title: Lynne Frederick

text: Frederick's relationship with her former stepchildren (Michael Sellers, Sarah Sellers, and Victoria Sellers) was, like Peter's relationship with them, distant and often strained. When Lynne began her relationship with Peter, she made efforts to establish a friendly connection with them. Sarah recalled of Lynne, "she seemed quite nice to begin with. I actually told dad that I thought she was a bit stupid. But she came across as very bubbly, friendly, warm and interested. But once they got married things definitely changed". Michael Sellers wrote of Frederick in his exposé memoir, "my first impression of Lynne didn't do much to alter my views. She was not exactly my idea of sweetness and light. It didn't concern me that she lacked the good looks of dad's past wives and girlfriends, but those innocent eyes, certainly her strongest feature, didn't deceive me". Michael Sellers also bluntly acknowledged his intentional hostility and lack of respect towards Lynne when they first met: "I'm afraid we weren't very kind in our judgement of Lynne. Sarah thought she wasn't too bright. But our views didn't really count for much. Because whatever our opinions, they would be of purely academic interest". Months after Frederick's death in 1994, Victoria remarked "I feel now that she's in hell - I don't know but that makes me feel better."


title: Lynne Frederick

text: When she made the film "Nicholas and Alexandra" (1971), the director, Franklin J. Schaffner, arranged for Lynne and her co-stars (Michael Jayston, Janet Suzman, Roderick Noble, Ania Marson, Candace Glendenning, and Fiona Fullerton) to live together as a family during the nine-month production period, so as to add more authenticity to their performances. During this time, she developed a close friendship with her co-star Fiona Fullerton (who played her younger sister in the film). They remained good friends for several years.


title: Lynne Frederick

text: One of Frederick's closest friends was Mauritian actress, Françoise Pascal. The two first met when they co-starred on a 1972 episode of the television anthology series, "BBC Play of the Month", and quickly became "firm friends". Pascal recalled that they remained friends for several years before regretfully losing touch after Frederick married Sellers in 1977. In April 2020, a few weeks before the 26th anniversary of Frederick's death, Pascal tweeted a photo of herself and Frederick, with the caption "I think of her very often! Always had that fresh baby face! RIP Lynne! Xxx".


title: Lynne Frederick

text: In 2018, Judy Matheson revealed that she had worked with Frederick in the early 1970s. They were slated to appear in a film together that was to be shot in the Netherlands, with John Hamil, Robert Coleby, and Nina Francis. Because Frederick was young and a relative newcomer to filmmaking at the time, Matheson (who was a few years older and had industry experience) was asked to be Lynne's chaperone for the trip (as Lynne's mother was unavailable). They spent about three weeks lodged together in a hotel room before production on the film was prematurely closed due to financial withdrawals. Matheson stated that she enjoyed Frederick's company, and that they managed to have fun together despite the production difficulties. After returning to Great Britain, they corresponded for a while before gradually losing touch with each other.


title: Lynne Frederick

text: During production of "Four of the Apocalypse" (1975), she was rumoured to have had a brief romance with her co-star Fabio Testi (who was having trouble in his relationship with actress Ursula Andress at the time), which was also during a time when Frederick was having trouble in her own relationship with Julian Posner. Naturally, this helped Testi and Frederick with their chemistry in the movie, and they were paired again for the film "Cormack of the Mounties" (1975). There has been much speculation about such a romance between Testi and Frederick, but it has not been confirmed.


title: Lynne Frederick

text: In her 2014 memoir "I Said Yes to Everything", Lee Grant claimed that during production of the film "Voyage of the Damned" (1976) Frederick, then aged 21, engaged in an affair with Sam Wanamaker, who was 35 years Frederick's senior and married to Charlotte Holland at the time. Grant also stated that she witnessed all the men on set, including the film's director Stuart Rosenberg, make salacious passes at Frederick, all of which she rejected.


title: Lynne Frederick

text: Julie Andrews stated in her 2019 autobiography "Home Work: A Memoir of My Hollywood Years" that she suspected her husband Blake Edwards was having an affair with Lynne (who was married to Sellers at the time) during production of "Revenge of the Pink Panther" (1978). When Andrews confronted Blake about the "flirtations" between him and Frederick, Julie asked him point-blank which he preferred: staying married or continuing this flirtation. After this confrontation, Blake apparently ceased any kind of flirtation with Frederick. She later had a falling-out with Edwards and Andrews after successfully suing them for their involvement with the film "Trail of the Pink Panther" (1982), claiming that it insulted Sellers's memory. She never spoke to them again.


title: Lynne Frederick

text: In a 1975 interview with "Men Only", Frederick stated that she "partially agreed" with Women's Lib. Adding "I agree with the fact that women should have equal rights", but adding that she also believed in some old fashioned gender roles. "I agree that there are certain things that men are designed to do; just as there are things women are designed to do."


title: Lynne Frederick

text: She was a supporter of Margaret Thatcher, calling her a "very capable woman", and saying that "I think women are just as capable of ruling people and looking after our affairs as men are. Sometimes possibly better because women have a level of sensibility and sensitivity as well, which possibly men don't sometimes."


title: Lynne Frederick

text: Although not gay herself, Frederick was known for being a blunt and outspoken advocate for same sex relationships and LGBT rights during a time when it was considered highly taboo. Following her appearance on a controversial episode of the television series "Play for Today", where she played a sexually fluid character and shared an onscreen kiss with her female co-star, Jane Lapotaire, she said "with homosexuality and lesbianism, I just don't think you can put a ban on it. I don't think you can say it's wrong. I think people should live how they want to live. I don't think it should be illegal."


title: Lynne Frederick

text: Frederick grew up as a Methodist. In a 1975 interview, she expressed some agnostic views when she was asked about a progressive Catholic priest's response to the pope's declaring premarital sex a sin. "I really agree with the other priests that it should have never been issued. I think that does put the Church back; I really do. I can say it because I'm not particularly religious. But I think people who are religious, I hope they would feel that it's not a step forward. I think premarital sex is a good idea. I think the worst thing that could possibly happen is to not have sex before you get married, then get married and find out it's dreadful." After Peter Sellers died, she went to visit spiritualist and psychic medium, Doris Collins. When asked if she believed in life after death, she replied “I’ve always believed that death was not the end.” Frederick later suggested in an interview that she still retained her Methodist faith: “I never touch hard liquor. I suppose wine is ok for a good Methodist like me.”


title: Lynne Frederick

text: Following the death of her first husband Peter Sellers, she became involved in donating to various heart charities.


title: Lynne Frederick

text: In November 1980, she bought and donated an echocardiograph (valued at £12,400) to the Middlesex Hospital in London where Sellers died of a heart attack. Frederick stated “I wanted to try and reciprocate in some way to the enormous love and care which staff here showed my husband.”


title: Lynne Frederick

text: After her own death in 1994, she left individual sums of $250,000 to the British Heart Foundation and the Middlesex Hospital in London as tribute to Sellers (who died of a heart attack). As a sign of gratitude, the Middlesex Hospital hung a plaque thanking both Sellers and Frederick for their generous contributions.


title: Lynne Frederick

text: Shortly after the release of "Trail of the Pink Panther" (1982), Frederick filed suit against MGM, United Artists, and film director Blake Edwards for $3 million in damages and to block the film's distribution. She claimed that the film tarnished Peter Sellers's reputation, and was made without authorization from his estate, which she controlled.


title: Lynne Frederick

text: At the High Court in London, the defence argued that the film was meant to be a tribute to Sellers, but Frederick stated “It was an appalling film: Not a tribute to my husband but an insult to his memory.” Her chief objection was that her late husband had specifically prohibited the use of outtakes from earlier Pink Panther films in his lifetime, and that his estate should have had the right to control the use of outtakes after his death. The idea of using outtakes in future Pink Panther films was first presented in Sellers's lifetime when Edwards had shot and edited a three-hour version of "The Pink Panther Strikes Again" (1976). However, United Artists objected to this long version and the film was trimmed from three hours to an hour and a half.


title: Lynne Frederick

text: After Sellers's death in 1980, UA, wanting to cash in on the continuation of the series, elected Edwards to construct a new film from outtakes and deleted scenes from the five previous "Pink Panther" movies featuring Sellers. A handful of new material involving other actors was specially filmed for inclusion. Some of the older material dated as far back as 1963, nineteen years previously. The lack of continuity was evident in many scenes, and was subjected to heavy mockery from film critics.


title: Lynne Frederick

text: In 1985, Judge Charles Hobhouse ruled in favour of Frederick, awarding her $1 million, but dismissed her request to ban the film. Despite her efforts to protect Sellers's legacy, the press continued sneering at her. Frederick herself stated "I hope this proves that I'm not a gold digger! I’ve risked my entire fortune and the financial future of my daughter to protect Peter's reputation." After the lawsuit, Frederick continued to guard Sellers's films and went to great lengths to make sure each one was handled with respect and dignity.


title: Lynne Frederick

text: On 27 April 1994, Frederick was found dead by her mother in her West Los Angeles home, aged 39. Foul play and suicide were ruled out and an autopsy failed to determine the cause of death. Some in the media speculated she died from the effects of alcoholism. Her remains were cremated at Golders Green Crematorium in London, and her ashes were interred with those of her first husband, Peter Sellers.


title: Lynne Frederick

text: In a 1995 interview with "Hello!" magazine, her mother, Iris, claimed that Lynne died from natural causes which was brought on by a seizure in her sleep. She also denied accusations that her daughter had a drug or alcohol problem.


