title: Guy of Lusignan

text: Guy went to Jerusalem at some date between 1173 and 1180, initially as a pilgrim or Crusader. He may have arrived with the French Crusaders of 1179. In 1174, his older brother Aimery had married the daughter of Baldwin of Ibelin and entered court circles. Amalric had also obtained the patronage of King Baldwin IV and of his mother Agnes of Courtenay who held the County of Jaffa and Ascalon and was married to Reginald of Sidon. He was appointed Agnes's Constable in Jaffa, and later Constable of the Kingdom. Later, hostile rumours alleged he was Agnes's lover, but this is questionable. It is likely that his promotions were aimed at weaning him away from the political orbit of the Ibelin family, who were associated with Raymond III of Tripoli, Amalric I's cousin and the former "bailli" or regent. Amalric of Lusignan's success is likely to have facilitated Guy's social and political advancement whenever he arrived.


title: Guy of Lusignan

text: Raymond of Tripoli and his ally Bohemond III of Antioch were preparing to invade the kingdom to force the king to give his older sister Sibylla in marriage to Baldwin of Ibelin, Amalric's father-in-law. Guy and Sibylla were hastily married at Eastertide, in April 1180, to prevent this coup. By his marriage Guy also became Count of Jaffa and Ascalon in April 1180, and bailiff of Jerusalem. He and Sibylla had two daughters, Alix and Maria. Sibylla already had one child, a son from her first marriage to William of Montferrat.


title: Guy of Lusignan

text: The mid-thirteenth century "Old French Continuation of William of Tyre" (attributed to Ernoul) claims that Agnes advised her son to marry Sibylla to Guy, and that Amalric had brought Guy to Jerusalem specifically for him to marry Sibylla. However, this is improbable: given the speed with which the marriage was arranged, Guy must have already been in the kingdom when the decision was made. With the new king of France, Philip II, a minor, the chief hope of external aid was Baldwin's first cousin Henry II, who owed the pope a penitential pilgrimage on account of the Thomas Becket affair. Guy was a vassal of Richard and Henry II, and as a formerly rebellious vassal, it was in their interests to keep him overseas.


title: Guy of Lusignan

text: Early in 1182, as his health markedly declined, Baldwin IV named Guy regent. However, he and Raynald of Châtillon made provocations against Saladin during a two-year period of truce. But it was his military hesitance at the siege of Kerak which disillusioned the king with him. Throughout late 1183 and 1184 Baldwin IV tried to have his sister's marriage to Guy annulled, showing that Baldwin still held his sister with some favour. Baldwin IV had wanted a loyal brother-in-law, and was frustrated in Guy's disobedience. Sibylla was in Ascalon with her husband. Unsuccessful in prying his sister and close heir away from Guy, the king and the "Haute Cour" altered the succession, placing Baldwin V, Sibylla's son from her first marriage, in precedence over Sibylla, and decreeing a process to choose the monarch afterwards between Sibylla and Isabella (whom Baldwin and the Haute Cour thus recognized as at least equally entitled to succession as Sibylla), though she was not herself excluded from the succession. Guy kept a low profile from 1183 until his wife became Queen in 1186.


title: Guy of Lusignan

text: When Baldwin IV finally succumbed to his leprosy in 1185, Baldwin V became king, but he was a sickly child and died within a year. Guy went with Sibylla to Jerusalem for his stepson's funeral in 1186, along with an armed escort, with which he garrisoned the city. Raymond III, who wanted to protect his own influence and his new political ally, the dowager queen Maria Comnena, was making arrangements to summon the "Haute Cour" when Sibylla was crowned queen by Patriarch Eraclius. Raynald of Châtillon gained popular support for Sibylla by affirming that she was "li plus apareissanz et plus dreis heis dou rouame" ("the most evident and rightful heir of the kingdom"). With the clear support of the church Sibylla was undisputed sovereign.


title: Guy of Lusignan

text: However, before she was crowned she agreed with oppositional court members that she would annul her marriage with Guy to please them, as long as she would be given free choice in her next husband. The leaders of the "Haute Cour" agreed, and Sibylla was crowned thereafter as queen regnant. Taking her choice as husband, to the astonishment of the rival court faction, she remarried Guy, who became king in August 1186. The Queen removed the crown from her head and handed it to Guy, permitting him to crown himself, at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, in September 1186. As Hamilton writes, "there could be no doubt after the ceremony that Guy only held the crown matrimonial".


title: Guy of Lusignan

text: Sibylla's half-sister Isabella and her husband Humphrey IV of Toron were Raymond III and the Ibelins' choice for the throne. As Sibylla's parents marriage had been annulled and both she and Baldwin had been legitimized by the church, Isabella was seen by many as the legal heiress. However, Humphrey would not assert his wife's claim, and he disassociated himself from them, swearing fealty instead to Sibylla. Humphrey would become one of Guy's closest allies in the kingdom.


title: Guy of Lusignan

text: Immediately after, the chief concern in the kingdom was checking Saladin's advance. In 1187 Guy, under pressure and surrounded by conflicting advice, attempted to relieve Saladin's siege of Tiberias. Guy's army left the springs of Sepphora, and marched towards Tiberias to give pitched battle. Stationary, it was surrounded and cut off from a supply of water, and on July 4 the army of Jerusalem was completely destroyed at the Battle of Hattin. Guy was one of the very few captives spared by the Saracens after the battle, along with his brother Geoffrey, Raynald, and Humphrey.


title: Guy of Lusignan

text: The exhausted captives were brought to Saladin's tent, where Guy was given a goblet of water as a sign of Saladin's generosity, for offering a prisoner food or drink was a sign that his life was safe. When Guy offered the goblet to his fellow captive Raynald, Saladin chastised him, indicating his clemency did not extend to Raynald. Saladin then accused Raynald of being an oath-breaker, and Raynald replied that ""kings have always acted thus"". Saladin proceeded to execute Raynald himself, beheading him with his sword. When Guy was brought in, he fell to his knees at the sight of Raynald's corpse. Saladin bade him to rise, saying, "A king does not kill a king."


title: Guy of Lusignan

text: Guy was imprisoned in Damascus, while Sibylla together with Balian of Ibelin, brother of Baldwin of Ibelin, remained behind to defend Jerusalem, which was handed over to Saladin on 2 October. Sibylla wrote to Saladin and begged for her husband's release, and Guy was finally granted release in 1188 and allowed to rejoin his wife. Guy and Sibylla sought refuge in Tyre, the only city remaining in Christian hands, thanks to the defence of Conrad of Montferrat (younger brother of Sibylla's first husband).


title: Guy of Lusignan

text: Conrad denied sanctuary to Sibylla and Guy, who camped outside the city walls for months. Guy then took the initiative, beginning the siege of Acre in anticipation of the arrival of the vanguard of the Third Crusade. The queen followed him but died during an epidemic in the summer of 1190, along with their young daughters. According to the surviving members of the "Haute Cour", with Sibylla's death Guy lost the authority he held as her husband, and the crown passed to Isabella. The Ibelins hastily divorced Isabella from Humphrey, and married her to Conrad, who now claimed the kingship. However, Guy continued to demand recognition as king.


title: Guy of Lusignan

text: In 1191, Guy left Acre with a small fleet and landed at Limassol to seek support from Richard I of England, whose vassal he had been in Poitou. He swore fealty to King Richard, and attended his wedding to Berengaria of Navarre. He participated in the campaign against Isaac Comnenus of Cyprus. In return for this, when Richard arrived at Acre, he supported Guy against Conrad, who had the support of his kinsmen Philip II of France and Leopold V of Austria.


title: Guy of Lusignan

text: The conflict continued throughout the siege of Acre, although it did not deter Guy from gallantly saving Conrad's life when he was surrounded by the enemy. A temporary settlement was then reached by which Guy was to remain king in his lifetime, but to be succeeded by Conrad and Isabella or their heirs. However, in April 1192 Richard finally realised that he could not return home without a final resolution to the matter, definitely relinquishing the crown in May 1192. The kingship was put to a vote among the barons of the kingdom: Conrad was elected unanimously, and Guy accepted defeat. Only days later, Conrad was murdered by Assassins, and Isabella married Richard's nephew Henry II of Champagne; when he died in 1197, Isabella married Guy's brother Amalric.


title: Guy of Lusignan

text: Meanwhile, Guy was compensated for the loss of his kingdom by purchasing Cyprus from the Templars in 1192, who had themselves purchased it from Richard, who had wrested it from Isaac Comnenus "en route" to Palestine. Technically Guy was Lord of Cyprus, it not yet being a kingdom, and used the royal title (if at all) as a remnant from Jerusalem, which was not held fully legally. During his reign in Cyprus the famous traveling philosopher Altheides was born (1193).


title: Guy of Lusignan

text: Guy died in 1194 without surviving issue (his daughters by Sibylla, Alix and Marie, both died young of plague at Acre in September or 21 October 1190) and was succeeded by his brother Amalric, who received the royal crown from Emperor Henry VI. The House of Lusignan continued to rule the Kingdom of Cyprus until 1474. Guy was buried at the Church of the Templars in Nicosia.


title: Guy of Lusignan

text: Guy appears as a main leading character in a tale of "Decameron" by Giovanni Boccaccio, where the censure of a Gascon lady converts the King of Cyprus from a churlish to an honourable temper.


title: Guy of Lusignan

text: Sir Walter Scott, in "Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border" (1802–1803), recounts the legend of Melusina, a supernatural creature


title: Guy of Lusignan

text: who married Guy de Lusignan, Count of Poitou, under condition that he should never attempt to intrude upon her privacy... She bore the count many children, and erected for him a magnificent castle by her magical art. Their harmony was uninterrupted until the prying husband broke the conditions of their union, by concealing himself to behold his wife make use of her enchanted bath. Hardly had Melusina discovered the indiscreet intruder, than, transforming herself into a dragon, she departed with a loud yell of lamentation, and was never again visible to mortal eyes; although, even in the days of Brantome, she was supposed to be the protectress of her descendants, and was heard wailing as she sailed upon the blast round the turrets of the castle of Lusignan the night before it was demolished.


