title: Midian

text: In Surah 7 (Al-ʾAʿrāf), Madyan is mentioned as one of several peoples who were warned by prophets to repent lest judgment fall on them. The story of Madyan is the last, coming after that of Lot preaching to his people (referring to the destruction of the Cities of the Plain). Madyan was warned by the prophet Shuʿaib to repent of practicing polytheism, using false weights and measures and lying in wait along the road. But they rejected Shuʿayb, and consequently were destroyed by a tremor ("rajfa", v. 91). Abdullah Yusuf Ali in his commentary (1934) writes, "The fate of the Madyan people is described in the same terms as that of the Thamūd in verse 78 above. An earthquake seized them by night, and they were buried in their own homes, no longer to vex Allah's earth. But a supplementary detail is mentioned in [Quran] 26:189, 'the punishment of a day of overshadowing gloom,' which may be understood to mean a shower of ashes and cinders accompanying a volcanic eruption. Thus a day of terror drove them into their homes, and the earthquake finished them." A number of scholars have proposed that the biblical description of devouring fire on Mount Sinai refers to an erupting volcano in the land of biblical Midian identified as Hala-'l Badr in northwestern Saudi Arabia.


title: Midian

text: Midianite pottery, also called Qurayyah Painted Ware (QPW), is found at numerous sites stretching from the southern Levant to NW Saudi Arabia, the Hejaz; Qurayyah in NW Saudi Arabia is thought to be its original location of manufacture. The pottery is bichrome / polychrome style and it dates as early as the 13th century BC; its many geometric, human, and animal motifs are painted in browns and dark reds on a pinkish-tan slip. "Midianite" pottery is found in its largest quantities at metallurgical sites in the southern Levant, especially Timna. Because of the Mycenaean motifs on Midianite pottery, some scholars including George Mendenhall, Peter Parr, and Beno Rothenberg have suggested that the Midianites were originally Sea Peoples who migrated from the Aegean region and imposed themselves on a pre-existing Semitic stratum. The question of the origin of the Midianites still remains open.


title: Midian

text: The Midian Mountains () are a mountain range in northwestern Saudi Arabia. They are considered to be either contiguous with the Hijaz Mountains to the south, or a part of them. The Hijaz are themselves treated as part of the Sarawat range, "sensu lato".


title: Arteriosclerosis

text: Arteriosclerosis is the thickening, hardening, and loss of elasticity of the walls of arteries. This process gradually restricts the blood flow to one's organs and tissues and can lead to severe health risks brought on by atherosclerosis, which is a specific form of arteriosclerosis caused by the buildup of fatty plaques, cholesterol, and some other substances in and on the artery walls. It can be brought on by smoking, a bad diet, or many genetic factors.


title: Arteriosclerosis

text: Atherosclerosis is the primary cause of coronary artery disease (CAD) and stroke, with multiple genetic and environmental contributions. Genetic-epidemiologic studies have identified a long list of genetic and non-genetic risk factors for CAD. However, such studies indicate that family history is the most significant independent risk factor.


title: Arteriosclerosis

text: The signs and symptoms of arteriosclerosis depend on the vessel affected by the disease. If affecting cerebral or ophthalmic vessels, as in cerebrovascular accidents or transient ischemic attacks, signs and symptoms may include sudden weakness, facial or lower limb numbness, confusion, difficulty understanding speech, and problems seeing. If affecting coronary vessels, as in coronary artery disease (including acute myocardial ischemia or a "heart attack"), signs and symptoms may include chest pain.


title: Arteriosclerosis

text: The lesions of arteriosclerosis begin as the intima (innermost layer of blood vessel wall) of the arterial wall start to fill up with the deposition of cellular wastes. As these start to mature, they can take different forms of arteriosclerosis. All are linked through common features such as the stiffening of arterial vessels, thickening of arterial walls and degenerative nature of the disease.


title: Arteriosclerosis

text: Diagnosis of an individual suspected of having arteriosclerosis can be based on a physical exam, blood test, EKG and the results of these tests (among other exams).


title: Arteriosclerosis

text: Treatment is often in the form of preventive measures of prophylaxis. Medical therapy is often prescribed to help prevent arteriosclerosis for underlying conditions, such as medications for the treatment of high cholesterol (e.g., statins, cholesterol absorption inhibitors), medications to treat high blood pressure (e.g., ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor blockers), and antiplatelet medications. Lifestyle changes are also advised, such as increasing exercise, stopping smoking, and moderating alcohol intake.


title: Arteriosclerosis

text: In 2008, the US had an estimate of 16 million atherosclerotic heart disease and 5.8 million strokes. Cardiovascular diseases that were caused by arteriosclerosis also caused almost 812,000 deaths in 2008, more than any other cause, including cancer. About 1.2 million Americans are predicted to have a heart attack each year.


title: Arteriosclerosis

text: The diagnostics and clinical implications of this disease were not recognized until the 20th century. Many cases have been observed and recorded, and Jean Lobstein coined the term "arteriosclerosis" while he was analyzing the composition of calcified arterial lesions.


title: Arteriosclerosis

text: The name "arteriosclerosis" is derived the Greek words ἀρτηρία ("artēría", artery) and σκληρωτικός ("sklērōtikós", hardened).


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: The Oshkosh L-ATV (Light Combat Tactical All-Terrain Vehicle) is a light utility/combat multi-role vehicle that won the US military's Army-led Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV) program. In the very early stages of the program it was suggested that JLTV would replace the AM General High Mobility Multi-purpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV) on a one-for-one basis. It is now suggested that the JLTV will part-replace the HMMWV, not replace it on a like-for-like basis.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: The L-ATV was designed to deliver a level of protection comparable to that of heavier and less maneuverable Mine Resistant Ambush Protected (MRAP) class designs, these having more protection from blast than up-armored HMMWVs which they were delivered to replace on deployed operations.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: On 25 August 2015, the L-ATV was selected as the winner of the JLTV program. The first JLTV delivery order was placed in March 2016 with the U.S. Army ordering 657 examples. Overall requirements have fluctuated, but as of January 2022 were stated by Micheal Sprang, JLTV Project Director to be: Army – 49,099 (this figure has remained relatively constant); Marine Corps – 12,500 (approx.); Air Force – 2000 (dependent on funding); Navy (approx. 400).


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: The Army received its first seven JLTVs for test at the end of September 2016, Colonel Shane Fullmer, JLTV project manager stated at an AUSA 2016 media briefing.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: In addition to the United States, three other nations currently operate the JLTV and four more have JLTV on order.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: The idea for the Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV) first emerged in 2006 from threats experienced during the Iraq War. The primary tactical wheeled vehicle used by the U.S. military at the start of the war was the Humvee. However, most were unarmored and the type (including armored examples) incurred heavy losses when improvised explosive devices (IEDs) began being employed by insurgents. The initial response was to add armor, or more armor to armored models, and primarily on the sides. This improved side protection against direct fire and associated threats, but since the chassis was not designed to handle any further additional weight, there was little room for underbody protection. The added armor weight greatly reduced remaining useful payload capacity (within max gross weight), negatively impacted off-road mobility, compromized vehicle reliability, and greatly increased their maintenance needs (frequency, labor and parts costs).


