converted to Christianity from the fifth century onward. However, Celtic paganism left a legacy in many of the Celtic nations, influenced mythology and in the 20th century served as the basis for a new religious movement, Celtic Neopaganism.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Comparatively little is known about Celtic paganism because the evidence for it is fragmentary, due largely to the fact that the Celts who practised it wrote nothing down about their religion. Therefore, all there is to study their religion from is the literature from the early Christian period, commentaries from classical Greek and Roman scholars, and archaeological evidence.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: The archaeologist Barry Cunliffe summarised the sources for Celtic religion as "fertile chaos", borrowing the term from the Irish scholar Proinsias MacCana. Cunliffe went on to note that "there is more, varied, evidence for Celtic religion than for any other example of Celtic life. The only problem is to assemble it in a systematic form which does not too greatly oversimplify the intricate texture of its detail."


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: The archaeological evidence does not contain the bias inherent in the literary sources. Nonetheless, the interpretation of this evidence can be coloured by the 21st century mindset. Various archaeological discoveries have aided understanding of the religion of the Celts.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Most surviving Celtic art is not figurative; some art historians have suggested that the complex and compelling decorative motifs that characterize some periods have a religious significance, but the understanding of what that might be appears to be irretrievably lost. Surviving figurative monumental sculpture comes almost entirely from Romano-Celtic contexts, and broadly follows provincial Roman styles, though figures who are probably deities often wear torcs, and there may be inscriptions in Roman letters with what appear to be Romanized Celtic names. The Pillar of the Boatmen from Paris, with many deity figures, is the most comprehensive example, datable by a dedication to the Emperor Tiberius (r. from 14 AD).


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Monumental stone sculptures from before conquest by the Romans are much more rare, and it is far from clear that deities are represented. The most significant are the Warrior of Hirschlanden and "Glauberg Prince" (respectively 6th and 5th-century BC, from Germany), the Mšecké Žehrovice Head (probably 2nd-century BC, Czech Republic), and sanctuaries of some sort at the southern French oppida of Roquepertuse and Entremont. There are also a number of Celtiberian standing "warrior" figures, and several other stone heads from various areas. In general, even early monumental sculpture is found in areas with higher levels of contact with the classical world, through trade. It is possible that wooden monumental sculpture was more common. Small heads are more common, mainly surviving as ornament in metalwork, and there are also animals and birds that may have a religious significance, as on the Basse Yutz Flagons. The Strettweg Cult Wagon is probably associated with libations or sacrifices, and pairs of metal "spoons" probably used for divination have been found.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Celtic coinage, from the late 4th century BC until conquest, clearly copies Greek and Roman examples, sometimes very closely, but the heads and horses that are the most popular motifs may have a local religious significance. There are also the coins of the Roman provinces in the Celtic lands of "Gaul", "Raetia", "Noricum", and "Britannia".


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Most of the surviving monuments and their accompanying inscriptions belong to the Roman period and reflect a considerable degree of syncretism between Celtic and Roman gods; even where figures and motifs appear to derive from pre-Roman tradition, they are difficult to interpret in the absence of a preserved literature on mythology. A notable example of this is the horned god that was called Cernunnos; several depictions and inscriptions of him have been found, but very little is known about the myths that would have been associated with him or how he was worshipped.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Literary evidence for Celtic religion also comes from sources written in Ireland and Wales during the Middle Ages, a period when traditional Celtic religious practices had become extinct and had long been replaced by Christianity. The evidence from Ireland has been recognised as better than that from Wales, being viewed as "both older and less contaminated from foreign material." These sources, which are in the form of epic poems and tales, were written several centuries after Christianity became the dominant religion in these regions, and were written down by Christian monks, "who may not merely have been hostile to the earlier paganism but actually ignorant of it." Instead of treating the characters as deities, they are allocated the roles of being historical heroes who sometimes have supernatural or superhuman powers, for instance, in the Irish sources the gods are claimed to be an ancient tribe of humans known as the Tuatha Dé Danann.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: While it is possible to single out specific texts that can be strongly argued to encapsulate genuine echoes or resonances of the pre-Christian past, opinion is divided as to whether these texts contain substantive material derived from oral tradition as preserved by bards or whether they were the creation of the medieval monastic tradition.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Various Greek and Roman writers of the ancient world commented on the Celts and their beliefs. Barry Cunliffe stated that "the Greek and Roman texts provide a number of pertinent observations, but these are at best anecdotal, offered largely as a colourful background by writers whose prime intention was to communicate other messages." The Roman general Julius Caesar, when leading the conquering armies of the Roman Republic against Celtic Gaul, made various descriptions of the inhabitants, though some of his claims, such as that the Druids practised human sacrifice by burning people in wicker men, have come under scrutiny by modern scholars.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: However, the key problem with the use of these sources is that they were often biased against the Celts, whom the classical peoples viewed as "barbarians". In the case of the Romans who conquered several Celtic realms, they would have likely been biased in favour of making the Celts look uncivilised, thereby giving the "civilised" Romans more reason to conquer them.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Celtic religion was polytheistic, believing in many deities, both gods and goddesses, some of which were venerated only in a small area or region, or by a particular tribe, but others whose worship had a wider geographical distribution. The names of over two hundred Celtic deities have survived (see list of Celtic deities), although it is likely that many of these were alternative names, regional names or titles for the same deity.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: The various Celtic peoples seem to have had a father god, who was often a god of the tribe and of the dead (Toutatis probably being one name for him); and a mother goddess who was associated with the land, earth and fertility (Matrona probably being one name for her). The mother goddess could also take the form of a war goddess as protectress of her tribe and its land, for example Andraste. There also seems to have been a male celestial god—identified with Taranis—associated with thunder, the wheel, and the bull. There were gods of skill and craft, such as the pan-regional god Lugus, and the smith god Gobannos. Celtic healing deities were often associated with sacred springs, such as Sirona and Borvo. Other pan-regional deities include the horned god Cernunnos, the horse and fertility goddess Epona, the divine son Maponos, as well as Belenos, Ogmios, and Sucellos. Some deities were seen as threefold, for example the Three Mothers.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Some Greco-Roman writers, such as Julius Caesar, did not record the native Celtic names of the deities, but instead referred to them by their apparent Roman or Greek equivalents. He declared that the most widely venerated Gaulish god was Mercury, the Roman god of trade, saying they also worshipped Apollo, Minerva, Mars and Jupiter. Caesar says the Gauls believed they all descended from a god of the dead and underworld, whom he likened to Dīs Pater.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: According to other classical sources, the Celts worshipped the forces of nature and did not envisage deities in anthropomorphic terms.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: In the Irish and Welsh vernacular sources from the Middle Ages, various human mythological figures were featured who have been thought of by many scholars as being based upon earlier gods. The historian Ronald Hutton however cautioned against automatically characterizing all Irish and Welsh mythological figures as former deities, noting that while some characters "who appear to be human, such as Medb or St Brigit, probably were indeed once regarded as divine ... the warriors who are the main protagonists of the stories have the same status as those in the Greek myths, standing between the human and divine orders. To regard characters such as Cú Chulainn, Fergus Mac Roich or Conall Cernach as former gods turned into humans by a later storyteller is to misunderstand their literary and religious function ... Cú Chulainn is no more a former god than Superman is."


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Examining these Irish myths, Barry Cunliffe stated that he believed they displayed "a dualism between the male tribal god and the female deity of the land" while Anne Ross felt that they displayed that the gods were "on the whole intellectual, deeply versed in the native learning, poets and prophets, story-tellers and craftsmen, magicians, healers, warriors ... in short, equipped with every quality admired and desired by the Celtic peoples themselves."


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Insular Celts swore their oaths by their tribal gods, and the land, sea and sky; as in, "I swear by the gods by whom my people swear" and "If I break my oath, may the land open to swallow me, the sea rise to drown me, and the sky fall upon me", an example of Celtic Threefold death.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Some scholars, such as Prudence Jones and Nigel Pennick, have speculated that the Celts venerated certain trees and others, such as Miranda Aldhouse-Green, that the Celts were animists, believing that all aspects of the natural world contained spirits, and that communication was possible with these spirits.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Places such as rocks, streams, mountains, and trees may all have had shrines or offerings devoted to a deity residing there. These would have been local deities, known and worshiped by inhabitants living near to the shrine itself, and not pan-Celtic like some of the polytheistic gods. The importance of trees in Celtic religion may be shown by the fact that the very name of the Eburonian tribe contains a reference to the yew tree, and that names like Mac Cuilinn (son of holly) and Mac Ibar (son of yew) appear in Irish myths. In Ireland, wisdom was symbolised by the salmon who feed on the hazelnuts from the trees that surround the well of wisdom ("Tobar Segais").