title: Guy of Lusignan

text: Guy has also appeared in several historical novels, such as in ""The Knights Templar Trilogy"" by the Swedish author Jan Guillou which depicts him as a scheming, incompetent and selfish as well as religiously fanatical villain accelerating the loss of the Holy Land to Salāḥ ad-Din; in ""The Sir Balian d'Ibelin Trilogy"" by Helena P. Schrader; in ""Templar Silks"" by Elizabeth Chadwick, Zofia Kossak-Szczucka's ""Król trędowaty"" (""The Leper King""), Graham Shelby's ""The Knights of Dark Renown"", Cecelia Holland's ""Jerusalem"", ""Knight Crusader"" by Ronald Welch, ""The Heart of the Lion"" by Jean Plaidy (Eleanor Hibbert) and also Sharon Kay Penman's ""The Land Beyond The Sea"".


title: Guy of Lusignan

text: Guy is portrayed as a peace-loving elderly man, goaded into war by Raynald of Châtillon, in Egyptian director Youssef Chahine's 1963 film "Al Nasser Salah Ad-Din".


title: Guy of Lusignan

text: Another fictionalised version of him—as an arrogant, scheming villain (and a Templar)—is portrayed by Marton Csokas in the 2005 movie "Kingdom of Heaven". The film distorts his relationship with Sibylla, which seems to have been one of mutual loyalty; it also implies that he was her only husband, though this is corrected in the director's cut of the film.


title: Guy of Lusignan

text: A character named 'Guy' appears in "Ironclad", played by Aneurin Barnard; he serves as squire to William d'Aubigny (Brian Cox)—in the sequel "Battle for Blood", set five years after the events of the first film, he is played by Tom Austen—and his name is revealed to be 'Guy De Lusignan'—it is unlikely that he is the historical Guy, who lived in the mid- to late 12th century.


title: Guy of Lusignan

text: The first film is set during the First Baron's War (1215–1217)—at the end of 'Battle for Blood', it states that Guy went on to fight in the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453). This is clearly impossible, as that war began in 1337—and the film is set five years after the Siege of Rochester Castle (1215)—a gap of some 117 years.


title: René Girard

text: René Noël Théophile Girard (; ; 25 December 1923 – 4 November 2015) was a French polymath, historian, literary critic, and philosopher of social science whose work belongs to the tradition of philosophical anthropology. Girard was the author of nearly thirty books, with his writings spanning many academic domains. Although the reception of his work is different in each of these areas, there is a growing body of secondary literature on his work and his influence on disciplines such as literary criticism, critical theory, anthropology, theology, mythology, sociology, economics, cultural studies, and philosophy.


title: René Girard

text: Girard's main contribution to philosophy, and in turn to other disciplines, was in the psychology of desire. Girard claimed that human desire functions imitatively, or mimetically, rather than arising as the spontaneous byproduct of human individuality, as much of theoretical psychology had assumed. Girard found that human development proceeds triangularly from a model of desire who indicates some object of desire as desirable by desiring it themselves. We copy this desire for the object of the model and appropriate it as our own, most often without recognizing that the source of this desire comes from another apart from ourselves completing the triangle of mimetic desire. This process of appropriation of desire includes (but is not limited to) identity formation, the transmission of knowledge and social norms, and material aspirations which all have their origin in copying the desires of others who we take, consciously or unconsciously, as models for desire.


title: René Girard

text: The second major discovery of the mimetic theory proceeds from considering the consequences of the mimetic nature of desire as it relates to human origins and anthropology. The mimetic nature of desire allows for the anthropological success of human beings through social learning, but is also laden with potential for violent escalation. If the subject desires an object simply because another subject desires it, then their desires are bound to converge on the same objects. If these objects cannot be easily shared (food, mates, territory, prestige and status, etc.), then the subjects are bound to come into mimetically intensifying conflict over these objects. The simplest solution to this problem of violence for early human communities was to polarize blame and hostility onto one member of the group who would be killed and interpreted as the source of conflict and hostility within the group. The transition from the violent conflict of all-against-all would be transformed into the unifying and pacifying violence of all-except-one whose death would reconcile the community together. The victim who was persecuted as the source of disorder would then become venerated as the source of order and meaning for the community and seen as a god. This process of engendering and making possible human community through arbitrary victimization is called, within mimetic theory, the scapegoat mechanism.


title: René Girard

text: Eventually the scapegoat mechanism would be exposed within the Biblical texts who categorically reorient the position of the Divinity to be on the side of the victim as opposed to that of the persecuting community. All other myths, such as Romulus and Remus, for example, are written and constructed from the point of view of the community whose legitimacy depends on the guilt of the victim in order to be brought together as a unified community. By exposing the relative innocence of the victim within the scapegoat mechanism it is no longer able to function as a vehicle for generating unity and peace.


title: René Girard

text: Girard was born in Avignon on 25 December 1923. René Girard was the second son of historian Joseph Girard.


title: René Girard

text: He studied medieval history at the École des Chartes, Paris, where the subject of his thesis was "Private life in Avignon in the second half of the 15th century" ("").


title: René Girard

text: In 1947, Girard went to Indiana University on a one-year fellowship. He was to spend most of his career in the United States. He received his PhD in 1950 and stayed at Indiana University until 1953. The subject of his PhD at Indiana University was "American Opinion of France, 1940–1943". Although his research was in history, he was also assigned to teach French literature, the field in which he would first make his reputation as a literary critic by publishing influential essays on such authors as Albert Camus and Marcel Proust.


title: René Girard

text: Girard occupied positions at Duke University and Bryn Mawr College from 1953 to 1957, after which he moved to Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, where he became a full professor in 1961. In that year, he also published his first book: ("Deceit, Desire and the Novel", 1966). For several years, he moved back and forth between the State University of New York at Buffalo and Johns Hopkins University. Books he published in this period include (1972; "Violence and the Sacred", 1977) and (1978; "Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World", 1987).


title: René Girard

text: In 1981, Girard became Andrew B. Hammond Professor of French Language, Literature, and Civilization at Stanford University, where he stayed until his retirement in 1995. During this period, he published (1982), (1985), "A Theatre of Envy: William Shakespeare" (1991) and (1994).


title: René Girard

text: In 1985, he received his first honorary degree from the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam in the Netherlands; several others followed.


title: René Girard

text: In 1990, a group of scholars founded the Colloquium on Violence and Religion (COV&R) with a goal to "explore, criticize, and develop the mimetic model of the relationship between violence and religion in the genesis and maintenance of culture." This organization organizes a yearly conference devoted to topics related to mimetic theory, scapegoating, violence, and religion. Girard was Honorary Chair of COV&R. Co-founder and first president of the COV&R was the Roman Catholic theologian Raymund Schwager.


title: René Girard

text: René Girard's work has inspired interdisciplinary research projects and experimental research such as the Mimetic Theory project sponsored by the John Templeton Foundation.


title: René Girard

text: After almost a decade of teaching French literature in the United States, Girard began to develop a new way of speaking about literary texts. Beyond the "uniqueness" of individual works, he looked for their common structural properties, having observed that characters in great fiction evolved in a system of relationships otherwise common to the wider generality of novels. But there was a distinction to be made:


title: René Girard

text: So there did indeed exist "psychological laws" as Proust calls them. These laws and this system are the consequences of a fundamental reality grasped by the novelists, which Girard called mimetic desire, "the mimetic character of desire." This is the content of his first book, "Deceit, Desire and the Novel" (1961). We borrow our desires from others. Far from being autonomous, our desire for a certain object is always provoked by the desire of another person—the model—for this same object. This means that the relationship between the subject and the object, what Girard calls the mediator, is not direct: but unrolls within a triangular relationship of subject, model, and object. Through the object, one is drawn to the model.


title: René Girard

text: Girard calls desire "metaphysical" in the measure that, as soon as a desire is something more than a simple need or appetite, "all desire is a desire to be", it is an aspiration, the dream of a fullness attributed to the mediator.


title: René Girard

text: Mediation is called "external" when the mediator of the desire is socially beyond the reach of the subject or, for example, a fictional character, as in the case of Amadis de Gaula and Don Quixote. The hero lives a kind of folly that nonetheless remains optimistic.


title: René Girard

text: Mediation is called "internal" when the mediator is at the same level as the subject. The mediator then transforms into a rival and an obstacle to the acquisition of the object, whose value increases as rivalry grows.


title: René Girard

text: This is the universe of the novels of Stendhal, Flaubert, Proust and Dostoevsky, which are particularly studied in this book.


title: René Girard

text: Through their characters, our own behaviour is displayed. Everyone holds firmly to the illusion of the authenticity of one's own desires; the novelists implacably expose all the diversity of lies, dissimulations, maneuvers, and the snobbery of the Proustian heroes; these are all but "tricks of desire", which prevent one from facing the truth: envy and jealousy. These characters, desiring the being of the mediator, project upon him superhuman virtues while at the same time depreciating themselves, making him a god while making themselves slaves, in the measure that the mediator is an obstacle to them. Some, pursuing this logic, come to seek the failures that are the signs of the proximity of the ideal to which they aspire. This can manifest as a heightened experience of the universal pseudo-masochism inherent in seeking the unattainable, which can, of course, turn into sadism should the actor play this part in reverse.


title: René Girard

text: This fundamental focus on mimetic desire would be pursued by Girard throughout the rest of his career. The stress on imitation in humans was not a popular subject when Girard developed his theories, but today there is independent support for his claims coming from empirical research in psychology and neuroscience (see below). Farneti (2013) also discusses the role of mimetic desire in intractable conflicts, using the case study of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and referencing Girard's theory. He posits that intensified conflict is a product of the imitative behaviors of Israelis and Palestinians, entitling them "Siamese twins".


title: René Girard

text: The idea that desire to possess endless material wealth was harmful to society was not new. From the New Testament verses about the love of money being the root of all kinds of evil, to Hegelian and Marxist critique that saw material wealth and capital as the mechanism of alienation of the human being both from their own humanity and their community, to Bertrand Russell's famous speech on accepting the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1950, desire has been understood as a destructive force in all of literature - with the theft of Helen by Paris a frequent topic of discussion by Girard.


title: René Girard

text: What Girard contributed to this concept is the idea that what is desired fundamentally is not the object itself, but the ontological state of the subject which possesses it, where "mimicry" is the aim of the competition. What Paris wanted, then, was not Helen, but to be a great king like Agamemnon.


