title: Lisa Simpson

text: "TV Guide" ranked her 11th (tied with Bart) on their list of the "Top 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters of All Time". Her environmentalism has been especially well-received; several episodes featuring her have won Genesis and Environmental Media Awards, including a special "board of directors Ongoing Commitment Award" in 2001. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals included Lisa on their list of the "Most Animal-Friendly TV Characters of All Time". Yeardley Smith won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice-Over Performance in 1992 and Lisa and her family were awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2000.


title: Lisa Simpson

text: "The Simpsons" uses a floating timeline in which the characters do not have physical ages; as such, Lisa is always depicted as 7–8 years old. The show itself is perpetually set in the year of broadcast (except for occasional flashbacks and flashforwards). In several episodes, events have been linked to specific time periods, although this timeline has been contradicted in subsequent episodes. Lisa's year of birth is given in "Lisa's First Word" (season 4, 1992) as 1984, during the Summer Olympics. The episode "That '90s Show" (season 19, 2008), however, contradicts much of the established backstory; for example, it presents Homer and Marge as being childless in the late 1990s. Lisa is a lover of music, with jazz as her favorite genre; she specifically singles out Miles Davis's 1957 album "Birth of the Cool" as her favorite album. She enjoys and excels at playing the saxophone and became friends with jazz musician Bleeding Gums Murphy, whom she regards as an idol. Murphy helps pull Lisa out of her depression in "Moaning Lisa" (season 1, 1990). She is later deeply saddened by Murphy's death in 'Round Springfield" (season 6, 1995).


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Lisa has had a few brief relationships with boys, including Ralph Wiggum in "I Love Lisa" (the fifteenth episode of season 4, 1993), Nelson Muntz in "Lisa's Date with Density" (season 8, 1996) and Colin in "The Simpsons Movie" (2007). Bart's best friend Milhouse Van Houten has a crush on her, but despite dropping unsubtle hints about his feelings, he has been unsuccessful in winning her affection. Her voice actor Yeardley Smith said Muntz would make a good match for Lisa. In 2019, "Simpsons" showrunner Al Jean said he saw Lisa as being "possibly polyamorous" in the future. In the 2011 Season 23 episode 9 episode Holidays of Future Passed Lisa is shown holding hands with an unnamed dark-haired woman in a photo, and then shown in a second photo where she is holding hands with two different women at once, suggesting polyamory; she later ends up with Milhouse. However, this episode is non-canon.


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Lisa is the most intellectual member of the Simpson family (she has an IQ of 159), and many episodes of the series focus on her fighting for various causes. Lisa is often the focus of episodes with "a real moral or philosophical point", which according to former writer David S. Cohen is because "you really buy her as caring about it." Lisa's political convictions are generally liberal and she often contests other's views. She is a vegetarian, feminist, environmentalist and a supporter of gay rights and the Free Tibet movement. In a special Christmas message for the UK in 2004 Lisa showed her support for Cornish nationalism, even speaking the Cornish language to get her message across. While supportive of the general ideals of the Christian church in which she was raised, Lisa became a practicing Buddhist in the episode "She of Little Faith" (season 13, 2001) after she learned about the Noble Eightfold Path. An "End Apartheid Now" poster can be seen on her bedroom door during earlier seasons. She is extremely controlled by her ideals and noble, and she undergoes drastic changes when she or anyone else is immoral, such as renouncing Homer's last name and taking Marge's when she discovers that Homer bet against her in a crossword puzzle competition.


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Matt Groening conceived Lisa and the rest of the Simpson family in 1986 in the lobby of producer James L. Brooks's office. Groening had been called in to pitch a series of animated shorts for "The Tracey Ullman Show" and had intended to present an adaptation of his "Life in Hell" comic strip. When he realized that animating "Life in Hell" would require him to rescind publication rights, Groening went in another direction, hurriedly sketching his version of a dysfunctional family, named after members of his own family. Lisa was named after Groening's younger sister, but little else was based on her. In "The Tracey Ullman Show" shorts, Lisa displayed little of the intelligence for which she later became known. She was more of a "female Bart" and was originally described as simply the "middle child", without much personality.


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Lisa made her debut with the rest of the Simpson family on April 19, 1987, in "The Tracey Ullman Show" short "Good Night". In 1989, the shorts were adapted into "The Simpsons", a half-hour series on the Fox Broadcasting Company.


title: Lisa Simpson

text: The entire Simpson family was designed to be easily recognized in silhouette. The family was crudely drawn, because Groening had submitted basic sketches to the animators, assuming they would clean them up; instead, they just traced over his drawings. Lisa's physical features are generally unique. In some early episodes, minor background characters occasionally had a similar hairline. However, in the later seasons, no character other than Maggie shares her hairline. While designing Lisa, Groening "couldn't be bothered to even think about girls' hairstyles". At the time, Groening was primarily drawing in black and white; when designing Lisa and Maggie, he "just gave them this kind of spiky starfish hair style, not thinking that they would eventually be drawn in color".


title: Lisa Simpson

text: To draw Lisa's head and hair, most of the show's animators use what they call the "three-three-two arrangement". It begins with a circle, with two curving lines (one vertical, one horizontal) intersecting in the middle to indicate her eyeline. The vertical line continues outside of the circle to create one hair point, with two more added towards the back of her head. Three more points are then added in front (in the direction Lisa is facing), with two more behind it. Several "Simpsons" animators, including Pete Michels and David Silverman, consider Lisa the most difficult "Simpsons" character to draw. Silverman explains that "her head is so abstract" due to her hairstyle.


title: Lisa Simpson

text: While the roles of Homer and Marge were given to Dan Castellaneta and Julie Kavner because they were already a part of the "Tracey Ullman Show" cast, the producers decided to hold casting for the roles of Bart and Lisa. Nancy Cartwright intended to audition for the role of Lisa, but disliked the character's bland description—Lisa was described simply as the "middle child"—and read for the role of Bart instead. Casting director Bonita Pietila brought Yeardley Smith in for an audition after seeing her performing in the play "Living on Salvation Street". Smith was hesitant to audition for an animated series, but her agent had persuaded her to give it a try. Smith originally auditioned for the role of Bart but Pietila believed her voice was too high. Smith later recalled: "I always sounded too much like a girl, I read two lines as Bart and they said, 'Thanks for coming!'" Pietila offered Smith the role of Lisa instead.


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Smith and the show's writers worked to give Lisa a more defined personality, and she has developed greatly during the series. In her 2000 memoir "My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy", Cartwright wrote: "with the brilliant wit of the writers and the wry, in-your-eye, honest-to-a-fault interpretation, Yeardley Smith has made Lisa a bright light of leadership, full of compassion and competence beyond her years. Lisa Simpson is the kind of child we not only want our children to be but also the kind of child we want "all" children to be. But, at the time, on "The Tracey Ullman Show", she was just an animated eight-year-old kid who had no personality."


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Lisa is the only regular character voiced by Smith, who raises the pitch of her voice slightly for the role. In some earlier episodes she provided some of Maggie's squeaks and occasional speaking parts, and has voiced other characters on very rare occasions. Usually they are derivative of Lisa, such as Lisa Bella in "Last Tap Dance in Springfield" (season 11, 2000) and Lisa, Jr. in "". (season 11, 2000)


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Despite the fame of Lisa Simpson, Smith is rarely recognized in public, which she does not mind. She said, "it's wonderful to be in the midst of all this hype about the show, and people enjoying the show so much, and to be totally a fly on the wall; people never recognize me solely from my voice." In a 2009 interview with "The Guardian" she commented that "It's the best job ever. I have nothing but gratitude for the amount of freedom "The Simpsons" has bought me in my life." Although Smith received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice-Over Performance in 1992, she considers it unimportant, saying "there's part of me that feels it wasn't even a real Emmy." The award is a Creative Arts prize not awarded during the primetime telecast and, at the time, a juried award without nominations. Still, Smith considers her work on the show a success. "If I had to be associated with one character in fiction," she said, "I will always be thrilled that it was Lisa Simpson." Matt Groening has described Smith as being very similar to Lisa: "Yeardley has strong moral views about her character. Some lines are written for Lisa that Yeardley reads and says, 'No, I wouldn't say that.'" Former "Simpsons" writer Jay Kogen praised her performance on the show, particularly in the episode "Lisa's Substitute", as able "to move past comedy to something really strong and serious and dramatic."


