title: University of Bristol

text: In Clifton, Goldney Hall was built first in the early 18th century by the wealthy merchant Goldney family and eventually became part of the university in 1956. It is a popular location for filming, with "The Chronicles of Narnia", "The House of Eliott" and "Truly, Madly, Deeply", as well as episodes of "Only Fools and Horses" and "Casualty", being filmed there. The Grotto in the grounds is a Grade I listed building. Clifton Hill House is another Grade I listed building now used as student accommodation in Clifton. The original building was constructed between 1745 and 1750 by Isaac Ware, and has been used by the university since its earliest days in 1909. Manor Hall comprises five separate buildings, the principal of which was erected from 1927 to 1932 to the design of George Oatley following a donation from Henry Herbert Wills. Manor Hall houses the largest and most dated rooms, some dating back to the early 20th century. One of its annexes, Manor House, has recently been refurbished and officially 'reopened' in 1999.


title: University of Bristol

text: On the central precinct sits The Hawthorns, a student house accommodating 115 undergraduate students. The house started life as a collection of villas built somewhere between 1888 and 1924 that were later converted, bit by bit, into a hotel by John Dingle. The Hawthorns also houses conferencing facilities, the staff refectory and bar, the Accommodation Office and the Student Houses Office. 33 Colston Street was opened in the city centre in October 2011 after the university acquired the property in 2009. Several of the residences in the central precinct are more recent and have been built and are managed by third-party organisations under exclusivity arrangements with the university. These include New Bridewell House, opened in 2016, which is in the former police HQ, it includes en-suite bedrooms and studios and is operated by Fresh Student Housing, Unite House and Chantry Court, opened in 2000 and 2003 respectively by the UNITE Group, as well as Dean's Court (2001, postgraduates only) and Woodland Court (2005), both run by the Dominion Housing Group.


title: University of Bristol

text: All of the main halls elect groups of students to the Junior Common Room to organise the halls social calendar for the next year. Residents of student houses, private accommodation and students living at home become members of Orbital – a society organising social events for students throughout the year.


title: University of Bristol

text: The University of Bristol has a rich heritage and reputation for sports. Sports membership at Bristol University totals up to 4,000 students across a wide range of unique teams and individual pursuits. Its network of over 70 sports clubs and four sites are run by the university's Student Union and its Sport,Exercise and Health Department. Competing with other universities in the British Universities and Colleges Sport league (BUCS), Bristol university is placed 8th in the country.


title: University of Bristol

text: Bristol University Indoor Sports Centre- The Indoor Sports Centre is located at the heart of the university campus and is home to a fully equipped two-storey gym, fitness studios, sports hall and Sports Medicine Clinic.


title: University of Bristol

text: Coombe Dingle Sports Complex- This 38-acre site in the heart of Stoke Bishop, features the only indoor tennis centre in Bristol and is where the university's more traditional outdoor sports reside. Coombe Dingle is typically used for training and competition. Throughout the year Coombe Dingle hosts a variety of competitive fixtures, including inter-university BUCS matches, plus local and national league matches.:


title: University of Bristol

text: Richmond Building- The university swimming pool is located inside the student union (Richmond Building). This six-lane swimming pool has a moveable bulkhead, creating a competition-length main pool, alongside a comfortable teaching pool for lessons. The pool is available to students, staff and the community for lane and casual swimming, or lessons, on a membership or pay-as-you-go basis.


title: University of Bristol

text: Saltford Boathouse- The University Boathouse is based at Saltford, halfway to Bath on the River Avon.


title: University of Bristol

text: Used for term-time training/competition and out-of-term recreational water sport, the Boathouse moors up the universities rowing and sailing boats.


title: University of Bristol

text: Current academics at the University of Bristol include 21 fellows of the Academy of Medical Sciences, 13 fellows of the British Academy, 13 fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering and 44 fellows of the Royal Society. These include, Sir Michael Berry, one of the discoverers of quantum mechanics' "geometric phase", John Rarity international expert on quantum optics, quantum cryptography and quantum communication, David May, computer scientist and lead architect for the transputer, Mark Horton, a British maritime and historical archaeologist and Bruce Hood, a world-leading experimental psychologist.


title: University of Bristol

text: Academics in computer science include, David Cliff, inventor of the seminal "ZIP" trading algorithm, Peter Flach, Mike Fraser, professor of human-computer interaction, Julian Gough and Nigel Smart. Academics in engineering include the materials scientist Stephen Eichhorn.


title: University of Bristol

text: Past academics of the university include, Patricia Broadfoot, vice-chancellor of the University of Gloucestershire, Nigel Thrift, vice-chancellor of the University of Warwick, and Wendy Larner, provost of Victoria University of Wellington. Anthony Epstein, co-discoverer of the Epstein-Barr virus, was Professor of Pathology at the university from 1968 to 1982, Sir John Lennard-Jones, discoverer of the Lennard-Jones potential in physics and Alfred Marshall, one of the University College's principals and influential economist in the latter part of the 19th century. Mathematicians and philosophers Rohit Parikh and Brian Rotman lectured in the mathematics department, and philosophers of science Paul Feyerabend and Alexander Bird taught in the department of philosophy. Another notable current academic in the department of philosophy includes Havi Carel. Notable mathematicians who have worked in the department of mathematics include Hannes Leitgeb, Philip Welch, Ben Green, Andrew Booker, Julia Wolf, Jens Marklof, John McNamara, Howell Peregrine, Christopher Budd John Hogan, Jeremy Rickard, Richard Jozsa, Corinna Ulcigrai, David Evans and the statistician Harvey Goldstein.


title: University of Bristol

text: The University of Bristol is associated with three Ig Nobel Prizes, an award for unusual or trivial achievements in scientific research. Sir Michael Berry shared the award (with Andre Geim, a Nobel Laureate) for using magnets to levitate a frog. Gareth Jones also shared an Ig Nobel prize for scientifically documenting fellatio in fruit bats. Dr. Len Fisher was awarded the 1999 prize for physics for calculating the optimal way to dunk a biscuit.


title: University of Bristol

text: Bristol alumnus Paul Dirac went on to win the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1933 for his contribution to the formulation of quantum mechanics and is considered one of the most significant physicists of the 20th century. Other notable scientists include Dani Rabaiotti, an environmental scientist and science communicator, and Eliahu Nissim, a professor of aeronautical engineering, and the president of the Open University of Israel.


title: University of Bristol

text: Writers to have studied at Bristol include Dick King-Smith, Sarah Kane, Angela Carter, Dorothy Simpson, David Gibbins, Mark Simmons, Olivier award-winning playwright Laura Wade, and David Nicholls, author of the novel "Starter for Ten", turned into a screenplay set in the University of Bristol.


title: University of Bristol

text: In government and politics, notable alumni include Albert II, Prince of Monaco, former Liberal Democrat MP Lembit Öpik, who was president of Bristol University Students' Union during his time, Sir Jonathan Evans, former head of MI5, Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, Chairperson of the African Union Commission from October 2012 to January 2017, and Paul Boateng, the UK's first Black Cabinet Minister.


title: University of Bristol

text: In current affairs, former students include journalist and "McMafia" author Misha Glenny, BBC News Chief Political Correspondent James Landale (who founded the university independent newspaper "Epigram"), author and journalist Julie Myerson, editor-in-chief of the Telegraph Media Group William Lewis, editor-in-chief of The Observer Will Hutton, Radio 4 presenter Sue Lawley, newsreader Alastair Stewart, and Sky News US Correspondent Dominic Waghorn. "BBC Breakfast" and "Good Morning Britain" anchor Susanna Reid was an editor of "Epigram".


title: University of Bristol

text: In entertainment, former students include rapper Shygirl, singer James Blunt, illusionist Derren Brown, comedians Jon Richardson, Marcus Brigstocke (who did not graduate), Matt Lucas and David Walliams, actors Simon Pegg, Chris Langham and Pearl Mackie, anime YouTuber Gigguk, "Brass Eye" creator Chris Morris and "Stath Lets Flats" creator Jamie Demetriou.


title: University of Bristol

text: Notable alumni from the Film and Television Production department include film directors Mick Jackson, Michael Winterbottom, Marc Evans, Christopher Smith, Alex Cox, Peter Webber and Maddie Moate.


title: University of Bristol

text: Other alumni include Anne McClain, member of the 2013 NASA Astronaut Class, mathematician Iain Gordon, long jumper Jazmin Sawyers, and Luke Bond, an organist at Windsor Castle, and baker Kim-Joy Hewlett, amongst many others.


title: Spin Doctors

text: Spin Doctors are an American alternative rock band from New York City, best known for their early 1990s hits "Two Princes" and "Little Miss Can't Be Wrong", which peaked on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart at No. 7 and No. 17, respectively.


title: Spin Doctors

text: The band currently consists of Chris Barron (lead vocals), Eric Schenkman (guitar and vocals) and Aaron Comess (drums, bass and keyboards).


title: Spin Doctors

text: The group originated in the late 1980s in New York City, originally as a band called Trucking Company; this band included Canadian guitarist Eric Schenkman, harmonicist John Popper, and later vocalist Chris Barron, who was Popper's Princeton, New Jersey high school friend. Popper left this side project to focus on his main gig with Blues Traveler full-time. With a name change to Spin Doctors, as well as the addition of Aaron Comess on drums and Mark White on bass, the classic lineup was in place by the spring of 1989.


title: Spin Doctors

text: Spin Doctors signed with Epic Records/Sony Music A&R executive Frankie LaRocka in 1990. The band's Epic debut EP "Up for Grabs...Live" was recorded live at the Wetlands Preserve in lower Manhattan, and released in January 1991. (In November 1992, these EP tracks were remixed and supplemented by additional live recordings to form the album "Homebelly Groove...Live".) Spin Doctors were known for their somewhat lengthy live shows, sometimes jamming even more than is evident on their live releases. They also often performed double-bill gigs opening for Blues Traveler, with members of both bands all jamming together as the transition from Spin Doctors set into the Blues Traveler set. Spin Doctors have many songs from their early club days that were never officially released, but remain circulated via concert recordings.