title: Lynne Frederick

text: "There is absolutely no truth in any of the stories I have read about Lynne's death. I never saw Lynne taking cocaine. She liked a glass of wine, but so do most people and she was no more an alcoholic than the next person. The autopsy report was quite clear, her death was by natural causes. Lynne died of a seizure in her sleep. For the record, the coroner found no evidence that Lynne had been taking drugs."


title: Lynne Frederick

text: In the years after her death, Frederick's legacy remained poisoned and she was seldom remembered favourably. In the 1995 revision of his 1994 book "The Life and Death of Peter Sellers", Roger Lewis claimed that "there is yet to find a single person to say a good thing about Lynne". British journalist Nigel Dempster had a profound dislike for Frederick and referred to her as an "avaricious and cunning man-eater". Other people who have voiced unfavorable views of Lynne include Spike Milligan, Britt Ekland, Sir Roger Moore, Wendy Richard and Simon Williams.


title: Lynne Frederick

text: She received minimal attention in the 2004 film adaptation of Lewis's book where she was portrayed by British actress Emilia Fox. All scenes featuring Fox's portrayal of Frederick were deleted from the final cut of the film, but included in the supplemental features of the film's DVD release. On portraying Frederick, Fox stated "I had thought very carefully about playing Lynne. I wanted to represent her in a way that I thought was fair - which was a very young girl being taken up in this world of laughter and light, and then finding out the reality. Peter Sellers was completely obsessed by work and it's very difficult to live with someone like that."


title: Lynne Frederick

text: Over time, views towards Frederick's image gradually shifted, and she soon gained a cult following through her films, and has been described as one of the most promising, talented, and beautiful young British actresses of the 1970s. Many credit the negative events in her life (the loss of her acting career, blacklisting in Hollywood, and untimely death) to her marriage to Sellers. Even Roger Lewis, who was blunt about his disdain for Frederick, admitted that "of all of Sellers's wives, Lynne Frederick was the most poorly treated". One of the first people to advocate for Lynne was American author, Ed Sikov, in the 2002 book, "Mr. Strangelove: A Biography of Peter Sellers": "Lynne Frederick deserves a bit of compassion herself in retrospect. It was the helpless Peter she nursed, the dependent and infantile creature of impulse and consequent contradiction. Patiently she ministered him". Other people who have defended or come forward with positive recollections of Frederick over the years include Judy Matheson, Françoise Pascal, John Moulder-Brown, Mark Burns, Fabio Testi, Malcolm McDowell, and Graham Crowden.


title: Lynne Frederick

text: There has been continued belief that Frederick would have achieved greater career success had it not been for her marriage to Sellers and untimely death. It has been theorized that she had the potential to attain stardom equivalent to that of Helen Mirren, Judi Dench, and Julie Walters.


title: Lynne Frederick

text: In 1982, Frederick's screen appearance as Catherine Howard from the film "Henry VIII and His Six Wives" (1972), was used on the cover art for the 1982 novel "The Dark Rose" by Cynthia Harrod-Eagles.


title: Lynne Frederick

text: For her work in horror films, Frederick has garnered significant popularity as a scream queen. In 2014, her image from the film poster of "Schizo" (1976) was featured in a montage for the cover of the publication "X-CERT 2: The British Independent Horror Film: 1971-1983" by John Hamilton.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: A chancellor is a leader of a college or university, usually either the executive or ceremonial head of the university or of a university campus within a university system.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In most Commonwealth and former Commonwealth nations, the chancellor is usually a ceremonial non-resident head of the university. In such institutions, the chief executive of a university is the vice-chancellor, who may carry an additional title such as "president" (e.g. "president & vice-chancellor"). The chancellor may serve as chairperson of the governing body; if not, this duty is often held by a chairperson who may be known as a pro-chancellor.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In many countries, the administrative and educational head of the university is known as the president, principal or rector. In the United States, the head of a university is most commonly a university president. In U.S., university systems that have more than one affiliated university or campus, the executive head of a specific campus may have the title of chancellor and report to the overall system's president, or vice versa.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In both Australia and New Zealand, a chancellor is the chairperson of a university's governing body; thus, as well as having ceremonial duties, the chancellor participates in the governance of the university (but not its active management). The chancellor is assisted by a deputy chancellor (known as the pro-chancellor in some universities). The chancellor and deputy chancellor are frequently drawn from the senior ranks of business or the judiciary (it is one of the few jobs considered compatible with judicial service). Some universities have a visitor who is senior to the chancellor. University disputes can be appealed from the governing board to the visitor (as is still the case in the UK), but nowadays, such appeals are generally prohibited by legislation, and the position has only ceremonial functions (unlike the chancellor and deputy chancellor, who frequently preside at functions such as graduations, the visitor rarely attends university functions). The vice-chancellor usually serves as the chief executive of the university.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: Macquarie University in Sydney is a noteworthy anomaly as it once had the unique position of "Emeritus Deputy Chancellor", a post created for John Lincoln upon his retirement from his long-held post of deputy chancellor in 2000. The position was not merely an honorary title, as it also retained for Lincoln a place in the University Council until his death in 2011.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: Chancellor is a titular position in Bangladesh always held by the incumbent President of Bangladesh under the Private Universities Act 1992. The position in public universities is not fixed for the president under any acts or laws (since the erection of a state university in Bangladesh requires an act to be passed in itself), but it has been the custom so far to name the incumbent president of the country as chancellor of all state universities thus established. The day-to-day business of the university is run by the vice chancellor. The vice chancellor has a deputy called the pro-vice-chancellor.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: Canadian universities have a titular chancellor similar to those in England and Wales, with day-to-day operations typically handled by a "principal". The vice-chancellor usually carries the joint title of "president and vice-chancellor" or "rector and vice-chancellor."


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In Finland, if the university has a chancellor (Finnish: "Kansleri", Swedish: "Kansler"), they are the leading official in the university. The duties of the chancellor are mainly to promote sciences and to look after the best interests of the university. As the rector of the university (Finnish: "rehtori", Swedish: "rektor") remains the de facto administrative leader and chief executive official, the role of the chancellor is more of a social, political and even historical nature. However some administrative duties still belong to the chancellor's jurisdiction despite their often arguably ceremonial nature. Examples of these include the appointment of new professors and docents.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: The chancellor of University of Helsinki (the oldest, largest and most prestigious in Finland) has also the notable right to be present and to speak in the plenary meetings of the Council of State when matters regarding the university are discussed. Despite their role as the chancellor of only one university, they are often regarded as the political representative of Finland's entire university institution when they exercise their rights in the Council of State.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In the history of Finland the office of the chancellor dates all the way back to the Swedish Empire, and later the Russian Empire. Historically the chancellor's duty was to function as the official representative of the monarch in the autonomous university.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: The number of chancellors in Finnish universities has declined over the years, and in the vast majority of Finnish universities the highest official is the rector. The remaining universities with chancellors are University of Helsinki and Åbo Akademi University.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In France, chancellor () is one of the titles of the rector (), a senior civil servant of the Ministry of Education serving as manager of a regional educational district (). In his capacity as chancellor, the rector awards academic degrees to the university's graduates, oversees the legality of the universities' executive acts and channels funding from the ministry. The rector has no executive function in any university but remains a member "ex officio" of the board of every public university in his district.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In Poland, the chancellor (kanclerz) is the head of many universities' administration and the leader of the non-academic staff while the rector is the academic head. The main academic bodies of the university consists of: rektor (the head of the university), prorector (deputy rektor), dziekan (the head of the faculty), prodziekan (deputy dziekan), senat (the main council of the university). In universities with presidential constitution, the university's president holds both the functions of chancellor and rector.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: Similarly, in Germany the chancellor (Kanzler) is the head of the administration, and regularly is recruited not from a scholarly but from an administrative background. The chancellor is a member of the governing body of the university (Hochschulleitung), which is directed by either a rector (Rektor) or a president (Präsident), whose precise role may vary among universities. Traditionally, the chancellor had the role to represent the local king or later the government in the university and to make sure that the university is compliant with government laws and policies. After universities gained more autonomy in the 20th century, they also got more freedom in choosing the chancellor by themselves. However, still today the chancellor is not an administrator who is entirely subordinate to the president but an office holder who oversees a host of responsibilities assigned to him or her directly by higher education law. This can give the chancelor a considerable veto power in the university leadership.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In Hong Kong, the Chief Executive of Hong Kong (and before 1997, Governor of Hong Kong) acts as the chancellor of all chartered universities, which includes all eight public universities and Hong Kong Metropolitan University. Day-to-day operation is in the hands of either a vice-chancellor (older and established institutions) or a president (in newer institutions), depending on the institution.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In Kazakhstan, Turkey, Russia, and Ukraine, the chancellor is the head of the university and is called a "rector." Some universities in Russia and Ukraine have figurehead "presidents."