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Until 1998, Smith was paid $30,000 per episode. A pay dispute erupted in 1998, during which Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing for casting of new voices. The dispute was soon resolved, and Smith received $125,000 per episode until 2004 when the voice actors sought an increase to $360,000 per episode. The issue was resolved a month later, and Smith earned $250,000 per episode. New salary negotiations took place in 2008, and the voice actors currently receive approximately $400,000 per episode. Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Smith and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode.


title: Lisa Simpson

text: In "The Tracey Ullman Show" shorts, Lisa was something of a "female Bart": equally mischievous but lacking unique traits. As the series progressed, Lisa began to develop into a more intelligent and more emotional character. She demonstrates her intellect in the 1990 episode "Krusty Gets Busted" (season one), by helping Bart reveal Sideshow Bob's plot to frame Krusty the Clown for armed robbery. Many episodes focusing on Lisa have an emotional nature, such as "Moaning Lisa" (season one, 1990). The idea for the episode was pitched by James L. Brooks, who wanted to do an emotional episode involving Lisa's sadness, to complement the many "jokey episodes" in the first season.


title: Lisa Simpson

text: In the seventh-season episode "Lisa the Vegetarian" (1995), Lisa permanently becomes a vegetarian, distinguishing her as one of the first primetime television characters to make such a choice. The episode was written by David S. Cohen (in his first solo writing credit), who jotted down the idea one day while eating lunch. Then-executive producer David Mirkin, who had recently become a vegetarian himself, quickly approved the idea. Several of Lisa's experiences in the episode are based on Mirkin's own experiences. The episode guest stars musician Paul McCartney, a committed vegetarian and animal rights activist. McCartney's condition for appearing was that Lisa would remain a vegetarian for the rest of the series and would not revert the next week (as is common on situation comedies). The trait stayed and is one of the few permanent character changes made in the show. In the season 13 episode "She of Little Faith" (2001), Lisa underwent another permanent character change when she converted to Buddhism.


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Lisa plays the baritone saxophone, and some episodes use that as a plot device. According to Matt Groening, the baritone saxophone was chosen because he found the thought of an eight-year-old girl playing it amusing. He added, "But she doesn't always play a baritone sax because the animators don't know what it looks like, so it changes shape and color from show to show." One of the hallmarks of the show's opening sequence is a brief solo Lisa plays on her saxophone after being thrown out of music class. "The Simpsons" composer Alf Clausen said that the session musicians who perform her solos do not try to play at the second-grade level and instead "think of Lisa as a really good player." Lisa is a skilled multi-instrumentalist, besides saxophone, she can also play bass (as shown in "Whacking Day"), guitar (as shown in "Last Exit to Springfield"), and piano (as shown in "Miracle on Evergreen Terrace").


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Lisa, despite being a child prodigy, often sees herself as a misfit within the Simpson family and other children due to possessing an unusually high level of intelligence. She shows characteristics rarely seen in Springfield, including spirituality and commitment to peaceful ways, and is notably more concerned with world affairs than her life in Springfield, with her rebellion against social norms being depicted as constructive and heroic, yet she can be self-righteous at times. In "Lisa the Vegetarian", an increasing sense of moral righteousness leads her to disrupt her father's roast-pig barbecue, an act for which she later apologizes. Like most children her age, she thinks in images rather than words. Episodes often take shots at Lisa's idealism. In "Bart Star" (season nine, 1997), Lisa, who is departing from her typically more genuine nature and apparently looking for a new cause to crusade over, defiantly declares that she, a girl, would like to join the football team. In the 1990s, it was considered odd to allow a girl to play football. However, when coach Ned Flanders reveals that several girls already play for the team, she hesitates and claims football is "not really [her] thing". She then expresses distaste about a ball made of pig's skin, but one of the girls informs her that their footballs are synthetic and that proceeds are donated to Amnesty International. Upset by being unable to gain moral superiority, Lisa runs off. In "She of Little Faith," Lisa permanently becomes a Buddhist after being appalled at how the First Church of Springfield allowed Mr. Burns to rebuild the church, which burned after being hit with Bart and Homer's rockets, with commercialism. Despite no longer following the Christian faith, she still is seen attending church in later episodes.


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Lisa is said to have an IQ of 159, and in "They Saved Lisa's Brain" (season ten, 1999) she becomes a member of the Springfield chapter of Mensa. When unable to attend school due to a teachers' strike in "The PTA Disbands" (season six, 1995), she suffers withdrawal symptoms because of the sudden lack of praise. She even demands that her mother grade her for no obvious reason. In "Planet Simpson", Chris Turner writes that these traits make Lisa more realistic because "No character can aspire to realism without a few all-too-human flaws."


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Although she is wise beyond her years, Lisa has typical childhood issues, sometimes requiring adult intervention. One episode to show this is "See Homer Run" (season seventeen, 2005) where she goes through a developmental condition which causes her to get into trouble at school. In "Lost Our Lisa" (season nine, 1998), she tricks Homer into allowing her to ride the bus alone, only to become hopelessly lost and in need of aid from her father. Chris Turner writes in "Planet Simpson" that incidents like this illustrate that "Even when Lisa's lecturing like a college professor or mounting yet another protest, she never becomes a full-grown adult trapped in a child's body." In "", Aeon J. Skoble states that although Lisa is an intellectual, she is still portrayed as a character who enjoys normal childhood and girl activities, plays with Malibu Stacy dolls, loves ponies, obsesses over teenage heartthrobs such as Corey, and watches "The Itchy & Scratchy Show" along with Bart. He writes, "One might argue that this is typical childhood behavior, but since in so many cases Lisa is presented not simply as a prodigy but as preternaturally wise, the fondness for "Itchy & Scratchy" and Corey seem to be highlighted, taking on greater significance. Lisa is portrayed as the avatar of logic and wisdom, but then she also worships Corey so she's 'no better [than the rest of us]'." When she became depressed over being unable to pursue her dream as a musician due to inheriting her father's fingers and having to spend her time with Marge in being a homemaker, Lisa gives up on school and becomes a juvenile delinquent in Separate Vocations. She is stopped by Bart who encourages her to keep proving people wrong and pursue her dreams as a musician.


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Lisa has demonstrated an acute sense of sensitivity, often bursting into tears whenever emotionally overwhelmed. First shown in the Season 1 episode, "Moaning Lisa", when Homer hurts his daughter's feelings midway in the episode, there has been a sizable portion of episodes featuring Lisa sobbing, to the point where it remains her most well known, and continuously used trait, alongside her vegetarianism and Buddhism. It's not uncommon for each and every season to feature an episode where Lisa cries at some point.