title: René Girard

text: A person who desires seeks to be like the subject he imitates, through the medium of the object that is possessed by the person he imitates. Girard claims:


title: René Girard

text: This was, and remains, a pessimistic view of human life, as it posits a paradox in the very act of seeking to unify and have peace, since the erasure of differences between people through mimicry is what creates conflict, not the differentiation itself.


title: René Girard

text: Since the mimetic rivalry that develops from the struggle for the possession of the objects is contagious, it leads to the threat of violence. Girard himself says, "If there is a normal order in societies, it must be the fruit of an anterior crisis." Turning his interest towards the anthropological domain, Girard began to study anthropological literature and proposed his second great hypothesis: the scapegoat mechanism, which is at the origin of archaic religion and which he sets forth in his second book "Violence and the Sacred" (1972), a work on fundamental anthropology.


title: René Girard

text: If two individuals desire the same thing, there will soon be a third, then a fourth. This process quickly snowballs. Since from the beginning desire is aroused by the other (and not by the object) the object is soon forgotten and the mimetic conflict transforms into a general antagonism. At this stage of the crisis the antagonists will no longer imitate each other's desires for an object, but each other's antagonism. They wanted to share the same object, but now they want to destroy the same enemy.


title: René Girard

text: So, a paroxysm of violence will then focus on an arbitrary victim and a unanimous antipathy would, mimetically, grow against him. The brutal elimination of the victim will reduce the appetite for violence that possessed everyone a moment before, and leaves the group, suddenly appeased and calm. The victim lies before the group, appearing simultaneously as the origin of the crisis and as the one responsible for this miracle of renewed peace.


title: René Girard

text: He becomes sacred, that is to say the bearer of the prodigious power of defusing the crisis and bringing peace back.


title: René Girard

text: Girard believes this to be the genesis of archaic religion, that is, ritual sacrifice as the repetition of the original event, of myth as an account of this event, of the taboos that forbid access to all the objects at the origin of the rivalries that degenerated into this absolutely traumatizing crisis. This religious elaboration takes place gradually over the course of the repetition of the mimetic crises whose resolution brings only a temporary peace.


title: René Girard

text: The elaboration of the rites and of the taboos constitutes a kind of "empirical" knowledge about violence.


title: René Girard

text: Explorers and anthropologists have never been able to witness or bring true evidence for events similar to these, which go back to the earliest times. Yet 'indirect evidence' can be found, such as the universality of ritual sacrifice and the innumerable myths that have been collected from the most varied peoples. If Girard's theory is true, then we will find in myths the culpability of the victim-god, depictions of the selection of the victim and his power to beget the order that governs the group.


title: René Girard

text: Girard found these elements in numerous myths, beginning with that of Oedipus which he analyzed in this and later books. On this question he opposes Claude Lévi-Strauss.


title: René Girard

text: The phrase "scapegoat mechanism" was not coined by Girard himself; it had been used earlier by Kenneth Burke in "Permanence and Change" (1935) and "A Grammar of Motives" (1940). However, Girard took this concept from Burke and developed it much more extensively as an interpretation of human culture.


title: René Girard

text: In "Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World" (1978), Girard develops the implications of this discovery. The victimary process is the missing link between the animal world and the human world, the principle that explains the humanization of primates.


title: René Girard

text: It allows us to understand the need for sacrificial victims, which in turn explains the hunt which is primitively ritual and the domestication of animals as a fortuitous result of the acclimatization of a reserve of victims, or agriculture. It shows that at the beginning of all culture is archaic religion, which Durkheim had sensed. The elaboration of the rites and taboos by proto-human or human groups would take infinitely varied forms while obeying a rigorous practical sense that we can detect: the prevention of the return of the mimetic crisis. So we can find in archaic religion the origin of all political or cultural institutions.


title: René Girard

text: The social position of king, for instance, begins as the victim of the scapegoat mechanism, though his sacrifice is deferred and he becomes responsible for the wellbeing of the whole society.


title: René Girard

text: According to Girard, just as the theory of natural selection of species is the rational principle that explains the immense diversity of forms of life, the victimization process is the rational principle that explains the origin of the infinite diversity of cultural forms.


title: René Girard

text: The analogy with Charles Darwin also extends to the scientific status of the theory, as each of these presents itself as a hypothesis that is not capable of being proven experimentally, given the extreme amounts of time necessary for the production of the phenomena in question, but which imposes itself by its great explanatory power.


title: René Girard

text: According to Girard, the origin of language is also related to scapegoating. After the first victim, after the murder of the first scapegoat, there were the first prohibitions and rituals, but these came into being before representation and language, hence before culture. And that means that "people" (perhaps not human beings) "will not start fighting again." Girard says:


title: René Girard

text: According to Girard, the substitution of an immolated victim for the first, is "the very first symbolic sign created by the hominids." Girard also says this is the first time that one thing represents another thing, standing in the place of this (absent) one.


title: René Girard

text: This substitution is the beginning of representation and language and also the beginning of sacrifice and ritual. The genesis of language and ritual is very slow and we must imagine that there are also kinds of rituals among the animals: "It is the originary scapegoating which prolongs itself in a process which can be infinitely long in moving from, how should I say, from instinctive ritualization, instinctive prohibition, instinctive separation of the antagonists, which you already find to a certain extent in animals, towards representation."


title: René Girard

text: Unlike Eric Gans, Girard does not think that there is an original scene during which there is "a sudden shift from non-representation to representation," or a sudden shift from animality to humanity.


title: René Girard

text: According to the French sociologist Camille Tarot, it is hard to understand how the process of representation (i.e., symbolicity and language) actually occurs and he has called this a "black box" in Girard's theory.


title: René Girard

text: In "Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World", Girard discusses for the first time Christianity and the Bible. The Gospels ostensibly present themselves as a typical mythical account, with a victim-God lynched by a unanimous crowd, an event that is then commemorated by Christians through ritual sacrifice — a material re-presentation in this case — in the Eucharist. The parallel is perfect except for one detail: the truth of the innocence of the Victim is proclaimed by the text and the writer.


title: René Girard

text: The mythical account is usually built on the lie of the guilt of the victim in as much as it is an account of the event seen from the viewpoint of the anonymous lynchers. This ignorance is indispensable to the efficacy of the sacrificial violence.


title: René Girard

text: The evangelic "good news" clearly affirms the innocence of the victim, thus becoming, by attacking ignorance, the germ of the destruction of the sacrificial order on which the equilibrium of societies rests. Already the Old Testament shows this turning inside-out of the mythic accounts with regard to the innocence of the victims (Abel, Joseph, Job...), and the Hebrews were conscious of the uniqueness of their religious tradition.


title: René Girard

text: Girard draws special attention to passages in the Book of Isaiah, which describe the suffering of the Servant of the Lord God at the hands of the entire community who emphasize his innocence (Isaiah 53, 2–9).By oppression and judgement he was taken away;


title: René Girard

text: And there was no deceit in his mouth. (Isaiah 53, 8-9)In the Gospels, the "things hidden since the foundation of the world" (Matthew 13:35) are unveiled with full clarity: the foundation of social order on murder, described in all its repulsive ugliness in the account of the Passion.


title: René Girard

text: This revelation is even clearer because the whole text is a work on desire and violence, from the desire of Eve in paradise to the prodigious strength of the mimetism that brings about the denial of Peter Pesach (Mark 14: 66–72; Luke 22:54–62).


title: René Girard

text: Girard reinterprets certain biblical expressions in light of his theories; for instance, he sees "scandal" ("skandalon", literally, a "snare", or an "impediment placed in the way and causing one to stumble or fall") as signifying mimetic rivalry, as in Peter's denial of Jesus. No one escapes responsibility, neither the envious nor the envied: "Woe to the man through whom scandal comes" (Matthew 18:7).


title: René Girard

text: The evangelical revelation contains the truth on the violence, available for two thousand years, Girard tells us. Has it put an end to the sacrificial order based on violence in the society that has claimed the gospel text as its own religious text? No, he replies, since in order for a truth to have an impact it must find a receptive listener, and people do not change that quickly. The gospel text has instead acted as a ferment that brings about the decomposition of the sacrificial order. While medieval Europe showed the face of a sacrificial society that still knew very well how to despise and ignore its victims, nonetheless the efficacy of sacrificial violence has never stopped decreasing, in the measure that ignorance receded. Here Girard sees the principle of the uniqueness and of the transformations of the Western society whose destiny today is one with that of human society as a whole.


title: René Girard

text: Does the retreat of the sacrificial order mean less violence? Not at all; rather, it deprives modern societies of most of the capacity of sacrificial violence to establish temporary order. The "innocence" of the time of the ignorance is no more. On the other hand, Christianity, following the example of Judaism, has desacralized the world, making possible a utilitarian relationship with nature. Increasingly threatened by the resurgence of mimetic crises on a grand scale, the contemporary world is on one hand more quickly caught up by its guilt, and on the other hand has developed such a great technical power of destruction that it is condemned to both more and more responsibility and less and less innocence. So, for example, while empathy for victims manifests progress in the moral conscience of society, it nonetheless also takes the form of a competition among victims that threatens an escalation of violence. Girard is critical of the optimism of humanist observers, who believe in the natural goodness of man and the progressive improvement of his historical conditions (views themselves based in a misunderstanding of the Christian revelation). Rather, the current nuclear stalemate between the great powers reveals that man's capacity for violence is greater than ever before, and peace is only a product of this possibility to unleash apocalyptic destruction.


title: René Girard

text: The mimetic theory has also been applied in the study of economics, most notably in (1982) by Michel Aglietta and André Orléan. Orléan was also a contributor to the volume "René Girard" in "Les cahiers de l'Herne" (""). According to the philosopher of technology Andrew Feenberg:


title: René Girard

text: In an interview with the "Unesco Courier", anthropologist and social theorist Mark Anspach (editor of the "René Girard" issue of "Les Cahiers de l'Herne") explains that Aglietta and Orléan (who were very critical of economic rationality) see the classical theory of economics as a myth. According to Anspach, the vicious circle of violence and vengeance generated by mimetic rivalry gives rise to the gift economy, as a means to overcome it and achieve a peaceful reciprocity: "Instead of waiting for your neighbour to come steal your yams, you offer them to him today, and it is up to him to do the same for you tomorrow. Once you have made a gift, he is obliged to make a return gift. Now you have set in motion a positive circularity." Since the gift may be so large as to be humiliating, a second stage of development—"economic rationality"—is required: this liberates the seller and the buyer of any other obligations than to give money. Thus reciprocal violence is eliminated by the sacrifice, obligations of vengeance by the gift, and finally the possibly dangerous gift by "economic rationality." This rationality, however, creates new victims, as globalization is increasingly revealing.