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: The relatively few animal figures in early Celtic art include many water-birds, and it is speculated that their ability to move on the air, water, and land gave them a special status or significance among the Celts. Examples include the Torrs Pony-cap and Horns (Scotland), Basse Yutz Flagons (France), Wandsworth Shield (England), and the Dunaverney flesh-hook (late Bronze Age Ireland).


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Celtic burial practices, which included burying grave goods of food, weapons, and ornaments with the dead, suggest a belief in life after death.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: The druids, the Celtic learned classes that included members of the clergy, were said by Caesar to have believed in reincarnation and transmigration of the soul along with astronomy and the nature and power of the gods.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: A common factor in later mythologies from Christianized Celtic nations was the otherworld. This was the realm of the fairy folk and other supernatural beings, who would entice humans into their realm. Sometimes this otherworld was claimed to exist underground, while at other times it was said to lie far to the west. Several scholars have suggested that the otherworld was the Celtic afterlife, though there is no direct evidence to prove this.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Evidence suggests that among the Celts, "offerings to the gods were made throughout the landscape – both the natural and the domestic." At times they worshipped in constructed temples and shrines, evidence for which have been unearthed across the Celtic world by archaeologists, although according to Greco-Roman accounts, they also worshipped in areas of the natural world that were held to be sacred, namely in groves of trees. Across Celtic Europe, many of the constructed temples, which were square in shape and constructed out of wood, were found in rectangular ditched enclosures known as "viereckschanzen", where in cases such as Holzhausen in Bavaria votive offerings were also buried in deep shafts. However, in the British Isles, temples were more commonly circular in design. According to Barry Cunliffe, "the monumentality of the Irish religious sites sets them apart from their British and continental European counterparts" with the most notable examples being the Hill of Tara, and Navan Fort.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: However, according to Greco-Roman accounts of the druids and other Celts, worship was held in groves, with Tacitus describing how his men cut down "groves sacred to savage rites." By their very nature, such groves would not survive in the archaeological record, and so we have no direct evidence for them today. Alongside groves, certain springs were also viewed as sacred and used as places of worship in the Celtic world. Notable Gaulish examples include the sanctuary of Sequana at the source of the Seine in Burgundy and Chamalieres near to Clermont-Ferrand. At both of these sites, a large array of votive offerings have been uncovered, most of which are wooden carvings, although some of which are embossed pieces of metal.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: In many cases, when the Roman Empire took control of Celtic lands, earlier Iron Age sacred sites were reused, with Roman temples being built on the same sites. Examples include Uley in Gloucestershire, Worth in Kent, Hayling Island in Hampshire, Vendeuil-Caply in Oise, Saint-Germain-le-Rocheux in Chatillon-sur-Seine and Schleidweiler in Trier.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: The Celts made votive offerings to their deities, which were buried in the earth or thrown into rivers or bogs. According to Barry Cunliffe, in most cases, deposits were placed in the same places on numerous occasions, indicating continual usage "over a period of time, perhaps on a seasonal basis or when a particular event, past or pending, demanded a propitiatory response."


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: In particular, there was a trend to offer items associated with warfare in watery areas, evidence for which is found not only in the Celtic regions, but also in Late Bronze Age (and therefore pre-Celtic) societies and those outside of the Celtic area, namely Denmark. One of the most notable examples is the river Thames in southern England, where a number of items had been deposited, only to be discovered by archaeologists millennia later. Some of these, like the Battersea Shield, Wandsworth Shield and the Waterloo Helmet, would have been prestige goods that would have been labour-intensive to make and thereby probably expensive. Another example is at Llyn Cerrig Bach in Anglesey, Wales, where offerings, primarily those related to battle, were thrown into the lake from a rocky outcrop in the late first century BC or early first century AD.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: At times, jewellery and other high prestige items that were not related to warfare were also deposited in a ritual context. At Niederzier in the Rhineland for example, a post that excavators believed had religious significance had a bowl buried next to it in which was contained forty-five coins, two torcs and an armlet, all made of gold, and similar deposits have been uncovered elsewhere in Celtic Europe.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: There is evidence that ancient Celtic peoples sacrificed animals, which were almost always livestock or working animals. The idea seems to have been that ritually transferring a life-force to the Otherworld pleased the gods and established a channel of communication between the worlds. Animal sacrifices could be acts of thanksgiving, appeasement, to ask for good health and fertility, or as a means of divination. It seems that some animals were offered wholly to the gods (by burying or burning), while some were shared between gods and humans (part eaten and part set aside).


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Pliny the Elder, a Roman author and military commander in the 1st century AD, wrote of druids performing a ritual whereby they sacrificed two white bulls, cut mistletoe from a sacred oak with a golden sickle, and used it to make an elixir to cure infertility and poison.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Archaeologists found that at some Gaulish and British sanctuaries, horses and cattle were killed and their whole bodies carefully buried. At Gournay-sur-Aronde, the animals were left to decompose before their bones were buried around the bounds of the sanctuary along with numerous broken weapons. This was repeated at regular intervals of about ten years. An avenue of animal pit-burials led to a sacred building at Cadbury. In southern Britain, some British tribes carefully buried animals, especially horses and dogs, in grain storage pits. It is believed these were thanksgiving sacrifices to underworld gods once the stores reached the end of their use.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Irish mythology describes the "tarbfeis" (bull feast), a shamanistic ritual in which a bull would be sacrificed and a seer would sleep in the bull's hide to have a vision of the future king.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Following the 12th-century Norman invasion of Ireland, Norman writer Gerald of Wales wrote in his "Topographia Hibernica" that the Irish kings of Tyrconnell were inaugurated with a horse sacrifice. He writes that a white mare was sacrificed and cooked into a broth, which the king bathed in and drank from. This has been seen as propaganda meant to paint the Irish as a barbaric people. However, there may be some truth in the account; there are rare mentions of similar horse sacrifices associated with kingship in Scandinavia and India (see "ashvamedha").


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: There is some evidence that ancient Celtic peoples practiced human sacrifice. Accounts of Celtic human sacrifice come from Roman and Greek sources. Julius Caesar and Strabo wrote that the Gauls burnt animal and human sacrifices in a large wickerwork figure, known as a wicker man, and said the human victims were usually criminals. Posidonius wrote that druids who oversaw human sacrifices foretold the future by watching the death throes of the victims. Caesar also wrote that slaves of Gaulish chiefs would be burnt along with the body of their master as part of his funeral. In the 1st century AD, Roman writer Lucan mentioned human sacrifices to the Gaulish gods Esus, Toutatis and Taranis. In a 4th century commentary on Lucan, an unnamed author added that sacrifices to Esus were hanged from a tree, those to Toutatis were drowned, and those to Taranis were burned. According to the 2nd-century Roman writer Cassius Dio, Boudica's forces impaled Roman captives during her rebellion against the Roman occupation, to the accompaniment of revelry and sacrifices in the sacred groves of Andate. Historians note that these Greco-Roman accounts should be taken with caution, as it benefited them to make the Celts sound barbaric.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: There is some archaeological evidence of human sacrifice among Celtic peoples, although it is rare. Ritual beheading and headhunting was a major religious and cultural practice which has found copious support in archaeology, including the many skulls found in Londinium's River Walbrook and the headless bodies at the Gaulish sanctuary of Gournay-sur-Aronde.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Several ancient Irish bog bodies have been interpreted as kings who were ritually killed, presumably after serious crop failures or other disasters. Some were deposited in bogs on territorial boundaries (which were seen as liminal places) or near royal inauguration sites, and some were found to have eaten a ceremonial last meal.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: The iconography of the human head is believed by many archaeologists and historians to have played a significant part in Celtic religion. It has been referred to as a "head cult" or "cult of the severed head". Among the Romans and Greeks, the Celts had a reputation as head hunters. Writing in the 1st century BC, the Greek historians Posidonius and Diodorus Siculus said Celtic warriors cut off the heads of enemies slain in battle, hung them from the necks of their horses, then nailed them up outside their homes. Strabo wrote in the same century that Celts embalmed the heads of their most esteemed enemies in cedar oil and put them on display. The Roman historian Livy wrote that the Boii beheaded the defeated Roman general after the Battle of Silva Litana, covered his skull in gold, and used it as a ritual cup.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: In another example, at the southern Gaulish site of Entremont, there was a pillar carved with skulls, within which were niches where human skulls were kept, nailed into position, fifteen of which were found. Roquepertuse nearby has similar heads and skull niches. Many standalone carved stone heads have been found in Celtic regions, some with two or three faces. Examples include the Mšecké Žehrovice Head and the Corleck Head. Severed heads are a common motif in Insular Celtic myths, and there are many tales in which 'living heads' preside over feasts and/or speak prophecies. The beheading game is a trope found in Irish myth and Arthurian legend.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: John T. Koch says that the efforts taken to preserve and display heads, and the frequency with which severed heads appear, point to a religious importance. Barry Cunliffe believed that the Celts held "reverence for the power of the head" and that "to own and display a distinguished head was to retain and control the power of the dead person". Likewise, the archaeologist Anne Ross asserted that "the Celts venerated the head as a symbol of divinity and the powers of the otherworld, and regarded it as the most important bodily member, the very seat of the soul". The folklorist Hilda Ellis Davidson also said they seem to have venerated the head as "the seat of consciousness and wisdom". Miranda Aldhouse-Green refuted suggestions "that the head itself was worshipped, but it was clearly venerated as the most significant element in a human or divine image representing the whole." However, the historian Ronald Hutton criticised the idea of a head cult, believing that both the literary and archaeological evidence did not warrant this conclusion. He noted "the frequency with which human heads appear upon Celtic metalwork proves nothing more than they were a favourite decorative motif, among several, and one just as popular among non-Celtic peoples."