title: Spin Doctors

text: Spin Doctors's debut studio album "Pocket Full of Kryptonite" was released in August 1991. The band continued to play extensive live shows, gaining grassroots fans, as the album was mostly ignored commercially. In the summer of 1992, the band toured with the first lineup of the H.O.R.D.E. festival, sharing the stage with fellow jam bands Widespread Panic, Blues Traveler, and Phish. That summer, commercial popularity heated up, as radio and MTV began playing "Little Miss Can't Be Wrong" and "Two Princes", with the videos directed by filmmaker Rich Murray (who would direct many of the band's videos). The album went Gold in September 1992, and then received another boost in sales after the band's appearance on "Saturday Night Live" in October 1992. Additional videos and singles followed for "What Time Is It", "How Could You Want Him (When You Know You Could Have Me?)", and "Jimmy Olsen's Blues". By June 1993, the album went Triple Platinum. Ultimately it sold over five million copies in the U.S. and another five million overseas, peaking at No. 3 on the "Billboard" 200 albums chart.


title: Spin Doctors

text: "[Their] popularity is based on universal rock & roll virtues", said "Rolling Stone", which put the band on the cover of its January 7, 1993 issue. "The Doctors aren't trying to blaze new trails. They know we've been down this way with the Stones, Curtis Mayfield, and a few of their other touchstones. But the proof—plenty of it—is in the party." Spin Doctors made an appearance on "Sesame Street ("episode 3450), singing a modified version of "Two Princes" that emphasized the importance of sharing. In 1993, they recorded covers of "Have You Ever Seen the Rain?", originally by Creedence Clearwater Revival, for the film "Philadelphia" and "Spanish Castle Magic" for "".


title: Spin Doctors

text: Spin Doctors's second studio album, "Turn It Upside Down", released in June 1994, was not as commercially successful as "Pocket Full of Kryptonite", although it did sell a million copies in the United States and another million internationally. The second single, "You Let Your Heart Go Too Fast", was a modest hit (No. 42 on the pop chart). The band set out on a three-month headlining tour, and played to large crowds at Woodstock '94 and the Glastonbury Festival. Shortly after the release of "Turn It Upside Down", original guitarist Eric Schenkman left the band in September 1994 by walking offstage during a concert in Berkeley, California citing musical and personal differences, and being weary of the road. Schenkman was replaced by Anthony Krizan.


title: Spin Doctors

text: Featuring new guitarist Krizan, Spin Doctors released "You've Got to Believe in Something" in May 1996. It produced the single and video "She Used to Be Mine". They performed on the "Late Show with David Letterman" and did some touring, with Ivan Neville joining the band on keyboards. During this period, Spin Doctors contributed the theme song to Seasons 2 and 3 of the television show "Spin City." After touring wrapped up in the fall of 1996, Krizan eventually left the band, for reasons that remain relatively unknown. He was replaced by Israeli musician Eran Tabib after auditioning nearly 200 candidates. "You've Got to Believe in Something" did not live up to previous album sales, selling only 75,000 copies. Epic dropped the band in 1996.


title: Spin Doctors

text: In 1998, Spin Doctors signed to Uptown/Universal and released "Here Comes the Bride" in June 1999. During the recording of "Here Comes the Bride", Mark White left the band. The bass tracks on the album were finished by original band member Aaron Comess. During the tour supporting "Here Comes the Bride", Barron lost his voice due to a rare acute form of vocal cord paralysis that severely affected his ability to talk, let alone sing. He was told he had a 50:50 chance of ever talking or singing normally again. Keyboardist Ivan Neville also took over vocal duties for a few dates, but the band eventually cancelled the remainder of its tour. Barron's voice came back in early 2000 (first comeback [solo] shows in March 2000), at which point he began performing with his band and the Give Daddy Five. Barron undertook what he calls "a journeyman songwriting experience", composing tunes with Blues Traveler's John Popper and with former BMI executive Jeff Cohen.


title: Spin Doctors

text: Spin Doctors remained inactive as a band until September 2001, when news about the closing of Wetlands sparked the original four members to reunite. On September 7, 2001, the original lineup took the stage for the first time since 1994 to play at Wetlands. It was the final closing week of the club. The landmark show was a great success for the fans and the band.


title: Spin Doctors

text: Odd shows followed in 2002 through 2005, which eventually led to a brand new studio album, "Nice Talking to Me", released on September 13, 2005. The single "Can't Kick the Habit" was included on the soundtrack to the movie "Grandma's Boy". It received moderate radio airplay, along with the songs "Margarita" and the title track "Nice Talking to Me". While the record received good reviews, follow-up proved difficult when the record company that released it went out of business.


title: Spin Doctors

text: In 2008, the band continued to play one-off live shows in the United States and Europe. Drummer Aaron Comess released an instrumental record of all his own compositions entitled "Catskills Cry" featuring bassist Tony Levin and guitarist Bill Dillon. In 2009, Barron released the solo record "Pancho and the Kid" on Valley Entertainment. During the summer of 2010, Barron released "Songs from the Summer of Sangria". This five-song EP was his first official release with his band The Time Bandits.


title: Spin Doctors

text: In 2011, the band celebrated the 20-year anniversary of "Pocket Full of Kryptonite" with a UK and US tour. Sony Legacy released a 20th anniversary edition with bonus material on August 29, 2011.


title: Spin Doctors

text: In January 2022 the band fired longtime bassist Mark White after 33 years over his refusal to receive the COVID-19 vaccine.


title: 81st Academy Awards

text: The 81st Academy Awards ceremony, presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), honored the best films of 2008 and took place on February 22, 2009, at the Kodak Theatre in Hollywood, Los Angeles beginning at 5:30 p.m. PST / 8:30 p.m. EST. During the ceremony, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences presented Academy Awards (commonly referred to as Oscars) in 24 categories. The ceremony was televised in the United States by ABC, and was produced by Bill Condon and Laurence Mark and directed by Roger Goodman. Actor Hugh Jackman hosted the show for the first time. Two weeks earlier in a ceremony at the Beverly Wilshire Hotel in Beverly Hills, California held on February 7, the Academy Awards for Technical Achievement were presented by host Jessica Biel.


title: 81st Academy Awards

text: "Slumdog Millionaire" won eight awards, including Best Picture. Other winners included "The Curious Case of Benjamin Button" with three awards, "The Dark Knight" and "Milk" with two, and "Departures", "The Duchess", "La Maison en Petits Cubes", "Man on Wire", "The Reader", "Smile Pinki", "Toyland", "Vicky Cristina Barcelona", and "WALL-E" with one. The telecast garnered almost 37 million viewers in the United States.


title: 81st Academy Awards

text: The nominees for the 81st Academy Awards were announced on January 22, 2009, at 5:38 p.m. PST (13:38 UTC) at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater in Beverly Hills, California, by Sid Ganis, president of the Academy, and the actor Forest Whitaker. "The Curious Case of Benjamin Button" received the most nominations with thirteen (the ninth film to garner that many nominations); "Slumdog Millionaire" came in second with ten.


title: 81st Academy Awards

text: The winners were announced during the awards ceremony on February 22, 2009. "Slumdog Millionaire" was the eleventh film to win Best Picture without any acting nominations. Sean Penn became the ninth person to win Best Lead Actor twice. Best Supporting Actor winner Heath Ledger became the second performer to win a posthumous acting Oscar. The first actor to receive this distinction was Peter Finch who posthumously won Best Actor for "Network" two months after his death in January 1977. With its six nominations, "WALL-E" tied with 1991's "Beauty and the Beast" as the most nominated animated film in Oscar history.


title: 81st Academy Awards

text: Due to the declining viewership of the recent Academy Awards ceremonies, AMPAS had contracted an entirely new production team in an attempt to revive interest surrounding both the awards and festivities. In September 2008, the Academy selected producers Bill Condon and Laurence Mark to co-produce the telecast. Nearly three months later, actor Hugh Jackman, who had previously emceed three consecutive Tony Awards ceremonies between 2003 and 2005, was chosen as host of the 2009 gala. Jackman expressed his anticipation of the awards in the few days preceding, and had commented that he was thrilled with preparations for the ceremony.


title: 81st Academy Awards

text: Notable changes were introduced in the production of the telecast. In an attempt to build suspense and curiosity leading up to the awards, Condon and Mark announced that they would not reveal any of the presenters or performers who would participate in the Oscarcast. Another unique feature of the ceremony was that the orchestra performed onstage instead of being relegated to a pit. In a break from previous presentations, five previous Oscar-winning performers presented each of the acting categories as opposed to only one or two. In addition, the Academy announced that for the first time since Oscar began broadcasting on television, film studios would be able to televise advertisements promoting their upcoming films. Furthermore, a montage of upcoming 2009 films was shown over the ceremony's closing credits.


title: 81st Academy Awards

text: Several other people participated in the production of the ceremony. Chris Harrison hosted "Road to the Oscars", a weekly behind-the-scenes video blog on the Oscar ceremony website. David Rockwell designed a new set and stage design for the ceremony. Film historian and author Robert Osborne greeted guests entering the festivities at the Hollywood and Highland Center. Film director Judd Apatow filmed a comedy montage which featured Seth Rogen and James Franco reprising their roles from "Pineapple Express". Director Baz Luhrmann produced a song and dance number saluting movie musicals.


title: 81st Academy Awards

text: Peter Gabriel, who was originally scheduled to perform his nominated song "Down to Earth" from "WALL-E" during the live broadcast, declined to perform after learning that he would be allowed to sing only 65 seconds of the song during the ceremony's Best Original Song nominee performances. Gabriel still attended the ceremony but singer John Legend, backed by the Soweto Gospel Choir, performed the song in place of Gabriel.


title: 81st Academy Awards

text: Continuing a trend in recent years, the field of major nominees favored independent, low-budget films over blockbusters. However, one of the nominees for Best Picture had grossed over $100 million before the nominations were announced (compared with none from the previous year). The combined gross of the five Best Picture nominees when the Oscars were announced was $188 million with an average gross of $37.7 million per film.


title: 81st Academy Awards

text: "The Curious Case of Benjamin Button" was the highest earner among the Best Picture nominees with $104.4 million in domestic box office receipts. The film was followed by "Slumdog Millionaire" ($44.7 million), "Milk" ($20.7 million), "Frost/Nixon" ($8.8 million), and finally "The Reader" ($8.3 million). Among the rest of the top 50 releases of 2008 in U.S. box office before the nominations, 33 nominations went to nine films on the list. Only "The Dark Knight" (1st), "WALL-E" (5th), "Kung Fu Panda" (6th), "Bolt" (19th), "Tropic Thunder" (20th), and "The Curious Case of Benjamin Button" (21st) were nominated for directing, acting, screenwriting, Best Picture or Animated Feature. The other top-50 box office hits that earned nominations were "Iron Man" (2nd), "Wanted" (16th), and "Hellboy II: The Golden Army" (41st).