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Lisa occasionally worries that her family's dull habits will rub off on her, such as in "Lisa the Simpson" (season nine, 1998) she worries that the "Simpson gene" will make her a dimwit later finding out the gene only goes through the male side. She is often embarrassed and disapproving of her eccentric family: of her father's poor parenting skills and buffoonish personality; her mother's stereotypical image and social ineptitude; and her brother's delinquent and low-brow nature. Despite this, she has good relationships with all of her immediate family members. Although they have many differences, Homer and Lisa maintain an affectionate relationship, with episodes like "Lisa the Greek" and "Bart on the Road" depicting the bond between them often being cited as fan favorites. Homer is often oblivious to her talents but clearly respects her intelligence, such as when he supports her controversial research about Jebediah Springfield in Lisa the Iconoclast because she's "always right about this kind of stuff."


title: Lisa Simpson

text: She is also concerned that Maggie may grow up to be like the rest of the family and tries to teach her complex ideas. Chris Turner writes in "Planet Simpson" that "Lisa embarks on quests to find solace for her yearning spirit ... but the most reliable source of truth she finds is the one she always believed in: her family. It is from the other Simpsons that Lisa draws stability, meaning, contentment." Her loyalty to her family is most clearly seen in the flashforward "Lisa's Wedding" (season six, 1995), in which she must reconcile her love for them with the distaste of her cultured fiancé. In the episode "Mother Simpson" (season seven, 1995) she meets her paternal grandmother Mona Simpson for the first time. Mona is also well-read and articulate, and the writers used the character as a way to explain the origins of Lisa's intelligence.


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Lisa is shown to have heterosexual crushes on Nelson Muntz and Langdon Alger in "Lisa's Date with Density" and "Bart on the Road" respectively. In some episodes Lisa is shown to have a boyfriend, such as Edmund Dracula in "Treehouse of Horror XXI" or Colin in "The Simpsons Movie". Lisa becomes engaged to, and later almost marries, Hugh Parkfield in "Lisa's Wedding" and the episodes "Bart to the Future" and "Holidays of Future Passed" suggest that Lisa will go on to marry Milhouse Van Houten. However, "Holidays of Future Passed" also show Lisa being in both a monogamous, and later polyamorous, lesbian relationships. However, all future episodes and scenes such as these are ultimately considered non-canon.


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Although Lisa's sexuality has never been confirmed on screen, showrunner Al Jean said in a 2019 interview with "The Metro" that he had always envisaged for Lisa to grow up to become bisexual and polyamorous. In a 2020 interview with the "Stryker & Klein show" on KROQ Radio, Yeardley Smith said that she believed that Lisa was "still exploring her sexuality". Smith also asked fans to stop speculating on Lisa's sexuality, as she was "ultimately an eight-year old girl".


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Lisa has been a popular character since the show's inception. She was listed at number 11 (tied with Bart) in "TV Guide's" "Top 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters of All Time." She appeared in Comcast's list of TV's Most Intriguing Characters and was also included in AfterEllen.com's Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters. On a less positive note, she was ranked third in AskMen's top 10 of the most irritating '90s cartoon characters. Yeardley Smith has won several awards for voicing Lisa, including a Primetime Emmy Award for "Outstanding Voice-Over Performance" in 1992 for "Lisa the Greek". Various episodes in which Lisa stars have won Emmy Awards for Outstanding Animated Program, including "Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment" in 1991, "Lisa's Wedding" in 1995 and "HOMR" in 2001. In 2000, Lisa and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard.


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Lisa's environmentalism has been especially well received. In 2001, Lisa received a special "board of directors Ongoing Commitment Award" at the Environmental Media Awards. "Lisa the Vegetarian" won both an Environmental Media Award for "Best Television Episodic Comedy" and a Genesis Award for "Best Television Comedy Series, Ongoing Commitment". Several other episodes that feature Lisa speaking out in favor of animal rights have won Genesis Awards, including "Whacking Day" in 1994, "Bart Gets an Elephant" in 1995, "Million Dollar Abie" in 2007 and "Apocalypse Cow" in 2009.


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Jonathan Gray, author of the book "Watching The Simpsons", feels that Lisa "is probably the best and certainly longest-running feminist character that television has had. She's the heart of the show and she quite often questions gender politics." Christopher Borrelli of "The Toledo Blade" wrote, "Has there ever been a female TV character as complex, intelligent, and, ahem, as emotionally well-drawn as Lisa Simpson? Meet her once and she comes off priggish and one-note – a know-it-all. Get to know her and Lisa is as well-rounded as anyone you may ever meet in the real world."


title: Lisa Simpson

text: According to PETA, Lisa was one of the first vegetarian characters on primetime television. In 2004 the organization included Lisa on its list of the "Most Animal-Friendly TV Characters of All Time". In 2008, environmentalist website The Daily Green honored Lisa's role in "The Simpsons Movie" with one of its inaugural "Heart of Green" awards, which "recognize those who have helped green go mainstream." They wrote "young Lisa Simpson has inspired a generation to wear their hearts on their sleeves and get educated, and involved, about global issues, from justice to feminism and the environment." Japanese broadcasters reversed viewer dislike of the series by focusing marketing of the show on Lisa. Lisa's well-intended but ill-fated struggles to be a voice of reason and a force of good in her family and community struck a chord with Japanese audiences. Mario D'Amato, a specialist in Buddhist studies at Rollins College in Florida, described Lisa as "open-minded, reflective, ethical, and interested in improving herself in various ways, while still preserving a childlike sense of innocence. These are all excellent qualities, ones which are espoused by many Buddhist traditions."


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Lisa and the rest of the Simpsons have had a significant influence on English-language idioms. The dismissive term "meh"—used by Lisa and popularized by the show— entered the "Collins English Dictionary" in 2008. In 1996, "The New York Times" published an article saying that Lisa was inspiring children, especially young girls, to learn to play the saxophone.


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Lisa Simpson was mentioned at the 2018 Conservative Political Action Conference when Senator Ted Cruz called the Democratic Party "The Party of Lisa Simpson", as opposed to the Republican Party being the party of the rest of the family.


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Lisa has been included in many "The Simpsons" publications, toys, and other merchandise. "The Lisa Book", describing Lisa's personality and attributes, was released in 2006. Other merchandise includes dolls, posters, figurines, bobblehead dolls, mugs, and clothing such as slippers, T-shirts, baseball caps, and boxer shorts. Lisa has appeared in commercials for Burger King, C.C. Lemon, Church's Chicken, Domino's Pizza, Kentucky Fried Chicken, Ramada Inn, Ritz Crackers, Subway and Butterfinger.


title: Lisa Simpson

text: On April 9, 2009, the United States Postal Service unveiled a series of five 44-cent stamps featuring Lisa and the four other members of the nuclear Simpson family. They are the first characters from a television series to receive this recognition while still in production. The stamps, designed by Matt Groening, went on sale in May 2009.


title: Lisa Simpson

text: Lisa has also appeared in other media relating to "The Simpsons". She has appeared in each "Simpsons" video game, including "The Simpsons Game", released in 2007. In addition to the television series, Lisa regularly appeared in issues of "Simpsons Comics", which were published from 1993 until 2018. The comics focus on the sweeter, more naïve incarnation from the early seasons. Lisa also plays a role in The Simpsons Ride, launched in 2008 at Universal Studios Florida and Hollywood.


title: House of Wessex

text: The House of Wessex, also known as the Cerdicings and the West Saxon dynasty, refers to the family, traditionally founded by Cerdic, that ruled Wessex in Southern England from the early 6th century. The house became dominant in southern England after the accession of King Ecgberht in 802. Alfred the Great saved England from Viking conquest in the late ninth century and his grandson Æthelstan became first king of England in 927. The disastrous reign of Æthelred the Unready ended in Danish conquest in 1014. Æthelred and his son Edmund Ironside attempted to resist the Vikings in 1016, but after their deaths the Danish Cnut the Great and his sons ruled until 1042. The House of Wessex then briefly regained power under Æthelred's son Edward the Confessor, but lost it after the Norman Conquest in 1066. All kings of England since Henry II have been descended from the House of Wessex through Henry I's wife Matilda of Scotland, who was a great-granddaughter of Edmund Ironside.