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: According to a number of Greco-Roman writers such as Julius Caesar, Cicero, Tacitus and Pliny the Elder, Gaulish and British society held a group of magico-religious specialists known as the druids in high esteem. Their roles and responsibilities differed somewhat between the different accounts, but Caesar's, which was the "fullest" and "earliest original text" to describe the druids, described them as being concerned with "divine worship, the due performance of sacrifices, private or public, and the interpretation of ritual questions." He also claimed that they were responsible for officiating at human sacrifices, such as the wicker man burnings. Nonetheless, a number of historians have criticised these accounts, believing them to be biased or inaccurate. Vernacular Irish sources also referred to the druids, portraying them not only as priests but as sorcerers who had supernatural powers that they used for cursing and divination and who opposed the coming of Christianity.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Various historians and archaeologists have interpreted the druids in different ways; Peter Berresford Ellis for instance believed them to be the equivalents of the Indian Brahmin caste, while Anne Ross believed that they were essentially tribal priests, having more in common with the shamans of tribal societies than with the classical philosophers. Ronald Hutton meanwhile held a particularly sceptical attitude to many claims made about them, and he supported the view that the evidence available was of such a suspicious nature that "we can know virtually nothing of certainty about the ancient Druids, so that – although they certainly existed – they function more or less as legendary figures."


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: In Ireland the fili were visionary poets, which many get confused with Vates, associated with lorekeeping, versecraft, and the memorisation of vast numbers of poems. They were also magicians, as Irish magic is intrinsically connected to poetry, and the satire of a gifted poet was a serious curse upon the one being satirised. In Ireland a "bard" was considered a lesser grade of poet than a "fili" – more of a minstrel and rote reciter than an inspired artist with magical powers. In the Welsh tradition, the poet is always referred to as a "bardd".


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: The Celtic poets, of whatever grade, were composers of eulogy and satire, and a chief duty was that of composing and reciting verses on heroes and their deeds, and memorising the genealogies of their patrons. It was essential to their livelihood that they increase the fame of their patrons, via tales, poems and songs. In the 1st century AD, the Latin author Lucan referred to "bards" as the national poets or minstrels of Gaul and Britain. In Roman Gaul the institution gradually disappeared, whereas in Ireland and Wales it survived into the European Middle Ages. In Wales, the bardic order was revived, and codified by the poet and forger Iolo Morganwg; this tradition has persisted, centred around the many eisteddfods at every level of Welsh literary society.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: The oldest attested Celtic calendar is the Coligny calendar, dated to the 2nd century and as such firmly within the Gallo-Roman period.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Some feast days of the medieval Irish calendar have sometimes been speculated to descend from prehistoric festivals, especially by comparison to terms found in the Coligny calendar. This concerns Beltane in particular, which is attributed ancient origin by medieval Irish writers.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: The festivals of Samhain and Imbolc are not associated with "paganism" or druidry in Irish legend, but there have nevertheless been suggestions of a prehistoric background since the 19th century, in the case of Samhain by John Rhys and James Frazer who assumed that this festival marked the "Celtic new year".


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: The Celtic peoples of Gaul and Hispania under Roman rule fused Roman religious forms and modes of worship with indigenous traditions. In some cases, Gaulish deity names were used as epithets for Roman deities, as with Lenus Mars or Jupiter Poeninus. In other cases, Roman gods were given Gaulish female partners – for example, Mercury was paired with Rosmerta and Sirona was partnered with Apollo. In at least one case – that of the equine goddess Epona – a native Celtic goddess was also adopted by Romans. This process of identifying Celtic deities with their Roman counterparts was known as Interpretatio romana.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Eastern mystery religions penetrated Gaul early on. These included the cults of Orpheus, Mithras, Cybele, and Isis. The imperial cult, centred primarily on the "numen" of Augustus, came to play a prominent role in public religion in Gaul, most dramatically at the pan-Gaulish ceremony venerating Rome and Augustus at the Condate Altar near Lugdunum on 1 August.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Generally Roman worship practices such as offerings of incense and animal sacrifice, dedicatory inscriptions, and naturalistic statuary depicting deities in anthropomorphic form were combined with specific Gaulish practices such as circumambulation around a temple. This gave rise to a characteristic Gallo-Roman fanum, identifiable in archaeology from its concentric shape.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Celtic societies under Roman rule presumably underwent a gradual Christianisation in similar ways to the rest of the Empire; there is next to nothing in Christian sources about specific issues relating to Celtic people in the Empire, or their religion. Saint Paul's "Epistle to the Galatians" was addressed to a congregation that might have included people from a Celtic background.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: In Ireland, the main Celtic country unconquered by the Romans, the conversion to Christianity (Christianisation) inevitably had a profound effect on the socio-religious system from the 5th century onward, though its character can only be extrapolated from documents of considerably later date. By the early 7th century the church had succeeded in relegating Irish druids to ignominious irrelevancy, while the "filidh," masters of traditional learning, operated in easy harmony with their clerical counterparts, contriving at the same time to retain a considerable part of their pre-Christian tradition, social status, and privilege. But virtually all the vast corpus of early vernacular literature that has survived was written down in monastic scriptoria, and it is part of the task of modern scholarship to identify the relative roles of traditional continuity and ecclesiastical innovation as reflected in the written texts.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Cormac's Glossary (c. 900 AD) recounts that St. Patrick banished those mantic rites of the "filidh" that involved offerings to "demons", and that the church took particular pains to stamp out animal sacrifice and other rituals repugnant to Christian teaching. What survived of ancient ritual practice tended to be related to "filidhecht", the traditional repertoire of the "filidh", or to the central institution of sacral kingship. A good example is the pervasive and persistent concept of the hierogamy (sacred marriage) of the king with the goddess of sovereignty: the sexual union, or "banais ríghi" ("wedding of kingship"), which constituted the core of the royal inauguration, seems to have been purged from the ritual at an early date through ecclesiastical influence, but it remains at least implicit, and often quite explicit, for many centuries in the literary tradition.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Nagy has noted the Gaelic oral tradition has been remarkably conservative; the fact that we have tales in existence that were still being told in the 19th century in almost exactly the same form as they exist in ancient manuscripts leads to the strong probability that much of what the monks recorded was considerably older. Though the Christian interpolations in some of these tales are very obvious, many of them read like afterthoughts or footnotes to the main body of the tales, which most likely preserve traditions far older than the manuscripts themselves.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Mythology based on (though, not identical to) the pre-Christian traditions was still common place knowledge in Celtic-speaking cultures in the 19th century. In the Celtic Revival, such survivals were collected and edited, thus becoming a literary tradition, which in turn influenced modern mainstream "Celticity". Several Celtic celebrations have been practised in some form since ancient times, such as the Beltane festival and the Killorglin Puck Fair (which seems to be a survival of Lughnasadh).