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: To combat increasing numbers of IED attacks, the U.S. spent around $50 billion rapidly procuring some 29,000 Mine Resistant Ambush Protected (MRAP) vehicles, including the Oshkosh M-ATV for use in Iraq and Afghanistan. While MRAPs offered superior protection from IEDs, especially underbody blasts, they were significantly larger and heavier and had relatively poor off-road mobility. The military incorporated MRAPs in response to operational needs, but never intended them to become a permanent part of their tactical wheeled vehicle fleets. At the conclusion of operations, many thousands were either scrapped, adapted for other roles, or offered for sale/transfer to allies. Ultimately U.S. armed forces would retain over 11,100 MRAPS, just over 6,350 of these Oshkosh M-ATVs. The bulk of retained MRAPS are mothballed in prepositioned stocks around the world.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: Since up-armoring Humvees and buying MRAPs addressed specific issues but created gaps in vehicle capabilities, the JLTV program was started to incorporate lessons learned and balance payload, mobility, and protection into a new vehicle. Its purpose was to restore the mobility commanders had with the original Humvee, while having the side and underbody protection of a basic MRAP. It would be around two-thirds the weight of an MRAP, possible to be carried under a CH-47 Chinook and CH-53E Super Stallion and by amphibious vessels, things impossible for an MRAP. It would also be 70 percent faster off-road, adding to survivability by enabling it to egress a combat situation faster. Compared to the Humvee, the JLTV was to have the mobility of early unarmored versions with greater protection than up-armored versions, along with greater reliability, payload capacity, and ease of repair. The JLTV is the first vehicle purpose-built for network connectivity into the Warfighter Information Network-Tactical.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: Oshkosh Defense first displayed the L-ATV at Association of the United States Army (AUSA) in Washington, D.C. on 10 October to 12 October 2011. This, the first 'public appearance' for the design, was not an open appearance and came in the form of closed combined briefings/viewings to invited attendees only. Oshkosh briefed Jane's Independent Defense Review that the L-ATV has developmental origins that trace back to 2007 and Oshkosh/Northrop-Grumman's failed JLTV proposal, with some sub-systems having a lineage that trace back to 2005. At the time, L-ATV was the lightest tactical vehicle designed by Oshkosh, being some 50% lighter than anything previously produced by the company.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: At AUSA 2011, Oshkosh suggested that following then recent program developments, L-ATV would be offered to meet the recently revitalized JLTV's EMD (Engineering & Manufacturing Development) phase. On 26 January 2012, the RFP for JLTV's EMD Phase was released. On 23 August 2012, the Army and Marine Corps selected the Oshkosh Defense L-ATV, as well as the Lockheed Martin JLTV entry and AM General BRV-O, as the winners of the Engineering and Manufacturing Development (EMD) phase of the JLTV competition. They were awarded a contract to build 22 prototype vehicles in 27 months to be judged by the services.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: On 6 February 2013, Oshkosh unveiled the Utility Variant of its JLTV offer, fulfilling JLTV's requirement for a two-seat cargo vehicle. The vehicle's performance was demonstrated at the 2013 NATC Technology Rodeo at the Nevada Automotive Test Center (NATC). The Utility Variant is designed to provide mobility for loads such as containers, pallets, and break bulk cargo. It can also be outfitted as a shelter carrier to carry standard shelters for communications systems, on-board electronics, and other functions. Payload capacity is in excess of 5,100 pounds. Both Oshkosh L-ATV variants leverage a common crew protection system, automotive systems, and the patented Oshkosh TAK-4i™ intelligent independent suspension system.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: In June 2013, L-ATV prototypes participated in an event hosted by the U.S. JLTV Joint Program Office in Quantico, VA. The vehicles successfully completed the severe off-road track (SORT) without failure. The SORT demonstrated the L-ATV's ability to maneuver steep inclines, turn sharply, and operate in rugged terrain. On 8 August 2013, Oshkosh delivered its first L-ATV JLTV prototype to the Army for government testing following a successful vehicle inspection by the Defense Contract Management Agency (DCMA). The four-door variant (which has two base platforms – Close Combat Weapons Carrier (CCWC) and the General Purpose (GP)) and two-door Utility Variant were provided for evaluations.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: On 27 August 2013, the Army and Marine Corps announced that full-scale testing of JLTV prototypes would begin the following week, with all three vendors having had 66 vehicles delivered. Each company delivered 22 vehicles and six trailers to Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, and Yuma Proving Ground, Arizona. Previous testing had already put the vehicles through more than 400 ballistic and blast tests on armor testing samples, underbody blast testing, and more than 1,000 miles in shakedown testing. Soldiers from the Army Test and Evaluation Command and personnel from the Defense Department's Office of Test and Evaluation would begin to put the vehicles through realistic and rigorous field testing during 14 months of government performance testing. Testing was scheduled for completion by FY 2015, with a production contract to be awarded to a single vendor for almost 55,000 vehicles (49,099 Army; 5,500 Marines). The average unit manufacturing cost in A-kit (fitted for but not with armor) configuration was not to exceed $250,000. The Army set an Initial Operating Capability (IOC) of May 2018 and planned to complete its fielding by FY2040. The Marines had an IOC of December 2017, and planned to complete its fielding by FY2022. On 3 September 2013, full-pace, full-scope JLTV testing began at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Yuma, and Redstone Arsenal, Alabama. One vendor was to be selected by July 2015, and produce 2,000 vehicles for three years of additional testing to fine-tune the assembly line and full-up the system.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: In July 2014, the L-ATV completed Net-Ready testing as part of the JLTV program, involving transferring data from onboard systems to external networks. On 17 July 2014, Oshkosh announced the L-ATV had completed 200,000 miles and all requirements for Reliability, Availability, Maintainability (RAM) testing. On 19 November 2014, Oshkosh announced the L-ATV had completed Limited User Testing (LUT) with the U.S. Army and Marine Corps for the JLTV EMD contract. The LUT focused on JLTV system capabilities, functions, operations, and interfaces in a range of simulated tactical environments covering operator and crew-level preventive maintenance for the entire system, ensuring they could operate proficiently and safely. The Army held theirs the previous September and October, where three tests were held as 96-hour cycles to simulate operational missions, one of which incorporated a live fire demonstration. The Marines completed two test cycles in October and November with one live fire demonstration. The Army released the final JLTV RFP on 12 December 2014. On 10 February 2015 Oshkosh Defense issued a press release announcing the company had submitted its proposal (the L-ATV) in response to the JLTV Low Rate Initial Production (LRIP) and Full Rate Production (FRP) RFP.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: On 31 March 2015, Oshkosh announced it would show its JLTV offering, the L-ATV, at the AUSA 2015 Global Force Symposium and Exposition in Huntsville, Alabama. The company also announced it would show its Virtual Task Trainer (VTT) for the L-ATV at the conference. The VTT is an interactive training module that provides interactive 3D training for soldiers in a safe and lifelike virtual environment. Speaking of the VTT, Mike Ivy, vice president of global integrated product support for Oshkosh Defense said: "The addition of Oshkosh's virtual training to our multi-faceted curriculum reduces the cost of operator training by improving training effectiveness and efficiency." He added: "We deployed the VTT to train operators during early JLTV testing with great results. Soldiers were really engaged, and our training was not only better, but it took less time than it would have without the VTT. This represents a significant cost savings opportunity for the government."


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: On 25 August 2015, the Army selected the Oshkosh L-ATV as the winner of the JLTV program. The company was awarded a $6.75 billion low rate initial base contract with two years of Low rate Initial Production (LRIP), originally three, and eight option years to procure the first 16,901 vehicles for both the Army and Marines. The Army initially refused to detail why the L-ATV was chosen over its competitors, likely owing to anticipations of protests from the losing bidders.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: On 8 September it was disclosed that Lockheed Martin would protest the award to Oshkosh; on the same day it was also disclosed that AM General had decided not to file a protest. Any work that would be performed under the contract stopped during the review period. On December 15 the Government Accountability Office (GAO) dismissed Lockheed Martin's protest because the company on December 11 decided to file a “Notice of Post-Award Bid Protest” with the U.S. Court of Federal Claims; according to a source with knowledge of the procedures, it is uncommon for a company to file with the court close to a GAO protest decision. Immediately after the GAO dismissed the protest, the Army instructed Oshkosh to resume work on the JLTV order. Lockheed filed their preliminary injunction on 17 December, claiming that new Army-supplied information related to the contract emerged toward the end of the GAO's protest process that was not considered before their ruling and no deadline extension was granted. On 17 February 2016, Lockheed withdrew their protest of the JLTV contract award decision in the Court of Federal Claims, potentially as a result of the release of JLTV testing data showing that the L-ATV lasted nearly six times longer between significant breakdown than Lockheed's vehicle.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: The first JLTV order was announced on 23 March 2016 with the U.S. Army ordering 657 JLTVs. The $243 million order included vehicles for the Army and Marines. For clarity, as part of the original JLTV LRIP/FRP Base Award in August 2015, an initial 201 JLTVs for the test and evaluation phase were ordered. The 657-vehicle order is an exercised option from the program's eight option years.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: In June 2017 the first US soldiers to receive JLTVs was revealed. According to the Army its first unit to receive JLTVs would be an infantry brigade combat team in the 10th Mountain Division at Fort Drum and according to the Marines, a yet-to-be-identified infantry battalion within II Marine Expeditionary Force at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, would receive its JLTVs in July 2019. Also in June 2017 the Marines revealed they wished to adjust their acquisition objective for JLTV by 65% to up to 9,091 vehicles.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: At AUSA 2017 JLTV's were displayed in three new configurations. Oshkosh displayed a General Purpose variant fitted with a Boeing Compact Laser Weapon System (CLWS), a Kongsberg Protector LW 30 Remote Weapon System (RWS) with a M230LF cannon, and a communications suite that includes a Thales VRC-111 and Thales VRC-121 VIPER. The company also displayed a Utility variant equipped with the Boeing Maneuver Short Range Air Defense (SHORAD) Launcher including a M3P .50 cal machine gun, M299 launcher with four Longbow Hellfire missiles, sensor suite, and a communications suite including a Thales VRC-111. Rafael displayed a General Purpose vehicle fitted with the company's Samson RWS Dual Stabilized Remote Weapon Systems (RWS) with M230 LF, and the Trophy Light Active Protection System (APS).


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: In early 2018 the Marines 2018 Planning Objective for JLTV was disclosed to be 9,091, although funding (as of April 2018) allowed for only 7,622 JLTVs through FY 2023, with deliveries concluding the first quarter of FY 2025. The Marines announced on 28 January 2019 that its first JLTV had fielded that day at the School of Infantry West at Camp Pendleton, California. The Marine Corps declared initial operational capability for the JLTV on 2 August 2019. For the Army, at AUSA 2018 Colonel Shane Fullmer confirmed the service would begin equipping its first unit with 350 JLTVs in January 2019 and complete the fielding in March 2019.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: On 20 June 2019, Dr. Bruce Jette, Assistant Secretary of the Army for Acquisition, Logistics and Technology, approved the JLTV program's transition into full–rate production (FRP).


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: In July 2019 an initial Sources Sought notice (W56HZV19R0242) was issued for the A2 JLTV recompete program. Four draft Request For Proposals (RFPs) followed, these on 3 April 2020, 11 December 2020, 30 April 2021, and 29 October 2021.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: JLTV totals have varied over time and numerous suggestions as to ultimate totals and production increases/decreases have been touted, but as of January 2022 JLTV requirements were stated by Micheal Sprang, JLTV Project Director to be: Army – 49,099 (this figure has remained relatively constant); Marine Corps – 12,500 (approx.); Air Force – 2000 (dependent on funding); Navy (approx. 400).