title: House of Wessex

text: The House of Wessex became rulers of a unified English nation under the descendants of Alfred the Great (871–899). Edward the Elder, Alfred's son, united southern England under his rule by conquering the Viking occupied areas of Mercia and East Anglia. His son, Æthelstan, extended the kingdom into the northern lands of Northumbria, which lies above the Mersey and Humber, but this was not fully consolidated until after his nephew Edgar succeeded to the throne.


title: House of Wessex

text: Their rule was often contested, notably by the Danish king Sweyn Forkbeard who invaded in 995 and occupied the united English throne from 1013 to 1014, during the reign of Æthelred the Unready and his son Edmund Ironside. Sweyn, his son Canute and his successors ruled until 1042. After Harthacanute, there was a brief Anglo-Saxon restoration between 1042 and 1066 under Edward the Confessor, who was a son of Æthelred, who was later succeeded by Harold Godwinson, a member of the House of Godwin, possibly a side branch of the Cerdicings (see Ancestry of the Godwins). After the Battle of Hastings, the victorious Duke of Normandy became William I of England. Anglo-Saxon attempts to restore native rule in the person of Edgar the Ætheling, a grandson of Edmund Ironside who had originally been passed over in favour of Harold, were unsuccessful and William's descendants secured their rule. Chroniclers describe conflicting stories about Edgar's later years, including a supposed involvement in the First Crusade; he is presumed to have died around 1126. A Northumberland pipe roll mentions an "Edgar Adeling" in 1158, and 1167, by which time Edgar would have been over 100 years old. Beyond this, there is no existing evidence that the male line of the Cerdicings continued beyond Edgar Ætheling. Edgar's niece Matilda of Scotland later married William's son Henry I, forming a link between the two dynasties. Henry II was a descendant of the House of Wessex in the female line, something that contemporary English commentators noted with approval.


title: House of Wessex

text: The House of Wessex predominantly ruled from Winchester ("Wintan-ceastre"). Going back to Cynegils, several kings and consorts of the dynasty were buried at the cathedral in Winchester, first in the Old Minster and then the New Minster. The remains of many of these rulers and others were vandalized during the English Civil War; currently the bones rest jumbled in different mortuary chests in the current cathedral.


title: House of Wessex

text: Though London was already a prominent city in pre-Conquest England, only one king from the House of Wessex was buried there (Æthelred the Unready, at Old St. Paul's, now lost). Edward the Confessor favored Westminster as a residence, and his construction of a large Romanesque church there would lead to its later prominence. Other kings from the Wessex dynasty are buried at Sherborne, Wimborne, and Brookwood.


title: House of Wessex

text: For a family tree of the House of Wessex from Cerdic down to the children of King Alfred the Great, see:


title: House of Wessex

text: A coat of arms was attributed by medieval heralds to the Kings of Wessex. These arms appear in a manuscript of the thirteenth century, and are blazoned as "Azure, a cross patonce" (sometimes a "cross fleury" or "cross moline") "between five martlets Or". The assigning of arms to the West Saxon kings is prochronistic, as heraldry did not develop in a form as we know it until the twelfth century. These arms continued to be used to represent the kingdom for centuries after their invention. They have been incorporated into heraldic charges of institutions that associate themselves with Wessex, especially Edward the Confessor, where they are used at Westminster Abbey and in the arms of the City of Westminster. The arms attributed to Edward were probably based on the design of a type of coin minted during his reign. This silver penny, often called a 'cross/eagle' type, showed an equal-armed cross within a circle, with birds depicted in the spaces between the arms of the cross.


title: Gary Gensler

text: Gary Gensler (born October 18, 1957) is an American government official and former investment banker serving as the chair of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Gensler previously led the Biden–Harris transition's Federal Reserve, Banking, and Securities Regulators agency review team. Prior to his appointment, he was professor of Practice of Global Economics and Management at the MIT Sloan School of Management.


title: Gary Gensler

text: Gensler served as the 11th chairman of the Commodity Futures Trading Commission, under President Barack Obama, from May 26, 2009, to January 3, 2014. He was the Under Secretary of the Treasury for Domestic Finance (1999–2001), and the Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Financial Markets (1997–1999). Prior to his career in the federal government, Gensler worked at Goldman Sachs, where he was a partner and co-head of finance. Gensler also served as the CFO for the Hillary Clinton 2016 presidential campaign. President Joe Biden nominated Gensler to serve as 33rd chair of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. He succeeded SEC Acting Chair, Allison Lee.


title: Gary Gensler

text: Gensler was born into a Jewish family, in Baltimore, Maryland, one of five children of Jane (née Tilles) and Sam Gensler. Sam Gensler was a cigarette and pinball machine vendor to local bars, and he provided Gensler with his first exposure to the real-world side of finance when Sam would take Gensler to the bars of Baltimore to count nickels from the vending machines.


title: Gary Gensler

text: Gensler graduated from Pikesville High School in 1975, where he was later given a Distinguished Alumnus award. Gensler graduated with a degree in economics, "summa cum laude", after three years at the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania, followed by a master's in business administration the following year. Gensler's identical twin brother also studied at the University of Pennsylvania. As an undergraduate, Gensler joined the University of Pennsylvania crew team as a coxswain, dropping his weight to 112 pounds to keep the boat at its proper weight.


title: Gary Gensler

text: In 1979, Gensler joined Goldman Sachs, where he spent 18 years. At 30, Gensler became one of the youngest persons to have made partner at the firm at the time. He spent the 1980s working as a top mergers and acquisitions banker, having assumed responsibility for Goldman's efforts in advising media companies. He subsequently made the transition to trading and finance in Tokyo, where he directed the firm's fixed income and currency trading.


title: Gary Gensler

text: While at Goldman Sachs, Gensler led a team that advised the National Football League in capturing the then-most lucrative deal in television history, when the NFL secured a $3.6 billion deal selling television sports rights.


title: Gary Gensler

text: Gensler's last role at Goldman Sachs was co-head of finance, responsible for controllers and treasury worldwide. Gensler left Goldman after 18 years when he was nominated by President Bill Clinton and confirmed by the U.S. Senate to be the Assistant Secretary of the Treasury.


title: Gary Gensler

text: Gensler served in the United States Department of the Treasury as Assistant Secretary for Financial Markets from 1997 to 1999, then as Undersecretary for Domestic Finance from 1999 to 2001. As Assistant Secretary, Gensler served as a senior advisor to the Secretary of the Treasury in developing and implementing the federal government's policies for debt management and the sale of U.S. government securities. In 1999 and 2000, under then-Treasury Secretary Lawrence Summers, Gensler fought for passage of the Commodity Futures Modernization Act, which exempted over-the-counter derivatives from regulation.


title: Gary Gensler

text: As Undersecretary of the Treasury for Domestic Finance, Gensler advised and assisted Treasury Secretaries Robert Rubin and Lawrence Summers on aspects of domestic finance, including formulating policy and legislation in the areas of financial institutions, public debt management, capital markets, government financial management services, federal lending, fiscal affairs, government sponsored enterprises, and community development.


title: Gary Gensler

text: While serving at the Treasury Department, Gensler was awarded the agency's highest honor, the Alexander Hamilton Award, for his service.


title: Gary Gensler

text: In 2001, Gensler joined the staff of U.S. Senator Paul Sarbanes, chairman of the Senate Banking Committee, as a senior advisor and helped write the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, which tightened accounting standards in the wake of the Enron and WorldCom scandals.


title: Gary Gensler

text: Then-President-elect Barack Obama announced his intent to nominate Gensler to serve as the 11th chairman of the CFTC on December 18, 2008. His nomination was officially sent to the U.S. Senate on January 20, 2009. After some initial opposition to Gensler's nomination amongst the progressive members of the Democratic caucus, Gensler was approved by the U.S. Senate in an 88–6 confirmation vote. Gensler was sworn in on May 26, 2009, pledging to work to "urgently close the gaps in our laws to bring much-needed transparency and regulation to the over-the-counter derivatives market to lower risks, strengthen market integrity and protect investors".