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In India, almost all universities have a chancellor as their titular head whose function is largely ceremonial. The governor of the state, appointed as the union's representative of state by the president, is the honorary chancellor of all State owned universities. The de facto head of any government university is the vice-chancellor. In private non-profit universities, normally the head of the foundation who has established the university is the chancellor of the university and is the head of the university.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: For private university unlike the chancellor who heads the conventional Indian 'state university', the private university is headed by a president or chairman of private organization and have other posts like vice-chancellors, deans of faculties, registrar and controller of examinations.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In Ireland, the four universities all have a chancellor as their figurehead leader. However, the day-to-day operations of the universities are under the directorship of a president (a provost in the case of Trinity College Dublin). The National University of Ireland's constituent universities do not have a chancellor each; rather, the president of each constituent university has the title of Pro-Vice-Chancellor of the NUI. In Dublin City University and the University of Limerick, the chancellor is also the chairman of the university's governing authority.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In Malaysia, the chancellor position is given to dignitaries such as royalty or prominent politicians by universities to represent the universities in the political arena. For example, the chancellor of University of Malaya, the oldest university in Malaysia is Sultan Nazrin Shah, the Sultan of Perak. His father, Sultan Azlan Shah also served as chancellor at the same university until his death in 2014.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: The chancellor of Universiti Putra Malaysia is the current Sultan of Selangor, Sultan Sharafuddin Idris Shah, while the current Yang di-Pertuan Besar of Negeri Sembilan, Tunku Muhriz is the chancellor of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: The chancellor of Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, a university situated in the state of Johor, is the current Sultan of Johor, Sultan Ibrahim.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: Datin Seri Jeanne Abdullah, the wife of the former Prime Minister of Malaysia, Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi was appointed as the new chancellor of Open University Malaysia to take over the role from the first chancellor, the late YBhg Datin Paduka Seri Endon Mahmood (Abdullah Badawi's first wife).


title: Chancellor (education)

text: Recently, UCSI in Kuala Lumpur has given recognition to Tan Sri Datuk Seri Panglima Dr. Abdul Rahman Arshad as its first chancellor.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In Nepal, universities have a chancellor as ceremonial head. The de facto head of the university is the vice-chancellor. The chancellor is primarily responsible for attending the convocation programmes and accepting the resignation and appointment letter of a new vice-chancellor. Generally, the prime minister is considered the chancellor, and in his absence, the minister of education acts as the chancellor.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In Pakistan, chancellor is normally the figurehead of the university, who is normally the provincial governor where that university exists.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In the Philippines, the De La Salle University designates the head of its university as the chancellor. For the University of the Philippines, the entire system is headed by a president, while the eight constituent universities under the system is each headed by a chancellor. The chancellor designates the different vice-chancellors for different areas of concern of the university: academic affairs, finance, and community affairs, among others. Some more universities like University of Santo Tomas and other colleges, institutions have chancellors. Its chancellor is the incumbent Master of the Order of Preachers (Dominicans); meanwhile, the vice chancellor is the prior provincial of the Dominican Province of the Philippines. Their roles are largely ceremonial. The University of Santo Tomas is governed mainly by its rector magnificus in overseeing its academic, financial and other affairs. On the other hand, the San Beda System has the prior or the abbot of Our Lady of Montserrat Abbey (Manila) as its chancellor for its constituent units while a rector-president heads each constituent unit.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: Other universities in the Philippines (such as state universities like Mindanao State University where each constituent campus is headed by chancellor) are mostly headed by their respective university presidents. Meanwhile, private (esp. Catholic) institutions are headed by a rector.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In the United Kingdom, a Chancellor is generally a titular position without day-to-day managerial responsibilities, such as at University of Oxford, where the Vice-Chancellor runs the administration and is the de facto university leader. In Scotland, day-to-day operations are typically handled by a "principal and vice-chancellor."


title: Chancellor (education)

text: The chancellor of the University of Edinburgh is Anne, Princess Royal, whilst the current chancellor of the University of Aberdeen is Camilla, Queen Consort of The United Kingdom.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In the United States, heads of colleges and universities are typically called "president." A multi-campus university system may be headed by a chancellor who serves as systemwide chief, with presidents governing individual institutions. This is more commonly seen in university systems which were belatedly formed by grouping together already-extant colleges or universities in the 20th century, such as the State University of New York, the City University of New York, and the California State University. In many state university systems which began with a single flagship campus in the 18th or 19th century and gradually delegated operational authority to satellite campuses during the 20th century, the titles are reversed. This is the case in Arkansas, California, North Carolina, Illinois, Massachusetts, Missouri, and Wisconsin.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: Outside of university systems, presidents are the functional chief executive officers of most standalone U.S. universities. However, a few universities, such as Syracuse University and the University of Pittsburgh, have a chancellor as their chief executive officer. There are occasional other uses of the title "chancellor." The College of William & Mary uses the term "chancellor" in the British sense, as a figurehead leader, but the actual executive of the school is the "president," not a "vice-chancellor." Some schools, such as Lubbock Christian University, give the ceremonial title of "chancellor" to a retiring university president. The Catholic University of America is headed by a president (formerly "rector"), with the Archbishop of Washington serving as chancellor, a ceremonial position but one which does require the archbishop to represent the university before the Holy See. This scenario, while not always exactly duplicated, is typical in other Catholic universities due to the Catholic hierarchy. In some schools run by Catholic religious orders, the rector of the community supersedes the president when the latter is a member of that religious order. In some universities, such as Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the chancellor is a high ranking officer below the president and equal to or below the provost, who might have vice-chancellors reporting to her or him.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: The title "chancellor" is sometimes used in K-12 education in a sense similar to superintendent of schools, particularly in urban school districts. The New York City Schools Chancellor is the chief executive officer of the New York City Department of Education, which manages the city's public school system (the largest in the United States). The leader of the District of Columbia Public Schools system is also referred to as the chancellor.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: University president is the title of the highest-ranking officer within the academic administration of a university, within university systems that prefer that appellation over other variations such as chancellor or rector. The relative seniority varies between institutions.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In France, the president is the elected chair of the board and chief executive officer in universities. The president is always elected by the board among the professors of the university. The president serves a four-year term which is renewable once. The chancellor is a servant of the Ministry of Education who supervises regional educational districts. There is no hierarchical relation between the president and the chancellor.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In Northern Ireland, the president is the chief academic and administrative officer of the university and is usually also the vice-chancellor of the university. The private London-based liberal-arts university Richmond, The American International University in London utilises the same system as in the United States but also with a ceremonial chancellor as figurehead.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In most stand-alone universities and colleges in the United States, the chief executive officer is called the president, while the second-most senior officer is called the provost, vice president of academic affairs, dean of faculties, or some other similar title.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In the United States, the executive and ceremonial roles are not split, which means that a university president assumes an enormous burden in terms of the sheer breadth of their duties and responsibilities. The president is expected to preside over all major ceremonies, including graduations and presentations of awards and honors, while also reporting to the board of trustees and personally handling certain high-level executive functions: external relations (especially public relations and fundraising) and long-range planning and strategy (especially the creation and termination of university degrees, programs, and policies). Most other decisions are delegated to their second in command, especially operational day-to-day decisions. The provost often has the final say on resource allocation decisions, difficult tenure decisions, whether to initiate recruiting of star faculty from other institutions, and whether to initiate defensive measures against such recruiting of the institution's own star faculty.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: University presidents typically ascend to the position from academic careers (i.e., after earning tenure and becoming professors and then deans), and it is highly unusual for a university to recruit a president who lacks a strong track record in academic research or university administration.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: The average salary for college presidents in private, non-profit institutions in 2015 was $569,932, 9 percent higher than in 2014.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: A "vice-chancellor" (commonly called a "VC") serves as the chief executive of a university in England, Wales, Northern Ireland, New Zealand, Australia, Nepal, India, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Nigeria, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, South Africa, Kenya, other Commonwealth countries, and some universities in Hong Kong. In Scotland, Canada, and Ireland, the chief executive of a university is usually called principal or president, with "vice-chancellor" being an honorific associated with this title, allowing the individual to bestow degrees in absence of the chancellor.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: Strictly speaking, the VC is only a deputy to the chancellor of the university, but the chancellor is usually a prominent public figure who acts as a ceremonial figurehead only (e.g., the chancellor of the University of Cambridge for 36 years was Prince Philip), while the vice-chancellor acts as the day-to-day chief executive. An assistant to a vice-chancellor is called a pro-vice-chancellor or deputy vice-chancellor; these were traditionally academics who were elected to take on additional responsibilities in addition to their regular teaching and research for a limited time, but are now increasingly commonly permanent appointments. In some universities (e.g. in Australian universities: Deakin University, Macquarie University), there are several deputy vice-chancellors subordinate to the vice-chancellor, with "pro-vice-chancellor" being a position at executive level ranking below "deputy vice-chancellor".


title: Chancellor (education)

text: There are a few exceptions within England. For example, the charter of the University of Manchester provides for the vice-chancellor to also use the title "president", and the first vice-chancellor, Alan Gilbert (2004–10), used "president" as his main title. The University of Warwick now officially uses "vice-chancellor and president" (VCP), although the holder is usually still known as the vice-chancellor in all but official documents. The chief executives of the constituent colleges of the University of London, many of which are now functionally independent universities, generally use the title "principal", although the chief executive of Imperial College has the title "rector", the London School of Economics' head is titled "director" and Birkbeck College is headed by the "master."