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: In terms of contracts and orders, the initial JLTV contract award in summation had a potential value of US$6.749 billion and called for a maximum of 16,901 JLTVs. The second and follow-on sole source to Oshkosh contract allows for 6,262 JLTVs to be ordered by November 2023. In September 2020 a Justification and Approval (J&A) for up to an additional 6,262 JLTVs was granted, the original notice (W56HZV-15-C-0095-P00282) published on 30 June 2020. This award will enable continued JLTV production, industry successfully arguing that it required up to 33 months with the JLTV TDP package to be able to respond to the A2 JLTV RfP. The up to 6,262 JLTVs approved will technically be delivered under a separate second JLTV contract, but the original contract costings and timelines remain. Final orders are to be placed in November 2023, with deliveries permitted until late 2025, but expected to conclude mid-2025. The JLTV re-compete award will allow for 15,586 JLTV when awarded.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: Given the competitive nature of the JLTV competition (and recompete), only limited technical detail has been released by either the US Army or Oshkosh. This directly impacts on available L-ATV technical detail. Only nominal dimensions and limited operating weight and automotive data is available.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: The L-ATV is based around Oshkosh's TAK-4i (i = intelligent) independent suspension system. Around 26,000 military vehicles are fitted with an earlier version of the system, these including the Oshkosh Medium Tactical Vehicle Replacement (MTVR), Oshkosh Logistic Vehicle System Replacement (LVSR), and Oshkosh MRAP All-Terrain Vehicle (M-ATV); the TAK-4 system has also been retro-fitted to the Force Protection Inc Cougar and BAE Systems RG-33 MRAPs. The majority of systems supplied pre-JLTV have been coil-sprung. The TAK-4i version fitted to the L-ATV remains undisclosed, but is not coil-sprung and is of the variable adjustable ride-height type with up to of wheel travel, 25 percent more than the current standard.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: Motive power is provided by a digitally-controlled Gale Banks Engineering 866T V-8 diesel, this based on the architecture of the General Motors (GM) Duramax LML. Power output is 340 hp. In commercial use power output of the standard Duramax LML engine is currently up to 397 hp (296 kW) at 3,000 rpm. Production of the Duramax LML engine concluded in 2017, the unit replaced by the Duramax LP5. JLTV A1 models that were introduced in 2017 are powered by a derivation of this engine. The A2 JLTV will be powered by the next generation of the Duramax engine, production of the current Duramax MY2020 L5P scheduled to conclude Q3FY22. An Allison 2500SP six-speed fully automatic transmission is fitted to all JLTV. The L-ATV can be fitted with the Oshkosh ProPulse diesel-electric powertrain, previously fitted to the Oshkosh Heavy Expanded Mobility Tactical Truck (HEMTT) and MTVR. According to Oshkosh literature, the ProPulse diesel-electric powertrain dramatically improves fuel economy by up to 35 percent in certain circumstances and serves as an on-board generator with enough output to power an entire airfield or hospital, generating up to 120 kW of AC power for external operations; the hybrid powertrain was not a requirement of the JLTV program. A hybrid electric JLTV was unveiled in January 2022, this fitted with a lithium-ion battery pack.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: In a Limited User Test (LUT), the L-ATV demonstrated reliability of 7,051 "Mean Miles Between Operational Mission Failure," more than the Humvee and either other JLTV competitor.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: The L-ATV offers protection levels greater than those of up-armored HMMWVs and comparable to those of original MRAP class designs, but in an overall vehicle package that is considerably smaller and lighter than vehicles procured under the US Marines MRAP procurement. The L-ATV is fully compliant with the US Army's Long Term Armor Strategy (LTAS), based around the A-kit/B-kit modular armor principle. The A-kit, which is installed during build, is primarily fixings for add-on armor but can include small amounts of armor fitted in difficult-to-reach areas. The B-kit is essentially the add-on armor, this added when required and as a modular add-on. According to the US Army, the A-kit/B-kit concept allows the Army flexibility in several areas: the armor B-kit can be taken off when not needed – reducing unnecessary wear and tear on the vehicles; the Army can continue to pursue upgrades in armor protection – adapting B-kits to match the threat; and the versatility of the B-kit enables the transfer of armor from unit to unit – making armor requirements affordable by pooling assets versus buying armor that is only for one vehicle. Oshkosh developed the CORE 1080 crew protection system for the vehicle, comprising the hull design, armor materials, a fire-extinguishing system, and energy-absorbing floors, seats, and restraint systems for crew members and stowage.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: The Oshkosh M-ATV, which was procured primarily for Afghanistan where the earlier and bigger/heavier MRAPs had mobility issues, has protection comparable to the original MRAP designs, but while smaller it still remains a relatively large vehicle. During the L-ATV design process, every component was optimized for survivability, resulting in the same level of protection in a vehicle 30 percent smaller. This resulted in a curb weight for the JLTV requirement of , almost one-third the weight of the heavier MRAP (4x4) models, and almost half the weight of the original MRAP models. Payload allowance for the JLTV in Combat Tactical Vehicle (CTV) configuration was four passengers and of cargo, and in Combat Support Vehicle (CSV) configuration was two passengers and of cargo.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: The base L-ATV does not have a standard armament, however it can be fitted with a selection of weapons including light, medium, and heavy machine guns, automatic grenade launchers, or anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs) depending on user requirements. The weapons can be operated from ring mounts or a remote weapon station. Smoke grenade launchers for self-defence can also be fitted if required.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: The JLTV family and its nomenclature evolved throughout the development process and to date the U.S. Army has allocated M designations to four individual JLTV configurations. The JLTV family now consists of three base vehicle platforms, Utility (JLTV-UTL), Close Combat Weapons Carrier (JLTV-CCWC) and General Purpose (JLTV-GP). The Utility base vehicle platform is a two-door configuration, the General Purpose and Close Combat Weapons Carrier base vehicle platforms are a four-door configuration. Standard U.S. military M-designators are applied base vehicle platforms when outfitted to a specific Mission Package Configuration. These currently are:


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: Additionally, On 11 May 2016, the Army confirmed a plan, suggested since late 2015, to use the JLTV for the Light Reconnaissance Vehicle (LRV) requirement. By Q4 2020 the LRV requirement had evolved to such an extent that it excluded the JLTV, requiring a six-person crew.


title: Oshkosh L-ATV

text: Oshkosh showcased for the first time the L-ATV Ambulance at the Association of the United States Army (AUSA) Global Force Symposium in Huntsville, AL, from March 26–28, 2019. The L-ATV Ambulance is based on the Utility configuration base platform and the rear can hold 4 litters or up to 8 seated patients or a combination of the two. At present the L-ATV Ambulance is not a JLTV variant.


title: Cagliari

text: Cagliari (, , , ; ; ) is an Italian municipality and the capital of the island of Sardinia, an autonomous region of Italy. Cagliari's Sardinian name "Casteddu" means "castle". It has about 155,000 inhabitants, while its metropolitan city (including Cagliari and 16 other nearby municipalities) has more than 431,000 inhabitants. According to Eurostat, the population of the Functional urban area, the commuting zone of Cagliari, rises to 476,975. Cagliari is the 26th largest city in Italy and the largest city on the island of Sardinia.


title: Cagliari

text: An ancient city with a long history, Cagliari has seen the rule of several civilisations. Under the buildings of the modern city there is a continuous stratification attesting to human settlement over the course of some five thousand years, from the Neolithic to today. Historical sites include the prehistoric Domus de Janas, very damaged by cave activity, a large Carthaginian era necropolis, a Roman era amphitheatre, a Byzantine basilica, three Pisan-era towers and a strong system of fortification that made the town the core of Spanish Habsburg imperial power in the western Mediterranean Sea. Its natural resources have always been its sheltered harbour, the often powerfully fortified hill of "Castel di Castro", the modern "Casteddu", the salt from its lagoons, and, from the hinterland, wheat from the Campidano plain and silver and other ores from the Iglesiente mines.


title: Cagliari

text: Cagliari was the capital of the Kingdom of Sardinia from 1324 to 1848, when Turin became the formal capital of the kingdom (which in 1861 became the Kingdom of Italy). Today the city is a regional cultural, educational, political and artistic centre, known for its diverse Art Nouveau architecture and several monuments. It is also Sardinia's economic and industrial hub, having one of the biggest ports in the Mediterranean Sea, an international airport, and the 106th highest income level in Italy (among 8,092 comuni), comparable to that of several northern Italian cities.


title: Cagliari

text: It is also the seat of the University of Cagliari, founded in 1607, and of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cagliari, since the 5th century AD.


title: Cagliari

text: The Cagliari area has been inhabited since the Neolithic. It occupies a favourable position between the sea and a fertile plain and is surrounded by two marshes (which provides defence against attacks from the inland). There are high mountains nearby, to which people could evacuate if the settlement had to be given up. Relics of prehistoric inhabitants were found in the hill of Monte Claro (Monte Claro culture) and in Cape Sant'Elia (several domus de janas).


title: Cagliari

text: Karaly (, ) was established around the 8th/7th century BC as one of a string of Phoenician colonies in Sardinia, including Tharros. The etymology of the toponym is unknown. It almost certainly does not come from the Phoenician language, but it has some similarities with other Sardinian or Asia Minor toponyms. Its founding is linked to its position along communication routes with Africa as well as to its excellent port. The Phoenician settlement was located in the Stagno di Santa Gilla, west of the present centre of Cagliari. This was also the site of the Roman "Portus Scipio", and when Arab pirates raided the area in the 8th century it became the refuge for people fleeing from the city. Other Phoenician settlements have been found at Cape Sant'Elia.


title: Cagliari

text: In the late 6th century BC Carthage took control of part of Sardinia, and Cagliari grew substantially under their domination, as testified by the large Tuvixeddu necropolis and other remains. Cagliari was a fortified settlement in what is now the modern Marina quarter, with an annexed holy area in the modern Stampace.


title: Cagliari

text: Sardinia and Cagliari came under Roman rule in 238 BC, shortly after the First Punic War, when the Romans defeated the Carthaginians. No mention of it is found on the occasion of the Roman conquest of the island but, during the Second Punic War, Caralis was the headquarters of the praetor, Titus Manlius Torquatus, whence he conducted his operations against Hampsicora and the Carthaginians. At other times it was also the Romans' chief naval station on the island and the residence of its praetor.


title: Cagliari

text: The Romans built a new settlement east of the old Punic city, the "vicus munitus Caralis" (i.e. the fortified community of Caralis) mentioned by Varro Atacinus. The two urban agglomerations merged gradually during the second century BC; to this process is perhaps attributable the plural name Carales.


title: Cagliari

text: Florus calls it the "urbs urbium" or capital of Sardinia. He represents it as taken and severely punished by Gracchus, but this statement is wholly at variance with Livy's account of the wars of Gracchus, in Sardinia, according to which the cities were faithful to Rome, and the revolt was confined to the mountain tribes. In the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey, the citizens of Caralis were the first to declare in favor of the former, an example soon followed by the other cities of Sardinia; and Caesar himself touched there with his fleet on his return from Africa. A few years later, when Sardinia fell into the hands of Menas, the lieutenant of Sextus Pompeius, Caralis was the only city which offered any resistance, but was taken after a short siege.


title: Cagliari

text: Cagliari continued to be regarded as the capital of the island under the Roman Empire, and though it did not become a colony, obtained the status of "municipium".


title: Cagliari

text: Remains of Roman public buildings were found to the west of Marina in Piazza del Carmine. There was an area of ordinary housing near the modern Via Roma, and richer houses on the slopes of the Marina distinct. The amphitheatre is located to the west of the Castello.


title: Cagliari

text: A Christian community is attested in Cagliari at least as early as the 3rd century, and by the end of that century the city had a Christian bishop. In the middle decades of the 4th century bishop Lucifer of Cagliari was exiled because of his opposition to the sentence against Athanasius of Alexandria at the Synod of Milan. He was banished to the desert of Thebais by the emperor Constantius II.


title: Cagliari

text: Claudian describes the ancient city of Karalis as extending to a considerable length towards the promontory or headland, the projection of which sheltered its port. The port affords good anchorage for large vessels, but besides this, which is only a well-sheltered standby, there is a large salt-water lake or lagoon, called the Stagno di Cagliari, adjoining the city and communicating by a narrow channel with the bay, which appears from Claudian to have been used in ancient times as an inner harbor or basin. The promontory adjoining the city is evidently that noticed by Ptolemy (), but the Caralitanum Promontorium of Pliny can be no other than the headland, now called Capo Carbonara, which forms the eastern boundary of the Gulf of Cagliari and the southeast point of the whole island. Immediately off it lay the little island of Ficaria, now called the "Isola dei Cavoli" ("Cabbage Island" in Italian, "Isula de is Càvurus" "Crab Island" in Sardinian).


