title: Nonmetal

text: From right to left in periodic table terms, three or four kinds of nonmetals are more or less commonly discerned.


title: Nonmetal

text: Since the metalloids occupy "frontier territory", where metals meet nonmetals, their treatment varies from author to author. Some consider them separate from both metals and nonmetals; some regard them as nonmetals or as a sub-class of nonmetals. Other authors count some of them as metals, for example arsenic and antimony, due to their similarities to heavy metals.


title: Nonmetal

text: Metalloids are here treated as nonmetals in light of their chemical behavior, and for comparative purposes.


title: Nonmetal

text: Aside from the metalloids, some boundary fuzziness and overlapping (as occurs with classification schemes generally) can be discerned among the other nonmetal subclasses. Carbon, phosphorus, selenium, iodine border the metalloids and show some metallic character, as does hydrogen. Among the noble gases, radon is the most metallic and begins to show some cationic behavior, which is unusual for a nonmetal.


title: Nonmetal

text: Six nonmetals are classified as noble gases: helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and the radioactive radon. In conventional periodic tables they occupy the rightmost column. They are called "noble gases" in light of their characteristically very low chemical reactivity.


title: Nonmetal

text: They have very similar properties, with all of them being colorless, odorless, and nonflammable. With their closed outer electron shells the noble gases have feeble interatomic forces of attraction resulting in very low melting and boiling points. That is why they are all gases under standard conditions, even those with atomic masses larger than many normally solid elements.


title: Nonmetal

text: Chemically, the noble gases have relatively high ionization energies, nil or negative electron affinities, and relatively high electronegativities. Compounds of the noble gases number in the hundreds although the list continues to grow, with most of these involving oxygen or fluorine combining with either krypton, xenon or radon.


title: Nonmetal

text: In periodic table terms, an analogy can be drawn between the noble gases and noble metals such as platinum and gold, with the latter being similarly reluctant to enter into chemical combination. As a further example, xenon, in the +8 oxidation state, forms a pale yellow explosive oxide, XeO, while osmium, another noble metal, forms a yellow strongly oxidizing oxide, OsO. There are parallels too in the formulas of the oxyfluorides: XeOF and OsOF, and XeOF and OsOF.


title: Nonmetal

text: About 10 tonnes of noble gases are present in the Earth's atmosphere. Helium is additionally found in natural gas to the extent of as much as 7%. Radon diffuses out of rocks, where it is formed during the natural decay sequence of uranium and thorium. In 2014 it was reported that the Earth's core may contain about 10 tons of xenon, in the form of stable XeFe and XeNi intermetallic compounds. This may explain why "studies of the Earth's atmosphere have shown that more than 90% of the expected amount of Xe is depleted."


title: Nonmetal

text: While the nonmetal halogens are markedly reactive and corrosive elements, they can be found in such mundane compounds as toothpaste (NaF); ordinary table salt (NaCl); swimming pool disinfectant (NaBr); or food supplements (KI). The word "halogen" means "salt former".


title: Nonmetal

text: Physically, fluorine and chlorine are pale yellow and yellowish green gases; bromine is a reddish-brown liquid (usually topped by a layer of its fumes); and iodine, under white light, is a metallic-looking solid. Electrically, the first three are insulators while iodine is a semiconductor (along its planes).


title: Nonmetal

text: Chemically, they have high ionization energies, electron affinities, and electronegativity values, and are mostly relatively strong oxidizing agents. Manifestations of this status include their corrosive nature. All four exhibit a tendency to form predominately ionic compounds with metals whereas the remaining nonmetals, bar oxygen, tend to form predominately covalent compounds with metals. The reactive and strongly electronegative nature of the nonmetal halogens represents the epitome of nonmetallic character.


title: Nonmetal

text: In periodic table terms, the counterparts of the highly nonmetallic halogens in group 17 are the highly reactive alkali metals, such as sodium and potassium, in group 1. Most of the alkali metals, as if in imitation of the nonmetal halogens, are known to form –1 anions (something that rarely occurs among metals).


title: Nonmetal

text: The nonmetal halogens are found in salt-related minerals. Fluorine occurs in fluorite (CaF), a widespread mineral. Chlorine, bromine and iodine are found in brines. Exceptionally, a 2012 study reported the presence of 0.04% native fluorine () by weight in antozonite, attributing these inclusions as a result of radiation from the presence of tiny amounts of uranium.


title: Nonmetal

text: After the nonmetallic elements are classified as either noble gases, halogens or metalloids (following), the remaining seven nonmetals are hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur and selenium. In their most stable forms, three are colorless gases (H, N, O); three have a metal-like appearance (C, P, Se); and one is yellow (S). Electrically, graphitic carbon is a semimetal along its planes and a semiconductor in a direction perpendicular to its planes; phosphorus and selenium are semiconductors; and hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur are insulators.


title: Nonmetal

text: They are generally regarded as being too diverse to merit a collective examination, and have been referred to as "other nonmetals", or more plainly as "nonmetals", located between the "metalloids" and the "halogens." Consequently, their chemistry tends to be taught disparately, according to their four respective periodic table groups, for example: hydrogen in group 1; the group 14 nonmetals (carbon, and possibly silicon and germanium); the group 15 nonmetals (nitrogen, phosphorus, and possibly arsenic and antimony); and the group 16 nonmetals (oxygen, sulfur, selenium, and possibly tellurium). Other subdivisions are possible according to the individual preferences of authors.


title: Nonmetal

text: Hydrogen, in particular, behaves in some respects like a metal and in others like a nonmetal. Like a metal it can (first) lose its single electron; it can stand in for alkali metals in typical alkali metal structures; and is capable of forming alloy-like hydrides, featuring metallic bonding, with some transition metals. On the other hand, it is an insulating diatomic gas, like a typical nonmetal, and in chemical reactions has a tendency to eventually attain the electron configuration of helium. It does this by way of forming a covalent or ionic bond or, if it has lost its electron, attaching itself to a lone pair of electrons.


title: Nonmetal

text: Some or all of these nonmetals nevertheless have several shared properties. Most of them, being less reactive than the halogens, can occur naturally in the environment. They have prominent biological and geochemical roles. While their physical and chemical character is "moderately non-metallic", on a net basis, all of them have corrosive aspects. Hydrogen can corrode metals. Carbon corrosion can occur in fuel cells. Acid rain is caused by dissolved nitrogen or sulfur. Oxygen corrodes iron via rust. White phosphorus, the most unstable form, ignites in air and produces phosphoric acid residue. Untreated selenium in soils can give rise to corrosive hydrogen selenide gas. When combined with metals, the unclassified nonmetals can form high hardness (interstitial or refractory) compounds, on account of their relatively small atomic radii and sufficiently low ionization energy values. They show a tendency to bond to themselves, especially in solid compounds. Diagonal periodic table relationships among these nonmetals echo similar relationships among the metalloids.


title: Nonmetal

text: In periodic table terms, a geographic analogy is seen between the unclassified nonmetals and transition metals. The unclassified nonmetals occupy territory between the strongly nonmetallic halogens on the right and the weakly nonmetallic metalloids on the left. The transition metals occupy territory, "between the virulent and violent metals on the left of the periodic table, and the calm and contented metals to the right... [and]... form a transitional bridge between the two".


title: Nonmetal

text: Unclassified nonmetals typically occur in elemental forms (oxygen, sulfur) or are found in association with either of these two elements:


title: Nonmetal

text: The six elements more commonly recognized as metalloids are boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium, each having a metallic appearance. On a standard periodic table, they occupy a diagonal area in the p-block extending from boron at the upper left to tellurium at lower right, along the dividing line between metals and nonmetals shown on some tables.


title: Nonmetal

text: They are brittle and poor to good conductors of heat and electricity. Boron, silicon, germanium and tellurium are semiconductors. Arsenic and antimony have the electronic structures of semimetals although both have less stable semiconducting forms.


title: Nonmetal

text: Chemically the metalloids generally behave like (weak) nonmetals. Among the nonmetallic elements they tend to have the lowest ionization energies, electron affinities, and electronegativity values, and are relatively weak oxidizing agents. They further demonstrate a tendency to form alloys with metals.


title: Nonmetal

text: In periodic table terms, to the left of the weakly nonmetallic metalloids are an indeterminate set of weakly metallic metals (such as tin, lead and bismuth) sometimes referred to as post-transition metals. Dingle explains the situation this way:


title: Nonmetal

text: The metalloids tend to be found in forms combined with oxygen or sulfur or (in the case of tellurium) gold or silver. Boron is found in boron-oxygen borate minerals including in volcanic spring waters. Silicon occurs in the silicon-oxygen mineral silica (sand). Germanium, arsenic and antimony are mainly found as components of sulfide ores. Tellurium occurs in telluride minerals of gold or silver. Native forms of arsenic, antimony and tellurium have been reported.


title: Nonmetal

text: Most nonmetallic elements exist in allotropic forms. Carbon, for example, occurs as graphite, diamond and other forms. Such allotropes may exhibit physical properties that are more metallic or less nonmetallic.


title: Nonmetal

text: Other allotropic forms of nonmetallic elements are known, either under pressure or in monolayers. Under sufficiently high pressures, at least half of the nonmetallic elements that are semiconductors or insulators, starting with phosphorus at 1.7 GPa, have been observed to form metallic allotropes. Single layer two-dimensional forms of nonmetals include borophene (boron), graphene (carbon), silicene (silicon), phosphorene (phosphorus), germanene (germanium), arsenene (arsenic), antimonene (antimony) and tellurene (tellurium), collectively referred to as "xenes."


title: Nonmetal

text: Hydrogen and helium are estimated to make up approximately 99% of all ordinary matter in the universe and over 99.9% of its atoms. Oxygen is thought to be the next most abundant element, at about 0.1%. Less than five per cent of the universe is believed to be made of ordinary matter, represented by stars, planets and living beings. The balance is made of dark energy and dark matter, both of which are currently poorly understood.


title: Nonmetal

text: Five nonmetals namely hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and silicon constitute the bulk of the Earth's crust, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biomass, in the quantities shown in the table.