title: Gary Gensler

text: During Gensler's tenure at the CFTC, he worked closely with the Obama Administration, United States Congress and other regulators to transform the $400 trillion financial derivatives markets that were at the center of the 2008 financial crisis. Upon becoming chairman, Gensler began leading the Obama Administration's effort "to start policing the Wild West of finance: the murky market for over-the-counter derivatives". When the Treasury Department released draft legislation to bring regulatory oversight to the swaps market, Gensler sent a letter to Congress arguing that the proposal did not go far enough.


title: Gary Gensler

text: By the spring of 2010, the momentum in Congress was toward Gensler's vision for derivatives oversight, and Congress passed comprehensive reform as part of the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act in July 2010.


title: Gary Gensler

text: After the passage of the Dodd-Frank Act, Gensler led the CFTC's effort to write the rules required to regulate the swaps markets. He oversaw the agency as it wrote 68 new rules, orders and guidances and as its reach extended from a $35 trillion futures market to a $400 trillion swaps market. Under Gensler, the bipartisan commission reached unanimous votes to approve more than 70 percent of the agency's rulemakings. By the time Gensler left the CFTC in January 2014, the agency was near completion of the rule-writing process to implement the Dodd-Frank Act.


title: Gary Gensler

text: Gensler led a revitalization of the enforcement division of the agency, most notably in its prosecution of an enforcement case regarding manipulation of Libor, the London interbank offered rate.


title: Gary Gensler

text: Early in his tenure, Gensler listened to tape recordings of two Barclays employees as they discussed plans to report false interest rates in an effort to manipulate Libor. Libor is the average interest rate estimated by leading banks in London that the average leading bank would be charged if borrowing from other banks. It is used as a reference rate for many financial products, including adjustable rate mortgages, student loans, and car payments.


title: Gary Gensler

text: "A driving force behind the latest crackdown tied to LIBOR", Gensler worked with enforcement division director David Meister and his team to lead the investigative effort and brought charges against five financial institutions for the manipulation of Libor and other benchmark interest rates, resulting in more than $1.7 billion in penalties. Barclays alone paid $450 million in fines as a result of the Libor investigation. Gensler has called Libor "unsustainable" and argued that it should be replaced as a benchmark rate.


title: Gary Gensler

text: For his work to reform the financial regulatory system, The Institute for the Fiduciary Standard awarded Gensler with the 2014 Tamar Frankel Fiduciary Prize.


title: Gary Gensler

text: In 2017, Gensler was selected by the Maryland Senate President and House Speaker to serve as Chairman of the Maryland Financial Consumer Protection Commission, which assessed the impact of potential changes to federal financial industry laws, regulations, budgets, and policies on the state. Under Gensler's leadership, the Commission recommended changes to State law to enhance consumer financial protections, including enhancing standards of care, clarifying State law to set standards for student loan servicers, and protecting Maryland buyers of manufactured homes. In 2018, student loan legislation recommended by the Commission established a student loan ombudsman, added the federal Military Lending Act and the federal Servicemembers Civil Relief Act to state law, increased civil monetary penalties for violations, and codified some modifications on debt collection laws. In 2019, the state enacted additional Commission-recommended legislation to create a Student Borrower Bill of Rights to protect students from predatory practices.


title: Gary Gensler

text: In November 2020, Gensler was named a volunteer member of the Joe Biden presidential transition Agency Review Team to support transition efforts related to the Federal Reserve, Commodity Futures Trading Commission, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, the National Credit Union Administration, and the Securities and Exchange Commission. On March 11, 2021, his nomination was reported out of the Senate Banking, Housing and Urban Development Committee by a vote of 14–10. On April 14, 2021, his nomination was confirmed in the Senate by a vote of 53–45 to fill former chair Jay Clayton's term expiring in June 2021. On April 19, 2021, the Senate confirmed Gensler to a 5-year term through 2026 by a vote of 54–45.


title: Gary Gensler

text: On September 14, 2021, Gensler testified before the U.S. Senate Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs Committee that the SEC was in need of large staffing increases to address regulatory concerns related to cryptocurrencies and other digital assets, and Gensler likened the cryptocurrency market to a "Wild West". On September 21, Gensler remarked to "The Washington Post" that most cryptocurrency projects dealing with securities should fall under the regulatory purview of the SEC, though the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC), of which he was a former chair, was better suited for some others. On October 5, Gensler testified before the U.S. House Financial Services Committee that the SEC had no plans to ban cryptocurrencies. On October 15, the SEC approved the first bitcoin futures exchange-traded fund (ETF) in the United States after Gensler announced support for doing so the previous August. Gensler is opposed to approving pure play bitcoin ETFs due to bitcoin remaining subject to fraud and market manipulation.


title: Gary Gensler

text: "The Economist" identified the risks presented by decentralised finance and crypto-assets valued at $2.5 trillion as a challenge for Gensler in 2022, and noted his experience in teaching blockchain technology. On April 4, 2022, Gensler announced that the SEC would begin to register and regulate cryptocurrency exchanges at a University of Pennsylvania Law School students association conference. On May 11, Gensler stated in an interview with Bloomberg News that cryptocurrency exchanges were market making against the interests of their customers after warning the U.S. House Appropriations Subcommittee on Financial Services and General Government that cryptocurrency exchanges were engaged in front running the previous May. Following testimony before the U.S. House Appropriations Subcommittee on Financial Services and General Government on May 18, Gensler warned in a post-hearing press conference that many cryptocurrencies were going to fail and expressed concern that it could undermine confidence in the traditional financial markets.


title: Gary Gensler

text: On June 7, U.S. Senators Kirsten Gillibrand (D–NY) and Cynthia Lummis (R–WY) introduced a bill in the 117th U.S. Congress to create a regulatory framework for cryptocurrencies that would treat most digital assets as commodities subject to oversight from the CFTC and would not have cryptocurrencies subject to oversight from the SEC unless a cryptocurrency's holders were entitled to the same privileges as corporate investors. At a conference hosted by "The Wall Street Journal" on June 14, Gensler expressed concern that the Lummis-Gillibrand bill could inadvertently undermine stock market and mutual fund protections, noted that cryptocurrency companies were already engaging in behaviors overseen by the SEC, and argued that some digital assets are securities necessitating oversight from the SEC rather than commodities (even if the overwhelming majority of tokens offered by cryptocurrency exchanges are commodities).


title: Gary Gensler

text: On May 6, 2021, Gensler testified before the U.S. House Financial Services Committee about the GameStop short squeeze, Robinhood Markets, Archegos Capital Management, market concentration among market makers for payment for order flow, conflict of interest in best execution for trades with PFOF, trading gamification in mobile trading apps and high-frequency trading, the SEC consolidated audit trail, data security, usage of social media and the internet in market manipulation, and ESG disclosure rules (including those proposed by the Task Force on Climate Related Financial Disclosures led by former New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg). On May 25, U.S. Senators Elizabeth Warren (D–MA) and Bernie Sanders (I–VT) sent a letter to Gensler urging the SEC to remove and replace the sitting members of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB), arguing that Trump Administration appointees had politicized the agency and compromised its independence.