title: Cagliari

text: After the fall of the Western Roman Empire Cagliari fell, together with the rest of Sardinia, into the hands of the Vandals, but appears to have retained its importance throughout the Middle Ages.


title: Cagliari

text: Subsequently, ruled by the Vandals, Ostrogoths, and then part of the Byzantine Empire, Cagliari became the capital of a gradually independent Judicate, (from Latin Iudex, Governor and Supreme Magistrate, used in late Roman and Byzantine period, along with the medieval Greek ἄρχων). This state was born around 1020 and was overthrown by the Republic of Pisa in 1258. Due to the overlap of buildings since the year 800 B.C., and the scarcity of archeological and historical informations, it was believed that the population was moved to more inland areas of the territory, along the lagoon, in a city called Santa Ilia or Santa Igia (modern San Gilla) and it was believed that the ancient Roman and Byzantine city had been abandoned because it was too exposed to attacks by Moorish pirates coming from north Africa and Spain. Recent studies have instead hypothesized that the capital of the Giudicato was located around the road that it directed towards Sassari, today called Corso Vittorio Emanuele II (in Sardinian language: Su Brugu, the borough), although there are not yet archeological confirmations, particularly of the Cathedral and the Judex Palace, destroyed after the Pisan conquest.


title: Cagliari

text: The Judicate of Cagliari comprised a large area of the Campidano plain, the Sulcis-Iglesiente and the mountain region of Ogliastra.


title: Cagliari

text: During the 11th century, the Republic of Pisa began to extend its political influence over the Judgedom of Cagliari. Pisa and the maritime republic of Genoa had a keen interest in Sardinia because it was a perfect strategic base for controlling the commercial routes between Italy and North Africa.


title: Cagliari

text: In 1215 the Pisan Lamberto Visconti, husband of Elena of Gallura, forced the judikessa Benedetta of Cagliari to give him the mount located east of Santa Igia. Soon (1216–17) Pisan merchants established there a new fortified city, known as "Castel di Castro", which can be considered the ancestor of the modern city of Cagliari.


title: Cagliari

text: In 1258, after the defeat of William III, the last king of Cagliari, the Pisans and their Sardinian allies (Arborea, Gallura and Logudoro) destroyed the old capital of Santa Igia. The Judgedom of Cagliari was then divided into three parts: the northeast third went to Gallura; the central portion was incorporated into Arborea; Sulcis and Iglesiente, on the southwest, were given to the Pisan della Gherardesca family, while the Republic of Pisa maintained control over its colony of Castel di Castro.


title: Cagliari

text: Some of the fortifications that still surround the current district of Castello were built by the Pisans, including the two remaining white limestone towers (early 14th century) designed by the architect Giovanni Capula. Together with the district of Castello, Castel di Castro comprised the districts of Marina (which included the port), and later and Villanova. Marina and Stampace were guarded by walls, in contrast to Villanova, which was mostly home to peasants.


title: Cagliari

text: In the second decade of the 14th century the Crown of Aragon conquered Sardinia after a series of battles against the Pisans. During the siege of Castel di Castro (1324-1326), the Aragonese, led by Alfonso IV of Aragon, built a stronghold on a more southern hill, that of Bonaria.


title: Cagliari

text: When the fortified city was finally conquered by the Aragonese army, Castel di Castro ("Castel de Càller" or simply Càller in Catalan) became the administrative capital of the newborn Kingdom of Sardinia, one of the many kingdoms forming the Crown of Aragon, which later came under the rule of the Spanish Empire. After the expulsion of the Tuscans, the Castello district was repopulated by the Aragonese settlers of Bonaria while the indigenous population was, as in the past, concentrated in Stampace and Villanova.


title: Cagliari

text: The kings of Aragon and later the kings of Spain, were represented in Cagliari by a viceroy, who resided in the Palazzo Regio.


title: Cagliari

text: In the 16th century the fortifications of the city were strengthened with the construction of the bastions and the rights and benefits of the Aragonese were extended to all citizens. The intellectual life was relatively lively and in the early years of the 17th century the university was founded.


title: Cagliari

text: In 1718, after a brief rule by the Habsburgs, Cagliari and Sardinia came under the House of Savoy. As rulers of Sardinia, the Savoys took the title of kings of the Sardinian kingdom. During the Savoyard Era, until 1848, the institutions of the Sardinian kingdom remained unchanged, but with the "Perfect Fusion" in that year, all the possessions of the House of Savoy House, comprising Savoy, Nice (now part of France), Piedmont and from 1815 Liguria, were merged into a unitary state. Although Sardinian by name, the kingdom had its parliament in Turin, where the Savoys resided, and its members were mainly aristocrats from Piedmont or the mainland.


title: Cagliari

text: In the late 18th century during the French Revolutionary Wars France tried to conquer Cagliari because of its strategic role in the Mediterranean sea ("Expédition de Sardaigne"). A French army landed on Poetto beach and advanced towards Cagliari, but the French were defeated by Sardinians who had decided to defend themselves against the revolutionary army. The people of Cagliari hoped to receive some concession from the Savoys in return for their defence of the town. For example, aristocrats from Cagliari asked for a Sardinian representative in the parliament of the kingdom. When the Savoyards refused any concession to the Sardinians, the inhabitants of Cagliari rose up against them and expelled all the representatives of the kingdom along with the Piedmontese rulers. This insurgence is celebrated in Cagliari during "Sa die de sa Sardigna" ("The day of Sardinia") on the last weekend of April. However, the Savoys regained control of the town after a brief period of autonomous rule.


title: Cagliari

text: The population by the 1840s had reached 29,000. Starting in the 1870s, in the wake of the unification of Italy, the city experienced a century of rapid growth. Many buildings were erected by the end of the 19th century during the term of office of mayor Ottone Bacaredda. Numerous buildings combined influences from Art Nouveau together with the traditional Sardinian taste for floral decoration; an example is the white marble City Hall near the port. Bacaredda is also known for his strong repression of one of the earliest worker strikes at the beginning of the 20th century.


title: Cagliari

text: During the Second World War Cagliari was heavily bombed by the Allies in February 1943. In order to escape from the danger of bombardments and difficult living conditions, many people were evacuated from the city into the countryside. In total the victims of the bombings were more than 2000 and about 80% of the buildings were damaged. The city received the Gold Medal of Military Valour.


title: Cagliari

text: After the Italian armistice with the Allies in September 1943, the German Army took control of Cagliari and the island, but soon retreated peacefully in order to reinforce their positions in mainland Italy. The American Army then took control of Cagliari. Airports near the city (Elmas, Monserrato, Decimomannu, currently a NATO airbase) were used by Allied aircraft to fly to North Africa or mainland Italy and Sicily.


title: Cagliari

text: After the war, the population of Cagliari grew again and many apartment blocks and recreational areas were erected in new residential districts.


title: Cagliari

text: The city of Cagliari is situated in the south of Sardinia, overlooking the centre of the eponymous gulf, also called Golfo degli Angeli ("Bay of Angels") after an ancient legend. The city is spread over and around the hill of the historic district of Castello and nine other limestone hills of the middle-to-late Miocene, unique heights of a little more than above sea level on the long plains of Campidano. The plain is actually a Graben formed during the Alpine orogeny of the Cenozoic, which separated Sardinia from the European continent, roughly where the Gulf of Lion is now. The Graben filled in the course of tectonic movements associated with the breakup of the ancient island Paleozoic skeleton.


title: Cagliari

text: The repeated intrusion of the sea left calcareous sediments that formed a series of hills that mark the territory of Cagliari. Castello is where the fortified town arose in the Middle Age near the harbour of the port, other hills are those of Mount Urpinu, the St. Elias hill, also known as the "Sella del Diavolo" ("Saddle of the Devil") for its shape, Tuvumannu and Tuvixeddu, the site of the ancient Punic and Roman necropolis, the small Bonaria hill, where the basilica stands, and the San Michele hill, with the eponymous castle on top. The modern city occupies the flat spaces between the hills and the sea to the south and southeast, along the Poetto beach, the lagoons and ponds of Santa Gilla and Molentargius, and the remains of more recent marine intrusions, in an articulate landscape with many landmarks and panoramas of the bay, the plain, and the mountains that surround it on the east (The Seven Brothers and Serpeddì) and west (the mountains of Capoterra). On the cold, clear days of winter, the snowy peaks of Gennargentu can be seen from the highest points of the city.


title: Cagliari

text: The city has four historic neighbourhoods: Castello, Marina, Stampace and Villanova and several modern districts (such as San Benedetto, Monte Urpinu and Genneruxi at the east, Sant'Avendrace at the west, Is Mirrionis/San Michele at north and Bonaria, La Palma and Poetto at the south), grown when part of the ancient walls had been demolished in the middle of the 19th century.


title: Cagliari

text: The comune of Cagliari has one circoscrizione, the town of Pirri (about 30.000 inhabitants), former village of the Campidano absorbed in the fast growth after the Second World War.


title: Cagliari

text: Cagliari is one of the "greenest" Italian cities. Every inhabitant of Cagliari has access to of public gardens and parks.


title: Cagliari

text: Its mild climate allows the growth of numerous subtropical plants, such as "Jacaranda mimosifolia", "Ficus macrophylla", with some huge specimens in Via Roma and in the University Botanic Gardens, "Erythrina caffra" with its stunning red flowers, "Ficus retusa", which provides shade for several of the city's streets, "Araucaria heterophylla", the date palm ("Phoenix dactylifera"), the Canary Islands palm ("Phoenix canariensis") and the Mexican Fan Palm ("Washingtonia robusta").


title: Cagliari

text: The Molentargius - Saline Regional Park is located near the city. Some mountain parks, such as Monte Arcosu or Maidopis, with large forests and wildlife (Sardinian deer, wild boars, etc.) are also nearby.


title: Cagliari

text: The main beach of Cagliari is the Poetto. It stretches for about , from Sella del Diavolo ("Devil's Saddle") up to the coastline of Quartu Sant'Elena. Poetto is also the name of the district located on the western stretch of the strip between the beach and Saline di Molentargius ("Molentargius's Salt Mine").


title: Cagliari

text: Another smaller beach is that of Calamosca near the Sant'Elia district. On the coast between Calamosca and Poetto beaches, among the cliffs of the Sella del Diavolo, lies Cala Fighera, a small bay.


title: Cagliari

text: Cagliari is close to other seaside locations such as Santa Margherita di Pula, Chia, Geremeas, Solanas, Villasimius and Costa Rei.