title: Nonmetal

text: Day to day costs will vary depending on purity, quantity, market conditions, and supplier surcharges.


title: Nonmetal

text: Based on the available literature as at August 2022, while the cited costs of most nonmetals are less than the $US0.80 per gram cost of silver,


title: Nonmetal

text: Nearly all nonmetals have varying uses in household items; lighting and lasers; and medicine and pharmaceuticals. Nitrogen, for example, is found in some garden treatments; lasers; and diabetes medicines. Germanium, arsenic, and radon each have uses in one or two of these fields but not all three. Aside from the noble gases most of the remaining nonmetals have, or have had, uses in agrochemicals and dyestuffs. To the extent that metalloids show metallic character, they have speciality uses extending to (for example) oxide glasses, alloying components, and semiconductors.


title: Nonmetal

text: Further shared uses of different subsets of the nonmetals occur in or as air replacements; cryogenics and refrigerants; fertilizers; flame retardants or fire extinguishers; mineral acids; plug-in hybrid vehicles; welding gases; and smart phones.


title: Nonmetal

text: Most nonmetals were discovered in the 18th and 19th centuries. Before then carbon, sulfur and antimony were known in antiquity; arsenic was discovered during the Middle Ages (by Albertus Magnus); and Hennig Brand isolated phosphorus from urine in 1669. Helium (1868) holds the distinction of being the only element not first discovered on Earth. Radon is the most recently discovered nonmetal, being found only at the end of the 19th century.


title: Nonmetal

text: Chemistry- or physics-based techniques used in the isolation efforts were spectroscopy, fractional distillation, radiation detection, electrolysis, ore acidification, displacement reactions, combustion and heating; a few nonmetals occurred naturally as free elements


title: Nonmetal

text: Of the noble gases, helium was detected via its yellow line in the coronal spectrum of the sun, and later by observing the bubbles escaping from uranite UO dissolved in acid. Neon through xenon were obtained via fractional distillation of air. Radon was first observed emanating from compounds of thorium, three years after Henri Becquerel's discovery of radiation in 1896.


title: Nonmetal

text: The nonmetal halogens were obtained from their halides via either electrolysis, adding an acid, or displacement. Some chemists died as a result of their experiments trying to isolate fluorine.


title: Nonmetal

text: Among the unclassified nonmetals, carbon was known (or produced) as charcoal, soot, graphite and diamond; nitrogen was observed in air from which oxygen had been removed; oxygen was obtained by heating mercurous oxide; phosphorus was liberated by heating ammonium sodium hydrogen phosphate (Na(NH)HPO), as found in urine; sulfur occurred naturally as a free element; and selenium was detected as a residue in sulfuric acid.


title: Nonmetal

text: Most of the elements commonly recognized as metalloids were isolated by heating their oxides (boron, silicon, arsenic, tellurium) or a sulfide (germanium). Antimony was known in its native form as well as being attainable by heating its sulfide.


title: Nonmetal

text: The distinction between metals and nonmetals arose, in a convoluted manner, from a crude recognition of different kinds of matter namely pure substances, mixtures, compounds and elements. Thus, matter could be divided into pure substances (such as salt, bicarb of soda, or sulfur) and mixtures (aqua regia, gunpowder, or bronze, for example) and pure substances eventually could be distinguished as compounds and elements. "Metallic" elements then seemed to have broadly distinguishable attributes that other elements did not, such as their ability to conduct heat or for their "earths" (oxides) to form basic solutions in water, for example as occurred with quicklime (CaO).


title: Nonmetal

text: The term "nonmetallic" dates from as far back as 1566. In a medical treatise published that year, Loys de L’Aunay (a French doctor) mentioned the properties of plant substances from metallic and "non-metallic" lands.


title: Nonmetal

text: In , Wilhelm Homberg (a German natural philosopher) referred to "non-metallic" sulfur in "Des Essais de Chimie" (1708). He questioned the five-fold division of all matter into sulfur, mercury, salt, water and earth, as postulated by (1641) in "New Philosophical Light of True Principles and Elements of Nature." Homberg's approach represented "an important move toward the modern concept of an element".


title: Nonmetal

text: Lavoisier, in his "revolutionary" 1789 work "Traité élémentaire de chimie," published the first modern list of chemical elements in which he distinguished between gases, metals, nonmetals, and earths (heat resistant oxides). In its first seventeen years, Lavoisier's work was republished in twenty-three editions in six languages, and "carried ... [his] new chemistry all over Europe and America."


title: Nonmetal

text: In 1809, Humphry Davy's discovery of sodium and potassium "annihilated" the line of demarcation between metals and nonmetals. Before then metals had been distinguished on the basis of their ponderousness or relatively high densities. Sodium and potassium, on the other hand, floated on water and yet were clearly metals on the basis of their chemical behaviour.


title: Nonmetal

text: From as early as 1811, different properties—physical, chemical, and electron related—have been used in attempts to refine the distinction between metals and nonmetals. The accompanying table sets out 22 such properties, by type and date order.


title: Nonmetal

text: Probably the most well-known property is that the electrical conductivity of a metal increases when temperature falls whereas that of a non-metal rises. However this scheme does not work for plutonium, carbon, arsenic and antimony. Plutonium, which is a metal, increases its electrical conductivity when heated in the temperature range of around –175 to +125 °C. Carbon, despite being widely regarded as a nonmetal, likewise increases its conductivity when heated. Arsenic and antimony are sometimes classified as nonmetals yet act similarly to carbon.


title: Nonmetal

text: Kneen et al. suggested that the nonmetals could be discerned once a [single] criterion for metallicity had been chosen, adding that, "many arbitrary classifications are possible, most of which, if chosen reasonably, would be similar but not necessarily identical." Emsley noted that, "No single property... can be used to classify all the elements as either metals or nonmetals." Jones added that "classes are usually defined by more than two attributes".


title: Nonmetal

text: Johnson suggested that physical properties can best indicate the metallic or nonmetallic properties of an element, with the proviso that other properties will be needed in ambiguous cases. He observed that all gaseous or nonconducting elements are nonmetals; solid nonmetals metals are hard and brittle or soft and crumbly whereas metals are usually malleable and ductile; and nonmetal oxides are acidic.


title: Nonmetal

text: According to Hein and Arena, nonmetals have low densities and relatively high electronegativity; the accompanying table bears this out. Nonmetallic elements occupy the top left quadrant, where densities are low and electronegativity values are relatively high. The other three quadrants are occupied by metals. Some authors further divide the elements into metals, metalloids, and nonmetals although Odberg argues that anything not a metal is, on categorisation grounds, a nonmetal.


title: Nonmetal

text: A basic taxonomy of nonmetals was set out in 1844, by Alphonse Dupasquier, a French doctor, pharmacist and chemist. To facilitate the study of nonmetals, he wrote:


title: Nonmetal

text: An echo of Dupasquier's fourfold classification is seen in the modern subclasses. The organogens and sulphuroids represent the set of unclassified nonmetals. Varying configurations of these seven nonmetals have been referred to as, for example, basic nonmetals; biogens; central nonmetals; CHNOPS; essential elements; "nonmetals"; orphan nonmetals; or redox nonmetals.


title: Nonmetal

text: The chloroide nonmetals came to be independently referred to as "halogens." The boroid nonmetals expanded into the "metalloids", starting from as early as 1864. The noble gases, as a discrete grouping, were counted among the nonmetals from as early as 1900.


title: Nonmetal

text: Some properties of metals, and of metalloids, unclassified nonmetals, nonmetal halogens, and noble gases are summarized in the table. Physical properties apply to elements in their most stable forms in ambient conditions, and are listed in loose order of ease of determination. Chemical properties are listed from general to descriptive, and then to specific. The dashed line around the metalloids denotes that, depending on the author, the elements involved may or may not be recognized as a distinct class or subclass of elements. Metals are included as a reference point.


title: Nonmetal

text: Most properties show a left-to-right progression in metallic to nonmetallic character or average values. The periodic table can thus be indicatively divided into metals and nonmetals, with more or less distinct gradations seen among the nonmetals.


title: Much Ado About Nothing (1993 film)

text: Much Ado About Nothing is a 1993 romantic comedy film based on William Shakespeare's play of the same name. Kenneth Branagh, who adapted the play for the screen and directed it, also stars in the film, which features Emma Thompson, Robert Sean Leonard, Denzel Washington, Michael Keaton, Keanu Reeves, and Kate Beckinsale in her film debut.


title: Much Ado About Nothing (1993 film)

text: The film was released on 7 May 1993, reaching 200 U.S. screens at its widest release. It earned $22 million at the U.S. box office and $43 million worldwide, which, despite failing to reach the mark set by Franco Zeffirelli's "Romeo and Juliet", made it one of the most financially successful Shakespeare films. It was also entered into the 1993 Cannes Film Festival.


title: Much Ado About Nothing (1993 film)

text: Having just crushed an uprising by his half-brother, Don John, Don Pedro of Aragon and his noblemen visit their friend Leonato in Messina. Accompanying Don Pedro is the witty Benedick, former acquaintance of Leonato's equally sharp-tongued niece, Beatrice. Also present are Benedick's friend Claudio, a young count; and Don John who, despite his rebellion, has apparently reconciled with his brother. Claudio has been thinking of Leonato's beautiful daughter Hero since before he went to war, and returns to find her as attractive as ever. Don Pedro, learning of his friend's feelings, decides to act on his behalf and arranges the match at a party. An unrepentant Don John attempts to foil it, but unsuccessfully – the match is made. Needing something to pass the time until the wedding, Don Pedro decides to arrange a similar fate for Beatrice and Benedick, who clearly hate each other.


title: Much Ado About Nothing (1993 film)

text: Don Pedro, Leonato, and Claudio stage a conversation containing a false account of how much Beatrice loves Benedick, all the while knowing Benedick to be hiding within earshot. Hero and her gentlewomen Ursula and Margaret play the same trick upon Beatrice. Each of them believes the story they hear about the other. Amidst all the good-natured scheming, Don John has been searching for ways to stop the marriage between Claudio and Hero. The night before the wedding, Don John's servant Borachio arranges a steamy liaison with Hero's gentlewoman Margaret at Hero's chamber window. Don John shows Don Pedro and Claudio this, and they believe that they are seeing Hero in the act of infidelity.