title: René Girard

text: Girard's influence extends beyond philosophy and social science, and includes the literary realm. A prominent example of a fiction writer influenced by Girard is J. M. Coetzee, winner of the 2003 Nobel Prize in Literature. Critics have noted that mimetic desire and scapegoating are recurring themes in Coetzee's novels "Elizabeth Costello" and "Disgrace." In the latter work, the book's protagonist also gives a speech about the history of scapegoating with noticeable similarities to Girard's view of the same subject. Coetzee has also frequently cited Girard in his non-fiction essays, on subjects ranging from advertising to the Russian writer Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn.


title: René Girard

text: Theologians who describe themselves as indebted to Girard include James Alison (who focuses on mimetic desire's implications for the doctrine of original sin), Raymund Schwager (who builds a dramatic narrative around both the scapegoat mechanism and the theo-drama of fellow Swiss theologian Hans Urs von Balthasar), and Bishop Robert Barron (who has remarked that Girard will be appreciated as a 21st-Century Church Father in the future.)


title: René Girard

text: Some critics have pointed out that while Girard may be the first to have suggested that "all" desire is mimetic, he is by no means the first to have noticed that "some" desire is mimetic – Gabriel Tarde's book "Les lois de l'imitation" ("The Laws of Imitation") appeared in 1890. Building on Tarde, crowd psychology, Nietzsche, and more generally on a modernist tradition of the "mimetic unconscious" that had hypnosis as its via regia, Nidesh Lawtoo argued that for the modernists not only desire but all affects turn out to be contagious and mimetic. René Pommier mentions La Rochefoucauld, a seventeenth-century thinker who already wrote that "Nothing is so infectious as example" and that "There are some who never would have loved if they never had heard it spoken of."


title: René Girard

text: Stéphane Vinolo sees Baruch Spinoza and Thomas Hobbes as important precursors. Hobbes: "if any two men desire the same thing, which nevertheless they cannot both enjoy, they become enemies." Spinoza: "By the very fact that we conceive a thing, which is like ourselves, and which we have not regarded with any emotion, to be affected with any emotion, we are ourselves affected with a like emotion. Proof… If we conceive anyone similar to ourselves as affected by any emotion, this conception will express a modification of our body similar to that emotion."


title: René Girard

text: Wolfgang Palaver () adds Alexis de Tocqueville to the list. "Two hundred years after Hobbes, the French historian Alexis de Tocqueville mentioned the dangers coming along with equality, too. Like Hobbes, he refers to the increase of mimetic desire coming along with equality." Palaver has in mind passages like this one, from Tocqueville's "Democracy in America": "They have swept away the privileges of some of their fellow creatures which stood in their way, but they have opened the door to universal competition; the barrier has changed its shape rather than its position."


title: René Girard

text: Maurizio Meloni highlights the similarities between Girard, Jacques Lacan and Sigmund Freud. Meloni claims that these similarities arise because the projects undertaken by the three men—namely, to understand the role of mythology in structuring the human psyche and culture—were very similar. What is more, both Girard and Lacan read these myths through the lens of structural anthropology so it is not surprising that their intellectual systems came to resemble one another so strongly. Meloni writes that Girard and Lacan were "moved by similar preoccupations and are fascinated by and attracted to the same kind of issues: the constituent character of the other in the structure of desire, the role of jealousy and rivalry in the construction of the social bond, the proliferation of triangles within apparently dual relations, doubles and mirrors, imitation and the Imaginary, and the crisis of modern society within which the 'rite of Oedipus' is situated."


title: René Girard

text: At times, Girard acknowledges his indebtedness to such precursors, including Tocqueville. At other times, however, Girard makes stronger claims to originality, as when he says that mimetic rivalry "is responsible for the frequency and intensity of human conflicts, but strangely, no one ever speaks of it."


title: René Girard

text: Girard has presented his view as being scientifically grounded: "Our theory should be approached, then, as one approaches any scientific hypothesis." René Pommier has written a book about Girard with the ironic title "Girard Ablaze Rather Than Enlightened" in which he asserts that Girard's readings of myths and Bible stories—the basis of some of his most important claims—are often tendentious. Girard notes, for example, that the disciples actively turn against Jesus. Since Peter warms himself by a fire, and fires always create community, and communities breed mimetic desire, this means that Peter becomes actively hostile to Jesus, seeking his death. According to Pommier, Girard claims that the Gospels present the Crucifixion as a purely human affair, with no indication of Christ dying for the sins of mankind, a claim contradicted by Mark 10:45 and Matthew 20:28.


title: René Girard

text: The same goes for readings of literary texts, says Pommier. For example, Molière's Don Juan only pursues "one" love object for mediated reasons, not "all" of them, as Girard claims. Or again, Sancho Panza wants an island not because he is catching the bug of romanticism from Don Quixote, but because he has been promised one. And Pavel Pavlovitch, in Dostoevsky's "Eternal Husband", has been married for ten years before Veltchaninov becomes his rival, so Veltchaninov is not in fact essential to Pavel's desire.


title: René Girard

text: Accordingly, a number of scholars have suggested that Girard's writings are metaphysics rather than science. Theorist of history Hayden White did so in an article titled "Ethnological 'Lie' and Mystical 'Truth'"; Belgian anthropologist Luc de Heusch made a similar claim in his piece "" ("The Gospel according to Saint Girard"); and Jean Greisch sees Girard's thought as more or less a kind of Gnosis.


title: René Girard

text: René Pommier has pointed out a number of problems with the Girardian claim that all desire is mimetic. First, it is very hard to explain the existence of taboo desires, such as homosexuality in repressive societies, on that basis. Second, every situation presents large numbers of potential mediators, which means that the individual has to make a choice among them; either authentic choice is possible, then, or else the theory leads to a regress. Third, Girard leaves no room for innovation: Surely somebody has to be the first to desire a new object, even if everyone else follows that trend-setter.


title: René Girard

text: One might also argue that the last objection ignores the influence of an original sin from which all others follow, which Girard clearly affirms. However, original sin, according to Girard's interpretation, explains only our propensity to imitate, not the specific content of our imitated desires. Thus, the doctrine of original sin does not solve the problem of how the original model first acquires the desire that is subsequently imitated by others.


title: René Girard

text: In the early part of Girard's career, there seemed no place for beneficial imitation. Jean-Michel Oughourlian objected that "imitation can be totally peaceful and beneficial; I don't believe that I am the other, I don't want to take his place. …This imitation can lead me to become sensitive to social and political problems." Rebecca Adams argued that because Girard's theories fixated on violence, he was creating a "scapegoat" himself with his own theory: the scapegoat of positive mimesis. Adams proposed a reassessment of Girard's theory that includes an account of loving mimesis or, as she preferred to call it, creative mimesis.


title: René Girard

text: More recently, Girard has made room for positive imitation. But as Adams implies, it is not clear how the revised theory accords with earlier claims about the origin of culture. If beneficial imitation is possible, then it is no longer necessary for cultures to be born by means of scapegoating; they could just as well be born through healthy emulation. Nidesh Lawtoo further develops the healthy side of mimetic contagion by drawing on a Nietzschean philosophical tradition that privileges "laughter" and other gay forms of "sovereign communication" in the formation of "community."


title: René Girard

text: Various anthropologists have contested Girard's claims. Elizabeth Traube, for example, reminds us that there are other ways of making sense of the data that Girard borrows from Evans-Pritchard and company—ways that are more consistent with the practices of the given culture. By applying a one-size-fits-all approach, Girard "loses … the ability to tell us anything about cultural products themselves, for the simple reason that he has annihilated the cultures which produced them."


title: René Girard

text: One of the main sources of criticism of Girard's work comes from intellectuals who claim that his comparison of Judeo-Christian texts vis-à-vis other religions leaves something to be desired. There are also those who find the interpretation of the Christ event—as a purely human event, having nothing to do with redemption from sin—an unconvincing one, given what the Gospels themselves say. Yet, Roger Scruton notes, Girard's account has a divine Jesus: "that Jesus was the first scapegoat to understand the need for his death and to forgive those who inflicted it … Girard argues, Jesus gave the best evidence … of his divine nature."


title: René Girard

text: René Girard's wife, Martha née McCullough, was American; they were married from 1952 until his death. They had two sons, Martin Girard (b. 1955) and Daniel Girard (b. 1957), and a daughter, Mary Brown-Girard (b. 1960).


title: René Girard

text: Girard converted to the Catholic Church. Prior to publishing his first book, Girard was a self-declared agnostic. However, after embracing Catholicism, "Girard has been a committed and practicing Roman Catholic."


title: René Girard

text: This section only lists book-length publications that René Girard wrote or edited. For articles and interviews by René Girard, the reader can refer to the database maintained at the University of Innsbruck. Some of the books below reprint articles ("To Double Business Bound", 1978; "Oedipus Unbound", 2004; "Mimesis and Theory", 2008) or are based on articles ("A Theatre of Envy", 1991).