title: Cagliari

text: Cagliari has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: "Csa"), with hot, dry summers and mild winters like other historical regions along the coast. Its precipitation values also bring it closer to semi-arid conditions. The summer extreme values can be slightly over , sometimes with very high humidity, while in winter, under special and rare conditions, the temperature drops slightly below zero. Heavy snowfalls occur on average every thirty years.


title: Cagliari

text: The average temperature of the coldest month, January, is about , and of the warmest month, August, about . But heat waves can occur, due to African anticyclone, starting in June. From mid-June to mid-September, rain is a rare event, limited to brief afternoon storms. The rainy season starts in September, and the first cold days come in December.


title: Cagliari

text: Winds are frequent, especially the mistral and sirocco; in summer a marine sirocco breeze (called "s'imbattu" in Sardinian language) lowers the temperature and brings some relief from the heat.


title: Cagliari

text: According to ISTAT, in 2014 there were 154,356 people residing in Cagliari (+3.0% compared with 2011), of whom 71,522 were male and 82,834 female for a sex ratio of 0.86. Minors (children aged 18 and younger) totaled 12.92% of the population, compared to pensioners at 24.81%. The average age of Cagliari residents is 47.44. The ratio of the population over 65 years of age to that under the age of 18, is 53.39%. The elderly population, defined as being over 65 years of age, has increased by 21.95% over the last 10 years. The current birth rate in Cagliari is 6.29 births per 1,000 inhabitants. The average number of people of any age per household is 2.11 and the percentage of households composed of a single person is 42.53%. The population of Cagliari is structured like that of other first world countries, especially as to the prevalence of an elderly population. The trend of these rates in the Cagliari metropolitan area is proportionally reversed in the suburbs, where most younger families move.


title: Cagliari

text: , 4.26% (6,658 people) of the population was foreign, of which the largest group were Filipinos (21.33%), followed by Ukrainians (11.93%), Romanians (10.93%), Chinese (9.49%) and Senegalese (9.49%).


title: Cagliari

text: In 1928, during the fascist regime, the neighbouring municipalities of Pirri, Monserrato, Selargius, Quartucciu and Elmas, were merged with that of Cagliari. Mussolini's regime wanted to streamline the local administration by eliminating many small towns and at the same time show that Italy was a major power with many large cities. After the war these small municipalities gradually regained their autonomy, except for the former town of Pirri.


title: Cagliari

text: The first table shows the inhabitants of the town in its present borders, the second one the commune population including the merged municipalities.


title: Cagliari

text: The Metropolitan City of Cagliari has been established in 2016 by a Sardinia Regional Law and totals about 431,000 inhabitants according to ISTAT. It is composed of 17 municipalities along the coast of the gulf and up to of the inner Campidano plain.


title: Cagliari

text: It covers an area on the plain of Campidano between large basins (Santa Gilla lagoon and salt mills of about 30 km2 or 3200 acres), ponds (Molentargius, 16,22 km2 (40,10 acres) and the depopulated mountains up to above sea level. The mountains are largely covered by forests mostly managed by the Ente Foreste of the Autonomous Region of Sardinia. To the west these amount to on the Capoterra and Pula mountains. Monte Arcosu WWF Natural Reserve has another , and to the east on Mount Serpeddì and Sette Fratelli there are a total of of forest.


title: Cagliari

text: The Metropolitan City is defined by municipalities where the population increased between the last two censuses, in a region where the population is otherwise generally decreasing. These municipalities welcome immigrants to the urban area whose main nucleus, the city of Cagliari, has a high number of elderly people.


title: Cagliari

text: In the last century, the population of the municipalities of the metropolitan area increased by 354% and in the last 50 years by 158% (1911: 128,444; 1961: 288,683; 2011: 454,819). For the whole of Sardinia this increase was respectively 88% and 15% (1911: 868,181; 1961: 1,419,362; 2011: 1,639,362). The urbanisation towards the area of Cagliari was, in percentage terms, impressive, making the capital of the island a metropolis surrounded by rural areas increasingly depopulated. This urbanisation is also reflected in the concentration in Cagliari of most of the economic activities and wealth.


title: Cagliari

text: According to 2014 data from the Italian Ministry of Economic Affairs, the inhabitants of Cagliari benefited a per capita income of 23,220 euros (being the fifth Regional Capital), that is the 122% of the national average, while all of Sardinia benefited only 16,640 euros, being the 13th Region and 86% of the national average. The metropolitan area benefited an average income of 19,185 euros, 103% of the national average. With the 26% of the island population the Cagliari Metropolitan City produces the 31% of its GDP.


title: Cagliari

text: As the capital city of the Autonomous Region of Sardinia, Cagliari is the administrative hub and headquarters of the region as well as of the provincial and regional offices of the Italian central administration. Cagliari is also the main trade and industrial centre of the island, with numerous commercial sites and factories within its metropolitan boundaries.


title: Cagliari

text: Cagliari is the fourth port of Italy for movement of goods in tons (35,922,468), and the 18th for passengers (705,715), of whome 394,697 cruise passengers (8th in Italy).


title: Cagliari

text: The first department store, (La Rinascente) opened in 1931 in the centre of the city, and it is still open today. Nowadays there are many commercial centres in the metropolitan area (Le Vele, Santa Gilla, La Corte del Sole, Marconi) hosting many European chain stores such as Auchan, Metro AG, Lidl, MediaWorld, Euronics, Jysk, IKEA, Carrefour and Bata Shoes.


title: Cagliari

text: Cagliari is the main operational headquarters of the Banco di Sardegna, which belongs to the BPER Group and is listed on Borsa Italiana, of the Banca di Cagliari. Banca di Credito Sardo was based in Cagliari until it was absorbed by the parent company Intesa Sanpaolo.


title: Cagliari

text: The Macchiareddu-Grogastru area between Cagliari and Capoterra is one of the most important industrial areas of Sardinia, in conjunction with a large international container terminal port at Giorgino. Beside having one of the biggest container terminals on the Mediterranean Sea, Cagliari also has one of the largest fish markets in Italy offering for sale a vast array of fish to both the public and traders. The communications provider Tiscali also has its headquarters in Cagliari.


title: Cagliari

text: Multinational corporations like Coca-Cola, Heineken, Unilever, Bridgestone and Eni Group have factories in town. One of the six oil refinery supersites in Europe, Saras, is located within the metropolitan area at Sarroch.


title: Cagliari

text: Tourism is one of the major industries of the city, although historical venues such as its monumental Middle Ages and Early modern period defence system, its Carthaginian, Roman and Byzantine ruins are less highlighted compared to the recreational beaches and coastline. Cruise ships touring the Mediterranean often stop for passengers at Cagliari, and the city is a traffic hub to the nearby beaches of Villasimius, Chia, Pula and Costa Rei, as well as to the urban beach of Poettu. Pula is home to the archaeological site of the Punic and Roman city of Nora. Especially in summer many clubs and pubs are goals for young locals and tourists. Pubs and night-clubs are concentrated in the Corso Vittorio Emanuele II, a narrow street in Stampace district, in the Marina district, near the port and in the Castello district, The clubs are mostly to be found on the Poetto Beach (in summer) or in Viale Marconi (in winter). In Cagliari there are 180 B&B and 22 hotels that totals 3,300 beds. There are many others hotels in seaside resort of his gulf.


title: Cagliari

text: Considerable remains of the ancient city of Karalis are still visible, including those of the Tuvixeddu necropolis (the largest Punic necropolis still in existence), the Roman amphitheatre, traditionally called "Is centu scalas" ("One hundred steps"), and of an aqueduct used to provide generally scarce water. Still visible are also some ancient cisterns of vast extent, the ruins of a small circular temple, and numerous sepulchres on a hill outside the modern town that appear to have formed the necropolis of the ancient city. The amphitheatre stages open-air operas and concerts during the summer.


title: Cagliari

text: The Palaeo-Christian Basilica of San Saturnino, dedicated to a martyr killed under Diocletian's reign, Saturninus of Cagliari, patron saint of the city, was built in the 5th century. Of the original building the dome and the central part remain, to which two arms (one with a nave and two aisles) were added later. A Palaeo-Christian crypt is also under the church of "San Lucifero" (1660), dedicated to Saint Lucifer, a bishop of the city. The church has a Baroque façade with ancient columns and sculpted parts, some of which came from the nearby necropolis.


title: Cagliari

text: The old medieval town (called "Castello" in Italian, "Casteddu de susu" in Sardinian, "the upper castle") lies on top of a hill with a view of the Gulf of Cagliari (also known as Angels' Gulf). Most of its city walls are intact and include two early 14th-century white limestone towers, the Torre di San Pancrazio and the Torre dell'Elefante, typical examples of Pisan military architecture. The local white limestone was also used to build the walls of the city and many other buildings, besides the towers. The exact period of construction of a fortress on this hill is unknown at present, due to the superposition of layers of buildings along the history. Some scholars have suggested a first urbanization of the quarter in the Punic era on the basis of similarity of the planimetry with the contemporary Carthaginian fortress of Monte Sirai. Recently, archaeological excavations have identified Punic and Roman buildings under the ramparts of the fortress. Already the Roman poet Varro called the city "Vicus munitus", a fortified city, and sixteenth-century authors describe a Roman acropolis perhaps still visible in their day.


title: Cagliari

text: D. H. Lawrence, in his memoir of a voyage to Sardinia, "Sea and Sardinia", that he undertook in January 1921, described the effect of warm Mediterranean sunlight on the white limestone city and compared Cagliari to a "white Jerusalem".


title: Cagliari

text: The cathedral was restored in the 1930s, returning the former Baroque façade into a Medieval Pisan-style façade more akin to the original appearance of the church in the 13th century. The bell tower is original. The interior has a nave and two aisles, with a pulpit (1159–1162) sculpted for the Cathedral of Pisa but later donated to Cagliari. The crypt houses the remains of martyrs found in the Basilica of San Saturno (see below). Near the cathedral is the palace of the provincial government. Before 1900 it was the island's governor's palace.


title: Cagliari

text: The Sanctuary of Our Lady of Bonaria (from which the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina, gets its name) was built by the Catalans in 1324–1329 when they were besieging the Pisans in Castello. It has a small Gothic portal in the façade and the interior houses a wooden statue of the Madonna, which, after having been thrown off a Spanish ship, landed at the foot of Bonaria hill. Bonaria hill is also the location of the Monumental Cemetery of Bonaria.


title: Cagliari

text: The "Chiesa della Purissima" is a Catalan Gothic church built in the 16th century in the Castello distinct.