title: Much Ado About Nothing (1993 film)

text: Against the revelry of the evening, the upright but incompetent constable Dogberry appoints a watch to keep the peace. The three hapless watchmen happen to hear Borachio bragging to his colleague Conrade about how he and Don John had succeeded in stopping the wedding. The watchmen apprehend Borachio and Conrade, and, in the morning, Dogberry attempts to have Leonato interrogate the prisoners. However, a hurried Leonato is unable to decipher what the bumbling Dogberry is trying to tell him.


title: Much Ado About Nothing (1993 film)

text: At the wedding, Claudio publicly disgraces his would-be bride and storms away, along with most of the guests, except for Ursula, the Friar, Leonato, Beatrice, Antonio, and Benedick. They all agree to the Friar's plan to publish the tale that Hero, upon the grief of Claudio's accusations, suddenly died. Beatrice and Benedick linger a moment and eventually confess their love to one another. In the wake of this declaration, Beatrice asks Benedick to do the one thing that will satisfy her outrage with what has just happened – kill Claudio. With a heavy heart, he agrees to challenge his friend. Meanwhile, Borachio and Conrade are interrogated by Dogberry and his men. Amidst the confusion, Don John quietly flees. Despite Dogberry's incompetence, the truth of Don John's sinister machinations is revealed.


title: Much Ado About Nothing (1993 film)

text: Moments after Benedick's challenge to Claudio, Leonato is made aware of what really happened. Leonato continues to pretend to Claudio that Hero is dead. Claudio entreats Leonato to impose whatever vengeance he sees fit for Claudio's part in Hero's disgrace and death. Leonato forgives Claudio on the condition that he publicly declare his wrongdoing and then marry Hero's cousin - his brother Antonio's daughter - the next morning. Claudio agrees, and carries out the former by reciting an epitaph at Hero's tomb that night.


title: Much Ado About Nothing (1993 film)

text: When the bride is brought forth the next day, she is revealed to be none other than Hero herself. She and Claudio profess their true, undying love for each other, as do Beatrice and Benedick, who agree to marry. Benedick renounces his challenge against Claudio and embraces him. Moments later, Don John is marched in, having been captured before he could escape. Benedick advises that Don Pedro forget about him until tomorrow, after the weddings. Those gathered begin to dance, with the two happy couples at the middle. Don Pedro remains behind, still single, but happy for his friends.


title: Much Ado About Nothing (1993 film)

text: The music to "Much Ado About Nothing" was composed by frequent Kenneth Branagh collaborator Patrick Doyle, who makes a brief cameo in the film as Balthazar singing "Sigh No More Ladies" and "Pardon, Goddess of the Night". The soundtrack was released May 4, 1993 through Epic Soundtrax and features twenty-four tracks of score at a running time just under an hour.


title: Much Ado About Nothing (1993 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds a 90% "Certified Fresh" rating based on 49 reviews, with an average rating of 7.1/10. The site's consensus reads, "Kenneth Branagh's love for the material is contagious in this exuberant adaptation." On Metacritic, it has an average score of 80 out of 100, based on reviews from 25 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Much Ado About Nothing (1993 film)

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave it three out of four stars, calling it "cheerful from beginning to end". Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" also wrote the film a positive review, praising Branagh's direction and calling it "ravishing entertainment". Desson Thomson of "The Washington Post" praised Branagh's cuts to the text as giving "wonderful import to this silliness from long ago" and stated that "Kenneth Branagh has, once again, blown away the forbidding academic dust and found a funny retro-essence for the '90s." Online critic James Berardinelli gave the film a glowing four-star review, calling it a "gem of a movie", especially praising the accessibility of the humor, the performances, and Branagh's lively direction, of which he wrote, "This film cements Branagh's status as a great director of Shakespeare, and perhaps of film in general, as well."


title: Much Ado About Nothing (1993 film)

text: Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" gave the film a negative review, praising some moments as "invigorating fun", but ultimately calling it "overripe". Most of the negative criticisms focused on particular casting choices, notably Keanu Reeves as Don John, and Michael Keaton as Dogberry. For his performance in the film, Reeves was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actor, where he lost to Woody Harrelson for "Indecent Proposal".


title: The Limits to Growth

text: The Limits to Growth (LTG) is a 1972 report that discussed the possibility of exponential economic and population growth with finite supply of resources, studied by computer simulation. The study used the World3 computer model to simulate the consequence of interactions between the earth and human systems. The model was based on the work of Jay Forrester of MIT, as described in his book "World Dynamics".


title: The Limits to Growth

text: Commissioned by the Club of Rome, the findings of the study were first presented at international gatherings in Moscow and Rio de Janeiro in the summer of 1971. The report's authors are Donella H. Meadows, Dennis L. Meadows, Jørgen Randers, and William W. Behrens III, representing a team of 17 researchers.


title: The Limits to Growth

text: The report concludes that, without substantial changes in resource consumption, "the most probable result will be a rather sudden and uncontrollable decline in both population and industrial capacity". Although its methods and premises were heavily challenged on its publication, subsequent work to validate its forecasts continue to confirm that insufficient changes have been made since 1972 to significantly alter their nature.


title: The Limits to Growth

text: Since its publication, some 30 million copies of the book in 30 languages have been purchased. It continues to generate debate and has been the subject of several subsequent publications.


title: The Limits to Growth

text: "Beyond the Limits" and "The Limits to Growth: The 30-Year Update" were published in 1992 and 2004 respectively, in 2012, a 40-year forecast from Jørgen Randers, one of the book's original authors, was published as "2052: A Global Forecast for the Next Forty Years", and in 2022 two of the original "Limits to Growth" authors, Dennis Meadows and Jorgen Randers, joined 19 other contributors to produce "Limits and Beyond".


title: The Limits to Growth

text: In commissioning the MIT team to undertake the project that resulted in "LTG", the Club of Rome had three objectives:


title: The Limits to Growth

text: The World3 model is based on five variables: "population, food production, industrialization, pollution, and consumption of nonrenewable natural resources". At the time of the study, all these variables were increasing and were assumed to continue to grow exponentially, while the ability of technology to increase resources grew only linearly. The authors intended to explore the possibility of a sustainable feedback pattern that would be achieved by altering growth trends among the five variables under three scenarios. They noted that their projections for the values of the variables in each scenario were predictions "only in the most limited sense of the word", and were only indications of the system's behavioral tendencies. Two of the scenarios saw "overshoot and collapse" of the global system by the mid- to latter-part of the 21st century, while a third scenario resulted in a "stabilized world".


title: The Limits to Growth

text: A key idea in "The Limits to Growth" is the notion that if the rate of resource use is increasing, the number of reserves cannot be calculated by simply taking the current known reserves and dividing them by the current yearly usage, as is typically done to obtain a static index. For example, in 1972, the amount of chromium reserves was 775 million metric tons, of which 1.85 million metric tons were mined annually. The static index is 775/1.85=418 years, but the rate of chromium consumption was growing at 2.6 percent annually, or exponentially. If instead of assuming a constant rate of usage, the assumption of a constant rate of growth of 2.6 percent annually is made, the resource will instead last


title: The Limits to Growth

text: In general, the formula for calculating the amount of time left for a resource with constant consumption growth is:


title: The Limits to Growth

text: The chapter contains a large table that spans five pages in total, based on actual geological reserves data for a total of 19 non-renewable resources, and analyzes their reserves at 1972 modeling time of their exhaustion under three scenarios: static (constant growth), exponential, and exponential with reserves multiplied by 5 to account for possible discoveries. A short excerpt from the table is presented below:


title: The Limits to Growth

text: The chapter also contains a detailed computer model of chromium availability with current (as of 1972) and double the known reserves as well as numerous statements on the current increasing price trends for discussed metals:


title: The Limits to Growth

text: Due to the detailed nature and use of actual resources and their real-world price trends, the indexes have been interpreted as a prediction of the number of years until the world would "run out" of them, both by environmentalist groups calling for greater conservation and restrictions on use and by skeptics criticizing the accuracy of the predictions. This interpretation has been widely propagated by media and environmental organizations, and authors who, apart from a note about the possibility of the future flows being "more complicated", did not clearly constrain or deny this interpretation. While environmental organizations used it to support their arguments, a number of economists used it to criticize "LTG" as a whole shortly after publication in the 1970s (Peter Passel, Marc Roberts, and Leonard Ross), with similar criticism reoccurring from Ronald Baily, George Goodman and others in the 1990s. In 2011 Ugo Bardi in "The Limits to Growth Revisited" argued that "nowhere in the book was it stated that the numbers were supposed to be read as predictions", nonetheless as they were the only tangible numbers referring to actual resources, they were promptly picked as such by both supporters as well as opponents.


title: The Limits to Growth

text: While Chapter 2 serves as an introduction to the concept of exponential growth modeling, the actual World3 model uses an abstract "non-renewable resources" component based on static coefficients rather than the actual physical commodities described above.


title: The Limits to Growth

text: "LTG" provoked a wide range of responses, including immediate criticisms almost as soon as it was published.


title: The Limits to Growth

text: Peter Passell and two co-authors published a 2 April 1972 article in the "New York Times" describing "LTG" as "an empty and misleading work ... best summarized ... as a rediscovery of the oldest maxim of computer science: Garbage In, Garbage Out". Passell found the study's simulation to be simplistic while assigning little value to the role of technological progress in solving the problems of resource depletion, pollution, and food production. They charged that all "LTG" simulations ended in collapse, predicting the imminent end of irreplaceable resources. Passell also charged that the entire endeavour was motivated by a hidden agenda: to halt growth in its tracks.