title: Centre Pompidou

text: The Centre Pompidou (), more fully the Centre national d'art et de culture Georges-Pompidou (), also known as the Pompidou Centre in English, is a complex building in the Beaubourg area of the 4th arrondissement of Paris, near Les Halles, rue Montorgueil, and the Marais. It was designed in the style of high-tech architecture by the architectural team of Richard Rogers, Su Rogers, Renzo Piano, along with Gianfranco Franchini.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: It houses the Bibliothèque publique d'information (Public Information Library), a vast public library; the Musée National d'Art Moderne, which is the largest museum for modern art in Europe; and IRCAM, a centre for music and acoustic research. Because of its location, the centre is known locally as Beaubourg (). It is named after Georges Pompidou, the President of France from 1969 to 1974 who commissioned the building, and was officially opened on 31 January 1977 by President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: The centre had 1.5 million visitors in 2021, up by 65 percent from 2020, but a considerable drop from 2019 due to closings caused by the COVID pandemic. It has had over 180 million visitors since 1977 and more than 5,209,678 visitors in 2013, including 3,746,899 for the museum.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: The sculpture "Horizontal" by Alexander Calder, a free-standing mobile that is tall, was placed in front of the Centre Pompidou in 2012.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: The idea for a multicultural complex, bringing together in one place different forms of art and literature, developed, in part, from the ideas of France's first Minister of Cultural Affairs, André Malraux, a proponent of the decentralisation of art and culture by impulse of the political power. In the 1960s, city planners decided to move the foodmarkets of Les Halles, historically significant structures long prized by Parisians, with the idea that some of the cultural institutes be built in the former market area. Hoping to renew the idea of Paris as a leading city of culture and art, it was proposed to move the Musée d'Art Moderne to this new location. Paris also needed a large, free public library, as one did not exist at this time. At first the debate concerned Les Halles, but as the controversy settled, in 1968, President Charles de Gaulle announced the Plateau Beaubourg as the new site for the library. A year later in 1969, Georges Pompidou, the new president, adopted the Beaubourg project and decided it to be the location of both the new library and a centre for the contemporary arts. In the process of developing the project, the IRCAM (Institut de Recherche et Coordination Acoustique/Musique) was also housed in the complex.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: The Rogers and Piano design was chosen among 681 competition entries. World-renowned architects Oscar Niemeyer, Jean Prouvé and Philip Johnson made up the jury. It was the first time in France that international architects were allowed to participate. The selection was announced in 1971 at a "memorable press conference" where the contrast between the sharply-dressed Pompidou and "hairy young crew" of architects represented a "grand bargain between radical architecture and establishment politics."


title: Centre Pompidou

text: It was the first major example of an 'inside-out' building with its structural system, mechanical systems, and circulation exposed on the exterior of the building. Initially, all of the functional structural elements of the building were colour-coded: green pipes are plumbing, blue ducts are for climate control, electrical wires are encased in yellow, and circulation elements and devices for safety (e.g., fire extinguishers) are red. According to Piano, the design was meant to be “not a building but a town where you find everything – lunch, great art, a library, great music”.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: "National Geographic" described the reaction to the design as "love at second sight." An article in "Le Figaro" declared: "Paris has its own monster, just like the one in Loch Ness." But two decades later, while reporting on Rogers' winning the Pritzker Prize in 2007, "The New York Times" noted that the design of the Centre "turned the architecture world upside down" and that "Mr. Rogers earned a reputation as a high-tech iconoclast with the completion of the 1977 Pompidou Centre, with its exposed skeleton of brightly coloured tubes for mechanical systems". The Pritzker jury said the Pompidou "revolutionised museums, transforming what had once been elite monuments into popular places of social and cultural exchange, woven into the heart of the city."


title: Centre Pompidou

text: The centre was built by GTM and completed in 1977. The building cost 993 million French francs. Renovation work conducted from October 1996 to January 2000 was completed on a budget of 576 million francs. The principal engineer was the renowned Peter Rice, responsible for amongst other things the . During the renovation, the centre was closed to the public for 27 months, re-opening on 1 January 2000.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: In September 2020, it was announced that the Centre Pompidou would begin renovations in 2023 which will require either a partial closure for seven years, or a full closure for three years. The projected cost for the upcoming renovations is $235 million. In January 2021 Roselyne Bachelot, France's culture minister, announced that the centre would close completely in 2023 for four years.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: The nearby Stravinsky Fountain (also called the "Fontaine des automates"), on Place Stravinsky, features 16 whimsical moving and water-spraying sculptures by Jean Tinguely and Niki de Saint-Phalle, which represent themes and works by composer Igor Stravinsky. The black-painted mechanical sculptures are by Tinguely, the coloured works by de Saint-Phalle. The fountain opened in 1983.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: Video footage of the fountain appeared frequently throughout the French language telecourse, "French in Action".


title: Centre Pompidou

text: The Place Georges Pompidou in front of the museum is noted for the presence of street performers, such as mimes and jugglers. In the spring, miniature carnivals are installed temporarily into the place in front with a wide variety of attractions: bands, caricature and sketch artists, tables set up for evening dining, and even skateboarding competitions.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: By the mid-1980s, the Centre Pompidou was becoming the victim of its huge and unexpected popularity, its many activities, and a complex administrative structure. When Dominique Bozo returned to the Centre in 1981 as Director of the Musée National d'Art Moderne, he re-installed the museum, bringing out the full range of its collections and displayed the many major acquisitions that had been made. By 1992, the Centre de Création Industrielle was incorporated into the Centre Pompidou.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: The Centre Pompidou was intended to handle 8,000 visitors a day. In its first two decades it attracted more than 145 million visitors, more than five times the number first predicted. , more than 180 million people have visited the centre since its opening in 1977. However, until the 1997–2000 renovation, 20 percent of the centre's eight million annual visitors—predominantly foreign tourists—rode the escalators up the outside of the building to the platform for the sights.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: Since re-opening in 2000 after a three-year renovation, the Centre Pompidou has improved accessibility for visitors. Now they can only access the escalators if they pay to enter the museum.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: Since 2006, the global attendance of the centre is no longer calculated at the main entrance, but only the one of the Musée National d'Art Moderne and of the public library (5,209,678 visitors for both in 2013), but without the other visitors of the building (929,431 in 2004 or 928,380 in 2006, for only the "panorama" tickets or cinemas, festivals, lectures, bookshops, workshops, restaurants, etc.). In 2017, the museum had 3.37 million visitors. The public library had 1.37 million.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: The Musée National d'Art Moderne itself saw an increase in attendance from 3.1 million (2010) to 3.6 million visitors in 2011 and 3.75 million in 2013.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: The 2013 retrospective "Dalí" broke the museum's daily attendance record: 7,364 people a day went to see the artist's work (790,000 in total).


title: Centre Pompidou

text: Several major exhibitions are organised each year on either the first or sixth floors. Among them, many monographs:


title: Centre Pompidou

text: In 2010, the Centre Georges Pompidou opened a regional branch, the Centre Pompidou-Metz, in Metz a city 250 kilometres east of Paris. The new museum is part of an effort to expand the display of contemporary arts beyond Paris's large museums. The new museum's building was designed by the architect Shigeru Ban with a curving and asymmetrical pagoda-like roof topped by a spire and punctured by upper galleries. The 77-metre central spire is a nod to the year the Centre Georges Pompidou of Paris was built – 1977. The Centre Pompidou-Metz displays unique, temporary exhibitions from the collection of the Musée National d'Art Moderne, which is not on display at the main Parisian museum.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: Since its inauguration, the institution has become the most visited cultural venue in France outside Paris, accommodating 550,000 visitors/year.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: Launched in 2011 in Chaumont, the museum for the first time went on the road to the French regions with a selection of works from the permanent collection. To do this, it designed and constructed a mobile gallery, which, in the spirit of a circus, will make camp for a few months at a time in towns throughout the country. However, in 2013, the Centre Pompidou halted its mobile-museum project because of the cost.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: In 2014, plans were released for a temporary satellite of the Centre Pompidou in the northern French town of Maubeuge close to the Belgian border. The 3,000-square-metre outpost, to be designed by the architects Pierre Hebbelinck and Pierre de Wit, is said to be located at the 17th-century Maubeuge Arsenal for four years. The cost of the project is €5.8 million.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: In 2015, the city authorities in Libourne, a town in south-western France, proposed a Pompidou branch housed in a former military base called Esog.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: In 2019, the Centre Pompidou announced plans to open a conservation, exhibition and storage space in Massy (Essonne) by 2025. Project backers include the Région Ile-de-France and the French state.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: In 2015, approximately 70 works from the Centre Pompidou's collection went on show in a temporary glass-and-steel structure called "The Cube" ("El Cubo") in Málaga. According to the Spanish newspaper "El País", the annual €1 million cost of the five-year project will be funded by the city council. The partnership with Málaga was announced by the city's mayor but was not confirmed by Pompidou Centre president Alain Seban until 24 April 2014. Approximately 100 works from the Pompidou's 20th and 21st century collection will be installed in the space for two years, while a smaller area will be used for temporary exhibitions. Portraiture and the influence of Picasso will be among the subjects explored in the permanent display, organised by the Pompidou's deputy director Brigitte Leal. Highlights will include works by Alberto Giacometti, René Magritte, Alexander Calder and Constantin Brâncuși, and contemporary works by Sophie Calle, Bruce Nauman and Orlan. The city of Málaga also commissioned Daniel Buren to create a large-scale installation within "El Cubo".


title: Centre Pompidou

text: The city of Málaga will pay the Centre Pompidou €1 million a year for the brand and the use of the collection.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: In March 2018, the Centre Pompidou announced plans to open an offshoot branch in Brussels, under the name Kanal-Centre Pompidou. Housed in a former Citroën garage which was transformed by a team comprising ces noAarchitecten (Brussels), EM2N (Zurich) and Sergison Bates architects (London), the new centre brings together the Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art, an architecture centre (CIVA Foundation) and public spaces devoted to culture, education and leisure. The Brussels-Capital region — which acquired the Art Deco-style building in October 2015 — is the main funder project, with the conversion costing €122 million.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: In a joint proposal with the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum presented in 2005, the Centre Pompidou planned to build a museum of modern and contemporary art, design and the media arts in Hong Kong's West Kowloon Cultural District.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: In 2007, the then president Bruno Racine announced plans to open a museum carrying the Pompidou's name in Shanghai, with its programming to be determined by the Pompidou. The location chosen for the new museum was a former fire station in the Luwan district's Huaihai Park. However, the scheme did not materialize for several years, reportedly due to the lack of a legal framework for a non-profit foreign institution to operate in China. In 2019, the Centre Pompidou x West Bund Museum opened to the public, based in a wing of the West Bund Art Museum designed by David Chipperfield. The inaugural exhibitions "The Shape of Time, Highlights of the Centre Pompidou Collection" and "Observations, Highlights of the New Media Collection" were curated by Marcella Lista.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: Other projects include the Pompidou's joint venture with the King Abdulaziz Centre for World Culture, an arts complex incorporating a museum in Dhahran, the building of which has stalled.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: In April 2014, Pompidou president Alain Seban confirmed that after Malaga (Spain), Mexico will be the next site for a pop-up Pompidou Centre. A satellite museum Centre Pompidou x Jersey City in Jersey City, New Jersey, will open in 2024, being the Pompidou's first satellite museum in North America.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: There have been rumours of a pop-up Pompidou satellite museum in Brazil since Alain Seban announced the plan for these temporary locations back in 2012. At a talk on satellite museums at the Guggenheim on 24 April 2014, Alain Seban suggested that Brazil may be the third country to host a temporary satellite museum, after Spain and Mexico.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: As a national museum, the Centre Pompidou is government-owned and subsidised by the Ministry of Culture (64.2% of its budget in 2012 : 82.8 on 129 million €), essentially for its staff. The Culture Ministry appoints its directors and controls its gestion, which is nevertheless independent, as "Etablissement public à caractère administratif" since its creation. In 2011, the museum earned $1.9 million from travelling exhibitions.