title: Gary Gensler

text: On June 4, the SEC voted to remove William Duhnke as PCAOB Chair and began an investigation on June 17 of his handling of internal complaints while serving as PCAOB Chair. On June 9, Gensler announced that the SEC would review market structure following the GameStop short squeeze and the AMC Entertainment Holding, Inc. meme stock short squeeze, and Gensler signaled in an interview with "Barron's" the following August that a complete ban on payment for order flow was being considered by the review. Speaking at "The Wall Street Journal" CFO Network event on June 7, Gensler emphasized the need for new restrictions and rules to reduce the risk of improper insider trading. On June 30, Robinhood Markets agreed to pay $70 million to settle a lawsuit filed by the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA) that alleged that the company had misled its customers, approved ineligible and inexperienced traders for options strategies, and did not supervise its technology properly to prevent outages.


title: Gary Gensler

text: On July 29, Robinhood Markets launched an IPO for its stock on the Nasdaq. On August 6, the SEC approved new rules implemented by Nasdaq, Inc. requiring that companies listed on its exchanges to include at least one female member on their boards of directors and at least one racial minority or LGBTQ board member and to require disclosure of statistics measuring the diversity of their board membership. On August 27, the SEC launched a review of strategies and practices used by online brokers and investment advisors that promote user engagement with trading gamification. On December 2, the SEC finalized a rule to implement the Holding Foreign Companies Accountable Act. In response to record stock sales by CEOs and other corporate executives that year, Gensler proposed an agency rule for a mandatory 120-day window for corporate executives who are changing existing or adopting new portfolio managements plans on December 15.


title: Gary Gensler

text: On January 27, 2022, Southern Florida U.S. District Court Judge Cecilia Altonaga dismissed a lawsuit filed by investors against Robinhood Markets for acting negligently during the GameStop short squeeze. On February 11, the SEC met to discuss more than 50 proposed rules changes (focused primarily on hedge funds and private equity) including a requirement that the disclosure documents of stock corporations must include a written statement of company cybersecurity risk management policies and disclosure of any cyberattacks. On May 18, Gensler testified before the U.S. House Appropriations Subcommittee on Financial Services and General Government requesting an even greater increase to its appropriation in the 2023 U.S. federal budget than the 8 percent increase proposed by President Biden.


title: Gary Gensler

text: On June 8, Gensler announced rules changes to require that market makers disclose more data about payments for order flow (PFOF) and the timing for the best execution of trades, as well as to require direct competition among stockbrokers executing trades for retail investors at a conference hosted by Piper Sandler Companies. On May 12, FTX CEO Sam Bankman-Fried disclosed a Schedule 13D filing with the SEC to buy a 7.6 percent ownership stake in Robinhood Markets. On June 27, FTX CEO Sam Bankman-Fried stated that no mergers and acquisitions discussions were being held with Robinhood Markets about an acquisition (despite reports of internal discussion to do so and reports of the company approaching at least three stock trading start-ups about acquisitions). On July 20, the Social Science Research Network released a preprint written by economists Maureen O'Hara, Robert P. Bartlett, and Justin McCrary that suggested that Robinhood Markets traders caused a surge in trading volume of Berkshire Hathaway Class A shares in February and March 2021.


title: Gary Gensler

text: On January 28, 2021, Microsoft disclosed an investment in Climeworks, a direct air capture company, one year after the company announced a strategy to take the company carbon negative by 2030 and to remove all the carbon from the environment the company has emitted since 1975 by 2050. In 2021 and 2022, an index constructed by researchers at the University of Cambridge showed that bitcoin mining consumed more electricity during the course of the year than the entire nations of Argentina (a G20 country) and the Netherlands. On February 8, 2021, Tesla, Inc. disclosed to the SEC that it purchased $1.5 billion worth of bitcoin. On April 15, Apple Inc. announced the creation of $200 million forestry fund as part of the company's strategy to become carbon neutral by 2030.


title: Gary Gensler

text: On February 7, 2022, the NewClimate Institute, a German environmental policy think tank, published a survey evaluating the transparency and progress of the climate strategies and pledges announced by 25 major companies in the United States that found that the climate pledges of Alphabet, Amazon, and Apple were unsubstantiated and misleading. On June 23, 2020, Amazon.com, Inc. announced a $2 billion venture fund to invest in startup companies developing strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions as part of a strategy to be climate neutral company by 2040, after announcing a $10 million investment to two projects in the Appalachian Mountains the previous April to manage their lands to maximize greater carbon removal, the first investment from a $100 million initiative to support reforestation and habitat restoration. On June 30, 2021, Amazon released its annual company annual sustainability report that showed that company net carbon emissions grew by 19 percent from 2019 to 2020.


title: Gary Gensler

text: On February 11, 2022, Western Louisiana U.S. District Court Judge James D. Cain Jr. issued a preliminary injunction in "Louisiana v. Biden" (2022) in favor of the plaintiffs to block federal agency requirements to assess the societal costs of greenhouse gas emissions in regulatory actions under Executive Order 13990. On March 16, the U.S. 5th Circuit Court of Appeals stayed the decision following an appeal by the U.S. Justice Department, and on May 26, the U.S. Supreme Court issued an order without comment or opposition dismissing an appeal filed by the plaintiffs to reverse the 5th Circuit Court of Appeals decision. On February 15, ConocoPhillips announced a pilot program to sell its flare gas to a company operating a bitcoin mine in the Bakken Formation region of North Dakota as part of an industry initiative to reduce routine flaring to zero by 2030. On March 21, the SEC approved rules requiring the disclosure of stock corporation climate risks and net contribution to greenhouse gas emissions in 10-K forms. On the same day, "The Wall Street Journal" criticized Gensler for proposing legislation requiring public companies to disclose climate risks. "The proposal ... is contrary to SEC history, securities law, and sound regulatory practice", the paper wrote. It accused the SEC chairman of trying "to regulate private companies by the back door" and following the bidding of BlackRock and other investors.


title: Gary Gensler

text: On March 26, CNBC reported that ExxonMobil started a pilot program in January 2021 with Crusoe Energy Systems to also divert its flare gas into generators producing electricity to power shipping containers full of bitcoin miners in the North Dakota Bakken region (which it expanded the following July) as part of the same industry initiative with ConocoPhillips, and that Crusoe has stated reduces carbon dioxide equivalent emissions by 63 percent as compared with continued flaring. On April 12, Alphabet Inc., Meta Platforms, Shopify, McKinsey & Company, and Stripe, Inc. announced a $925 million advance market commitment of permanent carbon removal from companies that are developing the technology over the next 9 years. On May 19, after Tesla was removed from the S&P 500 ESG Index by S&P Dow Jones Indices, Tesla CEO Elon Musk posted a tweet to his Twitter account criticizing the decision and, in noting that ExxonMobil was rated within the top 10 constituent companies in the index by weight, accused ESG of being a scam.


title: Gary Gensler

text: On May 25, the SEC proposed two rules changes to ESG investment fund qualifications to prevent greenwashing marketing practices and to increase disclosure requirements for achieving ESG impacts. On June 10, the SEC was reportedly investigating the ESG investment funds of Goldman Sachs for potential greenwashing. After noting that his company had launched a division to commercialize carbon capture in testimony before the U.S. House Oversight and Reform Committee on October 28, 2021, ExxonMobil CEO Darren Woods discussed in an interview with CNBC journalist David Faber on June 24 that part of ExxonMobil's long-term strategy to remain a profitable company while reducing greenhouse gas emissions and plastic pollution was to invest in carbon capture and storage technology with a network hub in Houston and to remain a plastics producer while making improvements to waste management. On June 30, the Supreme Court ruled in "West Virginia v. EPA" (2022) that the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency did not have the authority under the Clean Air Act to devise a broad cap-and-trade system for carbon emissions by power plants that the agency attempted to promulgate under the Clean Power Plan and instead that the authority to do so rests with the U.S. Congress.