title: The Limits to Growth

text: In 1973, a group of researchers at the Science Policy Research Unit at the University of Sussex concluded that simulations in "Limits to Growth" were very sensitive to a few key assumptions and suggest that the MIT assumptions were unduly pessimistic, and the MIT methodology, data, and projections were faulty. However, the "LTG" team, in a paper entitled "A Response to Sussex", described and analyzed five major areas of disagreement between themselves and the Sussex authors. The team asserted that the Sussex critics applied "micro reasoning to macro problems", and suggested that their own arguments had been either misunderstood or wilfully misrepresented. They pointed out that the critics had failed to suggest any alternative model for the interaction of growth processes and resource availability, and "nor had they described in precise terms the sort of social change and technological advances that they believe would accommodate current growth processes."


title: The Limits to Growth

text: At the time, "the very hint of any global limitation as suggested in the report [...] was met with disbelief and rejection by businesses


title: The Limits to Growth

text: and most economists." Critics declared that history proved the projections to be incorrect, such as the predicted resource depletion and associated economic collapse by the end of the 20th century. The methodology, the computer, the conclusions, the rhetoric and the people behind the project were criticised. Yale economist Henry C. Wallich agreed that growth could not continue indefinitely, but that a natural end to growth was preferable to intervention. Wallich stated that technology could solve all the problems the report was concerned about, but only if growth continued apace. By stopping growth too soon, Wallich warned, the world would be "consigning billions to permanent poverty".


title: The Limits to Growth

text: Julian Simon, a professor at the Universities of Illinois and, later, Maryland, argued that the fundamental underlying concepts of the LTG scenarios were faulty because the very idea of what constitutes a "resource" varies over time. For instance, wood was the primary shipbuilding resource until the 1800s, and there were concerns about prospective wood shortages from the 1500s on. But then boats began to be made of iron, later steel, and the shortage issue disappeared. Simon argued in his book "The Ultimate Resource" that human ingenuity creates new resources as required from the raw materials of the universe. For instance, copper will never "run out". History demonstrates that as it becomes scarcer its price will rise and more will be found, more will be recycled, new techniques will use less of it, and at some point a better substitute will be found for it altogether. His book was revised and reissued in 1996 as "The Ultimate Resource 2".


title: The Limits to Growth

text: To the US Congress in 1973, Allen V. Kneese and Ronald Riker of Resources for the Future (RFF) testified that in their view, "The authors load their case by letting some things grow exponentially and others not. Population, capital and pollution grow exponentially in all models, but technologies for expanding resources and controlling pollution are permitted to grow, if at all, only in discrete increments." However, their testimony also noted the possibility of "relatively firm long-term limits" associated with carbon dioxide emissions, that humanity might "loose upon itself, or the ecosystem services on which it depends, a disastrously virulent substance", and (implying that population growth in "developing countries" is problematic) that "we don't know what to do about it".


title: The Limits to Growth

text: In 1997, the Italian economist Giorgio Nebbia observed that the negative reaction to the "LTG" study came from at least four sources: those who saw the book as a threat to their business or industry; professional economists, who saw "LTG" as an uncredentialed encroachment on their professional perquisites; the Catholic church, which bridled at the suggestion that overpopulation was one of mankind's major problems; finally, the political left, which saw the "LTG" study as a scam by the elites designed to trick workers into believing that a proletarian paradise was a pipe dream.


title: The Limits to Growth

text: In a 2008 blog post, Ugo Bardi commented that "Although, by the 1990s "LTG" had become everyone's laughing stock, among some the "LTG" ideas are becoming again popular". Reading "LTG" for the first time in 2000, Matthew Simmons concluded his views on the report by saying, "In hindsight, The Club of Rome turned out to be right. We simply wasted 30 important years ignoring this work." Research from the University of Melbourne has found the book's forecasts are accurate, 40 years on.


title: The Limits to Growth

text: In 2008 Graham Turner of CSIRO found that the observed historical data from 1970 to 2000 closely match the simulated results of the "standard run" limits of growth model for almost all the outputs reported. "The comparison is well within uncertainty bounds of nearly all the data in terms of both magnitude and the trends over time." Turner also examined a number of reports, particularly by economists, which over the years have purported to discredit the limits-to-growth model. Turner says these reports are flawed, and reflect misunderstandings about the model.


title: The Limits to Growth

text: Turner reprised these observations in another opinion piece in "The Guardian" in 2014. Turner used data from the UN to claim that the graphs almost exactly matched the 'Standard Run' from 1972 (i.e. the worst-case scenario, assuming that a 'business as usual' attitude was adopted, and there were no modifications of human behaviour in response to the warnings in the report). Birth rates and death rates were both slightly lower than projected, but these two effects cancelled each other out, leaving the growth in world population almost exactly as forecast.


title: The Limits to Growth

text: In 2010, Nørgård, Peet and Ragnarsdóttir called the book a "pioneering report", and said that it "has withstood the test of time and, indeed, has only become more relevant."


title: The Limits to Growth

text: The journalist Christian Parenti, writing in 2012, sees parallels between the reception of "LTG" and the contemporary global warming controversy, and went on to comment, "That said, "The Limits to Growth" was a scientifically rigorous and credible warning that was actively rejected by the intellectual watchdogs of powerful economic interests. A similar story is playing out now around climate science."


title: The Limits to Growth

text: In 2012, John Scales Avery, a member of the Nobel Prize (1995) winning group associated with the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, supported the basic thesis of "LTG" by stating, "Although the specific predictions of resource availability in "[The] Limits to Growth" lacked accuracy, its basic thesis – that unlimited economic growth on a finite planet is impossible – was indisputably correct."


title: The Limits to Growth

text: The Club of Rome has persisted after "The Limits of Growth" and has generally provided comprehensive updates to the book every five years.


title: The Limits to Growth

text: An independent retrospective on the public debate over "The Limits to Growth" concluded in 1978 that optimistic attitudes had won out, causing a general loss of momentum in the environmental movement. While summarizing a large number of opposing arguments, the article concluded that "scientific arguments for and against each position ... have, it would seem, played only a small part in the general acceptance of alternative perspectives."


title: The Limits to Growth

text: In 1989, a symposium was held in Hanover, entitled "Beyond the Limits to Growth: Global Industrial Society, Vision or Nightmare?" and in 1992, "Beyond the Limits" (BTL) was published as a 20-year update on the original material. It "concluded that two decades of history mainly supported the conclusions we had advanced 20 years earlier. But the 1992 book did offer one major new finding. We suggested in BTL that humanity had already overshot the limits of Earth's support capacity."


title: The Limits to Growth

text: "Limits to Growth: The 30-Year Update" was published in 2004. The authors observed that "It is a sad fact that humanity has largely squandered the past 30 years in futile debates and well-intentioned, but halfhearted, responses to the global ecological challenge. We do not have another 30 years to dither. Much will have to change if the ongoing overshoot is not to be followed by collapse during the twenty-first century."


title: The Limits to Growth

text: In 2012, the Smithsonian Institution held a symposium entitled "Perspectives on "Limits to Growth"". Another symposium was held in the same year by the Volkswagen Foundation, entitled "Already Beyond?"


title: The Limits to Growth

text: "Limits to Growth" did not receive an official update in 2012, but one of its coauthors, Jørgen Randers, published a book, "".


title: The Limits to Growth

text: In 2008, physicist Graham Turner at the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) in Australia published a paper called "A Comparison of 'The Limits to Growth' with Thirty Years of Reality". It compared the past thirty years of data with the scenarios laid out in the 1972 book and found that changes in industrial production, food production, and pollution are all congruent with one of the book's three scenarios—that of "business as usual". This scenario in "Limits" points to economic and societal collapse in the 21st century. In 2010, Nørgård, Peet, and Ragnarsdóttir called the book a "pioneering report". They said that, "its approach remains useful and that its conclusions are still surprisingly valid ... unfortunately the report has been largely dismissed by critics as a doomsday prophecy that has not held up to scrutiny."


title: The Limits to Growth

text: Also in 2008, researcher Peter A. Victor wrote that even though the "Limits" team probably underestimated price mechanism's role in adjusting outcomes, their critics have overestimated it. He states that "Limits to Growth" has had a significant impact on the conception of environmental issues and notes that (in his view) the models in the book were meant to be taken as predictions "only in the most limited sense of the word".


title: The Limits to Growth

text: In a 2009 article published in "American Scientist" entitled "Revisiting the Limits to Growth After Peak Oil," Hall and Day noted that "the values predicted by the limits-to-growth model and actual data for 2008 are very close." These findings are consistent with the 2008 CSIRO study which concluded: "The analysis shows that 30 years of historical data compares favorably with key features ... [of the "Limits to Growth"] "standard run" scenario, which results in collapse of the global system midway through the 21st Century."


title: The Limits to Growth

text: In 2011, Ugo Bardi published a book-length academic study of "The Limits to Growth", its methods, and historical reception and concluded that "The warnings that we received in 1972 ... are becoming increasingly more worrisome as reality seems to be following closely the curves that the ... scenario had generated." A popular analysis of the accuracy of the report by science writer Richard Heinberg was also published.


title: The Limits to Growth

text: In 2012, writing in "American Scientist", Brian Hayes stated that the model is "more a polemical tool than a scientific instrument". He went on to say that the graphs generated by the computer program should not, as the authors note, be used as predictions.


title: The Limits to Growth

text: In 2014, Turner concluded that "preparing for a collapsing global system could be even more important than trying to avoid collapse."


title: The Limits to Growth

text: In 2015, a calibration of the updated World3-03 model using historical data from 1995 to 2012 to better understand the dynamics of today's economic and resource system was undertaken. The results showed that human society has invested more to abate persistent pollution, increase food productivity and have a more productive service sector however the broad trends within "Limits to Growth" still held true.


title: The Limits to Growth

text: In 2016, a report published by the UK Parliament's 'All-Party Parliamentary Group on Limits to Growth' concluded that "there is unsettling evidence that society is still following the 'standard run' of the original study – in which overshoot leads to an eventual collapse of production and living standards". The report also points out that some issues not fully addressed in the original 1972 report, such as climate change, present additional challenges for human development.