title: 81st Academy Awards

text: Shortly after the voting polls were closed for the awards, a purported list of winners was posted online. The list, which bore a purported signature from Academy president Sid Ganis, stated that Mickey Rourke won for Best Actor, Kate Winslet won for Best Actress, Amy Adams won for Best Supporting Actress, Heath Ledger won for Best Supporting Actor, and "Slumdog Millionaire" won for Best Picture. AMPAS spokeswoman Leslie Unger later revealed that the list was "a complete fraud", and that PricewaterhouseCoopers had just begun to count the ballots.


title: 81st Academy Awards

text: The show received a mixed reception from media publications. Some media outlets received the broadcast more positively. Television critic Robert Bianco of "USA Today" gave Jackman an average review but extolled producers Condon and Mark saying that the broadcast felt "faster and more intimate without sacrificing Hollywood glamour." "Vanity Fair" columnist Julian Sancton gave high marks for Jackman's hosting performance stating "After several years of glamour-deflating wisecracks from blasé hosts like Jon Stewart, Ellen DeGeneres, and Steve Martin, the new producers hired an M.C. who was willing to break a sweat." Film critic Roger Ebert lauded Jackman's performance noting that he "would be a charmer as host, and he was." Of the show itself, Ebert added, "It was the best Oscar show I've ever seen, and I've seen plenty."


title: 81st Academy Awards

text: Other media outlets were more critical of the show. "Los Angeles Times" columnist Mary McNamara was thought Jackman's performance "obliterated all memory" of David Letterman's hosting the ceremony in 1995, which was widely panned. "Time" television critic James Poniewozik wrote that Jackman was "charming and game and I bet he absolutely killed in the room. But he didn’t really project beyond the room, nor did he much seem to be trying to." He also noted that while there were some entertaining moments, "the broadcast overall had problems of pacing." Maureen Ryan of the "Chicago Tribune" remarked, "The whole thing was driven by a manic desire to bring some old-school glamor to the proceedings." She added that the long introductions praising the acting nominees slowed down the proceedings.


title: 81st Academy Awards

text: The American telecast on ABC drew in an average of 36.94 million people over its length, which was a 13% increase from the record lows of the previous year's ceremony. An estimated, 68.48 million total viewers watched all or part of the awards. The show also drew higher Nielsen ratings compared to the previous ceremony, with 20.88% of households watching over a 32.44 share. In addition, the program scored a 12.43 rating over a 30.61 share among the 18–49 demographic, which was a 13 percent increase.


title: 81st Academy Awards

text: In July 2009, the ceremony presentation received ten nominations at the 61st Primetime Emmys. Two months later, the ceremony won four awards including Outstanding Choreography (Rob Ashford), Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics (Hugh Jackman Opening Number: William Ross, John Kimbrough, Dan Harmon, Rob Schrab, Ben Schwartz), Outstanding Short Form Picture Editing, (Best Motion Picture Montage: Kyle Cooper, Hal Honigsberg), and Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Variety Or Music Series Or Special.


title: 81st Academy Awards

text: The annual "In Memoriam" tribute was presented by actress Queen Latifah. She performed the song "I'll Be Seeing You" during the segment.


title: Liver function tests

text: Liver function tests (LFTs or LFs), also referred to as a hepatic panel, are groups of blood tests that provide information about the state of a patient's liver. These tests include prothrombin time (PT/INR), activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), albumin, bilirubin (direct and indirect), and others. The liver transaminases aspartate transaminase (AST or SGOT) and alanine transaminase (ALT or SGPT) are useful biomarkers of liver injury in a patient with some degree of intact liver function. Most liver diseases cause only mild symptoms initially, but these diseases must be detected early. Hepatic (liver) involvement in some diseases can be of crucial importance. This testing is performed on a patient's blood sample. Some tests are associated with functionality (e.g., albumin), some with cellular integrity (e.g., transaminase), and some with conditions linked to the biliary tract (gamma-glutamyl transferase and alkaline phosphatase). Because some of these tests do not measure function, it is more accurate to call these liver chemistries or liver tests rather than liver function tests. Several biochemical tests are useful in the evaluation and management of patients with hepatic dysfunction. These tests can be used to detect the presence of liver disease. They can help distinguish among different types of liver disorders, gauge the extent of known liver damage, and monitor the response to treatment. Some or all of these measurements are also carried out (usually about twice a year for routine cases) on individuals taking certain medications, such as anticonvulsants, to ensure that these medications are not adversely impacting the person's liver.


title: Liver function tests

text: Although, reference ranges examples are given, these will vary depending on age, gender and his/her health, ethnicity, method of analysis, and units of measurement. Individual results should always be interpreted using the reference range provided by the laboratory that performed the test.


title: Liver function tests

text: Measurement of total bilirubin includes both unconjugated (indirect) and conjugated (direct) bilirubin. Unconjugated bilirubin is a breakdown product of heme (a part of hemoglobin in red blood cells). The liver is responsible for clearing the blood of unconjugated bilirubin, by 'conjugating' it (modified to make it water-soluble) through an enzyme named UDP-glucuronyl-transferase. When the total bilirubin level exceeds 17 μmol/L, it indicates liver disease. When total bilirubin levels exceed 40 μmol/L, bilirubin deposition at the sclera, skin, and mucous membranes will give these areas a yellow colour, thus it is called jaundice.


title: Liver function tests

text: The increase in predominantly unconjugated bilirubin is due to overproduction, reduced hepatic uptake of the unconjugated bilirubin and reduced conjugation of bilirubin. Overproduction can be due to the reabsorption of a haematoma and ineffective erythropoiesis leading to increased red blood cell destruction. Gilbert's syndrome and Crigler–Najjar syndrome have defects in the UDP-glucuronyl-transferase enzyme, affecting bilirubin conjugation.


title: Liver function tests

text: The degree of rise in conjugated bilirubin is directly proportional to the degree of hepatocyte injury. Viral hepatitis can also cause the rise in conjugated bilirubin. In parenchymal liver disease and incomplete extrahepatic obstruction, the rise in conjugated bilirubin is less than the complete common bile duct obstruction due to malignant causes. In Dubin–Johnson syndrome, a mutation in multiple drug-resistance protein 2 (MRP2) causes a rise in conjugated bilirubin.


title: Liver function tests

text: In acute appendicitis, total bilirubin can rise from 20.52 μmol/L to 143 μmol/L. In pregnant women, the total bilirubin level is low in all three trimesters.


title: Liver function tests

text: The measurement of bilirubin levels in the newborns is done through the use of bilimeter or transcutanoeus bilirubinometer instead of performing LFTs. When the total serum bilirubin increases over 95th percentile for age during the first week of life for high risk babies, it is known as hyperbilirubinemia of the newborn (neonatal jaundice) and requires light therapy to reduce the amount of bilirubin in the blood. Pathological jaundice in newborns should be suspected when the serum bilirubin level rises by more than 5 mg/dL per day, serum bilirubin more than the physiological range, clinical jaundice more than 2 weeks, and conjugated bilirubin (dark urine staining clothes). Haemolytic jaundice is the commonest cause of pathological jaundice. Those babies with Rh hemolytic disease, ABO incompatibility with the mother, Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G-6-PD) deficiency and minor blood group incompatibility are at increased risk of getting haemolytic jaundice.


title: Liver function tests

text: Apart from being found in high concentrations in the liver, ALT is found in the kidneys, heart, and muscles. It catalyses the transamination reaction, and only exists in a cytoplasmic form. Any kind of liver injury can cause a rise in ALT. A rise of up to 300 IU/L is not specific to the liver, but can be due to the damage of other organs such as the kidneys or muscles. When ALT rises to more than 500 IU/L, causes are usually from the liver. It can be due to hepatitis, ischemic liver injury, and toxins that causes liver damage. The ALT levels in hepatitis C rises more than in hepatitis A and B. Persistent ALT elevation more than 6 months is known as chronic hepatitis. Alcoholic liver disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), fat accumulation in liver during childhood obesity, steatohepatitis (inflammation of fatty liver disease) are associated with a rise in ALT. Rise in ALT is also associated with reduced insulin response, reduced glucose tolerance, and increased free fatty acids and triglycerides. Bright liver syndrome (bright liver on ultrasound suggestive of fatty liver) with raised ALT is suggestive of metabolic syndrome.


title: Liver function tests

text: In pregnancy, ALT levels would rise during the second trimester. In one of the studies, measured ALT levels in pregnancy-related conditions such as hyperemesis gravidarum was 103.5 IU/L, pre-eclampsia was 115, HELLP syndrome was 149. ALT levels would reduce by greater than 50% in three days after child delivery. Another study also shows that caffeine consumption can reduce the risk of ALT elevation in those who consume alcohol, overweight people, impaired glucose metabolism, and viral hepatitis.


title: Liver function tests

text: AST exists in two isoenzymes namely mitochondrial form and cytoplasmic form. It is found in highest concentration in the liver, followed by heart, muscle, kidney, brain, pancreas, and lungs. This wide range of AST containing organs makes it a relatively less specific indicator of liver damage compared to ALT. An increase of mitochondrial AST in bloods is highly suggestive of tissue necrosis in myocardial infarction and chronic liver disease. More than 80% of the liver AST activity are contributed by mitochondrial form of the isoenzymes, while the circulating AST in blood are contributed by cytoplasmic form of AST. AST is especially markedly raised in those with liver cirrhosis. AST can be released from a variety of other tissues and if the elevation is less than two times the normal AST, no further workup needs to be performed if a patient is proceeding to surgery.


title: Liver function tests

text: In certain pregnancy related conditions such as hyperemesis gravidarum, AST can reach as high as 73 IU/L, 66 IU/L in pre-eclampsia, and 81 IU/L in HELLP syndrome.


title: Liver function tests

text: The AST/ALT ratio increases in liver functional impairment. In alcoholic liver disease, the mean ratio is 1.45, and mean ratio is 1.33 in post necrotic liver cirrhosis. Ratio is greater than 1.17 in viral cirrhosis, greater than 2.0 in alcoholic hepatitis, and 0.9 in non-alcoholic hepatitis. Ratio is greater than 4.5 in Wilson disease or hyperthyroidism.