title: Gary Gensler

text: On March 2, 2021, Rocket Mortgage saw a more than 70 percent spike in its stock price during the GameStop short squeeze due to a surge in trading following discussion of the company on r/wallstreetbets, but the Rocket Mortgage stock price reverted back to its pre-surge level the next day. On September 14, Gensler announced the imminent release of an agency report on the short squeeze in testimony before the U.S. Senate Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs Committee. On October 18, the SEC released the report. Also in October 2021, eight whistleblower complaints alleging securities fraud by Facebook, Inc. were filed anonymously with the SEC by Whistleblower Aid on behalf of former company employee Frances Haugen after Haugen leaked thousands of company documents to "The Wall Street Journal" the previous month. After publicly revealing her identity on "60 Minutes", Haugen testified before the U.S. Senate Commerce Subcommittee on Consumer Protection, Product Safety, and Data Security about the content of the leaked documents and the complaints. After the company renamed itself as Meta Platforms, Whistleblower Aid filed two additional securities fraud complaints with the SEC against the company on behalf of Haugen in February 2022.


title: Gary Gensler

text: On November 18, 2021, U.S. Senator Elizabeth Warren (D–MA) sent a letter to Gensler requesting that the SEC investigate possible securities law violations in the conduct of a merger between the Digital World Acquisition Corp. (DWAC), a special-purpose acquisition company, and the Trump Media & Technology Group (TMTG) announced on October 20. On December 6, an ongoing SEC investigation into the DWAC–TMTG merger was disclosed by DWAC in a filing with the agency. On February 18, 2022, the U.S. 11th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled in a lawsuit against Bitconnect that the Securities Act of 1933 extends to targeted solicitation using social media. In a securities filing dated June 8 and disclosed to the Florida State Department Corporations Division, DWAC stated that Donald Trump and Donald Trump Jr. had been removed from the company board of directors. On June 14, DWAC disclosed that the SEC issued a subpoena for additional company documents and information about the merger. On June 27, DWAC disclosed that the SEC issued an additional subpoena as well as an investigation by the U.S. Justice Department. On July 19, Amazon.com Inc. filed a lawsuit against more than 10,000 Facebook Group administrators for distributing fake user reviews of Amazon products in violation of Facebook company policies.


title: Gary Gensler

text: On November 6, 2021, Tesla, Inc. CEO Elon Musk posted a tweet on his Twitter account that conducted a poll of his followers over whether he should sell 10% of his Tesla stock. On December 3, Musk had sold approximately $10 billion worth of his Tesla shares. On December 6, the SEC opened an investigation of Tesla in response to a whistleblower complaint alleging the company did not properly disclose to its shareholders fire risks associated with its solar panels. On February 7, 2022, Tesla disclosed in a filing to the SEC that the agency had issued a subpoena to the company for information about company governance policies to comply with an October 2018 settlement with the agency in a securities fraud lawsuit over a tweet Musk posted on his Twitter account about taking Tesla private in August 2018 that the agency subsequently requested that Musk be held in contempt of court for violating in February 2019 (that resulted in an amended settlement the following April), and that the agency sent letters to the company in 2019 and in 2020 warning the company that tweets Musk posted in July 2019 and in May 2020 were in violation of.


title: Gary Gensler

text: On February 17, Musk's attorneys filed a letter with the presiding judge in the 2018 settlement alleging that the SEC was attempting to chill his First Amendment right to freedom of speech and that the SEC had failed to pay Tesla shareholders the $40 million in fines the agency had assessed from him and the company under the terms of the settlement, which the SEC disputed in a letter filed with the court in response on February 18. On February 21, Musk's attorneys filed a second letter with the court alleging the SEC had illegally leaked information from an investigation into him. On February 24, Southern New York U.S. District Court Judge Alison Nathan issued an order rejecting requests made by Musk in his February 21 letter, while the SEC was in the process of conducting an insider trading investigation of Musk and his brother Kimbal Musk for a $108 million sale of Tesla stock before Elon's November 2021 tweet.


title: Gary Gensler

text: On March 8, Musk filed a motion with the court to have the 2018 settlement with the SEC terminated. On March 22, the SEC filed a response to Musk's March 8 filing requesting that Judge Nathan deny Musk's motion, that its subpoenas were lawful, and disclosed that the agency was investigating Musk for his November 2021 tweet. On March 29, Musk filed another letter with the court reiterating his First Amendment concerns. On April 4, Musk submitted a 13G filing with the SEC to purchase a 9.2% passive ownership stake in Twitter, Inc., but then submitted a Schedule 13D beneficial ownership filing reserving the right to purchase a larger stake in the company with the agency the next day (and because the disclosure was filed later than an SEC deadline, it may have made Musk an additional $156 million). On April 13, a group of Twitter shareholders filed a lawsuit against Musk for failing to disclose his ownership stake to the SEC within the agency's prescribed deadline. On April 14, Musk filed an offer to buy Twitter, Inc. with the SEC for $43 billion and take the company private (which was revised a week later to $46.5 billion).


title: Gary Gensler

text: On April 15, Northern California U.S. District Court Judge Edward M. Chen ruled in a lawsuit filed by Tesla shareholders against Musk and the company that his August 2018 tweet was a knowingly made false statement of fact (the day after Musk stated at the 2022 TED conference that it was not). On April 22, Republican Conference members of the U.S. House Judiciary Committee wrote a letter to the Twitter board of directors requesting that company executives preserve all company records related to Musk's acquisition proposal. On April 25, the Twitter board of directors unanimously agreed to Musk's acquisition proposal at $44 billion. On April 27, Southern New York U.S. District Court Judge Lewis J. Liman denied Musk's motion to terminate the 2018 settlement. On April 30, Musk filed an amicus brief along with Dallas Mavericks team owner Mark Cuban in support of a petition to the U.S. Supreme Court by a former chief financial officer at Xerox to review a 2003 settlement the Xerox CFO made with the SEC that includes a gag order that the plaintiff argues is in violation of his First Amendment right to freedom of speech.


title: Gary Gensler

text: On May 13, Musk posted a tweet that his acquisition of Twitter would be put on hold until statistics about spambots and fake accounts on Twitter were verified, while the SEC and the Federal Trade Commission began investigations of Musk for violating filing deadlines for his Twitter passive ownership stake and his subsequent company acquisition proposal respectively. On May 16, Twitter CEO Parag Agrawal posted a tweet detailing company policies for addressing fake and spam accounts in response to Musk (to which Musk posted a tweet in return). On May 17, Musk tweeted that the Twitter acquisition would not move forward until he had greater clarification about the ratio of fake and spam accounts on the site, later tweeting a poll of his followers' opinions of Twitter, Inc. statements about the ratio of fake and spam accounts in filings to the SEC (and where Musk posted a comment in the poll thread calling upon the SEC to investigate whether the company's statements disclosing the ratio in filings to the agency are true).


title: Gary Gensler

text: On the same day, Twitter submitted a new filing with the SEC that stated that Musk had met with Twitter executives for three days before he announced his acquisition proposal. On May 24, Reuters reported that since the April 2019 amended settlement between Musk and the SEC, agency officials have consciously chosen not to pursue legal action against Musk for violating the terms of the agreement and to write letters urging compliance instead due to remarks made by the presiding judge during the case. On May 25, Twitter shareholders filed a class action lawsuit against Musk and Twitter, Inc. alleging market manipulation and violation of California corporate laws. On June 3, a dozen political advocacy groups (including the Center for Countering Digital Hate, GLAAD, and MediaJustice) announced a campaign to block Musk's Twitter acquisition proposal by pressuring government agencies to review the acquisition, persuading Tesla shareholders to take legal action against the proposal, and asking advertisers to boycott the platform.