title: The Limits to Growth

text: In 2020, an analysis by Gaya Herrington, then Director of Sustainability Services of KPMG US, was published in Yale University's "Journal of Industrial Ecology". The study assessed whether, given key data known in 2020 about factors important for the "Limits to Growth" report, the original report's conclusions are supported. In particular, the 2020 study examined updated quantitative information about ten factors, namely population, fertility rates, mortality rates, industrial output, food production, services, non-renewable resources, persistent pollution, human welfare, and ecological footprint, and concluded that the "Limits to Growth" prediction is essentially correct in that continued economic growth is unsustainable under a "business as usual" model. The study found that current empirical data is broadly consistent with the 1972 projections and that if major changes to the consumption of resources are not undertaken, economic growth will peak and then rapidly decline by around 2040.


title: The Limits to Growth

text: Books about humanity's uncertain future have appeared regularly over the years. A few of them, including the books mentioned above for reference, include:


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Tanning is the process of treating skins and hides of animals to produce leather. A tannery is the place where the skins are processed.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Tanning hide into leather involves a process which permanently alters the protein structure of skin, making it more durable and less susceptible to decomposition and coloring.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Before tanning, the skins are dehaired, degreased, desalted and soaked in water over a period of six hours to two days. Historically this process was considered a noxious or "odoriferous trade" and relegated to the outskirts of town.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Historically, tanning used tannin, an acidic chemical compound from which the tanning process draws its name, derived from the bark of certain trees. An alternative method, developed in the 1800s, is chrome tanning, where chromium salts are used instead of natural tannins.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: The English word for tanning is from medieval Latin , derivative of (oak bark), from French (tanbark), from old-Cornish (red oak). These terms are related to the hypothetical Proto-Indo-European *"" meaning 'fir tree'. (The same word is source for Old High German meaning 'fir', related to modern "Tannenbaum"). Despite the linguistic confusion between quite different conifers and oaks, the word "tan" referring to dyes and types of hide preservation is from the Gaulic use referencing the bark of oaks (the original source of tannin), and not fir trees.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Ancient civilizations used leather for waterskins, bags, harnesses and tack, boats, armour, quivers, scabbards, boots, and sandals. Tanning was being carried out by the inhabitants of Mehrgarh in Pakistan between 7000 and 3300 BCE. Around 2500 BCE, the Sumerians began using leather, affixed by copper studs, on chariot wheels.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Formerly, tanning was considered a noxious or "odoriferous trade" and relegated to the outskirts of town, among the poor. Indeed, tanning by ancient methods is so foul-smelling that tanneries are still isolated from those towns today where the old methods are used. Skins typically arrived at the tannery dried stiff and dirty with soil and gore. First, the ancient tanners would soak the skins in water to clean and soften them. Then they would pound and scour the skin to remove any remaining flesh and fat. Hair was removed by soaking the skin in urine, painting it with an alkaline lime mixture, or simply allowing the skin to putrefy for several months then dipping it in a salt solution. After the hair was loosened, the tanners scraped it off with a knife. Once the hair was removed, the tanners would "bate" (soften) the material by pounding dung into the skin, or soaking the skin in a solution of animal brains. Bating was a fermentative process that relied on enzymes produced by bacteria found in the dung. Among the kinds of dung commonly used were those of dogs or pigeons.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Historically the actual tanning process used vegetable tanning. In some variations of the process, cedar oil, alum, or tannin was applied to the skin as a tanning agent. As the skin was stretched, it would lose moisture and absorb the agent.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Following the adoption in medicine of soaking gut sutures in a chromium (III) solution after 1840, it was discovered that this method could also be used with leather and thus was adopted by tanners.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: The tanning process begins with obtaining an animal skin. When an animal skin is to be tanned, the animal is killed and skinned before the body heat leaves the tissues. This can be done by the tanner, or by obtaining a skin at a slaughterhouse, farm, or local fur trader.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Preparing hides begins by curing them with salt to prevent putrefaction of the collagen from bacterial growth during the time lag from procuring the hide to when it is processed. Curing removes water from the hides and skins using a difference in osmotic pressure. The moisture content of hides and skins is greatly reduced, and osmotic pressure increased, to the point that bacteria are unable to grow. In wet-salting, the hides are heavily salted, then pressed into packs for about 30 days. In brine-curing, the hides are agitated in a saltwater bath for about 16 hours. Curing can also be accomplished by preserving the hides and skins at very low temperatures.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: The steps in the production of leather between curing and tanning are collectively referred to as beamhouse operations. They include, in order, soaking, liming, removal of extraneous tissues (unhairing, scudding and fleshing), deliming, bating or puering, drenching, and pickling.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: In soaking, the hides are soaked in clean water to remove the salt left over from curing and increase the moisture so that the hide or skin can be further treated.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: To prevent damage of the skin by bacterial growth during the soaking period, biocides, typically dithiocarbamates, may be used. Fungicides such as TCMTB may also be added later in the process, to protect wet leathers from mold growth. After 1980, the use of pentachlorophenol and mercury-based biocides and their derivatives was forbidden.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: After soaking, the hides are treated with milk of lime (a basic agent) typically supplemented by "sharpening agents" (disulfide reducing agents) such as sodium sulfide, cyanides, amines, etc.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: The weakening of hair is dependent on the breakdown of the disulfide link of the amino acid cystine, which is the characteristic of the keratin class of proteins that gives strength to hair and wools (keratin typically makes up 90% of the dry weight of hair). The hydrogen atoms supplied by the sharpening agent weaken the cystine molecular link whereby the covalent disulfide bond links are ultimately ruptured, weakening the keratin. To some extent, sharpening also contributes to unhairing, as it tends to break down the hair proteins.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: The isoelectric point of the collagen (a tissue-strengthening protein unrelated to keratin) in the hide is also shifted to around pH 4.7 due to liming.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Any hairs remaining after liming are removed mechanically by scraping the skin with a dull knife, a process known as scudding.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: The pH of the collagen is then reduced so the enzymes may act on it in a process known as deliming. Depending on the end use of the leather, hides may be treated with enzymes to soften them, a process called bating. In modern tanning, these enzymes are purified agents, and the process no longer requires bacterial fermentation (as from dung-water soaking) to produce them.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Once bating is complete, the hides and skins are treated first with common salt (sodium chloride) and then with sulfuric acid, in case a mineral tanning is to be done. This is done to bring down the pH of collagen to a very low level of 2.8-3.0 so as to facilitate the penetration of mineral tanning agent into the skin substrate. This process is known as pickling. The salt penetrates the hide twice as fast as the acid and suppresses the swelling effect of the sudden drop of pH.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Chromium(III) sulfate () has long been regarded as the most efficient and effective tanning agent. Chromium(III) compounds of the sort used in tanning are significantly less toxic than hexavalent chromium, although the latter arises in inadequate waste treatment. Chromium(III) sulfate dissolves to give the hexaaquachromium(III) cation, [Cr(HO)], which at higher pH undergoes processes called olation to give polychromium(III) compounds that are active in tanning, being the cross-linking of the collagen subunits. The chemistry of [Cr(HO)] is more complex in the tanning bath rather than in water due to the presence of a variety of ligands. Some ligands include the sulfate anion, the collagen's carboxyl groups, amine groups from the side chains of the amino acids, and masking agents. Masking agents are carboxylic acids, such as acetic acid, used to suppress formation of polychromium(III) chains. Masking agents allow the tanner to further increase the pH to increase collagen's reactivity without inhibiting the penetration of the chromium(III) complexes.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Collagen is characterized by a high content of glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline, usually in the repeat -gly-pro-hypro-gly-. These residues give rise to collagen's helical structure. Collagen's high content of hydroxyproline allows cross-linking by hydrogen bonding within the helical structure. Ionized carboxyl groups (RCO) are formed by the action of hydroxide. This conversion occurs during the liming process, before introduction of the tanning agent (chromium salts). Later during pickling, collagen carboxyl groups are temporarily protonated for ready transport of chromium ions. During basification step of tanning, the carboxyl groups are ionized and coordinate as ligands to the chromium(III) centers of the oxo-hydroxide clusters.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Tanning increases the spacing between protein chains in collagen from 10 to 17 Å. The difference is consistent with cross-linking by polychromium species, of the sort arising from olation and oxolation.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Before the introduction of the basic chromium species in tanning, several steps are required to produce a tannable hide. The pH must be very acidic when the chromium is introduced to ensure that the chromium complexes are small enough to fit between the fibers and residues of the collagen. Once the desired level of penetration of chrome into the substance is achieved, the pH of the material is raised again to facilitate the process. This step is known as basification. In the raw state, chrome-tanned skins are greyish-blue, so are referred to as "wet blue". Chrome tanning is faster than vegetable tanning (taking less than a day for this part of the process) and produces a stretchable leather which is excellent for use in handbags and garments.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: After application of the chromium agent, the bath is treated with sodium bicarbonate in the basification process to increase the pH to 3.8–4.0, inducing cross-linking between the chromium and the collagen. The pH increase is normally accompanied by a gradual temperature increase up to 40 °C. Chromium's ability to form such stable bridged bonds explains why it is considered one of the most effective tanning compounds. Chromium-tanned leather can contain between 4 and 5% of chromium. This efficiency is characterized by its increased hydrothermal stability of the skin, and its resistance to shrinkage in heated water.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Vegetable tanning uses tannins (a class of polyphenol astringent chemicals), which occur naturally in the bark and leaves of many plants. Tannins bind to the collagen proteins in the hide and coat them, causing them to become less water-soluble and more resistant to bacterial attack. The process also causes the hide to become more flexible. The primary barks processed in bark mills and used in modern times are chestnut, oak, redoul, tanoak, hemlock, quebracho, mangrove, wattle (acacia; see catechol), and myrobalans from "Terminalia" spp., such as "Terminalia chebula". In Ethiopia, the combined vegetable oils of Niger seed (Guizotia abyssinica) and flaxseeds were used in treating the flesh side of the leather. In Yemen and Egypt, hides were cured by soaking them in a bath containing the crushed leaves and bark of the Salam acacia (Acacia etbaica; A. nilotica kraussiana). Hides that have been stretched on frames are immersed for several weeks in vats of increasing concentrations of tannin. Vegetable-tanned hide is not very flexible. It is used for luggage, furniture, footwear, belts, and other clothing accessories.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: "Wet white" is a term used for leathers produced using alternative tanning methods that produce an off-white colored leather. Like wet blue, wet white is also a semifinished stage. Wet white can be produced using aldehydes, aluminum, zirconium, titanium, or iron salts, or a combination thereof. Concerns with the toxicity and environmental impact of any chromium (VI) that may form during the tanning process have led to increased research into more efficient wet white methods.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: The conditions present in bogs, including highly acidic water, low temperature, and a lack of oxygen, combine to preserve but severely tan the skin of bog bodies.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Tawing is a method that uses alum and other aluminium salts, generally in conjunction with binders such as egg yolk, flour, or other salts. The hide is tawed by soaking in a warm potash alum and salts solution, between 20 and 30 °C. The process increases the hide's pliability, stretchability, softness, and quality. Then, the hide is air dried (crusted) for several weeks, which allows it to stabilize.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Depending on the finish desired, the leather may be waxed, rolled, lubricated, injected with oil, split, shaved, or dyed.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: The tanning process involves chemical and organic compounds that can have a detrimental effect on the environment. Agents such as chromium, vegetable tannins, and aldehydes are used in the tanning step of the process. Chemicals used in tanned leather production increase the levels of chemical oxygen demand and total dissolved solids in water when not disposed of responsibly. These processes also use large quantities of water and produce large amounts of pollutants.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Boiling and sun drying can oxidize and convert the various chromium(III) compounds used in tanning into carcinogenic hexavalent chromium, or chromium(VI). This hexavalent chromium runoff and scraps are then consumed by animals, in the case of Bangladesh, chickens (the nation's most common source of protein). Up to 25% of the chickens in Bangladesh contained harmful levels of hexavalent chromium, adding to the national health problem load.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Chromium is not solely responsible for these diseases. Methylisothiazolinone, which is used for microbiological protection (fungal or bacterial growth), causes problems with the eyes and skin. Anthracene, which is used as a leather tanning agent, can cause problems in the kidneys and liver and is also considered a carcinogen. Formaldehyde and arsenic, which are used for leather finishing, cause health problems in the eyes, lungs, liver, kidneys, skin, and lymphatic system and are also considered carcinogens. The waste from leather tanneries is detrimental to the environment and the people who live in it. The use of old technologies plays a large factor in how hazardous wastewater results in contaminating the environment. This is especially prominent in small and medium-sized tanneries in developing countries.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: The UN Leather Working Group (LWG) "provides an environmental audit protocol, designed to assess the facilities of leather manufacturers," for " traceability, energy conservation, [and] responsible management of waste products."