title: Liver function tests

text: Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is an enzyme in the cells lining the biliary ducts of the liver. It can also be found on the mucosal epithelium of the small intestine, proximal convoluted tubule of the kidneys, bone, liver, and placenta. It plays an important role in lipid transposition in small intestines and calcification of bones. 50% of all the serum ALP activities in blood are contributed by bone. Acute viral hepatitis usually has normal or increased ALP. For example, hepatitis A has increased ALP due to cholestasis (impaired bile formation or bile flow obstruction) and would have the feature of prolonged itching. Other causes include: infiltrative liver diseases, granulomatous liver disease, abscess, amyloidosis of the liver and peripheral arterial disease. Mild elevation of ALP can be seen in liver cirrhosis, hepatitis, and congestive cardiac failure. Transient hyperphosphataemia is a benign condition in infants, and can reach normal level in 4 months. In contrast, low levels of ALP is found in hypothyroidism, pernicious anemia, zinc deficiency, and hypophosphatasia.


title: Liver function tests

text: ALP activity is significantly increased in the third trimester of pregnancy. This is due to increased synthesis from the placenta as well as increased synthesis in the liver induced by large amounts of estrogens. Levels in the third trimester can be as much as 2-fold greater than in non-pregnant women. As a result, ALP is not a reliable marker of hepatic function in pregnant women. In contrast to ALP, levels of ALT, AST, GGT, and lactate dehydrogenase are only slightly changed or largely unchanged during pregnancy. Bilirubin levels are significantly decreased in pregnancy.


title: Liver function tests

text: In pregnancy conditions such as hyperemesis gravdirum, ALP levels can reach 215 IU/L, meanwhile, in pre-eclampsia, ALP can reach 14 IU/L, and in HELLP syndrome ALP levels can reach 15 IU/L.


title: Liver function tests

text: GGT is a microsomal enzyme found in hepatocytes, biliary epithelial cells, renal tubules, pancreas, and intestines. It helps in glutathione metabolism by transporting peptides across the cell membrane. Much like ALP, GGT measurements are usually elevated if cholestasis is present. In acute viral hepatitis, the GGT levels can peak at 2nd and 3rd week of illness, and remained elevated at 6 weeks of illness. GGT is also elevated in 30% of the hepatitis C patients. GGT can increase by 10 times in alcoholism. GGT can increase by 2 to 3 times in 50% of the patients with non-alcoholic liver disease. When GGT levels is elevated, the triglyceride level is elevated also. With insulin treatment, the GGT level can reduce. Other causes of elevated GGT are: diabetes mellitus, acute pancreatitis, myocardial infarction, anorexia nervosa, Guillain–Barré syndrome, hyperthyroidism, obesity and myotonic dystrophy.


title: Liver function tests

text: In pregnancy conditions GGT activity is reduced in 2nd and 3rd trimesters. In hyperemesis gravidarum, GGT level value can reach 45 IU/L, 17 IU/L in pre-eclampsia, and 35 IU/L in HELPP syndrome.


title: Liver function tests

text: Albumin is a protein made specifically by the liver, and can be measured cheaply and easily. It is the main constituent of total protein (the remaining constituents are primarily globulins). Albumin levels are decreased in chronic liver disease, such as cirrhosis. It is also decreased in nephrotic syndrome, where it is lost through the urine. The consequence of low albumin can be edema since the intravascular oncotic pressure becomes lower than the extravascular space. An alternative to albumin measurement is prealbumin, which is better at detecting acute changes (half-life of albumin and prealbumin is about 2 weeks and about 2 days, respectively).


title: Liver function tests

text: 5' Nucleotidase (5NT) is a glycoprotein found throughout the body, in the cytoplasmic membrane, catalyzing the conversion to inorganic phosphates from nucleoside-5-phosphate. Its level is raised in conditions such as obstructive jaundice, parenchymal liver disease, liver metastases, and bone disease.


title: Liver function tests

text: Ceruloplasmin is an acute phase protein synthesized in the liver. It is the carrier of the copper ion. Its level is increased in infections, rheumatoid arthritis, pregnancy, non-Wilson liver disease and obstructive jaundice. In Wilson disease, the ceruloplasmin level is depressed which lead to copper accumulation in body tissues.


title: Liver function tests

text: Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) is significantly expressed in foetal liver. However, the mechanism that led to the suppression of AFP synthesis in adults is not fully known. Exposure of the liver to cancer-causing agents and arrest of liver maturation in childhood can lead to the rise in AFP. AFP can reach until 400–500 μg/L in hepatocellular carcinoma. AFP concentration of more than 400 μg/L is associated with greater tumour size, involvement of both lobes of liver, portal vein invasion and a lower median survival rate.


title: Liver function tests

text: The liver is responsible for the production of the vast majority of coagulation factors. In patients with liver disease, international normalized ratio (INR) can be used as a marker of liver synthetic function as it includes factor VII, which has the shortest half life (2–6 hours) of all coagulation factors measured in INR. An elevated INR in patients with liver disease, however, does not necessarily mean the patient has a tendency to bleed, as it only measures procoagulants and not anticoagulants. In liver disease the synthesis of both are decreased and some patients are even found to be hypercoagulable (increased tendency to clot) despite an elevated INR. In liver patients, coagulation is better determined by more modern tests such as thromboelastogram (TEG) or thomboelastrometry (ROTEM).


title: Liver function tests

text: Prothrombin time (PT) and its derived measures of prothrombin ratio (PR) and INR are measures of the extrinsic pathway of coagulation. This test is also called "ProTime INR" and "INR PT". They are used to determine the clotting tendency of blood, in the measure of warfarin dosage, liver damage, and vitamin K status.


title: Liver function tests

text: The serum glucose test, abbreviated as "BG" or "Glu", measures the liver's ability to produce glucose (gluconeogenesis); it is usually the last function to be lost in the setting of fulminant liver failure.


title: Liver function tests

text: Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is found in many body tissues, including the liver. Elevated levels of LDH may indicate liver damage. LDH isotype-1 (or cardiac) is used for estimating damage to cardiac tissue, although troponin and creatine kinase tests are preferred.


title: Liver function tests

text: Elevated urea may indicate acute or chronic kidney disease, urinary tract obstruction, congestive heart failure, recent myocardial Infarction or gastrointestinal bleeding.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Tiruchirappalli () (formerly Trichinopoly in English), also called Tiruchi or Trichy, is a major tier II city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and the administrative headquarters of Tiruchirappalli district. The city is credited with being the best livable city and the cleanest city of Tamil Nadu, as well as the fifth safest city for women in India. It is the fourth largest city as well as the fourth largest urban agglomeration in the state. Located south of Chennai and north of Kanyakumari, Tiruchirappalli sits almost at the geographic centre of Tamil Nadu state. The Cauvery Delta begins west of the city where the Kaveri river splits into two, forming the island of Srirangam which is now incorporated into the Tiruchirappalli City Municipal Corporation. The city occupies an area of and had a population of 916,857 in 2011.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Tiruchirappalli's recorded history begins in the 3rd century BC, when it was under the rule of the Cholas. The city has also been ruled by the Pallavas, Pandyas, Vijayanagar Empire, Nayak Dynasty, the Carnatic state and the British. The most prominent historical monuments in Tiruchirappalli include the Rockfort at Teppakulam, the Ranganathaswamy temple at Srirangam dedicated to the reclining form of Hindu God Vishnu, and is also the largest functioning temple in the world, and the Jambukeswarar temple at Thiruvanaikaval, which is also the largest temple for the Hindu God Shiva in the world. The archaeologically important town of Uraiyur, capital of the Early Cholas, is now a neighbourhood in Tiruchirappalli. The city played a critical role in the Carnatic Wars (1746–1763) between the British and the French East India companies.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: The city is an important educational centre in the state of Tamil Nadu, and houses nationally recognised institutions such as National Institutes of Technology (NIT), Indian Institutes of Management (IIM) National Law Universities (NLU), and Indian Institutes of Information Technology (IIIT) Srirangam. Industrial units such as Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL), Golden Rock Railway Workshop, Ordnance Factory Tiruchirappalli (OFT) and High Energy Projectile Factory (HEPF) have their factories in the city. The presence of a large number of energy equipment manufacturing units in and around the city has earned it the title of "Energy Equipment and Fabrication Capital of India". Tiruchirappalli is internationally known for a brand of "cheroot" known as the Trichinopoly cigar, which was exported in large quantities to the United Kingdom during the 19th century.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: A major road and railway hub in the state, the city is served by the Tiruchirappalli International Airport (TRZ) which operates flights to the Middle East and Southeast Asia.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Historically, Tiruchirappalli was commonly referred to in English as "Trichinopoly". The shortened forms "Trichy" or "Tiruchi" are used in everyday speech and the full name Tiruchirapalli appears in official use by government and quasi-government offices but seldom used by the general public.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: According to the late scholar C. P. Brown, Tiruchirappalli might be a derivative of the word "Chiruta-palli" (lit. "little town"). Orientalists Henry Yule and Arthur Coke Burnell have speculated that the name may derive from a rock inscription carved in the 16th century in which Tiruchirappalli is written as "Tiru-ssila-palli", meaning "holy-rock-town" in Tamil. Other scholars have suggested that the name Tiruchirappalli is a rewording of "Tiru-chinna-palli", meaning "holy little town". The "Madras Glossary" gives the root as "Tiruććināppalli" or the "holy ("tiru") village ("palli") of the "shina" ("Cissampelos pareira") plant".


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: According to Hindu mythology, Tiruchirappalli derives its name from the three-headed demon "Trishira", who meditated on the Hindu god Shiva near the present-day city to obtain favours from the god. An alternative derivation, albeit not universally accepted, is that the source of the city's name is the Sanskrit word "Trishirapuram"—"Trishira", meaning "three-headed", and "palli" or "puram" meaning "city".