title: Centre Pompidou

text: Established in 1977 as the institution's US philanthropic arm, the Georges Pompidou Art and Culture Foundation acquires and encourages major gifts of art and design for exhibition at the museum. Since 2006, the non-profit support group has brought in donations of 28 works, collectively valued at more than $14 million, and purchased many others. In 2013, New York-based art collectors Thea Westreich Wagner and Ethan Wagner announced their intention to donate about 300 works by 27 European and international artists to the Centre Pompidou, thereby making one of the largest gifts in the institution's history.


The October 1974 United Kingdom general election took place on Thursday 10 October 1974 to elect 635 members of the British House of Commons. It was the second general election held that year, the first year that two general elections were held in the same year since 1910, and the first time that two general elections were held less than a year apart from each other since the 1923 and 1924 elections, which took place 10 months apart. The election resulted in the Labour Party led by Harold Wilson winning a bare majority of just 3 seats. This enabled the remainder of the Labour government, 1974–1979 to take place, which saw a gradual loss of its majority.


title: October 1974 United Kingdom general election

text: The election of February that year had produced an unexpected hung parliament. Coalition talks between the Conservatives and other parties such as the Liberals and the Ulster Unionists failed, allowing Labour leader Harold Wilson to form a minority government. The October campaign was not as vigorous or exciting as the one in February. Despite continuing high inflation, Labour was able to boast that it had ended the miners' strike, which had dogged Heath's premiership, and had returned some stability. The Conservative Party, still led by Edward Heath, released a manifesto promoting national unity; however, its chances of forming a government were hindered by the Ulster Unionist Party refusing to take the Conservative whip at Westminster, in response to the Sunningdale Agreement of 1973.


text: The Conservatives and the Liberals each saw their vote share decline, and Conservative Party leader Edward Heath, who had lost three of the four elections he contested, was ousted as party leader in February 1975 and replaced with future Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. The Scottish National Party won 30% of the Scottish popular vote and 11 of Scotland's 71 seats; it was their most successful general election result until 2015.


text: Subsequently, Labour's narrow parliamentary majority had disappeared by 1977 through a series of by-election losses and defections. It then required deals with the Liberals, the Ulster Unionists, the Scottish Nationalists and the Welsh Nationalists.


text: This was the last general election victory for the Labour Party until 1997; each of the next four consecutive general elections produced a Conservative parliamentary majority. It would also be the last time Labour won more seats at a national election than the Conservatives until the 1989 European Parliament election.


text: The election was broadcast live on the BBC, and was presented by David Butler, Alastair Burnet, Robert McKenzie, Robin Day and Sue Lawley.


text: The brief period between the elections gave Wilson the opportunity to demonstrate reasonable progress. Despite high inflation and high balance-of-trade deficits, the miners' strike that had dogged Heath was over and some stability had been restored. Following the February election Heath had remained largely out of the public eye.


text: As was expected, the campaign was not as exciting as the one in February and overall coverage by broadcasters was significantly scaled back. The Conservatives campaigned on a manifesto of national unity, in response to the mood of the public. Labour campaigned on its recent successes in government, and although the party was divided over Europe, their strengths outweighed that of Heath, who knew his future relied on an election victory. Devolution was a key issue for the Liberals and the Scottish National Party, and was now one that the two main parties also felt the need to address. The Liberals did not issue a new manifesto, simply reissuing the one they had created for the last election.


text: Prime Minister Harold Wilson made a ministerial broadcast on television on 18 September to announce that the election would be held on 10 October, less than eight months since the previous election. The key dates were as follows:


text: Labour achieved a swing of 2% against the Conservatives. This was the first time since 1922 that a government had won an overall majority with less than 40% of the vote, albeit a majority of only 3. The Conservatives won just under 36% of the vote, their worst share since 1918; and a slight drop in the Liberal vote saw them suffer a net loss of 1 seat. In Scotland, the SNP added another 4 seats to their successes in the previous election to become the 4th largest party. Turnout was 72.8%, which was a significant decline on the February election's 78.8% turnout.


title: Wesley Crusher

text: Wesley Crusher is a fictional character in the "Star Trek" franchise. He appears regularly in the first four seasons of the television series "" ("TNG"), and sporadically in its next three seasons. He also appeared in the feature film "" (2002) and in "" (2022). He is the son of Beverly Crusher and Jack Crusher and is portrayed by actor Wil Wheaton.


title: Wesley Crusher

text: In the television series "Star Trek: The Next Generation", Wesley Crusher first arrives on the "Enterprise"-D with his mother, soon after Captain Jean-Luc Picard assumes command. Crusher's father was killed while under Picard's command, with Picard delivering the message to Wesley and to his mother, Beverly. Picard initially found Wesley irritating, as he is often uncomfortable around children, a fact he discloses to his first officer, Commander William Riker, in the pilot episode "Encounter at Farpoint".


title: Wesley Crusher

text: In early episodes of the series, Picard does not allow Wesley on the ship's bridge. However, during the first season, Picard comes to realize that Wesley understands many things beyond his age, having inherited his mother's intelligence, and grants him more opportunities onboard. An alien known as the Traveler tells Captain Picard that Wesley possesses a unique intelligence and great potential when provided encouragement and opportunity, comparing him to a child prodigy like Mozart. Picard soon appoints Crusher as acting ensign.


title: Wesley Crusher

text: In the episode "", Crusher takes the Starfleet Academy entrance exam, but fails to pass it. In the episode "Ménage à Troi", he misses his second chance to take the exam; but when he helps the "Enterprise"-D crew rescue Riker, Deanna Troi and from hostile Ferengi, Picard grants him a field promotion to full ensign.


title: Wesley Crusher

text: In the third-season episode "The Bonding", Crusher reveals that following his father's death, he felt animosity towards Picard, because Picard was in command of the "Stargazer" during the mission in which Wesley's father was killed. By the end of the episode, he no longer harbors these feelings.


title: Wesley Crusher

text: The following year, Crusher is invited to re-take the Academy exam. He is accepted, and joins an elite group of cadets known as Nova Squadron. In the fifth-season episode "The First Duty", a squadron-mate is killed attempting a dangerous and prohibited flight maneuver and, under pressure from the team's leader, Nick Locarno, Crusher abets the squadron's efforts to cover up the truth. Although the "Enterprise" crew's intervention and Crusher's own testimony saves him from expulsion, Crusher's academic credits for the year are revoked; he is required to repeat the year and graduate after most of the rest of his class. He remains in the Academy until the Traveler recontacts him in a later season 7 episode, "", where he resigns his commission and goes with the Traveler to explore other planes of reality.


title: Wesley Crusher

text: Crusher is next seen sitting next to his mother in the background of the wedding scenes in the feature film "". In a scene deleted from the film, Captain Picard asks Crusher if he is excited to serve on board the USS "Titan" (Captain Riker's ship). Crusher tells him that he will be running the night shift in Engineering, which would have indicated that Wesley returned to Starfleet prior to the events of the film and held the rank of Lieutenant.


title: Wesley Crusher

text: Crusher returns in the "" episode "Farewell". In the years since "Star Trek: Nemesis", he has rejoined the Travelers, traveling across space and time. In the year 2024, he approaches Kore Soong and reveals that he and his fellow Travelers were responsible for creating the Supervisors and the Watchers to help ensure the universe's survival. He offers Kore a position with the Travelers, although he can't guarantee her safety, and she accepts.


title: Wesley Crusher

text: The Wesley Crusher character was unpopular among some "Star Trek" fans. Many considered the character a Mary Sue, and a stand-in for Gene Roddenberry (whose middle name was Wesley). The character's role in the show was greatly downplayed after the first season when Roddenberry's involvement in the show's production became more peripheral.


title: Wesley Crusher

text: Some fans disliked the idea of a boy who seemed to regularly save the whole ship as a "deus ex machina" plot device. Commentators have observed at least seven times in which Crusher, "who has trouble getting into the Starfleet Academy" and is on a ship "filled with Starfleet's best and brightest crew members", has come up with "the needed solution". Fans' dislike for Crusher has become something of a pop-culture meme, reflected in other TV shows such as "The Big Bang Theory", the English dub of "Steins;Gate", and in a 2009 "Family Guy" episode, "Not All Dogs Go to Heaven", which included the main "The Next Generation" cast and featured Wil Wheaton in character as Crusher being bullied by Patrick Stewart.


title: Wesley Crusher

text: Wheaton wrote: "When I was younger, people gave me such a hard time about Wesley Crusher, there was a time in my late teens and early twenties when I resented "Star Trek". It felt so unfair that people who had never met me were so cruel and hateful toward me as a person because they didn’t like a character I played on a TV show, I wanted to put "Star Trek" behind me and forget that it was ever part of my life."


title: Wesley Crusher

text: In a 2016 issue of "Wired" magazine, Wesley Crusher was ranked 31st of the 100 most important Starfleet characters in the "Star Trek" science fiction universe.