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Untanned hides can be dried and made pliable by rubbing and stretching the fibers with a hide stretcher, and fatting. However the hide will revert to rawhide if not periodically replenished with fat or oil, especially if it gets wet. Many Native Americans of the arid western regions wore clothing made by this process.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Smoke tanning is listed among the conventional methods like chrome tanning and vegetable tanning. Impregnation of the hide's cells with formaldehyde (from smoke) offers some microbial and water resistance.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: Leftover leather would historically be turned into glue. Tanners would place scraps of hides in a vat of water and let them deteriorate for months. The mixture would then be placed over a fire to boil off the water to produce glue.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: A tannery may be associated with a grindery, originally a whetstone facility for sharpening knives and other sharp tools, but later could carry shoemakers' tools and materials for sale.


title: Tanning (leather)

text: There are several solid and waste water treatment methodologies currently being researched, such as anaerobic digestion of solid wastes and wastewater sludge.


title: BMW N47

text: BMW N47 is a four-cylinder common rail diesel engine that has many improvements over its predecessor, the M47. In 2014 it was replaced with the B47.


title: BMW N47

text: The N47 engine debuted in March 2007 in the facelifted 1 Series BMW E87 and E81 and was available in the 1 Series BMW E82 and E88, which were introduced later in the same year.


title: BMW N47

text: The engine also became available in the 5 Series BMW E60 and E61 from September 2007, several months after the 5 series was face lifted, during which time the older M47 remained available.


title: BMW N47

text: In the 2008 model year 3 Series E90/E91/E92/E93 when the entire 3 series range gained the company's Efficient Dynamics technology. Not long after it became available in the X3 and has since then became available in the X1.


title: BMW N47

text: It features the exact same performance figures on paper as the regular 116d (which utilises the D20 in an 85 kW variant) despite the smaller engine size.


title: BMW N47

text: The tune is for the entry level E81 and E87 116d, as well as the entry level 3 Series E90 316d. It was also used in the 3 Series F30 316d.


title: BMW N47

text: A new derivative was introduced in September 2009 for the 2010 model year. This version featured exceptionally low emissions of only and fuel consumption of 68.9 mpg.


title: BMW N47

text: In Europe, this particular version is one of the most popular engines in the entire range; the best selling 3 series is the 320d, while the 520d is the UK's best selling 5 series.


title: BMW N47

text: The updated version of this engine introduced in March 2010 produces at 4000 rpm and at 1750-2750 rpm.


title: BMW N47

text: In October 2007, BMW introduced a twin sequential turbo model. With , it is the first production diesel on sale to achieve a specific output of over per liter. It uses the same turbo technology first shown in the E60 535d.


title: BMW N47

text: The N47 engine family is prone to excessive timing chain wear and premature failure. Rattling noise from the rear of the engine is indicative of the condition. Timing chain failure may call for engine replacement or a costly repair. The most seriously affected units which require the most extensive repairs were produced from 01.03.2007 to 05.01.2009. However, there have been frequent reports of timing chain failure in 1, 3 and 5 series BMW engines manufactured from as early as 2004 until at least 2011 in diesel versions. At times the failure has resulted in a dangerous cut out of the engine while the vehicle was being driven - sometimes at relatively high speed. A "Quality Enhancement" was issued by BMW for some, but not all vehicles, but has since been discontinued.


title: BMW N47

text: The return spring on the turbo's wastegate was not originally lubricated or covered, this frequently resulted in early failure causing the waste-gate to remain partially or fully open. With the subsequent loss in compression, fuel consumption increased by 30–50%. The problem was described by BMW engineers as a "known fault" and was immediately repaired (BMW mobile engineers even carried boxes of an improved spring), however BMW refused to compensate customers for the excessive fuel consumption and denied this fault was their liability.


title: BMW N47

text: As the cars equipped with this engine are coming of age, some hoses in the engine bay can start to break down. This is not to be ignored, even though this does not illuminate the CEL, it just sets a code in the ECU. If the vacuum hose supplying the EGR cooler bypass valve gets a hole rubbed in it, or breaks down from old age and oil spray, the EGR cooler won't get bypassed during the engine warmup period. This causes excessive buildup in the cooler matrix, and when the engine warms up these solid chunks of buildup can detach from the EGR cooler and get sucked into the plastic intake tube, melting holes in the intake tube, causing a massive boost leak and in very rare cases an engine fire. BMW has issued a recall to over 1.6 million vehicles in 2018 for the EGR issues.


The Provisional Government of the French Republic (PGFR; ("GPRF")) was the provisional government of Free France between 3 June 1944 and 27 October 1946, following the liberation of continental France after Operations "Overlord" and "Dragoon", and lasting until the establishment of the French Fourth Republic. Its establishment marked the official restoration and re-establishment of a provisional French Republic, assuring continuity with the defunct French Third Republic.


title: Provisional Government of the French Republic

text: It succeeded the French Committee of National Liberation (CFLN), which had been the provisional government of France in the overseas territories and metropolitan parts of the country (Algeria and Corsica) that had been liberated by the Free French. As the wartime government of France in 1944–1945, its main purposes were to handle the aftermath of the occupation of France and as one of the major Allies.


text: Its principal mission (in addition to the war) was to prepare the ground for a new constitutional order that resulted in the Fourth Republic. It also made several important reforms and political decisions, such as granting women the right to vote, founding the and laying the grounds of social security in France.


text: The PGFR was officially created by the CFLN on 3 June 1944, the day before Charles de Gaulle arrived in London from Algiers on Winston Churchill's invitation, and three days before D-Day. The CFLN itself had been created exactly one year earlier through the uniting of de Gaulle's (, or CNF) and Henri Giraud's organisations. Among its most immediate concerns were to ensure that France did not come under allied military administration, preserving the sovereignty of France and freeing allied troops for fighting on the front.


text: After the liberation of Paris on 25 August 1944, it moved back to the capital, establishing a new "national unanimity" government on 9 September 1944, including Gaullists, nationalists, socialists, communists and anarchists. Among its foreign policy goals was to secure a French occupation zone in Germany and a permanent UNSC seat. This was assured through a large military contribution on .


text: The GPRF set about raising new troops to participate in the advance to the Rhine and the invasion of Germany, using the French Forces of the Interior as military cadres and manpower pools of experienced fighters to allow a very large and rapid expansion of the French Liberation Army (). It was well equipped and well supplied despite the economic disruption brought by the occupation thanks to Lend-Lease, and grew from 500,000 men in the summer of 1944 to over 1,300,000 by V-E day, making it the fourth largest Allied army in Europe.


text: The French 2nd Armoured Division, tip of the spear of the Free French forces that had participated in the Normandy Campaign and liberated Paris, went on to liberate Strasbourg on 23 November 1944, thus fulfilling the Oath of Kufra made by its commanding officer General Leclerc almost four years earlier. The unit under his command, barely above company size when it had captured the Italian fort, had grown into a full-strength armoured division.


text: The spearhead of the Free French First Army that had landed in Provence was the I Corps. Its leading unit, the French 1st Armoured Division, was the first Western Allied unit to reach the Rhône (25 August 1944), the Rhine (19 November 1944) and the Danube (21 April 1945). On 22 April 1945, it captured the Sigmaringen enclave in Baden-Württemberg, where the last Vichy regime exiles, including Marshal Philippe Pétain, were hosted by the Germans in one of the ancestral castles of the Hohenzollern dynasty.