title: Cagliari

text: The other early districts of the town (Marina, Stampace and Villanova) retain much of their original character. In Stampace the Torre dello Sperone, another tower built by the Pisans in the late 13th century, is located, as well as two important monumental churches: the "Collegiata di Sant'Anna" and the "Chiesa di San Michele", both built in the 18th century in a baroque style. Many more churches, both old and modern, can be found throughout the city.


title: Cagliari

text: The Promenade Deck and the Terrazza Umberto I were designed in 1896 by the engineers Joseph Costa and Fulgenzio Setti. The entire building was built of white and yellow limestone in a classical style with Corinthian columns. It was opened in 1901. A staircase with two flights provides access from Constitution Square. It is interrupted by a covered walkway and ends beneath the Arc de Triomphe, in the Terrazza Umberto I. In 1943, during World War II, the staircase and the Arch of Triumph were severely damaged by aerial bombardment, but after the conflict they were faithfully reconstructed.


title: Cagliari

text: From the Terrazza Umberto I the Bastion of Santa Caterina can be accessed via a short flight of steps. Here there was once an old Dominican convent, destroyed by fire in 1800. According to tradition, the conspiracy to kill the Viceroy Camarassa in 1666 was set up in the surroundings of the monastery.


title: Cagliari

text: The Promenade Deck was inaugurated in 1902. At first it was used as a banqueting hall, then during the First World War as an infirmary. In the 1930s, during the period of sanctions, it was an exhibition of autarky. During World War II it served as a shelter for displaced people whose homes had been destroyed by bombs. In 1948 it hosted the first Trade Fair of Sardinia. After many years of decay, the Promenade was restored and re-evaluated as a cultural space reserved especially for art exhibitions.


title: Cagliari

text: The modern districts built in the late 19th and early 20th century contain examples of Art Deco architecture, as well as controversial examples of Fascist neoclassicism architecture, such as the Court of Justice ("Palazzo di Giustizia") in Republic Square. The Court of Justice is near the biggest city park, Monte Urpinu, with its pine trees, artificial lakes, and a vast area with a hill. The Orto Botanico dell'Università di Cagliari, the city's botanical garden, is also of interest.


title: Cagliari

text: The city has numerous libraries and is also home to the State Archive, containing thousands of handwritten documents from the foundation of the Kingdom of Sardinia (1325 AD) to the present.


title: Cagliari

text: In addition to numerous local and university department libraries, the most important libraries are the old University Library, with thousands of ancient books, the Provincial Library, the Regional Library, and the Mediateca of the Mediterranean, which contains the municipal archive and library collection.


title: Cagliari

text: In the first century B.C. a famous singer and musician from Cagliari, Tigellius, lived in Rome and was satirized by Cicero and Horace. The history of Sardinian literature begins in Cagliari in the first century A.D. In the funerary monument of Atilia Pomptilla, carved into the rock of the necropolis of Tuvixeddu, poems are engraved in Greek and Latin dedicated to his dead wife. Some of them, particularly those in the Greek language, have literary merit.


title: Cagliari

text: The first Sardinian literary author known was Bishop Lucifer of Cagliari, who wrote severe pamphlets against the Arian heresy in the fourth century A.D. Only in the eleventh century A.D. did the first texts of an administrative nature appear in the modern Sardinian language, together with hagiographs of local martyrs written in Latin.


title: Cagliari

text: Life in Cagliari has been depicted by many writers, starting with the late Roman poet Claudian. In the late 16th century, the local humanist Roderigo Hunno Baeza dedicated to his town a didactic Latin poem, "Caralis Panegyricus". At the beginning of the 17th century Juan Francisco Carmona wrote a hymn to Cagliari in Spanish; Jacinto Arnal De Bolea published in 1636, in Spanish, the first novel set in Cagliari, entitled "El Forastero". David Herbert Lawrence wrote about the city in his "Sea and Sardinia".


title: Cagliari

text: Modern writers connected to Cagliari include Giuseppe Dessì, Giulio Angioni, Giorgio Todde, Sergio Atzeni, (who set many of his novels and short stories, such as "Bakunin's Son", in ancient and modern Cagliari), Flavio Soriga.


title: Cagliari

text: Cagliari was the birthplace or residence of the composer Ennio Porrino, of the film, theatre and TV director Nanni Loy, and of the actors Gianni Agus, Amedeo Nazzari and Pier Angeli (born Anna Maria Pierangeli).


title: Cagliari

text: Excluding the Roman era amphitheater, the first theater was inaugurated in Cagliari in 1767: the Teatro Zapata, later becoming the Civic Theatre. Devastated by bombing in 1943, it was recently restored, but the roof was not rebuilt, and today it serves as an open-air theatre. The Politeama Regina Margherita, inaugurated in 1859, was destroyed by fire in 1942 and never rebuilt.


title: Cagliari

text: Although opera had, and in part still has, a solid tradition the city, it was left without a true theater until 1993 when a new opera house, the Teatro Lirico, was inaugurated. Inside there is a music compound with a music conservatory with its own auditorium, and a music park. Cagliari is and was home to opera singers such as the tenors Giovanni Matteo Mario (Giovanni Matteo De Candia, 1810–1883) and Piero Schiavazzi (1875–1949), the baritone Angelo Romero (born 1940), the contralto Bernadette Manca di Nissa, born 1954 and the soprano Giusy Devinu (1960–2007).


title: Cagliari

text: The old Teatro Massimo was only recently renovated and is now the seat of the Teatro Stabile of Sardinia.


title: Cagliari

text: The Municipal Auditorium, in the former 17th-century church of Santa Teresa, is the seat of the Scuola di Arte Drammatica (School of Dramatic Art) di Cagliari, while the Teatro delle Saline ("Saltworks Theatre"), is home of Akroama, Teatro Stabile di Innovazione ("Permanent Theater of Innovation").


title: Cagliari

text: Finally, some comic and satirical theater companies are active in the city, the most well known being the "Compagnia Teatrale Lapola", which offers an urban version of the traditional campidanese comic theater.


title: Cagliari

text: Founded by Bepi Vigna, Antonio Serra and Michele Medda, a comic book school, the Centro Internazionale del Fumetto ("Comic Strip International Centre") has been active for several decades. Its founders invented and designed the comic characters Nathan Never and Legs Weaver.


title: Cagliari

text: The Feast of St. Ephysius (Sant'Efisio in Italian, Sant'Efis in Sardinian) is the most important religious event of Cagliari, taking place every year on 1 May. During this festival, thousands of people from folk groups all over Sardinia wear their traditional costumes. The saint is escorted by the traditional ancient "Milicia", the deputy mayor (Alter Nos), numerous confraternities, and a convoy of chariots pulled by oxen in a procession to Nora (near modern Pula), from Cagliari, where, according to tradition, he was beheaded. In addition to being one of the oldest, it is also the longest Italian religious procession, with about of walks over four days, and the largest in the Mediterranean area.


title: Cagliari

text: A plague was spreading throughout Sardinia, starting in 1652, and the epidemic infected Cagliari in particular, killing some ten thousand inhabitants. According to legend, in 1656 St. Ephysius appeared to the Spanish Viceroy, Francisco Fernández de Castro Andrade, Count of Lemos to request a procession on 1 May, in order to free the city from the plague. The Municipality of Cagliari swore that, if the plague disappeared, a procession would be held every day in the saint's honor, starting from the Stampace district and ending at Nora where the saint was martyred. In September the plague ended, and the procession and festival was therefore regularly held starting the following year on 1 May. The procession was held even during the last war; a statue of the saint was placed on a lorry and, through city ruins of the devastated by the bombs, arrived safely in Nora.


title: Cagliari

text: The native language of Cagliari, declared official along with Italian, is Sardinian ("sardu"), a Romance language, specifically the Campidanese dialect ("campidanesu") in its local variant ("casteddaju").


title: Cagliari

text: The variant of Cagliari in its high register has traditionally represented the linguistic model of reference for the entire southern area of the island, and the high social variant used by the middle class in the whole Campidanese domain, as well as the literary model of reference for writers and poets. This language is less spoken by the younger generations in the city, who use Italian instead as that language is compulsory in education and the mass media. Italian has increasingly become predominant in social relations, both formal and informal, relegating Sardinian to a mostly marginal role in everyday life. Young people often have only passive competence in the language, gathered from elderly relatives who still speak it, as their parents often speak only Italian, or they may use a slang ("italianu porceddinu") that mixes both Sardinian and Italian.


title: Cagliari

text: Since Cagliari was the metropolis of the ancient Roman province, it absorbed innovations coming from Rome, Carthage, and Constantinople, and its language probably reflected late Latin urban dialects of the 5th-century core cities of the empire.


title: Cagliari

text: Cagliari has some unique gastronomic traditions: unlike the rest of the island its cuisine is mostly based on the wide variety of locally available seafood. Although it is possible to trace influences from Catalan, Sicilian and Genoese cuisine, Cagliaritan food has a distinctive and unique character.


title: Cagliari

text: Excellent wines are also part of Cagliaritanians' dinners, like the Cannonau, Nuragus, Nasco, Monica, Moscau, Girò and Malvasia, produced in the nearby vineyards of the Campidano plain.


title: Cagliari

text: The main newspaper of Sardinia is "L'Unione Sarda", it was founded in Cagliari in 1889. It was one of the first European newspapers to have its own website in 1994. It has a circulation of about 85,000 copies.


title: Cagliari

text: The main regional headquarters of RAI, the Italian state-owned radio and television network, is in Cagliari. There are also two regional television and radio companies as well as numerous information sites on the internet.


title: Cagliari

text: Cagliari is home to the football team Cagliari Calcio, winner of the Italian league championship in 1970, when the team was led by Gigi Riva. Founded in 1920, the club played at the Stadio Sant'Elia in the city from 1970 until it was closed in the summer of 2017, causing the club to temporarily relocate to the provisional Sardegna Arena. Sant'Elia was the venue for three 1990 FIFA World Cup matches.


title: Cagliari

text: Cagliari is an ideal location for water sports such as surfing, kitesurfing, windsurfing and sailing due to strong and reliable favourable winds. Field hockey is also popular, with two teams in the Italian top division, G.S. Amsicora and C.U.S. Cagliari, the first of which won the league title more often than any other Italian team in the men's championship (20) and is also the protagonist in the women's division.


title: Cagliari

text: Cagliari is the hub of the administration offices of the Sardinia Autonomous Region and of Cagliari Province. It is also the home of several local offices of the Italian central administration.


title: Cagliari

text: It is the seat of the Superintendency of Cultural and Environmental Heritage, of the Sardinia Archival Superintendency and of the Archeological Superintendency of the Cultural Heritage Ministry, of the Sardinia and Provincial seat of the Employment and Social Policies Ministry, of the regional offices of the Finance and Economy Ministry, and of some branch offices of the Health Ministry.