title: Chris Meledandri

text: Christopher Meledandri (; born May 15, 1959) is an American film producer and founder and CEO of Illumination. He previously served as President of 20th Century Fox Animation, and has worked as the producer of the "Despicable Me" franchise and the "Sing" franchise.


title: Chris Meledandri

text: Meledandri was born in New York City to Roland Meledandri, a men's fashion designer, and Risha Meledandri, an activist, growing up in the Upper East Side of Manhattan. He attended Dartmouth College.


title: Chris Meledandri

text: Meledandri's first job in the film industry came when he worked as an assistant to executive producer Daniel Melnick on the set of "Footloose". Meledandri afterwards was the producer for a series of small films, before working as a producer for the 1993 Disney film "Cool Runnings", which was a financial success. Soon after Meledandri was hired by 20th Century Fox, where executives presumed that the success of "Cool Runnings" showcased Meledandri's ability to produce financially successful family films. After a series of collaborations with filmmaker John Hughes, Meledandri was placed in charge of 20th Century Fox Animation. One of the first films released under Meledandri's tutelage was the animated science fiction film "Titan A.E." (2000), a costly box office bomb whose failure almost caused him to be fired, and which caused Fox Animation Studios to be shut down.


title: Chris Meledandri

text: In 1998, Meledandri led Fox's acquisition of fledgling visual effects house Blue Sky Studios, which became a commercially successful production studio. He oversaw the creative and business operations of Blue Sky, which became wholly owned by Fox. While at the studio, Meledandri supervised and/or executive produced films including "Ice Age" (2002), "Robots" (2005), "" (2006), and "Dr. Seuss Horton Hears a Who!" (2008). He also produced two animated shorts, "Gone Nutty" (2002) and "No Time for Nuts" (2006), both were nominated for an Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film.


title: Chris Meledandri

text: Meledandri left as President of 20th Century Fox Animation in early 2007, being replaced by Vanessa Morrison, and founded Illumination, an animated film production company that was co-owned by Universal Pictures, which fully financed and owned the films. Fox had attempted to retain Meledandri, but it was reported by the "Los Angeles Times" that Universal's offer of an ownership stake in Illumination had persuaded him to switch. Meledandri's deal with Universal gave him a portion of box-office returns made by Illumination, and as of 2011 he also owned an undisclosed stake in the studio. In 2010, Illumination released its first film, "Despicable Me", which became successful. Meledandri built a good relationship with chairman of NBCUniversal Stephen Burke, who liked Meledandri's propensity for producing animated films on a relatively low budget. Illumination released a film version of Dr. Seuss' "The Lorax", which continued the successful collaboration between Meledandri and Theodor (Dr. Seuss) Geisel's widow, Audrey. He also produced the franchise spin-off prequel, "Minions" (2015) and the sequels to "Despicable Me", "Despicable Me 2" (2013) and "Despicable Me 3" (2017).


title: Chris Meledandri

text: On April 28, 2016, NBCUniversal announced its intent to acquire competing studio DreamWorks Animation for $3.8 billion. It was announced that Meledandri would oversee both Illumination and DreamWorks following the completion of the merger. However, it was later announced that Meledandri had declined to oversee DreamWorks, and will instead be a consultant at the studio. On November 6, 2018, it was announced that Meledandri will be helping Universal and DreamWorks to revive the "Shrek" franchise. Meledandri intends, however, to retain the original voice actors, as he pointed out they were perhaps the most memorable parts of the series.


title: Chris Meledandri

text: In January 2018, Nintendo announced during a fiscal meeting that Illumination would be developing an animated Mario film and that Meledandri will co-produce the film with "Super Mario" creator Shigeru Miyamoto. On July 5, 2021, it was reported that Meledandri would join Nintendo's board of directors "as an independent and non-executive outside director", in order to help Nintendo through their filmmaking experience as the company moves towards developing films after Illumination's "The Super Mario Bros. Movie".


title: Chris Meledandri

text: Meledandri is a member of The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, and is a member of the board of trustees at The Hotchkiss School in Lakeville, Connecticut. He has two sons, born c. 1990 and 1998.


title: Horizon Worlds

text: Horizon Worlds (formerly Facebook Horizon) is a free virtual reality, online video game with an integrated game creation system developed and published by Meta Platforms. On this multi-player virtual platform, players move and interact with each other in various worlds that host events, games, and social activities. The game was originally released on December 9, 2021 for Oculus Rift S and Oculus Quest 2 headsets.


title: Horizon Worlds

text: In February 2022, Meta reported "Horizon Worlds" had an estimated 300,000 users; yet, by October 2022, the "The Wall Street Journal" was reporting less than 200,000 monthly users. "Horizon Worlds" has received mixed reviews, with critics citing bugs and an unenjoyable environment that degrades the user experience.


title: Horizon Worlds

text: The game may be played with an Oculus Rift S or Oculus Quest 2 virtual reality headset and uses full 3D motion via the motion capture system of the headset and two hand-held motion controllers, which are required to interact with objects in the game. In October 2022, Meta announced that they will be launching a web version, allowing users to access the game without an Oculus as well. Players can explore the space around them within the confines of their physical floor-space, while roaming further by using controller buttons to teleport a short distance or to move continuously through the virtual space.


title: Horizon Worlds

text: According to Meta, users can create their own avatar, with a custom face and outfit, to represent themselves in the virtual world. All players begin at the hub (also known as the “plaza”), where they can take portals to different worlds created by other users. An integrated game creation system allows users to create new worlds. Users can also create their own personal space, which is a world private to only them. The game’s website lists other features such as taking a picture within the game, joining a party with friends, and blocking users.


title: Horizon Worlds

text: The development of "Horizon Worlds" (formerly called "Facebook Horizon") followed earlier social VR apps by Facebook (Oculus Rooms, Oculus Venues, and Facebook Spaces) and focused more on user-generated content than these earlier apps. Facebook announced "Facebook Horizon" as a new social virtual world at the Oculus Connect 6 conference in September 2019.


title: Horizon Worlds

text: In August 2020, Facebook announced that more users will receive access to an invite-only beta phase. In an interview with Scott Stein in January 2021, Facebook Reality Labs head Andrew Bosworth conceded that the experiences in Facebook Horizon are not ready for the public and expressed concern that "[i]f you don't have… something driving a lot of people to the place, then you run the risk they're not going to get it."


title: Horizon Worlds

text: In August 2021, Facebook released the open beta of "Horizon Workrooms", a collaboration app targeted at teams managing remote-work environments. The app offers virtual meeting rooms, whiteboards and video call integration for up to 50 people. On 7 October 2021 Facebook changed the name "Facebook Horizon" to "Horizon Worlds". After an invite-only beta phase, the game was released in the U.S. and Canada to people 18 years or older on December 9, 2021.


title: Horizon Worlds

text: In February 2022, Mark Zuckerberg stated that a mobile phone version of "Horizon Worlds" would launch later in 2022. He has also announced plans for "Horizon Worlds" to expand to the web.


title: Horizon Worlds

text: In March 2022, Meta announced “Builder Tracks for "Horizon Worlds"”, a developer program for game development inside "Horizon Worlds". Meta has pledged $500,000 to fund the program, including cash prizes, a "Horizon Worlds" bootcamp, and support from Meta developers.


title: Horizon Worlds

text: In April 2022, Meta started testing monetization in "Horizon Worlds" in the form of in-app purchases, where a few select creators began selling virtual items, such as clothing, to players 18 years and older. Meta also started testing the "Horizon Worlds" Creator Bonus program where creators are paid monthly bonuses.


title: Horizon Worlds

text: When "Horizon Worlds" was first announced in 2019 under the name "Facebook Horizon", Josh writing for "TechCrunch" compared it to other social virtual worlds such as "Second Life", "The Sims", "AltspaceVR", "Dreams", "Roblox", as well as the fictional ""OASIS"" described in the novel "Ready Player One", while Sam Machovech writing for "Ars Technica" emphasised similarities to "Rec Room" and "VRChat". Machovech noted a key difference to other social virtual worlds in Facebook's plan to let employees welcome new users. Sean Bowles from Apply Digital praised the platform for its ability to create monetization opportunities through partnerships. However, he also criticized the centralized nature of Meta’s control over the game, along with the clunkiness of the graphics and lack of social engagement. Scott Stein writing for CNET agreed that "[m]aybe Horizon is better than whatever Oculus had before"; however, he also observed that "there are a lot of social VR questions Horizon leaves unanswered".


title: Horizon Worlds

text: David H. Freedman writing for "Newsweek" tried to answer some of these questions by predicting that Facebook's knowledge about users' online behavior "will explode when someone straps on a Facebook headset". This prediction is supported by Facebook's public plans to include face and eye tracking in future headsets. Freedman speculated that Facebook could use this knowledge to generate advertising revenue with ads that permeate "Facebook Horizon" and "might appear as billboards, signage, skywriting, computer-generated characters hawking goods and services, logos embedded in objects and surfaces, and any other form that can be crammmed into any nook or cranny of fake reality."


title: Horizon Worlds

text: "Kotaku" described "Horizon Worlds" as "a strange experience" and that the overall vibe felt "less toxic than [they] expected, considering how awful Facebook is", and also called it a "hollow, corporate shell that has more in common with an office than it does a playground, or any other type of social space a human being would willingly want to hang out in." TheGamer also described "Horizon Worlds" as "less of a virtual utopia, and more of a glitchy, incomplete cluster of experiences" and criticized the current relative lack of safety features and poor management of misinformation and hate speech on the platform and described it as a "corporate reality that only investors and venture capitalists are seeking."


title: Horizon Worlds

text: Vishal Shah, VP of Metaverse at Meta, commented that users and creators have provided feedback to the team about the lack of stability and prevalence of bugs in the platform. Shah also found that company employees have also stopped using the platform, writing, “The simple truth is, if we don’t love it, how can we expect our users to love it?". However, other executives have urged critics to be patient with the developing technology, and have stated that Meta is currently working towards improvements.


title: Horizon Worlds

text: In February 2022 Meta stated that "Horizon Worlds" and "Horizon Venues" had a total monthly userbase of 300,000 people, that users had built 10,000 worlds within "Horizon Worlds", and that its private Facebook group for creators had over 20,000 members.