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Various rituals involving acts of pilgrimage to sites such as hills and sacred wells that are believed to have curative or otherwise beneficial properties are still performed, including the tradition of clootie wells in Scotland, Ireland and Cornwall, and the practice of well dressing in the English Midlands. The same applies to wish trees, which are considered part of the clootie well tradition. Based on evidence from the European continent, various figures that are still known in folklore in the Celtic countries up to today, or who take part in post-Christian mythology, are known to have also been worshiped in those areas that did not have records before Christianity. On the Inishkea Islands off the west coast of Ireland, Celtic pagan rituals were seemingly performed well into the nineteenth century.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Other possible remnants of Celtic paganism include the Irish strawboy tradition and Wren Day traditions, as well as the Shetlandic practice of Skekling, all of which involve dressing in unusual costumes made of straw.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: In "Twilight of the Celtic Gods" (1996), Clarke and Roberts describe a number of particularly conservative folkloristic traditions in remote rural areas of Great Britain, including the Peak District and Yorkshire Dales, including claims of surviving pre-Christian Celtic traditions of veneration of stones, trees and bodies of water.


title: Ancient Celtic religion

text: Various Neopagan groups claim association with Celtic paganism. These groups range from the Reconstructionists, who work to practise ancient Celtic religion with as much accuracy as possible; to new age, eclectic groups who take some of their inspiration from Celtic mythology and iconography, the most notable of which is Neo-druidry.


title: Mandalorians

text: Mandalorians are fictional people associated with the planet Mandalore in the "Star Wars" universe and franchise created by George Lucas. Their most distinct cultural feature is their battle helmet, chest armor, wrist gauntlets, and often jet packs, similar to those used by Boba Fett and his father/clone host, Jango Fett.


title: Mandalorians

text: First conceptualized for "The Empire Strikes Back" as a group of white-armored "supercommandos", the idea developed into a single bounty hunter character, Boba Fett. Although Fett was not identified as a Mandalorian in the film, his popularity inspired an extensive inquisition into Mandalorians in future "Star Wars" media, including novels, comics, television series, and video games.


title: Mandalorians

text: The "Star Wars" Expanded Universe and the television series "", "Rebels", and "The Mandalorian" expanded upon Mandalorian lore with the introduction of additional characters, and established the Mandalorians not as an "alien race or species", but a distinct ideology of humans and various aliens from Mandalore and nearby worlds united by a common creed with a stoic, spartan warrior tradition.


title: Mandalorians

text: In production for "The Empire Strikes Back" (1980), Ralph McQuarrie and Joe Johnston designed armor intended to be worn by soldiers described as super-commandos from the Mandalore system, armed with weapons built into white suits and known for battling the Jedi. Initially, the soldiers were called Super Troopers and were intended to look alike. The group eventually developed into a single bounty hunter character, Boba Fett, and the costume was reworked, but it retained elements such as wrist lasers, rocket darts, a jetpack, and a rocket.


title: Mandalorians

text: In a 1979 issue of "Bantha Tracks", the newsletter of the Official "Star Wars" Fan Club, Boba's armor was described as that of the "Imperial Shocktroopers, warriors from the olden time" who "came from the far side of the galaxy" and are few in number because they "were wiped out by the Jedi Knights during the Clone Wars". The backstory of the Mandalorians was first extensively explored in issues of Marvel Comics' original "Star Wars" series and various other "Star Wars Legends" media, including comics by Dark Horse and video games by LucasArts.


title: Mandalorians

text: "" (2002) introduces the bounty hunter Jango Fett, who also wore Mandalorian armor, and was the adoptive father of Boba, a clone of Jango. More spin-off material explored Mandalorian lore, including the violent Death Watch sect. Following the acquisition of Lucasfilm by Disney in 2014, most existing spin-off material was declared to be non-canon. Only the films and spin-off works produced after April 25, 2014, are part of the restructured canon, including television series such as "", "Rebels", and "The Mandalorian", the latter of which heavily focuses on the Mandalorian creed.


title: Mandalorians

text: Mandalorians made their live action cinematic debut in "The Empire Strikes Back" (1980), with the bounty hunter Boba Fett, a supporting antagonist. The character previously appeared in the television special "Star Wars Holiday Special" (1978), and returned in "Return of the Jedi" (1983) and the prequel film "" (2002), the latter of which established him as a clone, raised by his genetic template, Jango Fett, to be his son. Jango is also a bounty hunter who is not explicitly identified as a Mandalorian in the film, but wears Mandalorian armor, which passes down to Boba Fett. In "The Mandalorian", Boba refers to his father as a Mandalorian foundling.


title: Mandalorians

text: The animated series expands upon Mandalorian lore with the introduction of new characters, such as Duchess Satine Kryze, the pacifist leader of Mandalore and a romantic interest for Jedi Master Obi-Wan Kenobi, and Pre Vizsla, the leader of the Death Watch faction of Mandalorians who seek to overthrow Satine and restore Mandalore's warrior traditions. Mandalore is depicted as the fictional home planet of the Mandalorian people, located in the Outer Rim in the sector and system of the same name. It has an inhabited moon called Concordia, a mining settlement to which Mandalorian warriors were exiled. Concord Dawn, located in the Mandalore sector, is also the homeworld of several Mandalorian characters, including Jango Fett, and the base of operations for the Protectors.


title: Mandalorians

text: In "The Clone Wars", the planet Mandalore is a largely uninhabitable desert, caused by a war with the Jedi that occurred before the timeframe of the series. The New Mandalorian people built their cities, such as the capital Sundari, in large biodomes. The design of Sundari draws on Cubist elements, and murals located in the city mimic Pablo Picasso's "Guernica". The concept of Mandalore as a "large desolate planet of white sand with these cube-like buildings" was developed by Lucas early in development for "The Clone Wars" season two. Lucas also wanted layers of glass incorporated into the design. Because Sundari did not look enough like a giant city, the production team developed it into a dome with cubes on it. Filoni noted that the desolate and barren appearance was "kind of a Moebius-influenced design". Filoni had the shapes of Boba Fett's armor worked into the windows and the design of the architecture, feeling that the shapes were "emblematic" and that the warrior culture was so strong it was embedded into the architecture.


title: Mandalorians

text: It is established in "Star Wars Rebels" that Mandalorians had colonized other worlds, such as Concord Dawn and Krownest. The Mandalorians eventually came into contact with the Old Republic and fought their Jedi protectors. Upon seeing the Jedi's force abilities, the Mandalorians created gadgets, weapons and armor to counter Jedi abilities. Despite the animosity between the Mandalorians and the Jedi, Tarre Vizsla became the first Mandalorian Jedi. As a Jedi, Vizsla built the Darksaber and used it to unite his people as their "Mand'alor". During "Star Wars Rebels", a Mandalorian named Sabine Wren of Clan Wren discovers the Darksaber from Maul's hideout. With the Darksaber, she hoped to unite Mandalore and get her honor back after creating a weapon that would kill Mandalorians. Upon returning to Mandalore, she gained the support of her estranged mother Ursa. Sabine and her mother had differences of opinion as her mother turned to the Empire for support. Ultimately House Wren sides with Sabine. With the Darksaber, she rallies Clan Wren and takes arms against Clan Saxon, which has the backing of the Empire. After Clan Saxon is defeated, the Empire seemingly backs off from Mandalore, and Sabine renounces ownership of the Darksaber to Bo-Katan Kryze, sister of the late Duchess Satine Kryze, who promises to unite all Mandalorian clans under her leadership and restore peace to Mandalore.


title: Mandalorians

text: At some point during the Galactic Civil War, between the events of "Rebels" (5–1 BBY) and "Return of the Jedi" (4 ABY), the Empire returned to Mandalore and purged the Mandalorian people, leaving only a few surviving clans and stealing large quantities of the precious Beskar metal, which no blaster or lightsaber can penetrate; this event became known as the "Great Purge" among Mandalorians. "The Mandalorian" follows the exploits of Din Djarin, aka The Mandalorian or simply "Mando," a bounty hunter not originally from Mandalore. He was orphaned on another planet during the Clone Wars (22–19 BBY) when Separatist battle droids killed his parents; saved by a Mandalorian clan called "The Tribe", Djarin was adopted as a Foundling and raised with their Creed ("The Way of the Mandalore", or simply "The Way"). The Yoda-like toddler that he adopts, Grogu aka The Child, is also considered a foundling, but Djarin decides to return it to the Jedi after discovering it is Force-sensitive.