title: Chancellor (education)

text: The executive head of an Australian university is the vice-chancellor, who serves as the university equivalent of a chief executive officer. The vice-chancellor is responsible for the day-to-day operations of the university and reports directly to the University Council, which the chancellor heads. Assisting the vice-chancellor, the roles of deputy vice-chancellors and pro vice-chancellors have emerged to better manage the administrative overhead of the position.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: Canadian university vice-chancellors almost always carry the title of "president (or equivalent) and vice-chancellor"; likewise, in Scotland, they hold the position of "principal and vice-chancellor" (as do a few Canadian universities such as Queen's and McGill). In the Scottish practice, the one individual may have two sets of official robes, reflecting a continuing division of responsibilities between the two posts. The vice-chancellor's robes, therefore, should not be worn in the presence of the chancellor but should only be worn when deputizing for the chancellor.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In India, most central and state level universities have a titular head called chancellor who is either an eminent person appointed by the Government of India (in central universities) or provincial governor (in state universities). The head of a university is the vice-chancellor, the highest paid official of the university. Next in command are more than one pro-vice-chancellor in charge of academic as well as administrative and financial affairs. In deemed universities and institutes of national importance, the head of the institution is either called director general or director, the latter designation being more commonly used in academic terms in the subcontinent.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: The President of Bangladesh is the titular chancellor of all universities in Bangladesh, public or private. The vice chancellor is the executive head, and his deputy, the pro-vice chancellor holds a full-time administrative office.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: The Prime Minister of Nepal is the titular chancellor of most universities in Nepal, public or private. The vice chancellor is the executive head, and along with Registrar holds a full-time administrative office.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In Kenya, chancellors are titular heads of public universities, either appointed by the head of state (president) directly, or, in newly introduced legislation, at the recommendation of senate and alumni of the university. The day-to-day running of universities is the responsibility of the vice-chancellors. "Rector" and "president" are not commonly used terms in university administration.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: The vice-chancellor is assisted by a number of high ranking University officials known as Deputy Vice-chancellor, popularly referred to as DVC. The DVC's head specific departments of the university such as Finance and Administration, etc.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In Nigeria, chancellors are ceremonial heads of public universities (mostly traditional monarchs), appointed by the head of state (president), governor of a state (in the case of state-owned universities) or assumed by the owner of a private university. The day-to-day running of universities is the responsibility of the vice-chancellors. There are also pro-chancellors who are government appointees that head the universities' governing councils. The university governing council is the highest administrative organ of a Nigerian public universities. They approve projects, contracts, recruitments, promotions and are regarded as employer of university workers. They also appoint the principal officers of the university including the vice chancellor. They exercise all these functions on behalf of the "visitor." The visitor is the president of the federation (for federal universities) and state governors for state-owned universities.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In Ireland, day-to-day operations of the universities are under the directorship of a president (a provost in the case of Trinity College Dublin). However, the president of each constituent university of the National University of Ireland also has the title of pro-vice-chancellor of the NUI.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In the Philippines, University of Santo Tomas the day-to-day head of the university, as mandated by their duty as the Prior Provincial of the Philippine Dominican Province, the Dominican province that has majority control over the university.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: As said earlier, the vice-chancellor or the "grand vice-chancellor of the University of Santo Tomas" is only the deputy to the chancellor of the university, but the chancellor is usually a prominent public figure who is not always in the country (e.g., the chancellor of University of Santo Tomas is the current Master of the Order of Preachers, the current being Very Rev. Fr. Bruno Cadoré, OP, while the rector acts as the day-to-day chief executive). The current vice chancellor of UST is the Prior Provincial of the Philippine Dominican Province, Very Rev. Fr. Napoleon Sipalay, OP. The current rector of the university is Rev. Fr. Herminio V. Dagohoy, OP.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In the University of the Philippines, the chancellor assigns different vice-chancellors to handle different aspects of running the university. There is one for instruction, administration, and community affairs, among others.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In Sweden, the rektor (rector) is the head of a Swedish university, but the word "vice-chancellor" ("vicekansler") is often used as the English translation of rektor. The "vice-chancellor" ("vicekansler") is also an honorary title given to the "rectores magnifici" at the universities of Lund and Uppsala.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: University chancellor ("universitetskansler") is the office of the highest civil servant in the Swedish university system.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In the United States, a vice chancellor (typically spelled without a hyphen) is an assistant to a chancellor, who is generally the (actual, not merely ceremonial) head of one campus of a large university which has several campuses. The head of the entire university is the president (the equivalent of a Commonwealth vice-chancellor), the chancellor is in charge of one campus, and a vice chancellor is one of their direct reports responsible for a broad area of authority at one campus. Some systems, such as the California State University and the Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education invert this arrangement so that the chancellor is the head of the entire university system, while a vice chancellor is an executive who directly reports to the chancellor and is responsible for a broad area of authority across the entire system.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: At the University of the South, the vice chancellor is the administrative head of the university (as well as mayor of the town of Sewanee). The chancellor is a bishop of one of the 28 southeastern Episcopal dioceses that own the university and is elected by the members of the board of trustees. The chancellor neither resides at the university nor holds administrative power; the office of chancellor is a ceremonial one.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: The principal is the chief executive and the chief academic officer of a university or college in certain parts of the Commonwealth.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: A "director" is the chief executive officer of a university or other educational institution. Equivalent names in different countries are vice-chancellor (many Commonwealth countries), chancellor (United States), principal (Scotland and Canada), and university president.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In Scotland, the principal is appointed by the university court or governing body of the university and will be chairman or president of the body of academics. In the case of the ancient universities of Scotland, the principal is president of the academic senate. The principal also holds the title of vice-chancellor, but their powers with regard to this position extend only to the awarding of degrees, as both the vice-chancellor and chancellor are titular posts.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: Queen's University and McGill University in Canada have principals instead of presidents as a result of their Scottish origins. In addition, the Royal Military College of Canada also has a principal.


title: Chancellor (education)

text: In South Africa, the Higher Education Act 101 of 1997 defines the principal as "the chief executive and accounting officer of a public higher education institution." The definition allows for the alternative nomenclatures of vice-chancellor and a rector, and these terms are in widespread use (the term "vice-chancellor" is more common in English-medium universities, whilst the term "rector" tends to be used in Afrikaans-medium universities). The exact name in a particular university will be defined by the Institutional Statute. The same act defines the chancellor as the titular head of an institution.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: Extinction Rebellion (abbreviated as XR) is a global environmental movement, with the stated aim of using nonviolent civil disobedience to compel government action to avoid tipping points in the climate system, biodiversity loss, and the risk of social and ecological collapse. Extinction Rebellion was established in the United Kingdom in May 2018 by Gail Bradbrook, Simon Bramwell, and Roger Hallam, along with eight other co-founders from the campaign group Rising Up!


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: Its first major action was to occupy the London Greenpeace offices on 17 October 2018, which was followed by the public launch at the "Declaration of Rebellion" on 31 October 2018 outside the UK Parliament. Earlier that month, about one hundred academics signed a call to action in their support. In November 2018, five bridges across the River Thames in London were blockaded as a protest. In April 2019, Extinction Rebellion occupied five prominent sites in central London: Piccadilly Circus, Oxford Circus, Marble Arch, Waterloo Bridge, and the area around Parliament Square. In August 2021, the Impossible Rebellion targeted London.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: Citing inspiration from grassroots movements such as Occupy, the suffragettes, and the civil rights movement, Extinction Rebellion aims to instill a sense of urgency for preventing further "climate breakdown", as well as the ongoing sixth mass extinction. A number of activists in the movement accept arrest and imprisonment, similar to the mass arrest tactics of the Committee of 100 in 1961. The movement uses a stylised, circled hourglass, known as the extinction symbol, to serve as a warning that time is rapidly running out for many species.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: Extinction Rebellion has been criticised as "environmental fanatics" who risk alienating thousands of potential supporters. Extinction Rebellion's 2019 protests cost the Metropolitan Police an extra £7.5 million. Activists identifying with the movement have also defended causing property damage, such as smashing windows. Extinction Rebellion has said such tactics are sometimes necessary and that they are careful not to put anyone at risk. In a YouGov poll of 3,482 British adults conducted on 15 October 2019, 54% "strongly opposed" or "somewhat opposed" Extinction Rebellion's actions of disrupting roads and public transport to "shut down London" in order to bring attention to their cause, while 36% "strongly supported" or "somewhat supported" these actions.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: Extinction Rebellion's website, at the time of the group's inception in the UK, stated the following aims:


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: When the movement expanded to the United States, a further demand was added to that group's list: "We demand a just transition that prioritizes the most vulnerable people and indigenous sovereignty; establishes reparations and remediation led by and for Black people, Indigenous people, people of colour and poor communities for years of environmental injustice, establishes legal rights for ecosystems to thrive and regenerate in perpetuity, and repairs the effects of ongoing ecocide to prevent extinction of human and all species, in order to maintain a livable, just planet for all."


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: 2. We set our mission on what is necessary—mobilising 3.5% of the population to achieve system change by using ideas such as "momentum-driven organising" to achieve this.<br>


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: 4. We openly challenge ourselves and this toxic system, leaving our comfort zones to take action for change.<br>


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: 5 We value reflecting and learning, following a cycle of action, reflection, learning, and planning for more action (learning from other movements and contexts as well as our own experiences).<br>


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: 6. We welcome everyone and every part of everyone—working actively to create safer and more accessible spaces.<br>


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: 7. We actively mitigate for power—breaking down hierarchies of power for more equitable participation.<br>


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: 9. We are a non-violent network using non-violent strategy and tactics as the most effective way to bring about change.<br>


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: 10. We are based on autonomy and decentralisation—we collectively create the structures we need to challenge power. Anyone who follows these core principles and values can take action in the name of Extinction Rebellion."


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: Extinction Rebellion is a loosely networked, decentralised, grassroots movement, with largely autonomous local groups - which often collaborate on actions - forming the bulk of the movement's organisational capacity. A local group is generally based around a specific geographical locality such as a suburb, city or in some cases a larger region. The movement also organises around largely autonomies affinity groups.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: Anyone who takes action in pursuit of "XR's three goals and adheres to its ten principles, which includes non-violence, can claim to do it in the name of XR."