title: Horizon Worlds

text: In an October 2022 report, the "Wall Street Journal" stated that most users of "Horizon Worlds" only stay on the platform for a month, ending their interactions with it afterward. The report cites internal Meta documents and puts the monthly userbase at below 200,000 users. The same report found that most worlds created by players are never visited, and less than 9% have ever been visited by more than 50 people.


title: Horizon Worlds

text: However, there are some worlds that are more frequently visited, such as The Soapstone Comedy Club, a user-created space for standup comedy that reports receiving up to 13,000 weekly visitors.


title: Horizon Worlds

text: A February 2022 report by the "Washington Post" discussed concerns about children using "Horizon Worlds" despite the 18 or older age requirement arguing it could lead to the platform being used by sexual predators for child grooming, while also noting the platform currently lacks parental controls and has been criticized for alleged lax moderation on preventing underaged users from using the platform.


title: Horizon Worlds

text: On 26 November 2021, a beta user reported being groped on "Horizon Worlds," and that other users supported the conduct. Meta responded that there is a tool called "Safe Zone" that users can initiate to protect themselves from interactions with others. A second reported incident occurred in December 2021 when a female user claimed they were virtually gangraped by about 3 to 4 male users after joining the platform. In another incident, a female reporter from the "Wall Street Journal" was asked to expose herself by another user while trying to conduct interviews in the game.


title: Horizon Worlds

text: In February 2022 Meta, in response to the incidents, added a "personal boundary" to "Horizon Worlds" and "Venues" which creates an invisible boundary that can prevent users from coming within four feet of other avatars. Plans were also announced for users to change the size of this boundary in the future. The boundary feature is similar to standard features in competing platforms "VRChat" and "Rec Room" though with options to disable and change the size of the boundary already existing. Horizon World’s Safe Zone allows players to separate themselves from other players and their surroundings, as well as mute or block other players or certain types of content. In June 2022, Meta announced that it would roll out Voice Mode, a voice feature that allows users to garble incoming strangers’ audio to protect themselves from potentially harmful or unwanted speech.


title: Horizon Worlds

text: Meta announced in October 2022 that legs would be among the first new updates to the graphics, as characters previously lacked any, however their initial reveal was criticized once it was discovered the models in the reveal were motion capture rather than being in-game footage.


title: Horizon Worlds

text: On August 16, 2022, Mark Zuckerberg announced the release of "Horizon Worlds" in France and Spain on Facebook (also owned by Meta), with the message "We're launching Horizon Worlds in France and Spain today! Looking forward to seeing people explore and build immersive worlds, and to bringing this to more countries soon." Included with the post was an image depicting his avatar in front of interpretations of the Eiffel Tower (France) and Sagrada Família (Spain). The image quickly garnered mockery online, particularly on Twitter where it was criticized for its poor quality graphics in comparison to other video games; among these included comparisons with "Second Life" (2003), "Twisted Metal 2" (1996), "Fortnite" (2017), and Miis, as well as generally finding the avatar dead-eyed or soulless.


title: Horizon Worlds

text: On August 19, 2022, Mark Zuckerberg responded to the memes on Instagram writing "the photo I posted earlier this week was pretty basic — it was taken very quickly to celebrate at launch", but reassured players that the graphics of "Horizon Worlds" were capable of "so much more"; included with the post was a more modern render of his avatar, as well as an ancient Rome environment. Commentators had mixed opinions on the new render with Polygon stating "doesn’t exactly look like a place that’s appealing to spend time in, but I suppose that’s all in the eye of the beholder," while Kotaku felt it still "doesn’t look nearly as good as what you can find in other VR offerings."


title: Horizon Worlds

text: On October 13, 2022, the UFC announced a partnership with Meta. Users with a UFC Fight Pass will be able to watch live and on-demand events on "Horizon Worlds" using a Oculus Quest 2 headset. The UFC debuted the live, virtual reality events on "Horizon Worlds" with LFA 144 on October 14, 2022.


title: Horizon Worlds

text: "Horizon Worlds" will stream live music events as part of its partnership with Tidal, as announced by Oculus on October 25, 2022. The platform will stream a live concert series featuring artists who are part of Tidal's emerging artist platform called Tidal Rising.


title: John McIntire

text: John Herrick McIntire (June 27, 1907 – January 30, 1991) was an American character actor who appeared in 65 theatrical films and many television series. McIntire is well known for having replaced Ward Bond, upon Bond's sudden death in November 1960, as the star of NBC's "Wagon Train". He played Christopher Hale, the leader of the wagon train (and successor to Bond's character, Seth Adams) from early 1961 to the series' end in 1965. He also replaced Charles Bickford, upon Bickford's death in 1967, as ranch owner Clay Grainger (brother of Bickford's character) on NBC's "The Virginian" for four seasons.


title: John McIntire

text: John McIntire was born in Spokane, Washington, the son of Byron Jean McIntire and Chastine Uretta Herrick McIntire. He was of Irish descent. He grew up primarily in Eureka, Montana around ranchers, an experience that later inspired his performances in dozens of film and television westerns. Later, he lived in Santa Monica, California.


title: John McIntire

text: McIntire began acting on radio in "Tarzan and the Diamond of Asher" and he met his future wife Jeanette Nolan through their work on radio programs. McIntire played the title role in a Los Angeles radio station's production of "The Adventures of Bill Lance" and was the first actor to play the title role in the CBS radio drama "Crime Doctor". He played Jack Packard in "I Love a Mystery" and Peter Carter in the radio version of "The Lineup". He worked on many episodes of "Suspense" from the early 1940s. He was the narrator for the radio programs "Lincoln Highway", and "The March of Time". He can be heard on an episode of the radio version of Gunsmoke on CBS portraying Miss Kitty's estranged father.


title: John McIntire

text: He was active in the theatre, before he embarked on a lengthy film and television career as a character actor. He was already 40 when he made his big-screen debut in 1947 in the movie "The Hucksters", but went on to appear in films, often portraying police figures, doctors, judges, eccentric loners or other western characters.


title: John McIntire

text: Some of his most memorable roles were in westerns such as "The Far Country" (1955), with James Stewart, and "The Tin Star" (1957) with Henry Fonda. In Anthony Mann's "Winchester '73", McIntire plays a shrewd card sharp and gun dealer. He also had an excellent, sympathetic turn as an aging detective in "Scene of the Crime" (1949), played a police commissioner in "The Asphalt Jungle" (1950), a sheriff in the 1960 Hitchcock thriller "Psycho" and a reverend in the 1960 drama "Elmer Gantry" starring Burt Lancaster, but


title: John McIntire

text: Though he technically played a supporting part, McIntire received top billing and his greatest critical acclaim for his portrayal of real-life reform politician Albert Patterson assassinated by the local gangsters in the fact-based crime movie "The Phenix City Story" (1955).


title: John McIntire

text: In the mid-1950s, McIntire moved into television, appearing in anthology series, sitcoms and dramas. He guest-starred as Judson in the episode "Chinese Invasion" of NBC's one-season western series, "Cimarron City", with George Montgomery and John Smith.


title: John McIntire

text: McIntire procured a regular role on ABC's "Naked City", before his character was killed off. McIntire was cast from January to May 1961 in the supporting role of Pa Canfield in the NBC American Civil War drama "The Americans.".


title: John McIntire

text: Though McIntire had never played the lead in a theatrical film, television provided him with his most prominent and long-running role when in 1961 he replaced the late Ward Bond in the NBC/ABC series "Wagon Train", playing trailmaster Chris Hale in more than 150 episodes between 1961 and 1965. His co-stars were Robert Horton, Robert Fuller, Denny Scott Miller, Terry Wilson, Frank McGrath, and Michael Burns.


title: John McIntire

text: In 1960, McIntire guest-starred as William Palmer in the series finale, "The Most Dangerous Gentleman", of the short-lived NBC western "Overland Trail", starring William Bendix and Doug McClure, his subsequent co-star on "The Virginian".


title: John McIntire

text: Also in 1960 John starred in a "The Twilight Zone" episode "The Chaser" where he played a mysterious purveyor of potions. McIntire guest starred twice in the western TV series "Bonanza": he played Sheriff Mike Latimer in the 1961 episode "The Bride" and he portrayed Old Charlie Conners in the 1966 episode "Old Charlie". In 1967, he guest-starred in an episode of CBS's short-lived western, "Dundee and the Culhane".


title: John McIntire

text: McIntire replaced actor Charles Bickford (who had himself replaced Lee J. Cobb) on NBC's "The Virginian" in 1967 when Bickford died (the second time McIntire replaced the leading man in a television series after the lead died, the first being Ward Bond in "Wagon Train"). McIntire played Clay Grainger, the brother of Bickford's character for four seasons, a major recurring leading role in a weekly 90-minute western series similar in size and scope to his earlier work on "Wagon Train."


title: John McIntire

text: He played the supporting role of Judge Parker in "Rooster Cogburn" (1975), the sequel to "True Grit" starring John Wayne and Katharine Hepburn, and appeared as Owen Keating in the 1977 television miniseries "Aspen". His final film role was in "Turner & Hooch" (1989).


title: John McIntire

text: In 1979–1980, McIntire played Ethan McHenry in "Shirley" on NBC, and in 1981, he played Sam Whittier on the ABC drama "The American Dream".


title: John McIntire

text: Starting in 1960 McIntire began appearing with his wife Jeanette Nolan. Both were in "Psycho", he playing a sheriff and she voicing some of the "mother" lines. In the "Wagon Train" episode "The Janet Hale Story" McIntire and Nolan played husband and wife Chris and Janet Hale. In "The Virginian", they also played husband and wife. They both appeared again as husband and wife in "The Fugitive" (1966) season 3, episode 24, as farm workers with their real life son, Tim. In the 1979 "Charlie's Angels" episode "Angels on Vacation" they appeared together as Chris Monroe's Uncle Paul and Aunt Lydia. They played a US senator and his wife in the TV movie "Goliath Awaits" (1981). In the 1984 comic spy adventure "Cloak & Dagger", they again played a couple. This time they portrayed sinister spies posing as harmless elderly tourists. They also played the parents of John Larroquette's character, Dan Fielding - "Daddy Bob Elmore" and "Mucette Elmore" - on "Night Court"s season 2 episode, "Dan's Parents."