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Tiruchirappalli is one of the oldest inhabited cities in Tamil Nadu; its earliest settlements date back to the Sangam period. Uraiyur, the capital of the Early Cholas for 600 years from the 3rd century BC onwards, is a neighbourhood in the present-day Tiruchirappalli. The city is referred to as Orthoura by the historian Ptolemy in his 2nd-century work "Geography". The world's oldest surviving dam, the Kallanai (Lower Anaicut) about from Uraiyur, was built across the Kaveri River by Karikala Chola in the 2nd century AD.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Tiruchirappalli Rock Fort, the rock is said to be one of the oldest formations in the world. It is 3.8 billion years old, as it is older than Greenland and Himalayas.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: The medieval history of Tiruchirappalli begins with the reign of the Pallava king Mahendravarman I, who ruled over South India in the 6th century AD and constructed the rock-cut cave-temples within the Rockfort. Following the downfall of the Pallavas in the 8th century, the city was conquered by the Medieval Cholas, who ruled until the 13th century.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: After the decline of the Cholas, Tiruchirappalli was conquered by the Pandyas, who ruled from 1216 until their defeat in 1311 by Malik Kafur, the commander of Allauddin Khilji. The victorious armies of the Delhi Sultanate are believed to have plundered and ravaged the region. The statue of the Hindu god Ranganatha in the temple of Srirangam vanished at about this time and was not recovered and reinstated for more than fifty years. Tiruchirappalli was ruled by the Delhi and Madurai sultanates from 1311 to 1378, but by the middle of the 14th century the Madurai Sultanate had begun to fall apart. Gradually, the Vijayanagar Empire established supremacy over the northern parts of the kingdom, and Tiruchirappalli was taken by the Vijayanagar prince Kumara Kampanna Udaiyar in 1371. The Vijayanagar Empire ruled the region from 1378 until the 1530s, and played a prominent role in reviving Hinduism by reconstructing temples and monuments destroyed by the previous Muslim rulers. Following the collapse of the Vijayanagar Empire in the early part of the 16th century, the Madurai Nayak kingdom began to assert its independence. The city flourished during the reign of Vishwanatha Nayak (c. 1529–1564), who is said to have protected the area by constructing the Teppakulam and building walls around the Srirangam temple. His successor Kumara Krishnappa Nayaka made Tiruchirappalli his capital, and it served as the capital of the Madurai Nayak kingdom from 1616 to 1634 and from 1665 to 1736.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: In 1736 the last Madurai Nayak ruler, Meenakshi, committed suicide, and Tiruchirappalli was conquered by Chanda Sahib. He ruled the kingdom from 1736 to 1741, when he was captured and imprisoned by the Marathas in the siege of Tiruchirappalli (1741) led by general Raghuji Bhonsle under the orders of Chhattrapati Shahu. Chanda Sahib remained prisoner for about eight years before making his escape from the Maratha Empire. Tiruchirappalli was administered by the Maratha general Murari Rao from 1741 to 1743, when it was acquired by the Nizam of Hyderabad, who bribed Rao to hand over the city. Nizam appointed Khwaja Abdullah as the ruler and returned to Golkonda. When the Nawab of the Carnatic Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah was dethroned by Chanda Sahib after the Battle of Ambur (1749), the former fled to Tiruchirappalli, where he set up his base. The subsequent siege of Tiruchirappalli (1751–1752) by Chanda Sahib took place during the Second Carnatic War between the British East India Company and Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah on one side and Chanda Sahib and the French East India Company on the other. The British were victorious and Wallajah was restored to the throne. During his reign he proposed renaming the city Natharnagar after the Sufi saint Nathar Vali, who is thought to have lived there in the 12th century AD. Tiruchirappalli was invaded by Nanjaraja Wodeyar in 1753 and Hyder Ali of the Mysore kingdom in 1780, both attacks repulsed by the troops of the British East India Company. A third invasion attempt, by Tipu Sultan—son of Hyder Ali—in 1793, was also unsuccessful; he was pursued by British forces led by William Medows, who thwarted the attack.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: The Carnatic kingdom was annexed by the British in July 1801 as a consequence of the discovery of collusion between Tipu Sultan—an enemy of the British—and Umdat Ul-Umra, son of Wallajah and the Nawab at the time, during the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War. Trichinopoly was incorporated into the Madras Presidency the same year, and the district of Trichinopoly was formed, with the city of Trichinopoly (or Tiruchirappalli) as its capital.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: During the Company Raj and later the British Raj, Tiruchirappalli emerged as one of the most important cities in India. According to the 1871 Indian census—the first in British India—Tiruchirappalli had a population of 76,530, making it the second largest city in the presidency after the capital of Madras (now Chennai). It was known throughout the British Empire for its unique variety of "cheroot", known as the Trichinopoly cigar. Tiruchirappalli was the first headquarters for the newly formed South Indian Railway Company in 1874 until its relocation to Madras in the early 20th century.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Tiruchirappalli played an active role during the pre-independence era; there were a number of strikes and non-violent protests during the Quit India Movement, notably the South Indian Railway Strike that took place in 1928. The city was the base for the Vedaranyam salt march initiated by C. Rajagopalachari in parallel with the Dandi March in 1930. Tiruchirappalli was an epicentre of the anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu when a team of Tamil language supporters gathered and organised a rally from the city to Madras in 1938. Later in 1965, Tiruchirappalli was made the base of the "Madras state Anti-Hindi Conference" convened by C. Rajagopalachari. The population of Tiruchirappalli continued to grow rapidly, achieving a growth rate of 36.9% during the period 1941–51. After independence in 1947, Tiruchirappalli fell behind other cities such as Salem and Coimbatore in terms of growth. Tiruchirappalli remained a part of Madras State, which was renamed Tamil Nadu in 1969. The city underwent extensive economic development in the 1960s with the commissioning of Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited. In the early 1980s, M. G. Ramachandran, then Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu drafted a plan to move the state's administrative headquarters to Tiruchirappalli. A satellite town was developed near Navalpattu on the outskirts of the city, but the proposed move was shelved by successive governments.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Like much of Tamil Nadu, Tiruchirappalli remains prone to communal tensions based on religion and ethnicity. There have been occasional outbreaks of violence against Sri Lankans. In 2009, the offices of a Sri Lankan airline were attacked in the city. In September 2012, two groups of Sri Lankan pilgrims who had visited the Basilica of Our Lady of Good Health in Velankanni and the Poondi Madha Basilica had their buses attacked in Tiruchirappalli by a group of Tamil activists. Owing to a series of terrorist attacks in Indian cities since 2000, security has been increased at sites such as Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Tiruchirappalli is situated in central south-eastern India, almost at the geographic centre of the state of Tamil Nadu. The Cauvery Delta begins to form west of the city where the river divides into two streams—the Kaveri and the Kollidam—to form the island of Srirangam. By road it is south of Hyderabad, south-west of Chennai and south-east of Bangalore. The topology of Tiruchirappalli is almost flat with an average elevation of . A few isolated hillocks rise above the surface, the highest of which is the Rockfort; its estimated age of 3,800 million years makes it one of the oldest rocks in the world. Other prominent hillocks include the Golden Rock, Khajamalai, and one each at Uyyakondan Thirumalai and Thiruverumbur.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Apart from Kaveri and its tributary Kollidam, the city is also drained by the Uyyakondan Channel, Koraiyar and Kudamurutti river channels. The land immediately surrounding the Kaveri River—which crosses Tiruchirappalli from west to east—consists of deposits of fertile alluvial soil on which crops such as finger millet and maize are cultivated. Further south, the surface is covered by poor-quality black soil. A belt of Cretaceous rock known as the Trichinopoly Group runs to the north-east of the city, and to the south-east there are layers of archaean rocks, granite and gneiss covered by a thin bed of conglomeratic laterite. The region falls under Seismic Zone III, which is moderately vulnerable to earthquakes.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: The city of Tiruchirappalli lies on the plains between the Shevaroy Hills to the north and the Palani Hills to the south and south-west. Tiruchirappalli is completely surrounded by agricultural fields. Densely populated industrial and residential areas have recently been built in the northern part of the city, and the southern edge also has residential areas. The older part of Tiruchirappalli, within the Rockfort, is unplanned and congested while the adjoining newer sections are better executed. Many of the old houses in Srirangam were constructed according to the shilpa sastras, the canonical texts of Hindu temple architecture.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Tiruchirappalli experiences a dry-summer tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification: "As"), with no major change in temperature between summer and winter. The climate is generally characterised by high temperature and low humidity. With an annual mean temperature of and monthly average temperatures ranging between and , the city is the hottest in the state. The warmest months are from April to June, when the city experiences frequent dust storms. , the highest temperature ever recorded in Tiruchirappalli was , which occurred on 2 May 1896; the lowest was observed on 6 February 1884 at . The high temperatures in the city have been attributed to the presence of two rivers—Kaveri and Kollidam—and the absence of greenery around the city. As Tiruchirappalli is on the Deccan Plateau the days are extremely warm and dry; evenings are cooler because of cold winds that blow from the south-east. From June to September, the city experiences a moderate climate tempered by heavy rain and thundershowers. Rainfall is heaviest between October and December because of the north-east monsoon winds, and from December to February the climate is cool and moist. The average annual rainfall is , slightly lower than the state's average of . Fog and dew are rare and occur only during the winter season.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: According to the 2011 Indian census, Tiruchirappalli had a population of 847,387, 9.4% of whom were under the age of six, living in 214,529 families within the municipal corporation limits. The recorded population density was while the sex ratio was 975 males for every 1,000 females. The Tiruchirappalli urban agglomeration had a population of 1,022,518, and was ranked the fourth largest in Tamil Nadu and the 53rd in India as of 2011. The city had an average literacy rate of 91.37%, significantly higher than the national average of 73.00%. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 10.48% and 0.27% of the population respectively. There were 228,518 people, roughly constituting about 26.96% of the total population, who lived in slums in the city. The daily floating population of the city was estimated at around 250,000.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: The city's population is predominantly Hindu. Muslims constitute about twenty percent, and there is also a considerable Christian population. Sikhs and Jains are present in smaller numbers. Roman Catholics in Tiruchirappalli are affiliated to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Tiruchirapalli while Protestants are affiliated to the Trichy–Tanjore Diocese of the Church of South India.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: The most widely spoken language is Tamil, but there are significant numbers of Telugu, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam and Hindi speakers. Saurashtra is also spoken by some significant minorities. The standard dialect of Tamil spoken is the Central Tamil dialect. There is also a substantial population of Anglo-Indians, and Sri Lankan Tamil migrants, most of whom are housed in refugee camps on the outskirts of the city.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Covering , the municipality of Tiruchirappalli was inaugurated under the Town Improvements Act 1865 on 1 November 1866; it originally consisted of two ex-officers and nine nominated members. Council elections were introduced in 1877 and the first chairman was elected in 1889. The municipality was upgraded to a municipal corporation as per the Tiruchirappalli City Municipal Corporation Act 1994 by inclusion of the erstwhile Srirangam and Golden Rock municipalities. Covering , the municipal corporation comprises 65 wards and four administrative zones; these are Srirangam, Ariyamangalam, Golden Rock and Abhishekapuram.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Tiruchirappalli City Municipal Corporation Council, the legislative body, comprises 65 councillors elected from each of the 65 wards and is headed by a mayor assisted by a Deputy Mayor. The executive wing has seven departments—general administration, revenue, town planning, engineering, public health, information technology and personnel—and is headed by a City Commissioner. The Commissioner is assisted by two executive engineers for the east and west sections, and Assistant Commissioners for personnel, accounts and revenue departments, a public relations officer, a city engineer, a city health officer and an Assistant Commissioner for each of the four zones. A Local Planning Authority for Tiruchirappalli was created on 5 April 1974 as per the Tamil Nadu Town and Country Planning Act of 1971 with the District Collector of Tiruchirappalli as chairman and the assistant director of Town and Country Planning as its member secretary.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: The city of Tiruchirappalli is represented in the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly by Nine elected members, one each for the Tiruchirappalli East, Tiruchirappalli West, Srirangam, Thiruverumbur, Musiri, Lalgudi, Manapparai, Thuraiyur and Manachanallur constituencies. J.Jayalalithaa, former chief minister of Tamil Nadu, represented the Srirangam constituency between 2011 and 2015. Tiruchirappalli is also part of the Tiruchirappalli Lok Sabha constituency and once every five years, elects a member to the Lok Sabhathe lower house of the Parliament of India. The Lok Sabha seat has been held by the Indian National Congress for four terms (1957–62, 1984–89, 1989–91 and 1991–96), the Communist Party of India (1962–67, 1971–77 and 1977–80) and the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (2001–04, 2009–14 and 2014–present) for three terms each) and Bharatiya Janata Party (1998–99 and 1999–2001) for two terms each. Candidates from the Communist Party of India, Tamil Maanila Congress and the Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam have won once each. Indian politician Rangarajan Kumaramangalam, who served as the Minister of Power in the government of Atal Bihari Vajpayee, was elected to the Lok Sabha from Tiruchirappalli in the 1998 and 1999 elections.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Law and order are enforced by the Tamil Nadu police, which for administrative purposes, has constituted Tiruchirappalli city as a separate district, divided into 18 zonal offices and units, with a total of 38 police stations.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: The Tiruchirappalli city police force is headed by a Commissioner of police assisted by Deputy Commissioners. Law and order in suburban areas is enforced by the Tiruchirappalli district police. It has the lowest proportion of rape and murder cases in the state.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Electricity supply to the city is regulated and distributed by the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board (TNEB). Tiruchirappalli is the headquarters of the Trichy region of TNEB. The city and its suburbs form the Trichy Metro Electricity Distribution Circle, which is subdivided into six divisions. A chief distribution engineer is stationed at the regional headquarters at Tennur. Water supply is provided by the Tiruchirappalli City Corporation. The city gets its drinking water supply from the Kaveri River and 1,470 bore wells linked to 60 service reservoirs in and around the city. Four of the six head works from which the city gets its water supply are maintained by the municipal corporation and the rest by other agencies.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Pollution has been a major concern in Tiruchirappalli. The Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board has set up five stations in the city to check the quality of air. As of 2012, about of solid waste are produced in the city every day. Solid waste management in the city is handled by the corporation; places such as the Gandhi Market, Central Bus terminus and the Chathram bus terminus are being monitored by other agencies. The principal landfill is at Ariyamangalam. Waste water management in the Trichy-Srirangam underground drainage (UGD) areas is handled by the Tamil Nadu Water Supply and Drainage Board (TWAD) and in other areas by the Tiruchirappalli Municipal Corporation. As of 2013, there were a total of 40,580 UGD connections maintained by the municipal corporation. In 2020, it is estimated that 31% of the city is covered under a networked sewage system, however, as of September 2020 the corporation has fast-tracked its project to cover the entire city, funded jointly by urban local body, Tamil Nadu Urban Finance and Infrastructure Development Corporation Ltd (Tufidco) and Asian Development Bank. The high toxicity of the waste water released by the Trichy Distilleries and Chemicals Limited (TDCL) is a major cause of concern for the corporation. The corporation's annual expenditure for the year 2010–11 was estimated to be . In 2013, researchers from Bharathidasan University assessed water quality in the Tiruchirappalli area and concluded that although the quality of the groundwater was suitable for human consumption, the quality of the pond water in the city was "not fit for human usage, agricultural or industrial purposes".