text: They participated in stopping Operation Nordwind, the final German major offensive on the western front in January 1945, and in collapsing the Colmar Pocket in January–February 1945, capturing and destroying most of the German XIXth Army.


text: At the Hôtel de Ville, Paris on 25 August 1944, de Gaulle explicitly refused to declare a new republic from where the French Second Republic and French Third Republic had been declared. When Georges Bidault of the French Resistance said that de Gaulle could declare the restoration of the republic, the general replied that he could not, because the republic had never ceased to exist. De Gaulle used his old office as a junior cabinet minister at the Ministry of War as symbol of the continuity between the pre- and post-Vichy governments. He refused to make a speech to open the first meeting of the provisional government in September 1944, stating that the republic continued but in reorganized form.


text: Theoretically, France returned to the moment just before midnight on 17 June 1940 when Pétain took power. The provisional government considered the Vichy regime (officially: "French State") to have been unconstitutional and all its actions therefore taken without legitimate authority and illegal. All "constitutional acts, legislative or regulatory" taken by the Vichy government, as well as decrees taken to implement them, were declared null and void by the Ordinance of 9 August 1944.


text: However, since mass cancellation of all decisions taken by Vichy was impractical, it was decided that any repeal of specific ordinances or decrees was to be expressly acknowledged by the government. The 9 August ordinance only invalidated those it listed. The ordinance provided that acts not expressly noted as nullified in the ordinance were to continue to receive "provisional application". Many acts were explicitly repealed, including all acts that Vichy had called "constitutional acts", all acts that discriminated against Jews, all acts related to so-called "secret societies" (e.g., Freemasons), and all acts that established special tribunals.


text: While the criminal behavior of Vichy France was consistently acknowledged, this point of view denied any responsibility of the state of France, alleging that acts committed between 1940 and 1944 were unconstitutional acts devoid of legitimacy. De Gaulle said that Vichy's actions were "null and void". He and others emphasized the unclear conditions of the June 1940 vote granting full powers to Pétain, which was refused by the minority of Vichy 80. In particular, coercive measures used by Pierre Laval have been denounced by those historians who hold that the vote did not, therefore, have constitutional legality. In later years, de Gaulle's position was reiterated by president Mitterrand. "I will not apologize in the name of France. The Republic had nothing to do with this. I do not believe France is responsible", he said in September 1994. Jacques Chirac, who became president in 1995, was the first French leader to accept collective guilt for Vichy's deeds, stating on the anniversary of the July 1942 Vel' d'Hiv Roundup that France had committed an "irreparable" act.


text: The GPRF was dominated by the alliance between the French Communist Party (PCF), claiming itself to be the ("party of the 75,000 shot") because of its role in the Resistance, the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO, socialist party) and the Christian democratic Popular Republican Movement (MRP), led by Georges Bidault. This alliance between the three political parties lasted until the May 1947 crisis during which Maurice Thorez, vice-premier, and four other Communist ministers were expelled from the government, both in France and in Italy. Along with the acceptance of the Marshall Plan, refused by countries who had fallen under the influence of the USSR, this marked the official beginning of the Cold War in these countries.


text: It started decolonisation by recognising the independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, but the refusal to include Cochinchina in the new state led to the First Indochina War.


text: Although the GPRF was active only from 1944 to 1946, it had a lasting influence, in particular regarding the enacting of labour laws which were put forward by the National Council of the Resistance, the umbrella organisation which united all resistance movements, in particular the communist . The was the political front of the (FTP) resistance movement. In addition to de Gaulle's edicts granting, for the first time in France, right of vote to women in 1944, the GPRF passed various labour laws, including the 11 October 1946 act establishing occupational medicine. It also appointed commissioners to fulfill its aims.


text: Vichy loyalists were put on trial by the GPRF in legal purges (), and a number were executed for treason, among them Pierre Laval, Vichy's prime minister in 1942–44. The Marshal Philippe Pétain, "Chief of the French State" and Verdun hero, was also condemned to death but his sentence was commuted to life. Thousands of collaborators were summarily executed by local Resistance forces in so-called "savage purges" ().


text: Collaborationist paramilitary and political organizations, such as the and the Legionary Order Service, were also disbanded.


text: The provisional government also took steps to replace local governments, including governments that had been suppressed by the Vichy regime, through new elections or by extending the terms of those who had been elected no later than 1939.


text: The provisional government resumed the project started in 1936 by Jean Zay to create a national administration school (), which was founded on 9 October 1945, to ensure high-ranking civil servants of consistent high quality, as well as allow gifted people to reach these functions regardless of social origin.


text: The right to vote had been granted to women by the CFLN on 21 April 1944, and was confirmed by the GPRF with the 5 October 1944 decree. They went to the polls for the first time in the local elections of 29 April 1945.


text: It passed decisions about Social Security (, decree of 19 October 1945), and child benefits (law of 22 August 1946), laying the foundations of the welfare state in France.


text: In the dirigist spirit, it created large state-owned companies, for instance by nationalising Renault and founding electricity company EDF and airline Air France.


text: Another main objective of the GPRF under leadership was to give a voice to the people by organizing elections which took place on 21 October 1945. The polls saw the victory of the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO), the French Communist Party (PCF) and the Popular Republican Movement (MRP), collecting three-quarters of the votes, and the referendum had an outcome of 96% of voters in favour of abolishing the Third Republic. Becoming a constituent assembly, the newly elected parliament was charged with drafting a constitution for a new fourth republic.


text: , favouring a stronger executive, resigned in disagreement with Communist ministers on 20 January 1946. A first draft constitution, supported by the left but denounced by and by centre and right-wing parties, was rejected by a referendum on 5 May 1946 resulting in the dissolution of parliament and the resignation of successor Félix Gouin of the SFIO.


text: A new election for a was held on 2 June 1946, marked by a strengthening of the MRP and the decline of the left. The constitutional project then shifted from pursuing unicameralism to bicameralism. The constitution of the Fourth Republic, established under the chairmanship of Georges Bidault (MRP), was finally adopted by the 13 October 1946 referendum.


text: Following the elections for a new Chamber of parliament held on 10 November 1946, former Popular Front leader Leon Blum became the Chairman of the last interim government on 16 December. One month later, Vincent Auriol succeeded Blum as President of the Republic, marking the entry into force of the institutions of the Fourth Republic.


title: Aashiqui

text: Aashiqui () is a 1990 Indian Hindi musical romantic drama film and first installment of Aashiqui series directed by Mahesh Bhatt, starring Rahul Roy, Anu Aggarwal and Deepak Tijori in pivotal roles. The film was known for its music, by composer duo Nadeem–Shravan (Nadeem Akhtar Saifi and Shravan Kumar Rathod) establishing their careers along with that of singer Kumar Sanu and music label T-Series.


title: Aashiqui

text: Upon release, it received positive reviews and emerged as a commercial success. The soundtrack album has been rated fourth by Planet Bollywood on their "100 Greatest Bollywood Soundtracks". It was the best selling Bollywood album at the time of its release. At the 36th Filmfare Awards, the film received 7 nominations and won 4 awards with a sweep in the music categories. The film was remade in Kannada as "Roja" (2002).


title: Aashiqui

text: The soundtrack album sold 20million units, making it the best-selling Bollywood soundtrack album of all time. A cover version of one of its songs, "Dheere Dheere" was later performed by Yo Yo Honey Singh and released in 2015. A sequel to the film, "Aashiqui 2", with a completely new theme, directed by Mohit Suri with Aditya Roy Kapur and Shraddha Kapoor, was released on 26 April 2013.


title: Aashiqui

text: Rahul (Rahul Roy) is angry with his dad for marrying a second wife, while his mother is still alive; in rage and in fury he pays an uninvited visit to the wedding where he throws his mother's mangalsutra and all the other household items she preserved. He breaks the windows of the wedding car and is hence arrested and sent to the nearest police station.


title: Aashiqui

text: Meanwhile, Anu (Anu Aggarwal) runs away from an oppressive girls' hostel run by Arnie Campbell (Tom Alter), who immediately reports to the police station that she is missing. The police catch her and keep her at a nearby police station (which happens to be the same one where Rahul is held).


title: Aashiqui

text: While waiting for Arnie, Rahul offers Anu his jacket, which she accepts. Arnie then arrives and takes her back to the oppressive hostel, promising the police inspector that this will not happen again. After they leave, the inspector turns to Rahul and offers him some advice, then releases him to return to his broken home.


title: Aashiqui

text: Rahul can not stop thinking about the beautiful Anu. The very next day, Rahul goes to the hostel area wishing to meet her and spots his jacket hanging outside. Since she lives in a girl's hostel there is no way he can enter. Hence, he plays cricket with his friend and deliberately hits the ball into the compound. The security lets him inside to retrieve the ball. Rahul goes inside and sees Anu climbing a ladder. She is very surprised by his presence and falls off the ladder. Rahul is unable to express his feelings for her so he wrote a note on the electricity bill his mother told him to pay that very day. Anu takes the note and leaves. His mother becomes upset that Rahul did not pay the bill and asks his Master (tailor) to help get the bill back.


title: Aashiqui

text: The tailor helps Rahul retrieve the bill, along with a reply from Anu requesting him to meet her at the main city library the following Saturday. He arrives on time eagerly, where Anu tells him she has nothing to give him except a "thank you", but Rahul says no one can stop him from loving her, not even herself.


title: Aashiqui

text: Soon after he leaves, Arnie catches her and takes her to Ooty (another town) to be admitted to another hostel. Rahul employs a spy to eavesdrop and see where Anu is going. The spy learns about Anu's travel plans and informs Rahul, who goes along with his friend to search for Anu and finds the place she is staying. They find out that Arnie actually planned to get Anu married and lied to her about transferring her to a new hostel, because she would not have agreed.


title: Aashiqui

text: At the hostel, Arnie organises a farewell party for Anu and Anu invites Rahul, who promises to attend the party. After the party they plan to elope. At the party, he runs away with Anu and then Arnie catches them by using the police. Anu has to return with Arnie and go to Ooty, while Rahul returns to his home.