title: Cagliari

text: Cagliari is home to all criminal, civil, administrative and accounting courts for Sardinia of the Ministry of Justice up to the High Court of Assizes of Appeal. It was home to a prison, Buon Cammino, built in the late 19th century, famous because no one has ever managed to escape. A new modern prison has been built in the nearby town of Uta.


title: Cagliari

text: Traditionally, votes in Cagliari are oriented towards the center-right wing. Since World War II, all the mayors belonged to the Christian Democracy party with the exception of Salvatore Ferrara, from the Socialist Party, allied with the former. After the collapse of the traditional parties in the 1990s, the mayors belonged to the party or the coalition led by Silvio Berlusconi. The current economic and political crisis that affects Italy has prompted the electorate toward a large abstention and to elect a young mayor, Massimo Zedda, who belongs to a centre-left alliance. In the last municipal elections in June 2016, Massimo Zedda was confirmed in the first round with 50.86% of the votes.


title: Cagliari

text: Cagliari is home to the University of Cagliari, the largest public university in Sardinia, founded in 1626. It currently includes six faculties: Engineering and Architecture, Medicine and Surgery, Economics, Juridical and Political Sciences, Basic Sciences, Biology and Pharmacy, Humanistic Studies.


title: Cagliari

text: It is attended by about 35,000 students. All science faculties of the university, as well as the university hospital, have been transferred to a new "University Citadel", located in Monserrato. Cagliari's downtown houses the engineering and the humanities divisions and, in the Castle, the seat of the Rector, in an 18th-century palace with a library of thousands of ancient books.


title: Cagliari

text: Cagliari is also the seat of the Pontifical Faculty of Theology of Sardinia and of the European Institute of Design.


title: Cagliari

text: There has been a public hospital in Cagliari since the 17th century. The first modern structure was built in the middle of the 19th century, designed by the architect Gaetano Cima. This hospital is still operating, although all its departments will eventually be transferred to the new University Hospital in Monserrato.


title: Cagliari

text: Among the other public hospitals, the Giuseppe Brotzu (San Michele) Hospital was recognized in 1993 as a High Specialization Nationally Relevant Hospital, particularly for liver, heart, pancreas and bone marrow transplants.


title: Cagliari

text: Other public hospitals in the city include: the "Santissima Trinità" or commonly "Is Mirrionis"; the "Binaghi", specialised in pulmonology; "Marino" specialised in traumatology, hyperbaric medicine and spinal cord injuries; "Businco" specialised in oncology; and "Microcitemico", specialised in thalassemia, Genetic diseases and rare diseases. There are in addition many private hospitals.


title: Cagliari

text: Despite its dry climate, thanks to the regional system of dams, every inhabitant of Cagliari may have per day of safe drinking water.


title: Cagliari

text: The city is served by the Cagliari-Elmas International Airport, located a few kilometres from the centre of Cagliari. It is the 13th busiest aeroport in Italy by passengers traffic with around 4,370,000 passengers in 2018. A railway line connects the city to the airport; walkways join the railway station to the air terminal. The terminal is also connected to the city by highway SS 130 and by a bus service run by the ARST company to the central bus station in Matteotti square, in the centre of the city.


title: Cagliari

text: There are other airports not too far from the city: Deciomannu Airport, a NATO military airport and three fields for air sports, Serdiana (used in particular for skydiving), Castiadas and Decimoputzu.


title: Cagliari

text: The port of Cagliari is divided in two sector, the old port and the new international container terminal. The port system of Cagliari-Sarroch is the third for freight traffic in Italy with a movement of about 38 million tons in 2017.


title: Cagliari

text: In Cagliari there are also two other small touristic ports, "Su Siccu" (Lega Navale) and "Marina Piccola".


title: Cagliari

text: The Ferrovie dello Stato railway station in Cagliari has services to Iglesias, Carbonia, Olbia, Golfo Aranci, Sassari and Porto Torres.


title: Cagliari

text: The nearby commune of Monserrato is the terminal railway station of a narrow gauge line to Arbatax and Sorgono.


title: Cagliari

text: Bus and trolleybus services, managed by CTM (more than 30 lines) and ARST, connect internal destinations in the city and in the metropolitan area; Cagliari is one of the few Italian cities with an extensive trolleybus network, whose fleet has been partially renovated in 2012.


title: Cagliari

text: A metro-like tram service on its own rail, MetroCagliari, operates between Piazza Repubblica and the new university campus near Monserrato (line 1) and from Monserrato San Gottardo and Settimo San Pietro (line 2). A line between Piazza Repubblica and Piazza Matteotti, the city transport hub (with train, urban and extra-urban bus stations), is planned. Trenitalia, the primary train operator in Italy, operates a metro train service between Cagliari Central Station and Decimomannu, which connects the airport with the city center. A public bike-sharing service is operating with pick-up points at Via Sonnino - Palazzo Civico, Piazza Repubblica, Piazza Giovanni 23, and Marina Piccola.


title: Clara Oswald

text: Clara Oswald is a fictional character in the British science fiction television series "Doctor Who". She was created by series producer Steven Moffat and portrayed by Jenna Coleman. Clara was introduced in the seventh series as a new travelling companion of the series protagonist, the Doctor, in his eleventh and twelfth incarnations. Coleman received top billing alongside Matt Smith and Peter Capaldi for the duration of her time as a regular cast member. A featured actress in the series seven premiere, she became a regular for the second part of said series (2012), the 50th anniversary specials (2013), all of series eight (2014) and series nine (2015). Coleman also reappeared briefly in the 2017 Christmas special. This makes her one of the longest-serving companions in the show's history.


title: Clara Oswald

text: In the series' narrative, Clara is introduced in the seventh series as three distinct, though similarly named, people living in different eras. The first two incarnations, Oswin Oswald and Clara Oswin Oswald, each die during the episode in which they appear. The third incarnation, a nanny living in 21st century London, becomes the Doctor's companion, travelling with him for the remainder of the series as he tries to uncover the mystery of her multiple lives. She continues to travel with the Doctor after the mystery is resolved at the end of the series, witnessing him regenerate into his twelfth incarnation. At first unsure of the change the Doctor has gone through, she becomes accustomed to it and keeps traveling with him. Clara's actions and personality during this period become a reflection of the Doctor's, and both grow increasingly attached. This leads to her slowly abandoning her life on earth, and finally, to her demise, which the Doctor tries to stop through dangerous methods. In the series nine finale he is able to save Clara, at the expense of having his memories of her erased.


title: Clara Oswald

text: In promoting the series, Coleman stressed Clara's curiosity and ability to hold her own against the Doctor whilst Moffat highlighted her speed and wit. Critical reaction noted that the character was far different from previous companion Amy Pond, whilst the character's first two incarnations were well received, critics thought her final one was more grounded and straightforward. Although her arc in her first season was criticized, the overall role in the narrative of the following series was praised. Coleman was nominated for numerous awards for her portrayal of Clara —including one for the BAFTA Cymru Awards —and since her initial role in the series, the character has ranked highly in numerous 'best companion' polls.


title: Clara Oswald

text: Oswin Oswald is introduced in the series 7 premiere, "Asylum of the Daleks" (2012). She is the sole survivor of the starship "Alaska", which crashed on the Asylum, a prison planet for insane Daleks. Oswin then learns from the Eleventh Doctor (Matt Smith) that she has been converted from human into a Dalek and has coped by retreating into a fantasy of her own intact survival. She assists the Doctor and his travelling companions, Amy Pond (Karen Gillan) and Rory Williams (Arthur Darvill), to escape the planet unharmed, but at the cost of her own life. Later, in the 2012 Christmas special "The Snowmen", the Doctor meets a woman named Clara Oswin Oswald, whom he initially knows only as Clara. She is a Victorian barmaid and governess whom the Doctor invites to be his newest companion, but who dies from an attack by one of the Great Intelligence's minions. Seeing her full name on her tombstone and finally recognising her voice, the Doctor realises she is the same woman as Oswin from the Dalek Asylum, whom he had never seen in her human form. Intrigued by the mystery of the woman who has lived and died twice in different eras, he begins searching across time for another Clara.


title: Clara Oswald

text: In "The Bells of Saint John" (2013), Clara receives a phone number to the Doctor's time and space vessel, the TARDIS, from a mysterious woman. The Doctor finds Clara Oswald (this time with no middle name) in contemporary London through her phone call, and takes her on as a companion with a goal to solving the mystery of the "impossible girl". The Doctor's repeated attempts at investigating Clara's origins over the course of "The Rings of Akhaten", "Hide", and "Journey to the Centre of the TARDIS" consistently turn up compelling evidence that she is just a normal young human woman. In "Journey to the Centre of the TARDIS", the Doctor confronts Clara in an averted timeline about the two previous versions of her he had met, but she does not know what he is talking about. The mystery surrounding Clara is finally resolved in "The Name of the Doctor" when she sacrifices her existence by entering the Doctor's timestream to undo the harm caused by the Great Intelligence (Richard E Grant). This results in the creation of numerous incarnations of Clara throughout the Doctor's history who appear to every known face of the Doctor, saving his life in numerous ways. Very few Claras are noticed by the Doctor. One version of Clara successfully persuades the First Doctor (William Hartnell) to pick the "right" TARDIS on his home planet Gallifrey, prior to the events of the show's first episode. Lost in the Doctor's timestream, she is eventually rescued and brought back into existence by the Eleventh Doctor. In "The Day of the Doctor", the show's 50th anniversary special, Clara is shown to have become a teacher at Coal Hill School. While on an adventure with the Doctor, she meets the Tenth Doctor (David Tennant) and the War Doctor (John Hurt) in person. She manages to convince the War Doctor to change his history (and thereby save Gallifrey and his people, the Time Lords, from destruction in the Time War), by sealing the planet in a "parallel pocket universe", where it remains.