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Under the National Urban Sanitation Policy, Tiruchirappalli was ranked sixth in India and first in Tamil Nadu on the basis of sanitation for the year 2009–10. In January 2010, Tiruchirappalli became the first city in India where open defecation was prevented in all its slums. In a 2016 survey conducted by the Ministry of Urban Development, as a part of the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan campaign, Tiruchirappalli was ranked third in the list of cleanest cities in India.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Under the ease of living index 2018 published by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, Tiruchirappalli was ranked twelfth in India and first in Tamil Nadu among the 111 cities considered. The ranking framework was categorised into four pillars, namely Institutional, Social, Economic and Physical, which comprised 78 indicators such as urban transport, waste water management, solid waste management and governance.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Tiruchirappalli comes under the Tiruchi Telecom District of the Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL), India's state-owned telecom and internet services provider. There are about 20,000 business telephone subscribers in the city. Both Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) and Code division multiple access (CDMA) mobile services are available. BSNL also provides broadband internet services. BSNL began offering wireless internet services with the commencement of Evolution-Data Optimized (EVDO) transmission in 2008. Tiruchirappalli is one of the few cities in India where BSNL's Caller Line Identification (CLI)-based internet service Netone is available. Softnet (STPI), Tata VSNL, Bharti and Reliance are other major broadband internet service providers in the city.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Tiruchirappalli has a regional passport office, the second in Tamil Nadu, which commenced its operations on 23 March 1983 bifurcated from Chennai region. After Coimbatore and Madurai regional office were established in late 2000s by bifurcating from Trichy region, currently the office caters to the needs of Trichy and seven adjacent districts namely, Karur, Nagappattinam, Perambalur, Pudukkottai, Thanjavur, Ariyalur and Tiruvarur.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: During British rule, Tiruchirappalli was known for its tanneries, cigar-manufacturing units and oil presses. At its peak, more than 12 million cigars were manufactured and exported annually. Tanned hides and skins from Tiruchirappalli were exported to the United Kingdom. The city has a number of retail and wholesale markets, the most prominent among them being the Gandhi Market, which also serves people from other parts of the district. Other notable markets in the city are the flower bazaar in Srirangam and the mango market at Mambazha Salai. The suburb of Manachanallur is known for its rice mills, where polished "Ponni" rice is produced.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Tiruchirappalli is a major engineering equipment manufacturing and fabrication hub in India. The Golden Rock Railway Workshop, which moved to Tiruchirappalli from Nagapattinam in 1928, is one of the three railway workshop–cum–production units in Tamil Nadu. The workshops produced 650 conventional and low-container flat wagons during 2007–2008.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: A high-pressure boiler manufacturing plant was set up by Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL), India's largest public sector engineering company, in May 1965. This was followed by a seamless steel plant and a boiler auxiliaries plant. In 2010, the Tiruchirappalli unit of the company contributed to nearly 30 per cent of its total sales, making it the largest of all units. As of 2011, the Tiruchirappalli division employed about 10,000 people, and is supported by a number of ancillary industries producing almost of fabricated materials. These ancillary units together with BHEL contribute nearly 60 per cent of India's steel fabrication, earning the city the title, "Energy equipment and fabrication capital of India". Other important industries in Tiruchirappalli include Trichy Distilleries and Chemicals Limited (TDCL), which was established at Senthaneerpuram in the former Golden Rock municipality in 1966. and the Trichy Steel Rolling Mills, which was started as a private limited company on 27 June 1961. The Trichy Distilleries and Chemicals Limited manufactures rectified spirit, acetaldehyde, acetic acid, acetic anhydride and ethyl acetate. It is one of the biggest private sector distilleries in Tamil Nadu and produced of spirit alcohol between December 2005 and November 2006. The Ordnance Factories Board runs a weapons manufacturing unit and a Heavy Alloy Penetrator Project (HAPP) facility; the latter was set up in the late 1980s and consists of a flexible manufacturing system (FMS)—the first of its kind in India.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: From the late 1980s, a synthetic gem industry was developed in the city; the gemstones are cut and polished in Tiruchirappalli district and in Pudukottai district. In 1990, the Indian government launched a scheme to increase employment by boosting the production of American diamonds and training local artisans in semi-automated machinery and technology. The local gem industry was reportedly generating annual revenues of by the mid-1990s. Concerns have been raised over the employment of children aged 9–14 in the gem cutting and polishing industry. As a result, in 1996, Tiruchirappalli district was selected to be involved in the National Child Labour Project and in the running of special schools to educate working children.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: As of December 2010, the Tiruchirappalli region annually exports around of software. The ELCOT IT Park Trichy—the city's first IT park—commissioned at a cost of was inaugurated in December 2010. Set up by the Electronics Corporation of Tamil Nadu, the park occupies an area of and constitutes a Special Economic Zone.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Employing a workforce of over 1,500, more than six companies including Vuram, iLink Systems Pvt. Ltd., Scientific Publishing Company, Vdart Technologies, GI Tech Gaming Co. India Pvt. Ltd., VR Della IT Services Pvt. Ltd., and the Tamil Nadu Disaster Recovery Centre function out of the existing building, occupying the entire built-up space. The ELCOT IT Park Trichy is in close proximity to the Tiruchi International Airport. The facility was highlighted through the two editions of Global Investors Meet and became a key factor for the demand for the built-up space.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: A resident of Tiruchirappalli is generally referred to as a "Tiruchiite". Situated at the edge of the Kaveri Delta, the culture of Tiruchirappalli is predominantly Brahminical, prevalent elsewhere in the delta. With a substantial population of students and migrant industrial workers from different parts of India, Tiruchirappalli has a more cosmopolitan outlook than the surrounding countryside. The main festival celebrated in Tiruchirappalli is Pongal, a regional harvest festival celebrated during January. As part of the Pongal celebrations, Jallikattu, a bull-taming village sport played on the last day of the festival, is occasionally held on the outskirts of the city. Aadi Perukku, Samayapuram flower festival, Vaikunta Ekadasi, Srirangam car festival, and the Teppakulam float festival are some of the prominent festivals that are held locally. Bakrid and Eid al-Fitr are also widely celebrated, owing to the substantial number of Muslims in the city. Nationwide festivals such as the Gregorian New Year, Christmas, Deepavali and Holi are also celebrated in Tiruchirappalli.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: The 12th century Tamil epic "Kambaramayanam" was first recited at the Ranganathaswamy temple in Srirangam. In 1771, "Rama Natakam", a musical drama written Arunachala Kavi and based on the "Ramayana", was also performed there. Tiruchirappalli was home to some of the prominent Carnatic musicians—including Lalgudi Jayaraman, Srirangam Kannan and A. K. C. Natarajan—and scholars such as T. S. Murugesan Pillai, Kundalam Rangachariar and K. A. P. Viswanatham. Composers, poets and vocalists such as G. Ramanathan, T. K. Ramamoorthy, Vaali and P. Madhuri, who have made significant contributions to Tamil film music hail from the city.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Textile weaving, leather-work and gem cutting are some of the important crafts practised in Tiruchirappalli. Wooden idols of Hindu gods and goddesses are sold at "Poompuhar", the crafts emporium run by the Government of Tamil Nadu. The Trichy Travel Federation (TTF) was formed on 5 May 2009 to promote Tiruchirappalli as a favourable tourist destination. The federation organises an annual food festival called "Suvai". Lack of infrastructure has been a major deterrent to the city's tourism industry.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Once a part of the Chola kingdom, Tiruchirappalli has a number of exquisitely sculpted temples and fortresses.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Most of the temples, including the Rockfort temples, the Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam, the Jambukeswarar Temple at Thiruvanaikkaval, the Samayapuram Mariamman Temple, the Erumbeeswarar Temple, Gneeliwaneswarar Temple at Thiruppaingneeli and the temples in Urayur, are built in the Dravidian style of architecture; the Ranganathaswamy Temple and Jambukeswarar Temple are often counted among the best examples of this style. The rock-cut cave temples of the Rockfort, along with the gateway and the Erumbeeswarar Temple, are listed as monuments of national importance by the Archaeological Survey of India.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Considered one of the symbols of Tiruchirappalli, the Rockfort is a fortress which stands atop a 273-foot-high rock. It consists of a set of monolithic rocks accommodating many rock-cut cave temples. Originally built by the Pallavas, it was later reconstructed by the Madurai Nayaks and Vijayanagara rulers. The temple complex has three shrines, two of which are dedicated to Lord Ganesha, one at the foot and the Ucchi Pillayar Temple at the top, and the Thayumanavar Temple between them. The Thayumanavar temple, the largest of the three, houses a shrine for "Pārvatī" as well as the main deity. As per a legend, Vayu Bhaghvan and Adiseshan had a dispute to find out who is superior, to prove the superiority adiseshan encircled the Kailasam, Vayu tried to remove this encircle by creating santamarutham (Twister). Because of the santamarutham, eight kodumudigal (parts) fell from kailasam into eight different places which are Thirugonamalai (Trincomalee, Sri Lanka), Thirukalahasti, Thiruchiramalai (Rock fort), Thiruenkoimalai, Rajathagiri, Neerthagiri, Ratnagiri, and Swethagiri Thirupangeeli.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: The Rockfort is visible from almost every part of the city's north. The Teppakulam at the foot of the Rockfort is surrounded by bazaars. It has a mandapa at its centre.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: The Ranganathaswamy Temple, dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu, is located on the island of Srirangam. Often cited as the largest functioning Hindu temple in the world, it has a perimeter of and occupies . Considered to be among the 108 Divya Desams (Holy shrines of Lord Vishnu), the temple is believed to house the mortal remains of the Vaishnavite saint and philosopher Ramanujacharya. Originally built by the Cholas, the temple was later renovated by the Pandyas, the Hoysalas, the Madurai Nayaks and the Vijayanagar empire between the 9th and 16th centuries AD. There are 21 gopurams (towers), of which the "Rajagopuram" is . According to the "Limca Book of Records", it was the tallest temple tower in the world until 1999.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: The Jambukeswarar Temple at Thiruvanaikkaval and the Erumbeeswarar Temple at Thiruverumbur were built in the rule of the Medieval Cholas. The Jambukeswarar Temple is one of the Pancha Bhoota Stalams dedicated to Lord Shiva; it is the fifth largest temple complex in Tamil Nadu. The city's best known mosque is the Nadir Shah Mosque. The Christ Church constructed by the German Protestant missionary Christian Friedrich Schwarz in 1766 and the Our Lady of Lourdes Church are noted examples of Gothic Revival architecture in the city.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: The Chokkanatha Nayak Palace, which houses the Rani Mangammal Mahal, was built by the Madurai Nayaks in the 17th century; it has now been converted into a museum. The Nawab's palace, the Railway Heritage Centre, the Upper Anaicut constructed by Sir Arthur Cotton, and the world's oldest functional dam, the Grand Anaicut, are some of the other important structures in Tiruchirappalli.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Tiruchirappalli has been recognised in India as an important educational centre since the time of British rule. St. Joseph's College, which opened in Nagapattinam in 1846 and transferred to Tiruchirappalli in 1883, is one of the oldest educational institutions in South India. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG) college, established in 1883, is a premium missionary institution in the city.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: As of 2013, Tiruchirappalli has 45 arts and science colleges, 40 polytechnic colleges and 13 colleges that offer management education. National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli is located in a area of 800 acres. National Institutional Ranking Framework ranked this NIT the first among other others in India. The St. Joseph's College, National College, Bishop Heber College, Jamal Mohamed College and the Government Law College are prominent colleges providing higher education in the arts and sciences. There are approximately 35 engineering colleges in and around the city. The National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli established by the government in 1964 as the Regional Engineering College, has a campus at Thuvakudi on the outskirts of Tiruchirappalli.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: The Anbil Dharmalingam Agricultural College and Research Institute was established as a constituent college of Tamil Nadu Agricultural University in 1989, and the National Research Centre for Banana offer higher education and research in agriculture. The Tiruchirappalli branch of Anna University was established after the bifurcation of Anna University in 2007. 64 self-financing colleges which offer courses in engineering, architecture, management and computer applications in the districts of Ariyalur, Cuddalore, Nagapattinam, Perambalur, Pudukkottai, Thanjavur and Tiruvarur are affiliated to Anna University. The SRM Group of Colleges established the SRM Institute of Science and Technology at Irungalur near Tiruchirappalli; this was followed by Chennai Medical College and Hospital in 2007. A proposal by the group to include the institutions in SRM University is under review by the Ministry of Human Resources Development of the Government of India.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: The Bharathidasan University was established in Tiruchirappalli in 1982 and controls 104 colleges in Tiruchirappalli district and seven neighbouring districts. The university also runs a management school, the Bharathidasan Institute of Management in the city in collaboration with BHEL. The Indian Institute of Management Tiruchirappalli was set up during the Eleventh Five-Year Plan, along with five other IIMs opened during the 2011–12 academic season. In 2013, the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) approved Indian Institute of Information Technology (IIIT), and the Tamil Nadu National Law School, modelled on the National Law School of India University, both started their operations in the city. The city is also the regional headquarters of the Dakshina Bharat Hindi Prachar Sabha for the state of Tamil Nadu.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: There are 200 higher secondary schools in Tiruchirappalli; notable ones are the St. Johns Vestry Anglo Indian Higher Secondary School,