title: Aashiqui

text: After a few months, Rahul approaches Mr. Arnie as he can not forget his friend Anu, who he knows is unhappy. Rahul then finds out from Arnie that Anu is an orphan who has a distant relative in Ooty named Uncle Peter who is an alcoholic. Long long ago, Peter had signed the documents to have full custody over her.


title: Aashiqui

text: Rahul asks Arnie about Anu's whereabouts and other details so that he could help her settle (and be more happy) and Arnie (wanting to help Anu) reveals everything. They both find Anu in a miserable state with Uncle Peter and bribe the uncle for a sum of 20,000 rupees on the condition that he signs documents giving up his legal guardianship of Anu.


title: Aashiqui

text: After Anu is finally free from Arnie, the hostel and Uncle Peter, she wishes to become self-reliant and seeks admission in a typing institute.


title: Aashiqui

text: One day, she comes across a job advert searching for a model to run for "Jean Cardin" brand of clothes in Mumbai who requests Anu to audition.


title: Aashiqui

text: Anu agrees and wins a sum of 10,000 rupees along with a free tour of Paris and a secured residence. She thanks Rahul for all his help, but Rahul tells her that he loves her deeply and wants to marry her as soon as possible. Anu agrees, but she says she will need some time to prepare.


title: Aashiqui

text: Rahul's mother (Reema Lagoo), on hearing their story visits Anu and offers some advice, as she knows Anu is a lonely orphan, advising her not to marry him until he achieves something in life as equality of status between partners is essential for a healthy relationship.


title: Aashiqui

text: The next day, Rahul comes to the place where Anu is having a photo shoot session. He hears the man in charge telling her to change into a swimming costume, to which Rahul objects. He tells him that they were planning to get married soon and he disapproves of such revealing clothes. He is even more shocked when he learns that Anu already signed a contract promising she would not get married for two years.


title: Aashiqui

text: As the years go by, Rahul establishes himself as a singer while Anu is also successful as a model. Rahul plans to meet Anu now, but Padamsee (Homi Wadia) reveals to Rahul that it's thanks to Anu that his debut record was released to market, which hurts Rahul deeply as he now doubts his own mettle and talent. Hence, Rahul cancels their marriage plans.


title: Aashiqui

text: Anu, grieved by Rahul's decision, decides to further her career under director Padamsee, who persuades her to accompany him to Paris.


title: Aashiqui

text: Rahul's mother enlightens him that Anu had refused to marry him earlier because of her suggestion, and that Anu was only a medium for his talent to reach the public - it was his singing that made him successful and popular. She urges him to go back to Anu, his true love.


title: Aashiqui

text: When Rahul comes to stop her from boarding the flight, Anu agrees to abandon the director and stays behind to renew their relationship.


title: Aashiqui

text: "Aashiqui" was credited as an all-time blockbuster at the Box-Office in 1990 mainly due to its melodious music. With a low budget of 80 lakh Indian Rupees, it grossed 5.0 crores Indian Rupees at Box-Office, with the shows running to full houses for 52 weeks.


title: Aashiqui

text: The music for "Aashiqui" was composed by the duo Nadeem–Shravan (Nadeem Akhtar Saifi and Shravan Kumar Rathod) and lyrics were written by Sameer, Rani Mallik and Madan Pal. The soundtrack largely falls under the filmi-ghazal genre, based on the ghazal style.


title: Aashiqui

text: "Aashiqui" became the highest-selling album in the history of Indian music industry. In an interview, Bhushan Kumar said that no music album has been able to break the music record of "Aashiqui". The soundtrack album sold 2crores units. This made it the best-selling Bollywood soundtrack album of all time, as well as one of the best-selling albums of any genre in India. It had a big impact on Bollywood music, ushering in ghazal-type romantic music that dominated the early 1990s, with soundtracks such as "Dil", "Saajan", "Phool Aur Kaante" and "Deewana". Initially Aashiqui was a music album planned by Gulshan Kumar on the name CHAAHAT, while Mahesh Bhatt heard the songs he suggested


title: Aashiqui

text: Rakesh Bandhu of Planet Bollywood gave the album 9 stars saying, "Aashiqui was a success in its own right. It is truly a beautiful collection of compositions by the Nadeem-Shravan." The soundtrack became very popular upon release, becoming the best selling Bollywood soundtrack of the year by a wide margin.


title: Aashiqui

text: A cover version of the song "Dheere Dheere Se" was later performed by Indi-pop artist Yo Yo Honey Singh, released as "Dheere Dheere" in 2015. The song's music video features actors Hrithik Roshan and Sonam Kapoor. As of November 2021, the song has received over 500million views on YouTube.


title: Youth

text: Youth is the time of life when one is young. The word, youth, can also mean the time between childhood and adulthood (maturity), but it can also refer to one's peak, in terms of health or the period of life known as being a young adult. Youth is also defined as "the appearance, freshness, vigor, spirit, etc., characteristic of one, who is young". Its definitions of a specific age range varies, as youth is not defined chronologically as a stage that can be tied to specific age ranges; nor can its end point be linked to specific activities, such as taking unpaid work, or having sexual relations.


title: Youth

text: Youth is an experience that may shape an individual's level of dependency, which can be marked in various ways according to different cultural perspectives. Personal experience is marked by an individual's cultural norms or traditions, while a youth's level of dependency means the extent to which they still rely on their family emotionally and economically.


title: Youth

text: Around the world, the English terms-- "youth", "adolescent", "teenager", "kid", "youngster" and "young person," are interchanged, often meaning the same thing, but they are occasionally differentiated. "Youth" can be referred to as the time of life, when one is young. This includes childhood, and the time of life, which is neither childhood nor adulthood, but rather somewhere in between. "Youth" also identifies a particular mindset of attitude, as in "He is very "youth"ful". For certain uses, such as employment statistics, the term also sometimes refers to individuals from the ages of 14 to 21. However, the term "adolescence" refers to a specific age range during a specific developmental period in a person's life, unlike youth, which is a socially constructed category.


title: Youth

text: The United Nations defines "youth" as persons between the ages of roughly 15 and 24, with all UN statistics based on this range, the UN states education as a source for these statistics. The UN also recognizes that this varies without prejudice to other age groups listed by member states such as 18–30. A useful distinction within the UN itself can be made between teenagers (i.e. those between the ages of 13 and 19) and young adults (those between the ages of 20 and 29). While seeking to impose some uniformity on statistical approaches, the UN is aware of contradictions between approaches in its own statutes. Hence, under the 15–24 definition (introduced in 1981) children are defined as those under the age of 14 (someone 13 and younger) while under the 1979 Convention on the Rights of the Child, those under the age of 18 are regarded as children. The UN also states they are aware that several definitions exist for youth within UN entities such as Youth Habitat 15–32, NCSL 12-24, and African Youth Charter 15–35.


title: Youth

text: On November 11, 2020, the State Duma of the Russian Federation approved a project to raise the cap on the age of young people from 30 to 35 years (the range now extending from 14 to 35 years).


title: Youth

text: Although linked to biological processes of development and aging, "youth" is also defined as a social position that reflects the meanings different cultures and societies give to individuals between childhood and adulthood. The term in itself when referred to in a manner of social position can be ambiguous when applied to someone of an older age with very low social position; potentially when still dependent on their guardians. Scholars argue that age-based definitions have not been consistent across cultures or times and that thus it is more accurate to focus on social processes in the transition to adult independence for defining youth.


title: Youth

text: Youth is the stage of constructing the self-concept. The self-concept of youth is influenced by variables such as peers, lifestyle, gender, and culture. It is a time of a person's life when their choices are most likely to affect their future.


title: Youth

text: In much of sub-Saharan Africa, the term "youth" is associated with young men from 12 to 30 or 35 years of age. Youth in Nigeria includes all members of the Federal Republic of Nigeria aged 18–35. Many African girls experience youth as a brief interlude between the onset of puberty and marriage and motherhood. But in urban settings, poor women are often considered youth much longer, even if they bear children outside of marriage. Varying culturally, the gender constructions of youth in Latin America and Southeast Asia differ from those of sub-Saharan Africa. In Vietnam, widespread notions of youth are sociopolitical constructions for both sexes between the ages of 15 and 35.


title: Youth

text: In Brazil, the term "youth" refers to people of both sexes from 15 to 29 years old. This age bracket reflects the influence on Brazilian law of international organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO). It is also shaped by the notion of adolescence that has entered everyday life in Brazil through a discourse on children's rights.


title: Youth

text: Children's rights cover all the rights that belong to children. When they grow up, they are granted new rights (like voting, consent, driving, etc.) and duties (criminal response, etc.). There are different minimum limits of age at which youth are not free, independent or legally competent to take some decisions or actions. Some of these limits are: voting age, age of candidacy, age of consent, age of majority, age of criminal responsibility, drinking age, driving age, etc. After youth reach these limits, they are free to vote, have sexual intercourse, buy or consume alcoholic beverages or drive cars, etc.


title: Youth

text: Voting age is the minimum age established by law that a person must attain to be eligible to vote in a public election. Typically, the age is set at 18 years; however, ages as low as 16 and as high as 21 exist (see list below). Studies show that 21% of all 18-year-olds have experience with voting. This is an important right since, by voting, they can support politics selected by themselves and not only by people of older generations.


title: Youth

text: Age of candidacy is the minimum age at which a person can legally qualify to hold certain elected government offices. In many cases, it also determines the age at which a person may be eligible to stand for an election or be granted ballot access.


title: Youth

text: The age of consent is the age at which a person is considered legally competent to consent to sexual acts, and is thus the minimum age of a person with whom another person is legally permitted to engage in sexual activity. The distinguishing aspect of the age of consent laws is that the person below the minimum age is regarded as the victim, and their sex partner as the offender.


title: Youth

text: The defense of infancy is a form of defense known as an excuse so that defendants falling within the definition of an "infant" are excluded from criminal liability for their actions, if at the relevant time, they had not reached an age of criminal responsibility. This implies that children lack the judgment that comes with age and experience to be held criminally responsible. After reaching the initial age, there may be levels of responsibility dictated by age and the type of offense committed.