title: Mandalorians

text: According to Bo-Katan Kryze in "", Djarin was found by the "Children of the Watch", a group of religious zealots who follow the ancient "Way of the Mandalore", consisting of various forgotten Mandalorian traditions, such as never removing their helmets in front of others; they were excluded from the mainstream of Mandalorian society for trying to spread their beliefs. Djarin thus finds out he's part of an extremist group without ever having known it; he was raised by The Armorer to believe only people who choose to follow the Creed are true Mandalorians. But this confrontation with Kryze's group of Nite Owls revealed that there were also other Mandalorians who were Mandalorian by ancestry, which share some broad cultural ideas and practices with the Watch such as wearing Mandalorian armor, but have no rule against removing one's helmet.


title: Mandalorians

text: Moff Gideon, leading a faction of ex-Imperials, was personally involved in the Great Purge and obtained the Darksaber (a weapon symbolising dynastic authority on Mandalore) from Bo-Katan after defeating her in combat. During the show's second season, it is revealed that Bo-Katan, along with a small number of Mandalorian warriors willing to follow her, is attempting to reclaim the Darksaber and liberate Mandalore from Imperial occupation. In the , Djarin defeats Moff Gideon in combat, thus becoming the rightful owner of the Darksaber and the legitimate ruler of Mandalore, which Bo-Katan accepts; even though Djarin is not interested in ruling and would rather pass the Darksaber to her as they intended, she insists she needs to obtain it through combat. The season thus ends with a cliffhanger, as Djarin could either help Bo-Katan and her forces liberate Mandalore in exchange for their assistance in taking down Gideon, or they could become hostile over possession of the Darksaber and ideological differences. Despite his loyalty to the Creed-following Mandalorians who raised him, Djarin seems ever more open to Bo-Katan's Mandalorian views of the Way, as illustrated by his new willingness to remove his helmet on one occasion in front of living organisms.


title: Mandalorians

text: In April 2014, Lucasfilm rebranded most of the licensed "Star Wars" novels, comics, and video games produced since the originating 1977 film "Star Wars" as "Star Wars Legends" and declared them non canon to the franchise. Within the "Legends" continuity, the name "Mandalorian" is associated with a multi-species culture of warrior clans who adhere to the tenets of the Mandalorians. While most of them are humans, there are also Mandalorians of various other species. Mandalore serves as the Mandalorians' home planet. It was originally inhabited by the Taung species, who renamed themselves Mandalorian and created the culture practiced by later non-Taung Mandalorians. Mandalore is largely sparsely populated wilderness, and its capital city of Keldabe is located on a river that acts as a natural moat. Keldabe is described as an "anarchic fortress" characterized by dissimilar architectural styles.


title: Mandalorians

text: Mandalorians debuted in Marvel's "Star Wars" #68: "The Search Begins", which describes the super-commandos, the official protectors of the planet Mandalore. They are described as being two of three survivors of the Clone Wars, in which they fought for Emperor Palpatine. In "Tales of the Jedi", set thousands of years before the original "Star Wars" film, the Mandalorians are a major military power who side with the Sith in their war against the Jedi, and their leader is manipulated by the Sith into triggering a war with the Republic. They are defeated with the aid of Revan and Malak, and Revan ensures a new Mand'alor, the sole ruler of the Mandalorian people, cannot rise. Their unity as a people dissolved, and instead, the Mandalorians develop into a culture of wandering mercenaries. Through instructions from Revan, as depicted in "" and , Canderous Ordo assumes the title of "Mand'alor" and reunites the warrior clans. Canderous thus redefined Mandalorians from a species to the idea 'that anybody who follows the Mandalorian warrior way could become a Mandalorian'.


title: Mandalorians

text: "", set shortly before the Clone Wars, depicts the fighting between two factions: Death Watch, led by Tor Vizsla, and the True Mandalorians, led by Jango Fett's adoptive father Jaster Mereel and later Jango himself. A ruse orchestrated by Vizsla tricks the Jedi into attacking and killing all of the True Mandalorians except Jango, but Jango eventually kills Vizsla and scatters Death Watch.


title: Mandalorians

text: In the "" novels, set during the Clone Wars, Mandalore is an independent planet, although many Mandalorian warriors fight for the Separatists. However, a group of Mandalorians had also acted as training sergeants for the clone trooper army under the direction of Jango Fett, and many clone troopers practice Mandalorian customs and traditions. After the establishment of the Galactic Empire, the Mandalorian people are characterized as wary of and reluctant to aid the Empire but unwilling to declare open rebellion because Mandalore lacks the resources to wage war. However, Death Watch reappears and openly supports the Empire. The Empire wishes to mine the planet for its beskar, a blaster-resistant steel, and establishes a garrison in the capital. Mandalore and its people reappear again in the "Legacy of the Force" novels, set forty years after the original "Star Wars" film, where Boba Fett is convinced by his granddaughter Mirta Gev to assume the title of "Mand'alor" and again reunite the Mandalorian people.


title: Mandalorians

text: In the video game "", set roughly 4000 years before the original "Star Wars" film, the Mandalorian leader (referred to as Mandalore the Ultimate) has been defeated, and no one rules the Mandalorian clans. Mandalorians are also present in the sequels: "", where players can visit a Mandalorian base on a moon called Dxun (where a new leader, Mandalore the Preserver, has ascended to the position), and "", an MMORPG set almost four centuries after the previous two games.


title: Mandalorians

text: Many Mandalorians were organised in clans, such as Eldar, Kryze, Rook, Saxon, Vizsla, and Wren. Sometimes organisations were formed that transcended the usual boundaries between the clans, such as the Death Watch during the Clone Wars, which any Mandalorian and even non-Mandalorians could join and lead. The Death Watch, originally founded and led by members of Clan Vizsla, but later taken over by the non-Mandalorian Maul, has been variously characterised as a clan, a crime syndicate, and a warrior faction. Individuals such as Din Djarin (adopted into Mandalorian culture as a foundling by the Children of the Watch, which formed out of the Death Watch) are also shown as members of multi-ethnic organizations, such as the Nevarro-based Bounty Hunters Guild. The Protectors of Concord Dawn were an organisation assigned to protect the royal house of Mandalore. After the Great Purge, Bo-Katan Kryze formed the Nite Owls, a cross-clan group seeking to retrieve the Darksaber and restore Mandalore.


title: Mandalorians

text: The written form of the Mandalorian language, created by Philip Metschan for the display screens of Jango Fett's ship, the "Slave I", in "Attack of the Clones", later re-appeared in "The Clone Wars" and "Rebels". Composer Jesse Harlin, needing lyrics for the choral work he wanted for the 2005 video game, invented a spoken form, intending it to represent an ancient language. It was named "Mando'a" and extensively expanded by Karen Traviss, author of the "Republic Commando" novel series.


title: Mandalorians

text: "Mando'a" is a primarily spoken, agglutinative language that lacks grammatical gender in its nouns and pronouns. The language is also characterized as lacking a passive voice, instead primarily using the active voice. It is also described as having only three grammatical tenses—present, past, and future—but it is said to be often vague and its speakers typically do not use tenses other than the present. The language is described as having a mutually intelligible dialect called Concordian spoken on the planet Concord Dawn, as stated in Traviss' novels "Order 66" and "501st", and a dialect spoken on Mandalore's moon Concordia is heard in "The Mandalore Plot", a season-two episode of "The Clone Wars".


title: Kodaikanal

text: Kodaikanal () is a hill station which is located in Dindigul district in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. Its name in the Tamil language means "The Gift of the Forest". Kodaikanal is referred to as the "Princess of Hill stations" and has a long history as a retreat and tourist destination.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Kodaikanal was established in 1845 as a refuge from the high temperatures and tropical diseases of the plains. Much of the local economy is based on the hospitality industry serving tourism. As of 2011, the city had a population of 36,501.


title: Kodaikanal

text: The word "Kodaikanal" is an amalgamation of two words: "kodai" and "kanal". The Tamil language has at least four possible interpretations of the name Kodaikanal. By pronouncing the first syllable of Kodaikanal with a long Tamil 'O', as in "k"oe"-dei" (கோடை), it means "summer", whilst the final two syllables "kanal" (காணல்) means "to see", rendering "Kodaikanal" as a "place to see in summer". Kodaikanal is a summer forest, and it is a place that the first missionaries used as a refuge to escape the overbearing and mosquito-ridden heat of the plains – a place that they would have counted on seeing in the summer.