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Campion Anglo-Indian Higher Secondary School, St Joseph's Anglo Indian Girls Higher Secondary School, Railway Mixed Higher Secondary School, Higher Secondary School for Boys, Srirangam and RSK Higher Secondary School.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Notable people who were either born or educated at Tiruchirappalli include C. V. Raman, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, Sujatha, Vaali, G. N. Ramachandran, and former President of India R. Venkataraman.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Hockey and cricket are the most popular sports in Tiruchirappalli. Former Indian hockey goalkeepers Charles Cornelius and Leslie Fernandez; Rajagopal Sathish who represents the Mumbai Indians in the Indian Premier League; and Dharmaraj Ravanan who represents Chennai City F.C. in the I League; all hail from the city. The Anna Stadium complex is the main venue for sports in the city; it hosts an indoor stadium and an astro turf hockey ground. The stadium complex also includes a football ground, an athletic track, a swimming pool, a gymnasium, a badminton court and a hostel for the athletes. The Tiruchirappalli District Cricket Association (TDCA) is one of the constituents of the Tamil Nadu Cricket Association, and regulates school, college and club cricket in the district. First class cricket matches were held at the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadiumformerly the Khajamalai Stadium. At the association's golden jubilee celebrations in 2008–09, plans for the establishment of another cricket stadium and an academy in the outskirts of Tiruchirappalli city were mooted. The Mannarpuram Cricket Academy is one of the noted cricket coaching academies in Tiruchirappalli. Domestic association football, tennis and volleyball tournaments are held in and around the city. Tiruchirappalli hosted the Federation Cup, a knockout-style club football tournament in 1984 and an open chess tournament organised by FIDE in 2006.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: According to the Registrar of Newspapers in India, more than 100 newspapers have been registered in Tiruchirappalli as of November 2013. The weekly newspaper "Wednesday Review", founded in 1905, is the first prominent journal to be published in Tiruchirappalli. Among the major English-language newspapers being published in Tiruchirappalli are "The Hindu" which launched a Tiruchirappalli edition in 2004, and "The New Indian Express", which was publishing in Tiruchirappalli before "The Hindu". Some of the important Tamil-language newspapers that publish a Tiruchirappalli edition are "Dina Thanthi" "Dina Mani", "Dina Malar", "Malai Malar", "Dinakaran", "Tamil Murasu" and "Tamil Sudar". The popular Tamil weekly "Ananda Vikatan" launched a local supplement for Tiruchirappalli in 2011.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: The first radio transmission station in Tiruchirappalli was opened by All India Radio (AIR) on 16 May 1939. AIR started providing direct-to-home enabled radio broadcasting service from 2006. In 2007, the AIR launched "Ragam", a separate Carnatic music station, from the city. Apart from the government-owned AIR, private FM radio stations such as Hello and Suryan FM and Mirchi 95.0 from Tiruchirappalli. Indira Gandhi National Open University's "Gyan Vani" started broadcasting from the city in 2008. Tiruchirappalli's first campus community radio station was started by Holy Cross College on 22 December 2006.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Television broadcasting from Chennai was started on 15 August 1975. Satellite television channels have been available since 1991. Direct-to-home cable television services are provided by DD Direct Plus and various other operators.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: The most commonly used modes of local transport in Tiruchirappalli are the state government-owned Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation (TNSTC) buses, and auto rickshaws. Tiruchirappalli forms a part of the Kumbakonam division of the TNSTC. The city has two major bus termini; Chatram Bus Stand and Central Bus Stand, both of which operate intercity services and local transport to suburban areas.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Tiruchirappalli sits at the junction of two major National HighwaysNH 45 and NH 67. NH 45 is one of the most congested highways in south India and carries almost 10,000 lorries on the Tiruchirappalli–Chennai stretch every night. Other National Highways originating in the city are NH 45B, NH 210 and NH 227. State highways that start from the city include SH 25 and SH 62. Tiruchirappalli has of road maintained by the municipal corporation. A semi-ring road connecting all the National Highways is being constructed to ease traffic congestion in the city. As of 2013, approximately 328,000 two-wheelers, 93,500 cars and 10,000 public transport vehicles operate within the city limits, apart from the 1,500 inter-city buses that pass through Tiruchirappalli daily. Tiruchirappalli suffers from traffic congestion mainly because of its narrow roads and absence of an integrated bus station.