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: "The Economist" identified the group as using the tenets of holacracy to operate more effectively given strong state opposition.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: Extinction Rebellion has a decentralised structure. Providing that they respect the 'principles and values', every local group can organise events and actions independently. To organise the movement, local groups are structured with various 'working groups' taking care of strategy, outreach, well-being, etc.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: A group of health professionals named 'Doctors for Extinction Rebellion' supports XR actions and organise demonstrations on their own, warning about the effects of climate change on human health. The are notably present in the United Kingdom and Switzerland.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: A youth wing—XR Youth—of Extinction Rebellion had formed by July 2019. In contrast to the main XR, it is centered around consideration of the Global South and indigenous peoples, and more concerned with climate justice. By October 2019 there were 55 XR Youth groups in the UK and another 25 elsewhere. All XR Youth comprise people born after 1990, with an average age of 16, and have been as young as 10.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: Believing humans to be God's stewards of the earth, XR's Christian wing, the Christian Climate Action, has been involved in numerous direct action campaigns and other protests to bring awareness of climate change and the climate crisis. It has called for churches in the UK to help alleviate poverty and inequality caused by climate change and has also written to Justin Welby, the Archbishop of Canterbury, over the Church of England's lack of support for the group.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: It has a membership of over 1000 (with around 150 taking direct action). It is associated with Camino to Cop26, a women-run faith group that walked 500 miles to the COP26 conference in Glasgow to protest world leader's lack of action on climate change. Other groups such as Marcha a Glasgow, the Pilgrimage for Cop26 and the Young Christian Climate Network also walked to the conference; they have described the journey as a pilgrimage.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: Extinction Rebellion originated in the United Kingdom at a meeting of activists including Gail Bradbrook, Roger Hallam and Simon Bramwell in April 2018, at which they drew up a number of goals. About one hundred academics signed a call to action in their support in October 2018, and XR was launched on 31 October by Hallam, Bradbrook, Simon Bramwell, and other activists from the campaign group Rising Up!


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: Grassroots movements such as those of Occupy, Gandhi's Satyagraha, the suffragettes, Gene Sharp, Martin Luther King Jr. and others in the civil rights movement have been cited as sources of inspiration In seeking to rally support worldwide around a common sense of urgency to tackle climate breakdown, reference is also made to Saul Alinsky. His "Pragmatic Primer," "Rules for Radicals" (1972), is seen as offering insights as to "how we mobilise to cope with emergency", and "strike a balance between disruption and creativity". Roger Hallam has been clear that the strategy of public disruption is "heavily influenced" by the community-organizing tactician: "The essential element here is disruption. Without disruption, no one is going to give you their eyeballs".


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: A number of activists in the movement accept arrest and imprisonment, similar to the mass arrest tactics of the Committee of 100 in 1961.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: On 9 December 2018, a second open letter of support signed by another hundred academics was published.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: Extinction Rebellion has taken a variety of actions since 2018 in the UK, United States, Australia and elsewhere.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: On 5 October 2021, the group blocked streets in Zurich, Switzerland, demanding that the Swiss government take measures to address climate change in the country.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: On 4 November 2021, Extinction Rebellion demonstrators blocked the Schlumberger Gould Research Centre in west Cambridge to oppose the research into fossil fuel extraction by an American corporation. The demonstration was scheduled to coincide with the COP26 climate summit in Glasgow, which is focusing on energy.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: In April 2022, activists from Extinction Rebellion blocked key bridges across London, among them two Olympic athletes. Protestors had been arrested after climbing oil tankers, anchoring themselves to structures, or blocking roads at oil depots.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: In Britain in 2021 some campaigners considered that XR was being ignored by government (except for legislating against protests) and no longer had the effect needed to create real change, so other groups were formed with the idea of using mass disruption and arrest to draw attention to a very specific demand. "Insulate Britain" was set up to demand that the government implement measures to fit all homes with improved insulation by 2030 to improve energy efficiency thus reducing greenhouse gas emissions. "Just Stop Oil" from 2022 protested against fossil fuels. Both groups carried out disruptive protests, blocking traffic and seeking to be arrested.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: Extinction Rebellion uses mass arrest as a tactic to generate attention to their cause by wasting police time and disrupting others. Extinction Rebellion's founders researched the histories of "the suffragettes, the Indian salt marchers, the civil rights movement and the Polish and East German democracy movements", who all used the tactic, and are applying their lessons to the climate crisis. Co-founder Roger Hallam has said "letters, emailing, marches don't work. You need about 400 people to go to prison. About two to three thousand people to be arrested."


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: In June and July 2019 some of the Extinction Rebellion supporters arrested that April appeared in court in the UK. On 25 June a 68-year-old protester was convicted of breaching a section 14 order giving police the power to clear static protests from a specified area, and given a conditional discharge. On 12 April over 30 protesters appeared in court, each charged with being a public assembly participant failing to comply with a condition imposed by a senior police officer at various locations on various dates. Some pleaded guilty, and were mostly given conditional discharges. The trials of those who pleaded not guilty are to take place in September and October.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: In London's April 2019 protests 1130 arrests were made, and during the two-week October 2019 actions in London as part of "International Rebellion", 1832 arrests were made. This included the Green Party Member of European Parliament for the West Midlands, Ellie Chowns, as well as Green Party co-leader and Leader of the opposition on Lambeth Council, Jonathan Bartley.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: During the 'International Rebellion', which started on 15 April 2019, actions and messages of support arrived from various sources, including a speech by actress Emma Thompson, a planned visit by school strike leader Greta Thunberg, and statements from former NASA scientist James Hansen and linguist and activist Noam Chomsky.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: A study conducted during the first two days of the mid-April London occupation, polling 1539 participants, found that 46% of respondents supported the rebellion; however, an opinion poll of 3482 British adults in October 2019 found that support was lower and that 54% of respondents strongly or somewhat opposed actions aiming to "shut down London" The protests on 17 April had blocked access to means of transport including buses, alienating travellers.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: In May 2019, Roger Hallam and eight others stood as candidates in the European Parliament elections in the London and the South West England constituencies as Climate Emergency Independents. Between them, they won 7,416 out of the 3,917,854 total votes cast in the two constituencies.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: In June 2019, 1,000 healthcare professionals in the UK and elsewhere, including professors, public health figures, and former presidents of royal colleges, called for widespread non-violent civil disobedience in response to "woefully inadequate" government policies on the unfolding ecological emergency. They called on politicians and the news media to face the facts of the unfolding ecological emergency and take action. They supported the school strike movement and Extinction Rebellion.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: In July 2019 Trevor Neilson, Rory Kennedy and Aileen Getty launched the Climate Emergency Fund (CEF), inspired by Greta Thunberg and Extinction Rebellion protesters in the UK in April. It donated almost half a million pounds to Extinction Rebellion groups in New York City and Los Angeles and school strike for climate groups in the US. In September 2019 Getty pledged $600,000 (£487,000) to the Fund.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: Christopher Hohn gave £50,000 to the group and the charity he co-founded, The Children's Investment Fund Foundation, has donated more than £150,000.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: In October 2019, the Financial Times commented:"The new funds bring Extinction Rebellion’s total fundraising to just over £2.5m in the past 12 months."Michael Stipe is a supporter; all profits from his debut solo single, "Your Capricious Soul", will go to Extinction Rebellion.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: On 6 February 2020, the environmental organization Mobilize Earth debuted "Guardians of Life", the first of twelve short films that highlight the most pressing issues facing humanity and the natural world. Funds raised by the project will go to Amazon Watch and Extinction Rebellion.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: In September 2021, YouGov asked 3,296 British adults for their opinions on Extinction Rebellion, of which 19% were "fairly positive" or "very positive", and 49% were "very negative" or "fairly negative".


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: Ben Smoke, one of the Stansted 15, writing in "The Guardian," criticised XR's tactic of mass arrest. He wrote for XR to casually speak of imprisonment undermines the negative experiences of incarceration on Black, Asian and minority ethnic people in the UK. He also wrote that for XR to be supporting peoples' court cases risks drawing significant "resources, time, money and energy" from the environmental movement, from the individuals involved, and which could otherwise be directed towards people most affected by climate change. Smoke instead recommended tactics that are not only the preserve of those able to afford the expense and time of arrest. He also wrote that though mass arrests may be intended to cause government to focus more on tackling climate change, it might instead cause government to increase anti-protest legislation.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: The critique of XR's middle class white privilege, that its mass arrest tactic does not consider that people of colour will not be treated as leniently by the system as white people, was also highlighted in an open letter from Wretched of the Earth, an environmental group that focuses on black, brown and indigenous voices, to XR. The group responded to this critique with a thank you, pointing out their solidarity and commitment to diversity of membership as well diversity in styles of engagement (for example, one does not need to volunteer for a prison term in order to be an active member of XR).


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: Some in Extinction Rebellion have also called attention to Martin Luther King Jr. (one of XR's guiding inspirations) in this regard, noting that his call for civil disobedience to end segregation was a call directed toward all who were willing and able, regardless of race or colour.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: When the movement expanded to the US, a fourth demand was added to that group's list of demands: for a "just transition that prioritises the most vulnerable and indigenous sovereignty [and] establishes reparations and remediation led by and for black people, indigenous people, people of colour and poor communities for years of environmental injustice."


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: Karen Bell, senior lecturer in human geography and environmental justice at the University of West of England, Bristol, wrote in "The Guardian" that environmental groups such as Extinction Rebellion are not strongly rooted in working-class organisations and communities, which she said is a problem because building the broad-based support necessary for a radical transition to sustainability requires contributions from all strands of environmentalism, especially working class. Labour Party shadow cabinet member Lisa Nandy criticised the organisation in "The Guardian" in October 2019, saying "calls for individual action can't just be modelled on the lifestyles of middle class city dwellers".