title: Kodaikanal

text: "Kanal", in Tamil, can mean dense or closed forest. In this case, "Kodai" can have at least four meanings. By pronouncing "Kodai" with the long Tamil 'o' and short 'e', Ko-dai means "the end". Kodaikanal could mean "the end of the forest" which makes poetic and geographical sense – Kodaikanal is at the crown of the Palani Hills and is effectively surrounded and protected by thick forests.


title: Kodaikanal

text: By pronouncing Kodai with the short Tamil 'o' (as in Kodi), it means "creepers" or vines. Kodaikanal could mean "forest of creepers" or the forest of vines. "The forest of creepers" is thought to be the English language meaning given in 1885 during the early western habitation of the place and is still accepted.


title: Kodaikanal

text: By pronouncing Kodai with a short Tamil 'o', and a long 'e', it might be interpreted to mean "gift", rendering "Kodaikanal" as "gift of the forest". Keeping the short Tamil 'o' but adding a long 'a', Kodai could be understood as the Tamil word for umbrella, where Kodaikanal is a forest fashioned like a protecting umbrella.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Another Tamil word for creeper or vine is valli, the honey collecting daughter of the chief of the Veddas mountain tribe. The chief and his wife prayed to the Mountain God for a girl and their prayers were answered when the chief found a newborn girl child during a hunting expedition. As she was found among creeper plants, they named her Valli and she grew up as princess of the tribe in Kurinji and became the consort of lord Murugan. The romantic traditions of Murugan in Sangam literature are thus associated with the name Kodaikanal.


title: Kodaikanal

text: The earliest residents of Kodaikanal were the Palaiyar tribal people. The earliest specific references to Kodaikanal and the Palani Hills are found in Tamil Sangam literature of the early Common era.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Modern Kodaikanal was established by American Christian missionaries and British bureaucrats in 1845, as a refuge from the high temperatures and tropical diseases of the plains. In the 20th century a few elite Indians came to realise the value of this enchanting hill station and started relocating here.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Tourism has been impacted by industrial pollution issues including the closure of a mercury factory owned by Unilever's Indian subsidiary Hindustan Unilever after evidence of widespread mercury pollution. To date no proper clean-up operation has been mounted.


title: Kodaikanal

text: The Kodaikanal-Gudalur Railway line was under the contemplation of the Government from 1889 when the Madras and Travancore Governments made an agreement regarding the waters of the Periyar river in 1895 a survey was made in 1897 after the completion of the Periyar dam, the Government granted permission to the then Wilson and Company, Madras to construct a light railway from Kodaikanal railway station, then Ammaayanaickanur railway station, which lies between Dindigul and Madhurai railway stations, to Gudalur within two years The company failed in floating the capital wanted within the period allotted and thus the permission granted automatically expired. Then the Government made several surveys till 1920 After the close of the First World War, the Government sanction, ed in 1920 this line under the postwar reconstruction scheme and directed the District Board, Madurai to intimate to the Government within two years whether it was willing to take UP this work, as the then South Indian Railway Company and the two planters of the Kannan Devan Hills were willing to undertake the work. In 1922 the district board of Madurai intiiP&ted the Government to cancel the sanction of the Kodaikanal road- Gudalur railway line and requested sanction for the construction of Madurai-Bodinayakanur line Accordingly.


title: Kodaikanal

text: The town of Kodaikanal sits on a plateau above the southern escarpment of the upper Palani Hills at , between the Parappar and Gundar Valleys. These hills form the eastward spur of the Western Ghats on the western side of South India. It has an irregular basin as its heartland, the centre of which is now Kodaikanal Lake a circumference manmade lake. A few kilometres away from Kodaikanal a small village named Vattakanal is located in the Dindigul District on the southern tip of the upper Palani hills in the state of Tamil Nadu, along the eastern coast of the Western Ghats.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Vattakanal is better known as 'Vatta', which means circle and by most or 'Little Israel' by the villagers that observe a large number of Israeli tourists who flock there from October onwards. One of the main attractions of Kodaikanal city, very near to the Upper Lake View, a beautiful waterfall, is Vattakanal Falls. A perfectly calm and quiet place to enjoy waterfalls and natural beauty.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Meadows and grasslands cover the hillsides. Gigantic eucalyptus trees and shola forests flourish in the valleys. Mighty rocks and cascading streams lie above the valleys. There are many high waterfalls and ubiquitous gardens and flower beds in bloom.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Kodaikanal is known for its rich flora. Of the big trees, cypress, eucalyptus and acacia are the dominant varieties. Pear trees are numerous and the fruits are of high quality. Competing with the fruit trees are the flowering ones, mainly rhododendron and magnolia. Large dahlias of different hues are the main attraction of Bryant Park, situated close to the Kodai lake. At a distance of 700 meters from Kodaikanal Bus Station, Bryant Park is a splendidly maintained backyard located in the direction of the South-East nook. Water lilies in the park's pond are another pleasing sight. The town abounds in yellow wild flowers.


title: Kodaikanal

text: North of the town, high hills that slope down into the villages of Pallangi and Vilpatti stand guard. On the east the hill slopes less abruptly into the lower Palnis. A precipitous escarpment facing the Cumbum Valley is on the south. On the west is a plateau leading to Manjampatti Valley, Indira Gandhi National Park, the Anamalai Hills and the main body of the Western Ghats of Kerala border.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Kodaikanal has a monsoon-influenced subtropical highland climate ("Cfb", according to the Köppen climate classification, with a "Cwb" tendency). The temperatures are cool throughout the year due to the high elevation of the city.


title: Kodaikanal

text: According to the 2011 census, Kodaikanal had a population of 36,501 with a sex-ratio of 1,004 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929. A total of 3,893 were under the age of six, constituting 1,945 males and 1,948 females. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 19.86% and .28% of the population respectively. The average literacy of the city was 79.78%, compared to the national average of 72.99%. The city had a total of 9,442 households. There were a total of 14,103 workers, comprising 163 cultivators, 744 main agricultural labourers, 130 in household industries, 12,118 other workers, 948 marginal workers, 10 marginal cultivators, 51 marginal agricultural labourers, 34 marginal workers in household industries and 853 other marginal workers. As per the religious census of 2011, Kodaikanal had 48.84% Hindus, 12.0% Muslims, 38.69% Christians, 0.02% Sikhs, 0.22% Buddhists, 0.04% Jains, 0.15% following other religions and 0.04% following no religion or did not indicate any religious preference.


title: Kodaikanal

text: The economy of Kodaikanal predominantly depends on tourism. The number of tourists increased from two million in 1999 to 3.2 million in 2009.


title: Kodaikanal

text: The town's infrastructure changes every year in preparation for the peak tourist season. Major roads are converted into one-way lanes to regulate the constant inflow of traffic and special police are brought in for the safety of the tourists and protection of local businesses. Hotels are often fully booked during the high season, and remain virtually empty during the off-season. Due to the rapid development of nearby cities such as Madurai, Palani and Coimbatore the town is learning to deal with year-round tourism.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Plums, pears, chile peppers, carrots, cauliflower, cabbage, garlic, and onions are cultivated by terrace farmers in surrounding villages. Most are trucked to other parts of India and some are sold in the local market. C


title: Kodaikanal

text: Due to its relatively unpolluted image, various locations in Kodaikanal are used for movie shoots. Some examples are "Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar" though depicted as Dehradun, the Tamil movie "Guna", "Manmadhan Ambu", and "Thenali".


title: Kodaikanal

text: The major medical facilities are KHMS Hospital, Van Allen Hospital, the Government Hospital, and the Prana Spa. These hospitals treat patients with common ailments and injuries and perform child delivery and care, but are not equipped with modern medical equipment for complicated diagnoses and surgery.


title: Kodaikanal

text: In April 1915, Dr. Van Allen raised funds to construct the first unit of the hospital at the entrance of Coaker's walk. It was named after him. Its facilities have been updated and now it has an X-ray machine, well equipped pathological lab, and operation theatre with blood transfusion facilities. Van Allen Hospital established by a group of Christian missionaries to be a place where people could receive quality medical attention in a picturesque setting of comfort and caring atmosphere in Kodaikanal. Van Allen receives about 7500 as outpatients per year. The number increases during the summer due to the influx of the tourist.