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Passenger trains also carry a significant number of passengers from nearby towns. The Great Southern of India Railway Company was established in 1853 with its headquarters at England. In 1859, the company constructed its first railway line connecting Tiruchirappalli and Nagapattinam. The company merged with the Carnatic Railway Company in 1874 to form the South Indian Railway Company with Tiruchirappalli as its headquarters. The city retained the position until 1908 when the company's headquarters was transferred to Madras. is one of the busiest in India. It constitutes a separate division of the Southern Railway. Tiruchirappalli has rail connectivity with most important cities and towns in India. Other railway stations in the city include , , , and .


title: Tiruchirappalli

text: Tiruchirappalli is served by Tiruchirappalli International Airport , from the city centre. The airport handles fivefold more international air traffic than domestic services, making it the only airport in India with this huge variation. It serves as a gateway to immigrants from South-east Asian countries There are regular flights to Chennai, Mumbai, Delhi, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Colombo, Dubai, Kuala Lumpur, and Singapore. The airport handled more than 1 million passengers and 2012 tonnes of cargo during the fiscal year 2013–14.


title: Grammatical gender

text: In linguistics, grammatical gender system is a specific form of noun class system, where nouns are assigned with gender categories that are often not related to their real-world qualities. In languages with grammatical gender, most or all nouns inherently carry one value of the grammatical category called "gender"; the values present in a given language (of which there are usually two or three) are called the "genders" of that language.


title: Grammatical gender

text: Whereas some authors use the term "grammatical gender" as a synonym of "noun class", others use different definitions for each; many authors prefer "noun classes" when none of the inflections in a language relate to sex. Gender systems are used in approximately one half of the world's languages. According to one definition: "Genders are classes of nouns reflected in the behaviour of associated words."


title: Grammatical gender

text: Languages with grammatical gender usually have two to four different genders, but some are attested with up to 20.


title: Grammatical gender

text: Common gender divisions include masculine and feminine; masculine, feminine, and neuter; or animate and inanimate.


title: Grammatical gender

text: Depending on the language and the word, this assignment might bear some relationship with the meaning of the noun (e.g. "woman" is usually feminine), or may be arbitrary.


title: Grammatical gender

text: In a few languages, the gender assignment of nouns is solely determined by their meaning or attributes, like biological sex, humanness, or animacy. However, the existence of words that denote male and female, such as the difference between "aunt" and "uncle" is not enough to constitute a gender system.


title: Grammatical gender

text: In other languages, the division into genders usually correlates to some degree, at least for a certain set of nouns (such as those denoting humans), with some property or properties of the things that particular nouns denote. Such properties include animacy or inanimacy, "humanness" or non-humanness, and biological sex.


title: Grammatical gender

text: However, in most languages, this semantic division is only partially valid, and many nouns may belong to a gender category that contrasts with their meaning (e.g. the word for "manliness" could be of feminine gender, as it is in French with "masculinité" and "virilité"). In such a case, the gender assignment can also be influenced by the morphology or phonology of the noun, or in some cases can be apparently arbitrary.


title: Grammatical gender

text: Usually each noun is assigned to one of the genders, and few or no nouns can occur in more than one gender.


title: Grammatical gender

text: Gender is considered an inherent quality of nouns, and it affects the forms of other related words, a process called "agreement". Nouns may be considered the "triggers" of the process, whereas other words will be the "target" of these changes.


title: Grammatical gender

text: These related words can be, depending on the language: determiners, pronouns, numerals, quantifiers, possessives, adjectives, past and passive participles, articles, verbs, adverbs, complementizers, and adpositions. Gender class may be marked on the noun itself, but will also always be marked on other constituents in a noun phrase or sentence. If the noun is explicitly marked, both trigger and target may feature similar alternations.


title: Grammatical gender

text: Among these, role 2 is probably the most important in everyday usage. Languages with gender distinction generally have fewer cases of ambiguity concerning, for example, pronominal reference. In the English phrase ""a flowerbed in the garden which I maintain"", only context tells us whether the relative clause ("which I maintain") refers to the whole garden or just the flowerbed. In German, gender distinction prevents such ambiguity. The word for "flowerbed" () is neuter, whereas that for "garden" () is masculine. Hence, if a neuter relative pronoun is used, the relative clause refers to "flowerbed", and if a masculine pronoun is used, the relative clause refers to "garden". Because of this, languages with gender distinction can often use pronouns where in English a noun would have to be repeated in order to avoid confusion. It does not, however, help in cases where the words are of the same grammatical gender. Then again, there are often several synonymous nouns of different grammatical gender to pick from to avoid this.


title: Grammatical gender

text: Moreover, grammatical gender may serve to distinguish homophones. It is a quite common phenomenon in language development for two phonemes to merge, thereby making etymologically distinct words sound alike. In languages with gender distinction, however, these word pairs may still be distinguishable by their gender. For example, French ("pot") and ("skin") are homophones , but disagree in gender: vs. .


title: Grammatical gender

text: Nouns that denote specifically male persons (or animals) are normally of masculine gender; those that denote specifically female persons (or animals) are normally of feminine gender; and nouns that denote something that does not have any sex, or do not specify the sex of their referent, have come to belong to one or other of the genders, in a way that may appear arbitrary. Examples of languages with such a system include most of the modern Romance languages, the Baltic languages, the Celtic languages, some Indo-Aryan languages (e.g., Hindi), and the Afroasiatic languages.


title: Grammatical gender

text: This is similar to systems with a masculine–feminine contrast, except that there is a third available gender, so nouns with sexless or unspecified-sex referents may be either masculine, feminine, or neuter. There are also certain exceptional nouns whose gender does not follow the denoted sex, such as the German , meaning "girl", which is neuter. This is because it is actually a diminutive of "Magd" and all diminutive forms with the suffix are neuter. Examples of languages with such a system include later forms of Proto-Indo-European (see below), Sanskrit, some Germanic languages, most Slavic languages, a few Romance languages (Romanian, Asturian and Neapolitan), Marathi, Latin, and Greek.


title: Grammatical gender

text: Here nouns that denote animate things (humans and animals) generally belong to one gender, and those that denote inanimate things to another (although there may be some deviation from that principle). Examples include earlier forms of Proto-Indo-European and the earliest family known to have split off from it, the extinct Anatolian languages (see below). Modern examples include Algonquian languages such as Ojibwe.


title: Grammatical gender

text: Here a masculine–feminine–neuter system previously existed, but the distinction between masculine and feminine genders has been lost in nouns (they have merged into what is called "common gender"), though not in pronouns that can operate under natural gender. Thus nouns denoting people are usually of common gender, whereas other nouns may be of either gender. Examples include Danish and Swedish (see Gender in Danish and Swedish), and to some extent Dutch (see Gender in Dutch grammar). The dialect of the old Norwegian capital Bergen also uses common gender and neuter exclusively. The common gender in Bergen and in Danish is inflected with the same articles and suffixes as the masculine gender in Norwegian Bokmål. This makes some obviously feminine noun phrases like "a cute girl", "the well milking cow" or "the pregnant mares" sound strange to most Norwegian ears when spoken by Danes and people from Bergen since they are inflected in a way that sounds like the masculine declensions in South-Eastern Norwegian dialects. The same does not apply to Swedish common gender, as the declensions follow a different pattern from both the Norwegian written languages. Norwegian Nynorsk, Norwegian Bokmål and most spoken dialects retain masculine, feminine and neuter even if their Scandinavian neighbours have lost one of the genders. As shown, the merger of masculine and feminine in these languages and dialects can be considered a reversal of the original split in Proto-Indo-European (see below).


title: Grammatical gender

text: Some gender contrasts are referred to as "classes"; for some examples, see Noun class. In some of the Slavic languages, for example, within the masculine and sometimes feminine and neuter genders, there is a further division between animate and inanimate nouns—and in Polish, also sometimes between nouns denoting humans and non-humans. (For details, see below.) A human–non-human (or "rational–non-rational") distinction is also found in Dravidian languages. (See below.)


title: Grammatical gender

text: Grammatical gender does not appear to constrain thought. However, they do slightly impact the way we think: for instance, it has been consistently shown that gender causes a number of cognitive effects. For example, when native speakers of gendered languages are asked to imagine an inanimate object speaking, whether its voice is male or female tends to correspond to the grammatical gender of the object in their language. This has been observed for speakers of Spanish, French, and German, among others.


title: Grammatical gender

text: Caveats of this research include the possibility of subjects' "using grammatical gender as a strategy for performing the task", and the fact that even for inanimate objects the gender of nouns is not always random. For example, in Spanish, female gender is often attributed to objects that are "used by women, natural, round, or light" and male gender to objects "used by men, artificial, angular, or heavy." Apparent failures to reproduce the effect for German speakers has also led to a proposal that the effect is restricted to languages with a two-gender system, possibly because such languages are inclined towards a greater correspondence between grammatical and natural gender.


title: Grammatical gender

text: Another kind of test asks people to describe a noun, and attempts to measure whether it takes on gender-specific connotations depending on the speaker's native language. For example, one study found that German speakers describing a bridge (, ) more often used the words 'beautiful', 'elegant', 'pretty', and 'slender', while Spanish speakers, whose word for bridge is masculine (, ), used 'big', 'dangerous', 'strong', and 'sturdy' more often. However, studies of this kind have been criticised on various grounds and yield an unclear pattern of results overall.


title: Grammatical gender

text: A noun may belong to a given class because of characteristic features of its referent, such as sex, animacy, shape, although in some instances a noun can be placed in a particular class based purely on its grammatical behavior. Some authors use the term "grammatical gender" as a synonym of "noun class", but others use different definitions for each.


title: Grammatical gender

text: Many authors prefer "noun classes" when none of the inflections in a language relate to sex, such as when an animate–inanimate distinction is made. Note, however, that the word "gender" derives from Latin (also the root of "genre") which originally meant "kind", so it does not necessarily have a sexual meaning.