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: George Monbiot has also written in "The Guardian" that "Extinction Rebellion is too white, and too middle class." The Canning Town protest, in which two activists scaled a train at Canning Town station, then kicked working class commuters who attempted to remove them from the train before being dragged onto the platform and mobbed, focused attention on class issues and led to an apology from an XR spokesman.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: According to the Energy and Climate Intelligence Unit, which supports XR's course of strong action and demands, the time frame being urged by XR is "an ambition that technically, economically and politically has absolutely no chance of being fulfilled." Due to the inaction of governments in the past, it would be difficult to achieve net zero in such a short time frame. It said that one way to go net zero by 2025 would include the scrapping of flying and 38 million petrol and diesel cars would need to be removed from the roads. Twenty-six million gas boilers would need to be disconnected in six years. The Rapid Transition Alliance and the Centre for Alternative Technology are more positive about the date specified.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: A report called "Extremism Rebellion" by Policy Exchange, a UK-based conservative think tank, said that Extinction Rebellion is an extremist organisation seeking the breakdown of liberal democracy and the rule of law, and called for the criminalisation of the group; the Police, Crime, Sentencing and Courts Act 2022 was based on the 2019 report by Policy Exchange, which received in 2017 a $30,000 donation by US-based oil and gas corporation ExxonMobil, to target Extinction Rebellion.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: In 2019, the South East Counter Terrorism Unit police authority listed Extinction Rebellion, alongside neo-Nazi and Islamist terrorist groups, as a threat in a guide titled "Safeguarding young people and adults from ideological extremism". After media inquiries, they recalled and disavowed this guide, saying the presence of Extinction Rebellion was an error. Priti Patel, who advocated for the aforementioned policing bill, defended the decision to designate Extinction Rebellion as an extremist group after the guide was disavowed.


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: Extinction Rebellion's third demand ("Government must create and be led by the decisions of a Citizens' Assembly on climate and ecological justice") has been summarised by its leadership as a demand to "go beyond politics". This demand has been criticised by socialists, including individuals who have participated in the movement's action. Writing for "The Independent" in April 2019, Natasha Josette, an anti-racist activist and member of Labour for a Green New Deal, critiqued Extinction Rebellion both for marginalising ethnic minorities and for not recognising that "the climate crisis is the result of neoliberal capitalism, and a global system of extraction, dispossession and oppression". Also writing for "The Independent", Amardeep Dhillon argued that XR's narrow focus on net zero carbon emissions meant that it ignored extractivism and the threat to the environment posed by companies in the extractive sector using greenwashing to defend and advance their economic interests, suggesting that XR's position "threatens to give carte blanche to governments and corporations who are happy to shift the burden of climate destruction onto poor and indigenous communities of colour in the global South".


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: In October 2019, Erica Eisen, an XR participant, wrote an article for "Current Affairs" in which she linked the movement's "beyond politics" slogan not only to the demand for a citizens' assembly but also to a refusal to take stances on issues beyond the environment, in order to gain as broad a base of support as possible, highlighting the movement's ban on organising community groups based on political identity. She argued that "our current economic system is [not] compatible with continued life on this planet. It is unrealistic and irresponsible to pretend that a proposed climate solution which keeps capitalism intact is any kind of solution at all." In her view, failing to articulate an anti-capitalist position undermined the movement's credibility by "lend[ing] tacit support" to large companies responsible for environmentally destructive behaviour. She also suggested that failing to embrace leftist positions would give space for far right groups to piggyback and exploit environmentalist rhetoric, citing the examples of the Christchurch mosque shootings and 2019 El Paso shooting, both of whose perpetrators left manifestos which mentioned environmental concerns. Writing for "i-D" in December 2019, Nathalie Olah drew parallels between XR and earlier decentralised protest movements such as the events of May 68 in France and the Occupy movement, suggesting that a shared lack of clarity in concrete demands had stunted the political impact of the latter two movements and arguing that climate change and class politics were "inextricable" as "a small minority are responsible for a high proportion of emissions, and because the poorest stand to face the worst repercussions".


title: Extinction Rebellion

text: Analysis of the October 2019 "International Rebellion" indicates that "the movement was mentioned more than 70,000 times in online media reports. Of these, 43.5% of online coverage was in the UK followed by 15.2% from Germany, 14.6 % in Australia and 12.1% in the US."


title: Murder of Kelly Anne Bates

text: Kelly Anne Bates (18 May 1978 – 16 April 1996) was an English teenager who was murdered in Manchester, England at the age of 17 by her abuser, James Patterson Smith (born ). She was tortured by him over a period of four weeks, including having her eyes gouged from their sockets up to three weeks before her death, before being drowned in a bathtub.


title: Murder of Kelly Anne Bates

text: The murder inquiry was headed by Detective Sergeant Joseph Monaghan of Greater Manchester Police, who said: "I have been in the police force for 15 years and have never seen a case as horrific as this." William Lawler, the pathologist who examined Bates' body, described her injuries as the worst he had seen on a murder victim. Smith, who had a history of violence and torture against former sexual partners, denied murdering Bates, but was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment on 19 November 1997.


title: Murder of Kelly Anne Bates

text: James Smith was an unemployed divorcee living in the Gorton area of Manchester. Described by acquaintances as "house-proud" and "well groomed", he was a teetotaller and non-smoker. His marriage had ended in 1980, after ten years, because he had been violent towards his wife. His next relationship was with 20-year-old Tina Watson, whom between 1980 and 1982 he "used as a punch-bag", even subjecting her to severe beatings while she was pregnant with his child. She said: "At first it was now and again; just a little tap. But in the end it was every day. He would smack me in the face or hit me over the head with an ashtray. He would kick me in the legs or between the legs." Watson managed to escape from the relationship, during which Smith had also attempted to drown her while she was bathing. When that relationship came to an end in 1982, Smith then started seeing 15-year-old Wendy Mottershead, whom he also abused. In one attack he held her head under water in the kitchen sink in an attempt to drown her.


title: Murder of Kelly Anne Bates

text: In 1993, Smith began grooming Kelly Bates when she was 14 years old, having met her while she was babysitting for friends. Approximately two years later, when she had left school, Bates moved in with Smith at his home in Furnival Road, Gorton. She was concealing the age difference between them from her parents, Tommy and Margaret Bates. Bates' mother said of her first meeting with Smith after the two had started living together: "As soon as I saw Smith the hairs on the back of my neck went up. I tried everything I could to get Kelly Anne away from him."


title: Murder of Kelly Anne Bates

text: Although she had left Smith briefly because of arguments with him, she was once more living with him at Furnival Road by the end of November 1995. Her parents noticed bruises on her, which she explained away as being the results of accidents. She became increasingly withdrawn and in December 1995 resigned from her part-time job. In March 1996, her parents received cards purportedly from her for their anniversary and a birthday, but only Smith had written in them. When Bates' brother tried to see her at the house, Smith said she was not at home. When a concerned neighbour asked after her, she was briefly shown at an upstairs window.


title: Murder of Kelly Anne Bates

text: On 16 April 1996, Smith reported to authorities that he had accidentally killed his girlfriend during an argument in a bathtub, claiming that she had inhaled water and died following his attempts at resuscitation. He also claimed that she often pretended to be unconscious. Police went to Smith's address and found Bates' naked body in a bedroom. Her blood was found throughout the house, and a post-mortem examination revealed over 150 separate injuries on her body. During the last month of her life she had been kept bound, sometimes tied to a radiator or furniture by her hair, other times by her neck using a ligature.


title: Murder of Kelly Anne Bates

text: William Lawler, the Home Office pathologist who examined her body, said: "In my career, I have examined almost 600 victims of homicide but I have never come across injuries so extensive." The following injuries were found on Bates' body:


title: Murder of Kelly Anne Bates

text: The pathologist determined that her eyes had been removed "not less than five days and not more than three weeks before her death". She had been starved, having lost around 20 kg in weight, and had not received water for several days before her death. Peter Openshaw, the prosecutor in Smith's trial, said: "It was as if he deliberately disfigured her, causing her the utmost pain, distress and degradation ... The injuries were not the result of one sudden eruption of violence; they must have been caused over a long period [and] were so extensive and so terrible that the defendant must have deliberately and systematically tortured the girl." The cause of death was drowning, immediately prior to which she had been beaten about the head with a showerhead.


title: Murder of Kelly Anne Bates

text: Smith denied murder and claimed Bates "would put me through hell winding me up". He also claimed that Bates had "taunted" him about his dead mother and had "a bad habit of hurting herself to make it look worse on me". When asked to explain why he had blinded, stabbed, and battered Bates, he said she had dared him to do it, challenging him to do her harm. Gillian Mezey, a consultant psychiatrist, told the court that Smith had "a severe paranoid disorder with morbid jealousy" and lived in a "distorted


title: Murder of Kelly Anne Bates

text: The jury at Manchester Crown Court took one hour to find 49-year-old Smith guilty of Bates' murder. Sentencing him to life imprisonment, the judge, Mr. Justice Sachs, recommended that Smith serve a minimum term of 20 years. He stated: "This has been a terrible case; a catalogue of depravity by one human being upon another. You are a highly dangerous person. You are an abuser of women and I intend, so far as it is in my power, that you will abuse no more."


title: Murder of Kelly Anne Bates

text: The jury were offered professional counselling to help them deal with the distress of seeing the photographs of Bates' injuries and the "sickening violence" of the case. All members of the jury accepted this offer.