title: Kodaikanal

text: The Government Hospital is situated on the hillside near Rock Cottage on Lower Shola Road. It was a small municipal hospital until 1927. Now it has X-ray, dental, and maternity wards and other facilities.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Air and water-borne mercury emissions have contaminated large areas of Kodaikanal and the surrounding forests. A study conducted by the Department of Atomic Energy confirmed that Kodaikanal Lake has been contaminated by mercury emissions.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Mercury pollution was reported in Kodaikanal affecting lakes in the area. The causes, originating from a Hindustan Unilever thermometer factory nearby, were reported to be dispersal of elemental mercury into the atmosphere from improper storage and dispersal into the water from surface effluents from the factory. Apart from tests conducted on Kodaikanal lake, moss samples collected from trees surrounding the Berijam Lake, located from the factory, were also tested. These showed mercury levels in the range of 0.2 µg/kg, while in Kodaikanal lake the lichen and moss levels were 7.9 µg/kg and 8.3 µg/kg, respectively. Fish samples were taken from Kodaikanal lake also showed Hg levels in the range of 120 to 290 mg/kg, confirming that pollution of the lake had taken place due to mercury emissions from the factory.


title: Kodaikanal

text: The Hindustan Unilever thermometer factory caused widespread mercury pollution through improper disposal of broken thermometer waste containing large quantities of mercury. The factory sold much of this waste to a junkyard in Kodaikanal and also dumped large quantities in the forest behind the factory. The factory was eventually closed in 2001 after 18 years of operation. Hindustan Lever have used considerable legal manoeuvering to avoid paying compensation to the workers and their families, many of whom died or became physically handicapped as a result of mercury poisoning.


title: Kodaikanal

text: The ex-workers joined to form the 559-strong Ex-Mercury Employees Welfare Association and in 2006 filed a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) suit in the Madras High Court. The association wants an economic rehabilitation scheme, healthcare treatment and a monitoring programme at the company's expense for everyone who ever worked in the factory. It also wants the company prosecuted. Hindustan Unilever denies that any of the health problems of the workers or their families were the result of mercury exposure in the factory. In 2010 the workers were still fighting for compensation.


title: Kodaikanal

text: In June 2007, the Madras High Court constituted a five-member expert committee to decide on the mercury workers' health claims. The last court hearing was in June 2008. The committee later failed to find sufficient evidence to link the current clinical condition of the factory workers to past mercury exposure in the factory.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Additional site remediation studies are being undertaken by national institutions, as desired by the Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board (TNPCB) and the Court's Scientific Experts Committee (SEC) during the project review meeting in January 2010. IIT Delhi is revalidating the risk assessment study and site-specific clean-up standards; the National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, is studying the impact on trees and preservation of trees; and the Centre for Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute, Ooty, is studying the impact on soil and soil erosion. Based on the above study findings, results of remediation trials and recommendations of the SEC, the TNPCB will take a final decision on the clean-up standards. Hindustan Unilever Ltd. will commence soil remediation work at the factory site once a decision on clean-up standards is taken and consent is given by TNPCB.


title: Kodaikanal

text: The Hindustan Unilever, however refused the responsibility for the mercury poisoning even after multiple online petitions and protests by environmental activists.


title: Kodaikanal

text: There are many educational institutions in Kodaikanal. Kodaikanal comes under the Batlagundu educational district. The head office for the educational district serving from Batlagundu government boys higher secondary school.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Mother Teresa Women's University  was founded in 1984 by the enactment of Tamil Nadu Act 15. The university's goal is to expand its services to female students in all communities. Academic courses offered BA, B.Sc, BBA, B.Com, M.Sc, MCA, M.Ed, MBA, PG degree, Ph.D., Certificate Courses.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Kodaikanal has several clubs and civil society organizations operating for social, charitable and environmental goals. Established clubs in Kodaikanal are the Kodaikanal Lions Club (est. 1985) under the jurisdiction of Lions Clubs International (district 324B); Kodaikanal Boat Club (est. 1890) with nearly 650 permanent members; Kodaikanal Golf Club (est. 1895) with over 600 members and an 18-hole golf course, spread over ; the Indian Club (est. 1915) on Poet Thyagarajar Road; and the Rotary Club of Kodaikanal.


title: Kodaikanal

text: In 1890, the Kodaikanal Missionary Union (KMU) was formed to enable missionaries of the various denominations to come together for recreation and to develop a mission strategy and outreach in cooperation with each other. In 1923 it built an Edwardian style clubhouse with large central hall for social events and afternoon teas, six tennis courts, a reading room, and other spaces for meetings. With the decline of missionary activity in India, the KMU was wound up in the 1980s, and the property was turned over to Kodaikanal International School. The KMU library with many valuable old books besides newer materials, is still functioning in one room, and provides something of a social venue. The valuable original KMU archive materials have been incorporated into the archives of the school, which has hired an archivist and is in process of converting the whole original KMU building into an archive and display centre for the school and the community.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Kodaikanal has several social service societies which promote local trade and increase employment of rural villagers in the town's periphery by participating in its tourism fuelled growth. These include the Kodaikanal People Development Group (KOPDEG) which has been successful in providing employment for marginalized women and marketing their products. The "Made-in-India" tagged products from Kopedeg are unique to Kodaikanal and are targeted at foreign tourists who regularly buy them as souvenirs.


title: Kodaikanal

text: The Cottage Crafts Shop at Anna Salai is run by the voluntary organisation Coordinating Council for Social Concerns in Kodai (CORSOK). They sell goods crafted by development groups and uses the commission charged to help the needy.


title: Kodaikanal

text: In 1994 the Potter's Shed was inaugurated. This pottery and craft Shop in Kodaikanal has made and sold hundreds of thousands of fine pieces of locally made pottery. All profits from this business are contributed to the Bethania Kids Center For Children with Disabilities.


title: Kodaikanal

text: The Kodaikanal Lake Protection Council and Vattakkanal Organization for Youth, Community and Environment (VOYCE) are active in preserving Kodaikanal's environment. Plastic bags are banned and almost all shops and roadside vendors heed the rule and use recycled paper bags in fear of social reprisal. Local hotels have also participated in improving the environment by placing garbage cans all across the town, with their prominent "donated by" signs acting as silent salesmen.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Kodaikanal has several scenic natural attractions which attract visitors and make it a destination for newlyweds. Young people also come for bike trips and leisure. It is also known for home made chocolates and eucalyptus oil.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Kodaikanal Lake is an artificial, roughly star-shaped lake built in 1863. It is Kodaikanal's most popular geographic landmark and tourist attraction. Rowboats and pedalos can be hired at the Kodaikanal Boat Club. Horses and bicycles can be hired beside the lake for short periods. The path that skirts the periphery of this lake is a favourite walk for locals and tourists alike.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Bryant Park: Just east of the lake and from the bus stand is a well maintained botanical garden. The park was planned and built in 1908 by a forest officer from Madurai, H.D. Bryant, and named after him. With 325 species of trees, shrubs, and cacti, the park is a rainbow of flowers during the peak season. A large section is dedicated to nearly 740 varieties of roses.