title: Clara Oswald

text: In "The Time of the Doctor", the Time Lords try to return to the universe through a crack in time, but if they do so, the Time War will begin anew. The Doctor sends Clara home to her family at Christmas twice while the Doctor stays on the planet Trenzalore to try and prevent this war, but she returns in the TARDIS each time, after two centuries-long intervals. With the Doctor facing certain death at the end of his regeneration cycle during this siege, she pleads with the Time Lords through the crack to save the Doctor; they grant him a new regeneration cycle and the crack closes. She then witnesses the Doctor regenerate into the Twelfth Doctor (Peter Capaldi). Clara spends some time grappling with losing the Doctor she knew and loved throughout the events of "Deep Breath" (2014), until a call from the Eleventh Doctor prior to his regeneration convinces her to stay by his side and help him adjust to his new persona. In "Into the Dalek", Clara and fellow teacher Danny Pink (Samuel Anderson) agree to go for drinks together, and over the course of the episodes "Listen", "Time Heist", and "The Caretaker", the two enter into a romantic relationship. For a while, she keeps secrets between the Doctor and Danny due to their misgivings about each other, and experiences turbulence in her friendship with the Doctor, particularly in "Kill the Moon", when he abandons her to face a traumatic decision on her own. In "Flatline", she is forced to take the Doctor's role in averting an alien invasion, and realises she is capable of making the same ruthless and pragmatic decisions he often has to make. In "Dark Water", Danny dies while crossing the road before Clara can announce her intent to commit to him fully. After attempting to blackmail the Doctor into changing history to avert his death, which is impossible, Clara and the Doctor decide to pursue contacting him from beyond the grave, and end up at a facility where evil Time Lord Missy (Michelle Gomez) has stored the consciousnesses of Earth's dead as part of a plot to convert all of the deceased into an army of Cybermen. In "Death in Heaven", Missy reveals that she was the aforementioned woman who gave Clara the TARDIS telephone number and had also been secretly keeping the two together after their first meeting as part of her plan. After Danny is brought back as a Cyberman in the episode, he resists his programming in order to destroy Missy's Cyberman army and avert her plans. Two weeks after these events, Clara and the Doctor meet to say goodbye to one another. The Doctor lies to Clara; he pretends he has found Gallifrey and a home to go back to. Clara lies too; she pretends Danny returned from the dead through Missy's device, when in fact he sacrificed his opportunity, to save the life of the child he killed in the Afghanistan war.


title: Clara Oswald

text: The two later reunite in the 2014 Christmas special "Last Christmas", when alien creatures induce a dream state in both the Doctor and Clara. Clara confesses that Danny is still dead, and the Doctor admits he did not find Gallifrey. Their shared dream experience on the North Pole ends with them regretting their parting. The Doctor asks Clara to resume travelling with him, and she happily agrees. In series 9, Clara accompanies Missy and the Doctor to Skaro when he is summoned by Davros (Julian Bleach), barely escaping the ordeal with her life. Now an experienced companion, Clara shows greater confidence when dealing with alien races and volatile humans, but the Doctor finds himself concerned by her reckless streak. Clara's recklessness gets the better of her in "Face the Raven", when she attempts to outsmart the Doctor's adversary Ashildr (Maisie Williams) by taking on a death sentence, but later learns that it cannot be revoked. She cautions the Doctor not to give in to his darker nature in response to her passing, and faces death with bravery. She is seen once more in the following episode "Heaven Sent", as a grief-stricken Doctor imagines conversations with her to clarify his ideas. In "Hell Bent", the Doctor uses Time Lord technology on Gallifrey to extract Clara from her last moments of life, and attempts to run away with her and cheat death. When this fails, they go to the extreme end of the universe. The Doctor finds the immortal human Ashildr waiting in the ruins of Gallifrey. Ashildr theorises that the Doctor and Clara together are the Hybrid. Since they are so alike, each pushes the other to potentially catastrophic actions. He later realizes from Ashildr that traveling together will only cause more harm than good, and prepares to wipe Clara's memories of him with a device. Clara tampers with the device so that it wipes the Doctor's memories of her instead. She leaves the Doctor on Earth to start his adventures anew, and begins traveling with Ashildr in a stolen TARDIS with the intention of one day returning to Gallifrey to meet her end, although vowing to "take the long way around".


title: Clara Oswald

text: In "Twice Upon a Time", the Doctor encounters Testimony, a futuristic organisation who use time travel to copy people's memories at the moment of death and install them in sentient glass avatars. At the end of an adventure, an avatar of Bill Potts restores the Doctor's memories of Clara with a mental image of her telling him not to forget her again.


title: Clara Oswald

text: Clara (Sophie Downham) appears in a short prelude to "The Bells of Saint John" as a child who talks to the Doctor at a playground. The Doctor does not realise her identity, which is revealed to the viewer. Coleman also played Clara in "She Said, He Said", an online prelude to "The Name of the Doctor" that breaks the fourth wall. The DVD and Blu-ray releases for Series 7 also include Coleman in a solo performance as Clara in the home media-exclusive short "Clara and the TARDIS".


title: Clara Oswald

text: Clara also features alongside the Eleventh Doctor in the New Series Adventures novel "Shroud of Sorrow" (2013). From 2014, she has been featured in the Twelfth Doctor novels including: "The Blood Cell", "Silhouette", "The Crawling Terror", and as of 2015, "Royal Blood" and "Deep Time". She appeared in IDW Publishing's comic story "Deadwood". Clara appeared briefly in issues 11 and 12 of IDW 50th anniversary "Doctor Who" mini-series "Prisoners of Time". Beginning with Issue #462 (August 2013), Clara appears regularly in the "Doctor Who Magazine" comic strips. In the 2015 "Doctor Who Magazine" comic storyline "Blood and Ice" (DWM #485–488), Clara meets another incarnation of herself she created called "Winnie Clarence", a university research graduate from the year 2048.


title: Clara Oswald

text: Clara Oswald appears in the toys-to-life game Lego Dimensions. She appears as an “In Peril” character where the player has to solve a puzzle to rescue her. Her only appearances in levels are “A Dalektable Adventure”, and “The Dalek Extermination of Earth”.


title: Clara Oswald

text: On 21 March 2012, it was announced that Jenna Coleman would replace Karen Gillan and Arthur Darvill as the next companion. She auditioned for the role in secrecy, pretending it was for something called "Men on Waves", an anagram for "Woman Seven". Executive producer and lead writer Steven Moffat chose her for the role because she worked the best alongside Smith and could talk faster than he did. Coleman had never seen "Doctor Who" before her audition, and watched "The Eleventh Hour" (2010) and "completely fell in love with the show". However, she only watched the first five episodes of the seventh series – the final five featuring Gillan and Darvill – because she did not want to learn more about their relationship to the Doctor, as she wanted her acting alongside Smith to be "spontaneous". Moffat stated that her character is different from previous companions, though he attempted to keep the details of her character a secret until she debuted in the Christmas special. In "Asylum of the Daleks" (2012), Coleman appears as the character Oswin Oswald, a secret which was kept from the public before transmission. Coleman was originally given the role of a Victorian governess named Jasmine, and then for the second audition she was given both the characters of Oswin and Clara. She originally thought that the producers were looking for the right character, but later realised it was part of Moffat's "soft mystery" plan. Neil Gaiman (writer of "Nightmare in Silver", 2013) revealed that the character was originally intended to stay as a Victorian governess. Coleman stated that Moffat came up with the mystery during the audition process. Coleman played each version of the character as individuals with "trust that there would be a payoff" to her mystery. Moffat told Neil Cross, who wrote "Hide" (2013), the first episode Coleman filmed as the new companion, that Clara was "a normal girl".


title: Clara Oswald

text: It was widely expected that Coleman would leave the show at the end of 2014. Moffat has confirmed in numerous interviews that he wrote the character out twice — once for the end of Series 8 and again for the 2014 Christmas special — but ultimately convinced Coleman to stay on for one more series. Moffat didn't feel that the show was "quite finished with Jenna and Clara", and wasn't convinced Coleman was ready to said goodbye either, "I don’t think anyone should leave Doctor Who until they’re really ready to leave." On 18 September 2015, Coleman officially announced on BBC Radio 1 that she would leave the show at the end of the ninth series. One of the reasons for her departure was her casting as Queen Victoria, in the ITV drama series "Victoria".


title: Clara Oswald

text: Moffat felt that the introduction of a new companion made "the show feel different" and brought the story to "a new beginning" with a different person meeting the Doctor. Executive producer Caroline Skinner remarked that her introduction allowed the series to return to a more "classic "Doctor Who" format". Smith said that Clara was different from her predecessor Amy Pond (Gillan), which allowed the audience to see a different side of the Doctor. Moffat said that Coleman brings "a speed and wit and an unimpressed quality that makes the Doctor dance a bit harder". Coleman stated that her character "holds her own" and was competitive with the Doctor, providing "a nice double act". With her place in the series' narrative, Clara was intended to reawaken the Doctor's "curiosity in the universe and gives him his mojo back". Concerning Clara's relationship to the Doctor, Coleman said, "It's been interesting how it's changed Matt's Doctor. There is a natural bounce between them, and a flirtation, and attraction. But, again, they've always got this friction because they're a bit magnetic and drawn to each other, but she can't quite figure him out. He's got loads of secrets and he's always looking at her, trying to figure her out." The dynamic between Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy was an influence on Coleman and Smith. In addition, Coleman revealed that Clara and the TARDIS have a "relationship", as there is a running joke about the TARDIS (previously established in the series as being sentient) not liking Clara or making fun of her.


title: Clara Oswald

text: Many fans and critics noticed similarities between Clara and Billie Piper's Rose Tyler. Clara helps the Doctor recover at a dark point in his life, as Rose does during a much darker time; both companions lose a parent; each has a close relationship with the Doctor, who sees part of their childhood. The Doctor does the same thing to Clara in "The Time of the Doctor" (2013) as he does to Rose in "The Parting of the Ways" (2005) by sending her back home to keep her safe.


title: Clara Oswald

text: Coleman reprised the role of Clara for a cameo appearance in the 2017 Christmas Special "Twice Upon a Time". Early drafts of the script had Coleman appear alongside fellow companions Nardole and Bill Potts with all three characters interacting together. This idea had to be reworked, as Coleman shooting schedule for "Victoria" didn't allow for it, instead she had to film her scenes in front of a green screen at the offices of the BBC Television Centre, days after filming wrapped. The episode's director Rachel Talalay described the story as being "about memories" and praised Moffat for being able to weave Clara into it: "The fact that the Doctor, having lost his memories of her, got them back in the Christmas episode, I just felt was so brilliant."


title: Clara Oswald

text: Nick Setchfield of "SFX" praised the effective surprise debut of Coleman as Oswin in "Asylum of the Daleks". He wrote, "Coleman brings sauce and sparkiness, and while she initially seems a familiar Moffat archetype, all snarky cracks about the Doctor's chin and throwaway lines about sexual experimentation... there's a deeper vulnerability there too, which makes her eventual fate in this episode genuinely heart-skewering." Michael Hogan, writing for "The Daily Telegraph", also found her debut promising and described her as "enchanting in an elfin way – rather like a brunette, curvier, less annoying Fearne Cotton".