title: Purgatorio

text: Purgatorio (; Italian for "Purgatory") is the second part of Dante's "Divine Comedy", following the "Inferno" and preceding the "Paradiso". The poem was written in the early 14th century. It is an allegory telling of the climb of Dante up the Mount of Purgatory, guided by the Roman poet Virgil—except for the last four cantos, at which point Beatrice takes over as Dante's guide. Allegorically, "Purgatorio" represents the penitent Christian life. In describing the climb Dante discusses the nature of sin, examples of vice and virtue, as well as moral issues in politics and in the Church. The poem posits the theory that all sins arise from love – either perverted love directed towards others' harm, or deficient love, or the disordered or excessive love of good things.


title: Purgatorio

text: In the poem, Purgatory is depicted as an island-mountain in the Southern Hemisphere. This realm is divided into three parts. The bottom slopes of Mount Purgatory ("Purgatorio" I–IX) have been designated as "Ante-Purgatory" by commentators. Purgatory proper consists of seven levels or terraces ("Purgatorio" X–XXVII) of suffering and spiritual growth, associated with the seven deadly sins. Finally, the Earthly Paradise is located at the top of the mountain ("Purgatorio" XXVIII–XXXIII).


title: Purgatorio

text: As described in the "Inferno", the first twenty-four hours of Dante's journey took place on earth and started on the evening of Maundy Thursday, 24 March (or 7 April) 1300 ("Inf." I and II), and the next full day (Good Friday) was spent exploring the depths of Hell with Virgil as a guide ("Inf." III–XXXIV.69). Dante and Virgil spent the next day ascending from Hell to see the stars ("Inf." XXXIV.70–139). They arrive at the shore of the Mountain of Purgatory – the only land in the Southern Hemisphere – at 6 am on Easter Sunday, which is 6 pm on Sunday in Jerusalem, since the two points are antipodal. Dante describes Hell as existing underneath Jerusalem, having been created by the impact of Lucifer's fall; the Mountain of Purgatory was created by a displacement of rock caused by the same event. The "Purgatorio" picks up where the "Inferno" left off, describing Dante's three-and-one-quarter-day trip up the mountain that ends with Dante in the Earthly Paradise at the time of noon on Wednesday, March 30 (or April 13).


title: Purgatorio

text: Prayer is a dominant theme in "Purgatorio". Many of the souls Dante meets are depicted in prayer, with multiple liturgical references to psalms and hymns throughout the terraces. Prayers by the living on behalf of the souls also play a large role in the cantica, with some souls the pilgrim meets along the way requesting prayers from living relatives and even from the pilgrim himself. Dante learns from Manfred of Sicily in Ante-Purgatory that, in Purgatory, prayers from others work by shortening the wait that souls have to endure before entering Purgatory proper and by accelerating the rate at which souls ascend Mount Purgatory. One soul, Forese Donati, has gotten through Ante-Purgatory and the majority of the terraces only five years after his death, because of the prayers of his wife, Nella, on Earth. Forese's case, especially when compared to that of Statius, who has spent over 500 years on Mount Purgatory, shows the power of prayer to aid souls after death. Dante receives eleven distinct requests for prayer from individual souls in Purgatory, with most of the requests coming from souls in Ante-Purgatory and with the frequency of requests decreasing as he progresses through Purgatory.


title: Purgatorio

text: Ante-Purgatory is the region below the entrance into Purgatory proper and houses two main categories of souls whose penitent Christian life was delayed or deficient: the excommunicate and the late-repentant. This transitional space parallels similar sections found in the "Inferno" (the space reserved for the lukewarm and the neutral angels found in "Inferno" III) and in the "Paradiso" (the heavens under the shadow of Earth traversed by the pilgrim in "Paradiso" I–IX).


title: Purgatorio

text: This region is therefore characterized by a lingering attachment to earthly life and affairs, so that the crowds of souls whom Dante and Virgil meet here all marvel at Dante's body in the flesh ("Purgatorio" II–III). As Statius will later explain, Ante-Purgatory is also the only area of Mount Purgatory that is subjected to terrestrial meteorology.


title: Purgatorio

text: In "Purg." I.4–9, with the sun rising on Easter Sunday, Dante announces his intention to describe Purgatory by invoking the mythical Muses, as he did in Canto II of the "Inferno":


title: Purgatorio

text: At the shores of Purgatory, Dante and Virgil meet Cato, a pagan who was placed by God as the general guardian of the approach to the mountain (his symbolic significance has been much debated). The "Purgatorio" demonstrates the medieval knowledge of a spherical Earth, with Dante referencing the different stars visible in the Southern Hemisphere, the altered position of the sun, and the various time zones of the Earth. For instance, at the start of Canto II, the reader learns that it is dawn in Purgatory; Dante conveys this concept by explaining that it is sunset at Jerusalem (antipodal to the Mount of Purgatory), midnight (six hours later) over India on the River Ganges (with the constellation Libra overhead there), and noon (six hours earlier) over Spain. The journey is conceived as taking place during the vernal equinox, when the days and nights are of the same length.


title: Purgatorio

text: In a contrast to Charon's ferry across the Acheron in the "Inferno", Christian souls are escorted by an Angel Boatman from their gathering place somewhere near Ostia, the seaport of Rome at the mouth of the Tiber, through the Pillars of Hercules across the seas to the Mountain of Purgatory. The souls arrive singing "In exitu Israel de Aegypto." In his "Letter to Cangrande", Dante explains that this reference to Israel leaving Egypt refers both to the redemption of Christ and to "the conversion of the soul from the sorrow and misery of sin to the state of grace". Dante recognizes his friend Casella among the souls there (Canto II).


title: Purgatorio

text: The poets begin to climb in the early hours of morning. On the lower slopes, Dante and Virgil first encounter the excommunicate, who are detained at the base of the cliff for a period thirty times as long as their period of contumacy. The excommunicate include Manfred of Sicily. Manfred explains that prayer from those currently alive and in the grace of God may reduce the amount of time a soul spends in purgatory. The meeting with Manfred is over by about 9 AM. (Canto III).


title: Purgatorio

text: The Late-Repentant include (1) those too lazy or too preoccupied to repent (the Indolent), (2) those who repented at the last minute without formally receiving last rites, as a result of violent deaths, and (3) the Negligent Rulers. These souls will be admitted to Purgatory thanks to their genuine repentance, but must wait outside for an amount of time equal to their lives on earth. The lazy include Belacqua (possibly a deceased friend of Dante), whom Dante is relieved to discover here, rather than in Hell. The meeting with Belacqua is over by noon (Canto IV).


title: Purgatorio

text: Those not receiving last rites include Pia de' Tolomei of Siena, who was murdered by her husband, Nello della Pietra of the Maremma (Canto V):


title: Purgatorio

text: Also in this category is the troubadour Sordello who, like Virgil, is from Mantua. When Sordello discovers the great poet's identity, he bows down to him in honour. This helps keep Virgil in the foreground of the poem, since (as a resident of Limbo) Virgil is less qualified as a guide here than he was in Hell. As a resident of Purgatory, Sordello is able to explain the Rule of the Mountain: that after sunset souls are incapable of climbing any further. Allegorically, the sun represents God, meaning that progress in the penitent Christian life can only be made through Divine Grace. Virgil's conversation with Sordello ends as the sun is moving downward, that is, after 3 PM (Cantos VI to VII).


title: Purgatorio

text: It is sunset, so Dante and his companions stop for the night in the beautiful Valley of the Princes where they meet persons whose preoccupation with public and private duties hampered their spiritual progress, particularly deceased monarchs such as Rudolph, Ottokar, Philip the Bold, and Henry III (Cantos VII and VIII). John Ciardi writes that these Negligent Rulers are "elevated above their negligent subjects because their special duties made it difficult for them to think about the welfare of their own souls". Dante also speaks with the souls of contemporary Italian statesmen Currado Malaspina and Nino Visconti, the latter being a personal friend whom Dante rejoices at not having found among the damned.


title: Purgatorio

text: As night approaches, the souls sing the Compline hymns "Salve Regina" and "Te lucis ante terminum". Dante's beautiful description of evening in this valley was the inspiration for a similar passage in Byron's "Don Juan":


title: Purgatorio

text: Dante falls asleep at 8:30 PM; his dream takes place just before the dawn of Easter Monday and he awakens just after 8 AM. Waking, Dante finds that he has been carried up to the gate of Purgatory proper. Here there are three steps, representative of the tripartite Sacrament of Penance. The first is of white marble so polished it is reflective like a mirror, representing a candid, self-reflective confession and purity of the penitent's true self. The next step is dark and cracked, representing the sorrow and broken-heartedness of contrition. It has also been noted that the dark color is the color of mourning and the crack is in the shape of a Christian cross. The last step is blood red, symbolising the burning Love that ends a good confession, the blood of Christ, and the restoration of true life. (Canto IX).


title: Purgatorio

text: The gate of Purgatory, Peter's Gate, is guarded by an angel bearing a naked sword, his countenance too bright for Dante's sight to sustain. In reply to the angel's challenge, Virgil declares that a lady from heaven brought them there and directed them to the gate. On Virgil's advice, Dante mounts the steps and pleads humbly for admission by the angel, who uses the point of his sword to draw the letter "P" (signifying "peccatum", sin) seven times on Dante's forehead, bidding him "take heed that thou wash / These wounds, when thou shalt be within." With the passage of each terrace and the corresponding purgation of his soul that the pilgrim receives, one of the "P"s will be erased by the angel granting passage to the next terrace. The angel at Peter's Gate uses two keys, silver (remorse) and gold (reconciliation) to open the gate – both are necessary for redemption and salvation. As the poets are about to enter, they are warned not to look back.