title: Kodaikanal

text: There is an 1857 eucalyptus tree and a Bodhi tree which adds a religious significance to the park. Ornamental plants are cultivated in a nursery for sale. The park organizes horticultural exhibits and flower shows every summer, to coincide with the peak season. The entrance fee to the park is nominal, and it is open all year.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Coaker's Walk, from the bus-stand, constructed by Lt. Coaker in 1872, is a paved pedestrian path running along the edge of steep slopes on the southern side of Kodai. The walk, winding around Mount Nebo, starts in front of the Van Allen hospital, running parallel to the Van Allen Hospital Road, and joins the main road beside St.Peter's Church, providing a panoramic view of the plains. On a clear day one can view as far as Dolphin's Nose in the south, the valley of the Pambar River in the southeast, Periyakulam town and even the city of Madurai. A fascinating rare phenomenon called the "Brocken spectre" can be witnessed, when a person can see his shadow on the clouds with a rainbow halo. This occurs when the sun is behind the viewer and clouds and mist are to the front. There is an observatory with a telescope halfway along the walk. The entrance fee to the walkway is nominal and it is open all year.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Poombarai Village (Kudhanthai Velappar Temple) is from the bus-stand. In Poombarai village there is a temple of Lord Muruga. The village is fully covered by reserve forest. The final approach to this quiet area is a gently climbing foot-path.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Green Valley View (formerly called Suicide Point), from the bus-stand and near the golf course, has a panoramic view of the plains and a sheer drop of overlooking the Vaigai Dam to the south. The stairway leading up to it is highly commercialized and lined with rows of shops to tempt tourists.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Shembaganur Museum of Natural History, from the bus-stand, founded in 1895, is open to the public (except Tuesdays) for viewing their outstanding taxidermy collection of more than 500 species of animals, birds and insects and a living collection of over 300 exotic orchid species. The museum is affiliated with Loyola College in Chennai and exhibits artifacts of the ancient Palaiyar tribespeople whose descendants still live in these hills.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Kodaikanal Solar Observatory, from the bus-stand on Observatory Road, at is the highest location near Kodai. The first observations were commenced here in 1901. Former Director John Evershed discovered the phenomenon of radial motion in sunspots, now known as the Evershed effect. The Kodaikanal Terrestrial Telescope can view a grand panorama including Sothupparai Dam, Vaigai Dam, Periyakulam and Varaha river. This Indian Institute of Astrophysics facility has a comprehensive astronomical science museum with organized public tours, access to the astronomy library, and scheduled night-time telescopic sky viewing. It is open daily to the public during peak season, and a few hours each Friday the rest of the year.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Pillar Rocks, from the bus-stand, is a set of three giant rock pillars which stand high. Managed by the Tamil Nadu Forest Department, The viewpoint can be crowded but is not commercialized. There is an excellent public garden adjacent to the viewpoint.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Guna caves, made popular by the Tamil movie "Gunaa", previously called Devil's Kitchen, are deep bat-infested chambers between the three gigantic boulders that are the Pillar Rocks. The deep narrow ravines of the caves are now closed to public due to the deaths of twelve youths there. These dangerous caves are highly protected now, and tourists can see sections of the cave system from afar. In the late 1970s the inside of the caves was well photographed.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Silver Cascade, from Kodaikanal at a wide bend in the long and winding Laws Ghat Road, at altitude , is a waterfall formed from the outflow of Kodaikanal Lake. This waterfall is a common stop for first-time visitors. There are a few souvenir and fruit vendors and many monkeys here. There is also a smaller waterfall below the bridge which crosses the stream here.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Dolphin's Nose, from the bus stand, is a flat rock projecting over a chasm deep. It is an undisturbed area down a steep rocky trail beginning soon after Pambar Bridge. Views of steep rocky escarpments rising from the plains can be seen. The old village of Vellagavi can be reached through a rugged bridle path here. A short paved walkway leads from the road here to Pambar Falls (which is also locally addressed as 'Liril Falls' after the Liril Soap advertisement filmed in 1985).


title: Kodaikanal

text: Kurinji Andavar Murugan temple, from the bus-stand, is known for its Kurinji flower which blossoms in the area only once every 12 years. The deity here is called Sri Kurinji Easwaran, who is Lord Murugan. This temple was built in 1936 by a European woman, who on coming to Ceylon, converted to Hinduism. She changed her name to Leelavathi and married Ponnambalam Ramanathan. She is also known as Lady Ramanathan. This temple was handed over to Arulmighu Dhandayuthapani Swamy Thiru Kovil, Palani by Devi Prasad Bhaskaran (also known as Padmini, niece and adopted daughter of S Natesan Pillai, son-in-law of Lady Ramanathan) and her husband R. Bhaskaran.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Berijam Lake is surrounded by nature at a distance of around from Kodaikanal. Boating is prohibited as the lake is a source of water for villages. Forest department permission is required and a limited number of vehicles (up to 80) are allowed to enter the forest area where the lake is situated. Entry is restricted into the Berijam Lake area to between 9.30 a.m. and 3 p.m. Bison, deer, panthers, and snakes are often spotted in this area. The fire tower, Silent Valley, Medicine Forest, and Lake View are other attractions around the lake.


title: Kodaikanal

text: To enter into the Berijam Lake permission must be obtained from the Forest Department. Usually, they give permission around 8 a.m. every day except Tuesdays. They give permission to about 80 to 100 vehicles per day and collect an entry fee of around Rs. 150 depending upon the vehicle.


title: Kodaikanal

text: Psilocybin mushrooms which produce hallucinogenic effects when consumed, and other poisonous mushrooms grow around Berijam. Medicine Forest has a certain species of trees whose fragrance is believed to have hallucinogenic effects.


title: Kodaikanal

text: The nearest railway stations are Palani Station () north, Kodaikanal Road Station () south east, Oddanchatram Railway Station () north east, Dindigul Junction () east, and Madurai Junction () nearly east. The total straight line distance between Kodai Road Railway Station and Kodaikanal is 46 KM (kilometers) and 600 meters. The miles based distance from Kodai Road Railway Station to Kodaikanal is 29 miles. This is a straight line distance and so most of the time the actual travel distance between Kodai Road Railway Station and Kodaikanal may be higher or vary due to curvature of the road .


title: Kodaikanal

text: From Madurai Aarappalayam bus stand and Batlagundu frequent bus services are available. Buses are also available from Palani, Oddanchatram, Kodairoad, and Dindigul.


title: Kodaikanal

text: The 2–3-hour drive to Kodaikanal via the steep and winding Ghat roads from Palani, Oddanchatram or Batlagundu is a memorable experience. Travellers may stop at turnouts on the road and view the Palani hills. There is a shortcut road from Periyakulam to Kodaikanal via Kumbakarai and Adukkam.


title: Howard Rollins

text: Howard Ellsworth Rollins Jr. (October 17, 1950 – December 8, 1996) was an American stage, film, and television actor. Howard Rollins was best known for his role as Andrew Young in 1978's "King", George Haley in the 1979 miniseries "", Coalhouse Walker Jr. in the 1981 film "Ragtime", Captain Davenport in the 1984 film "A Soldier's Story", and as Virgil Tibbs on the TV crime drama "In the Heat of the Night". In the fall of 1996, Rollins was diagnosed with AIDS. Six weeks later, he died at St. Luke’s-Roosevelt Hospital in New York at the age of 46, from complications from lymphoma. He was interred at Woodlawn Cemetery in his native Baltimore. Over the span of his acting career, Rollins was nominated for an Academy Award, a Golden Globe, and an Emmy.


title: Howard Rollins

text: Born to Ruth and Howard Ellsworth Rollins Sr. on October 17, 1950 in Baltimore, Maryland, Rollins was the youngest of four children. His mother was a domestic worker, and father a steelworker who died in 1980. After his high school graduation, Rollins studied theater at Towson University.


title: Howard Rollins

text: In 1970, Rollins left college to play the role of "Slick" in the PBS soap opera "Our Street". In 1974, he moved to New York City, where he appeared in the Broadway productions of "We Interrupt This Program" (1975), "The Mighty Gents" (1978), and "G. R. Point" (1979). He also appeared in the TV miniseries "King" and "".


title: Howard Rollins

text: In 1981, Rollins made his film debut in the Dino De Laurentiis/Miloš Forman motion picture "Ragtime". His performance in the film earned him an Academy Award nomination for best supporting actor as well as Golden Globe nominations for Best Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture and New Star of the Year in a Motion Picture. The following year, he was nominated for a Daytime Emmy for his role on "Another World". In 1984, Rollins starred in director Norman Jewison's film "A Soldier's Story", which led to his role as Virgil Tibbs on "In the Heat of the Night", the television series based on Jewison's acclaimed 1967 film of the same name.


title: Howard Rollins

text: "In the Heat of the Night" began airing on NBC in 1988. During the show's run, Rollins struggled with addiction to drugs and alcohol. He was arrested four times for drug and alcohol-related crimes, spending one month in jail for reckless driving and driving under the influence. Due to his ongoing personal and legal issues, Rollins was dismissed from the series at the end of Season 6. Rollins returned for several guest appearances in the seventh season of the show in 1993 – 1994.


title: Howard Rollins

text: After being fired from "In the Heat of the Night", Rollins achieved sobriety and worked on rebuilding his career and reputation. In 1995, he appeared in a guest role on "New York Undercover", followed by a role in the film "Drunks". In 1996, he appeared in a guest role on "Remember WENN". His final acting role was in the 1996 television movie "Harambee!".