title: Purgatorio

text: After passing through the gate of Purgatory proper, Virgil guides the pilgrim Dante through the mountain's seven terraces. These correspond to the seven deadly sins or "seven roots of sinfulness": Pride, Envy, Wrath, Sloth, Avarice (and Prodigality), Gluttony, and Lust. The classification of sin here is more psychological than that of the "Inferno", being based on motives rather than actions. It is also drawn primarily from Christian theology, rather than from classical sources. The core of the classification is based on love: the first three terraces of Purgatory relate to perverted love directed towards actual harm of others, the fourth terrace relates to deficient love (i.e. sloth or acedia), and the last three terraces relate to excessive or disordered love of good things. Each terrace purges a particular sin in an appropriate manner. Those in Purgatory can leave their circle voluntarily, but may only do so when they have corrected the flaw within themselves that led to committing that sin.


title: Purgatorio

text: The structure of the poetic description of these terraces is more systematic than that of the "Inferno," and associated with each terrace are an appropriate prayer and beatitude. Robert Hollander describes the shared features of all the terraces as "(1) description of the physical aspect of the terrace, (2) exemplars of the virtue that counters the sin repented here, (3) description of the penitents, (4) recitation of their sins by particular penitents, (5) exemplars of the vice, (6) appearance to Dante of the angel representing the countering virtue".


title: Purgatorio

text: The first three terraces of Purgatory relate to sins caused by a perverted love directed towards actual harm of others.


title: Purgatorio

text: The first of the sins is Pride. Dante and Virgil begin to ascend this terrace shortly after 9 AM. On the terrace where proud souls purge their sin, Dante and Virgil see beautiful sculptures expressing humility, the opposite virtue. The first example is of the Annunciation to the Virgin Mary, where she responds to the angel Gabriel with the words "Ecce ancilla Dei" ("Behold the handmaid of the Lord," Luke 1:38). An example of humility from classical history is the Emperor Trajan, who, according to a medieval legend, once stopped his journey to render justice to a poor widow (Canto X).


title: Purgatorio

text: After being introduced to humility, Dante and Virgil meet the souls of the proud, who are bent over by the weight of huge stones on their backs. As they walk around the terrace, they are able to profit from the sculpted examples of humility. The first of these souls is Omberto Aldobrandeschi, whose pride lies in his descent ("I was Italian, son of a great Tuscan: / my father was Guiglielmo Aldobrandesco"), although he is learning to be more humble ("I / do not know if you have heard his name"). Oderisi of Gubbio is an example of pride in achievements – he was a noted artist of illuminated manuscripts. Provenzano Salvani, leader of the Sienese Ghibellines, is an example of pride in dominating others (Canto XI).


title: Purgatorio

text: In Canto XIII, Dante points out, with "frank self-awareness," that pride is also a serious flaw of his own:


title: Purgatorio

text: After his conversations with the proud, Dante notes further sculptures on the pavement below, this time illustrating pride itself. The sculptures show Satan (Lucifer), the building of the Tower of Babel, King Saul, Niobe, Arachne, King Rehoboam, and others.


title: Purgatorio

text: The poets reach the stairway to the second terrace at noon. As they ascend, the Angel of Humility salutes them and brushes Dante's forehead with his wings, erasing the letter "P" ("peccatum") corresponding to the sin of pride, and Dante hears the beatitude "Beati pauperes spiritu" ("Blessed are the poor in spirit", Matthew 5:3) (Canto XII). Dante is surprised to discover that climbing now seems easier than it did before. Virgil tells him that one of the initials has been removed from his forehead by the angel and that the effort will be increasingly lessened as he climbs higher. Dante compares the stairway to the easy ascent from the Rubiconte, a bridge in Florence, up to San Miniato al Monte, overlooking the city.


title: Purgatorio

text: Envy is the sin that "looks with grudging hatred upon other men's gifts and good fortune, taking every opportunity to run them down or deprive them of their happiness". (This in contrast to covetousness, the excessive desire to have things like money.) As one of the envious souls on this terrace says:


title: Purgatorio

text: On entering the terrace of the envious, Dante and Virgil first hear voices on the air telling stories of generosity, the opposite virtue. There is, as in all the other terraces, an episode from the life of the Virgin Mary; this time, the scene from the Life of the Virgin is the Wedding at Cana, in which she expresses her joy for the newly married couple and encourages Christ to perform his first miracle. There is also Jesus' saying "Love your enemies." A classical story shows the friendship between Orestes and Pylades.


title: Purgatorio

text: The souls of the envious wear penitential grey cloaks, and their eyes are sewn shut with iron wire, resembling the way a falconer sews shut the eyes of a falcon in order to train it. This results in audible, rather than visual, examples here. Dante and Virgil speak with Sapia Salvani (Canto XIII).


title: Purgatorio

text: The souls of the envious include Guido del Duca and Rinieri da Calboli. The former speaks bitterly about the ethics of people in towns along the River Arno:


title: Purgatorio

text: The voices on the air also include examples of envy. The classical example is Aglauros, who, according to Ovid, was turned to stone because she was jealous of Hermes' love for her older sister Herse. The Biblical example is Cain, mentioned here not for his act of fratricide, but for the jealousy of his younger brother Abel that led to it (Canto XIV).


title: Purgatorio

text: It is mid afternoon and the poets are walking westward along the terrace with the sun in their faces. A dazzling brightness suddenly smites Dante on the brow, which he supposes is caused by the sun; but when he shades his eyes from it, the new brightness persists, and he is forced to close his eyes. Virgil reminds him that the approach of an angel is still too powerful for his earthly senses but says that this will not always be so. The Angel of Charity, having brushed away another "P" from Dante's brow, invites him to mount to the next terrace. As he is leaving the terrace, the dazzling light of the terrace's angel causes Dante to reveal his scientific knowledge, observing that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection "as theory and experiment will show" (Canto XV).


title: Purgatorio

text: On the terrace of the wrathful, which the poets reach at 3 PM, examples of meekness (the opposite virtue) are given to Dante as visions in his mind. The scene from the Life of the Virgin in this terrace of purgation is the Finding in the Temple. Whereas most parents would be angry at their child for worrying them, Mary is loving and understanding of Christ's motives behind his three-day disappearance. In a classical example, the wife of Peisistratos wanted a young man executed for embracing their daughter, to which Peisistratos responded: "What shall we do to one who'd injure us / if one who loves us earns our condemnation?" Saint Stephen provides a Biblical example, drawn from Acts 7:54–60 (Canto XV):


title: Purgatorio

text: The souls of the wrathful walk around in blinding acrid smoke, which symbolises the blinding effect of anger:


title: Purgatorio

text: The prayer for this terrace is the "Agnus Dei": "Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere nobis ... dona nobis pacem" ("Lamb of God, you who take away the sins of the world, have mercy upon us ... grant us peace").


title: Purgatorio

text: Marco Lombardo discourses with Dante on free will – a relevant topic, since there is no point being angry with someone who has no choice over his actions (Canto XVI). Dante also sees visions with examples of wrath, such as Procne, Haman and Lavinia. When the visions have passed, the Angel of Peace appears to greet them. Again the brightness overpowers Dante's sight, but he hears the angel's invitation to mount to the next terrace and feels a wing brush his forehead, erasing the third "P". Then follows the pronouncing of the beatitude "Beati pacifici" ("Blessed are the peacemakers"). The poets leave the third terrace just after nightfall (Canto XVII).


title: Purgatorio

text: While staying on the fourth terrace, Virgil is able to explain to Dante the organization of Purgatory and its relationship to perverted, deficient, or misdirected love. The three terraces they have seen so far have purged the proud ("he who, through abasement of another, / hopes for supremacy"), the envious ("one who, when he is outdone, / fears his own loss of fame, power, honor, favor; / his sadness loves misfortune for his neighbor."), and the wrathful ("he who, over injury / received, resentful, for revenge grows greedy / and, angrily, seeks out another's harm."). Deficient and misdirected loves are about to follow. Virgil's discourse on love concludes at midnight (Cantos XVII and XVIII).


title: Purgatorio

text: On the fourth terrace we find souls whose sin was that of deficient love – that is, sloth or acedia. Since they had failed in life to act in pursuit of love, here they are engaged in ceaseless activity. The examples of sloth and of zeal, its opposite virtue, are called out by these souls as they run around the terrace. A scene from the life of the Virgin outlined in this terrace is the Visitation, with Mary going "in haste" to visit her cousin Elizabeth. These examples also include episodes from the lives of Julius Caesar and Aeneas. This activity also replaces a verbal prayer for this terrace. Since the formerly slothful are now too busy to converse at length, this section of the poem is a short one.


title: Purgatorio

text: Allegorically, spiritual laziness and lack of caring lead to sadness, and so the beatitude for this terrace is "Beati qui lugent" ("Blessed are those who mourn, for they will be comforted," Matthew 5:4) (Canto XVIII and XIX).


title: Purgatorio

text: Dante's second night's sleep occurs while the poets are on this terrace, and Dante dreams shortly before Tuesday's dawn of a Siren, symbol of disordered or excessive love represented by greed, gluttony and lust. Upon awakening from the dream in the light of the sun, Dante is visited by the Angel of Zeal, who removes another "P" from his brow, and the two poets climb toward the fifth terrace (Canto XIX).


title: Purgatorio

text: On the last three terraces are those who sinned by loving good things, but loving them in an excessive or disordered way.