title: Gary Gensler

text: On June 6, Musk's attorneys disclosed a letter to the SEC accusing Twitter executives of a material breach of contract due to lack of information provided about fake and spam accounts and claimed to reserve Musk's right to terminate the merger agreement (despite Musk waiving due diligence in his offer to buy the company on April 14). On July 1, an investment management group affiliated with the pension funds of Strategic Organizing Center labor unions wrote a letter to the SEC requesting that the agency investigate Tesla for violating the terms of the October 2018 settlement with the agency after the company disclosed in its annual proxy statement (filed with the SEC the previous month) that Oracle Corporation CEO Larry Ellison did not intend to stand for re-election as company chairman and that the company did not intend to replace his seat on the board (thereby reducing its size).


title: Gary Gensler

text: On July 8, Musk filed a letter with the SEC sent to Twitter executives notifying them that he intended to terminate his acquisition proposal of the company, to which Twitter Board Chairman Bret Taylor posted a tweet stating that the company would continue to attempt to close the transaction and that it would pursue legal action to enforce the merger. On July 12, Twitter Inc. filed a lawsuit against Musk in the Delaware Court of Chancery to enforce the acquisition agreement. On July 14, the SEC disclosed a letter sent to Musk on June 2 for additional information about his 13D filing on April 5. On July 15, Musk filed a motion requesting that the court not grant Twitter's request for a speedy trial, while Twitter submitted an amended proxy statement with the SEC that urged company shareholders to approve the acquisition agreement.


title: Gary Gensler

text: On July 18, Twitter submitted a filing with the court stating that Musk's request to deny a speedy trial was a tactical delay, that Musk's tactics were harming Twitter's reputation and share price, and urged the court to schedule the earliest possible trial date. On July 19, the court ruled in Twitter's favor and scheduled a five-day trial to take place the following October. On July 22, Twitter released its earnings report for the second quarter of 2022 that showed a 1 percent decline in year-over-year company revenue and that company earnings were lower than analysts' expectations (which the company partially attributed to uncertainty created by the acquisition agreement). On July 25, Tesla disclosed in a filing with the SEC that the company had received a second subpoena from the agency on June 13 with respect to the 2018 settlement. On July 26, Twitter disclosed in filing with the SEC that the company had scheduled a shareholder meeting on September 13, 2022, to vote on the acquisition agreement.


title: Gary Gensler

text: In a complaint filed by Whistleblower Aid with the SEC, the U.S. Justice Department, and the Federal Trade Commission on July 6, former Twitter security officer Peiter Zatko alleged that specific Twitter executives—including Parag Agrawal and certain board members—have repeatedly made false and misleading statements to its board, shareholders, users, regulators, and the public about privacy, security, and content moderation on the platform since 2011 in violation of the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 and SEC disclosure rules including misrepresentations to Musk during the course of the acquisition bid (citing Agrawal's May 16 tweet detailing company policies for addressing fake and spam accounts).


title: Gary Gensler

text: Outside of Gensler's business and public service career, Gensler has co-authored a book with Greg Baer, a fellow Clinton Administration alum, The Great Mutual Fund Trap. The book uses empirical data to show that the average mutual fund consistently underperforms the market. The book argues that actively-traded mutual funds carry high fees and lower-than-market returns, and investors should instead rely on low-fee index funds rather than constantly attempt to beat the market.


title: Gary Gensler

text: Gensler served as treasurer of the Maryland Democratic Party for two years, and held several senior roles on the Maryland campaigns of U.S. Senator Barbara Mikulski, former Lieutenant Governor Kathleen Kennedy Townsend, and Governor Martin O'Malley. During the 2008 presidential campaign cycle, Gensler served as a senior advisor to Hillary Clinton's presidential campaign and later advised the Obama campaign. In May 2015, Gensler was named chief financial officer of Clinton's campaign for president.


title: Gary Gensler

text: Gensler is Professor of the Practice of Global Economics and Management, MIT Sloan School of Management, co-director of MIT’s Fintech@CSAIL and senior adviser to the MIT Media Lab Digital Currency Initiative. He focuses on the intersection of finance and technology, conducts research and teaches on blockchain technology, digital currencies, financial technology and public policy. He is a member of the New York Fed Fintech Advisory Group, a group of experts in financial technology that regularly presents views and perspectives on the topic to the president of the New York Fed.


title: Gary Gensler

text: Gensler won the MIT Sloan Outstanding Teacher Award based upon student nominations for the 2018–19 academic year.


title: Gary Gensler

text: Gensler lives in Baltimore with his three daughters, Anna, Lee and Isabel. Gensler was married to filmmaker and photo collagist Francesca Danieli from 1986 until her death from breast cancer in 2006.


title: Gary Gensler

text: Gensler is a runner and has finished nine marathons and one 50-mile ultramarathon. He also is a mountain climber, having summited Mt. Rainier and Mt. Kilimanjaro.


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: Maxim is an international men's magazine, devised and launched in the UK in 1995, but based in New York City since 1997, and prominent for its photography of actors, singers, and female models whose careers are at a current peak. "Maxim" has a circulation of about 9 million readers each month. Maxim Digital reaches more than 4 million unique viewers each month. "Maxim" magazine publishes 16 editions, sold in 75 countries worldwide.


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: In 1999, MaximOnline.com (now maxim.com) was created. It contains content not included in the print version, and focuses on the same general topics, along with exclusive sections such as the "Girls of "Maxim"" galleries and the "Joke of the Day". "Maxim Video" contains video clips of interviews, music videos, photo shoots, and original content.


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: On December 2001, Editorial Televisa published the Spanish-language edition of "Maxim" magazine for Latin America and the Hispanic communities of the United States, its first cover was Colombian model and actress Sofía Vergara. In 2002, it expanded to the film industry with a first look deal at New Line Cinema.


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: On February 5, 2005, Maxim Radio, featuring male-oriented talk programming, debuted on Sirius Satellite Radio. Following the Sirius-XM merger in late 2008, the "Maxim" brand was dropped, and the channel is now known as Sirius XM Stars Too.


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: Since 2005, in Argentina, the Argentinian edition of "Maxim" magazine began to adapt and approximate the styles of the American adult magazines "Penthouse" and "Hustler", publishing photos of Argentinian models in thongs and topless.


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: On June 5, 2006, the magazine announced plans to build a casino on the Las Vegas Strip north of Circus Circus, but the casino plan failed after local condominium owners complained that the proposed casino would ruin their view. The land was sold to MGM Mirage.


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: On June 15, 2007, private equity firm Quadrangle Group, along with long-time media executive Kent Brownridge, announced the acquisition of the parent company of "Maxim", "Blender", "Stuff", and MaximOnline.com in the United States, under the name Alpha Media Group. As of April 23, 2009, Dennis Publishing has announced that it will no longer produce a print edition of "Maxim" in the UK, though the website for the UK version will remain.


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: In July 2009, "Maxim" partnered with the UFC for the first-ever "Maxim" UFC Octagon Girl Search at the UFC Fan Expo; 40 girls participated in the contest, and the winner was Natasha Wicks.


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: Quadrangle Group gave up on its investment in Alpha Media Group in August 2009, making Cerberus Capital Management the majority partner. In 2013, Alpha announced the sale of "Maxim" to the newly created Darden Media Group, but Darden was unable to raise the money. Calvin Darden Jr. was later charged with fraud relating to the transaction.


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: Between 2010 and 2012, "Maxim" eliminated two issues, going from 12 issues a year to 10, and decreased its circulation numbers by 20%, from a reported 2.5 million to only 2.0 million.


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: Maximum Warrior debuted in 2011, as an online reality competition that tests 10 of America's most elite military operators in 10 military-inspired challenges. The videos are available online and on the Maxim app on Xbox Live. Several episodes feature Dakota Meyer, "Maxim"s military advisor. Maximum Warrior is produced by Grand Street Media.


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: The Argentinian edition of the magazine "Maxim" stopped circulating in March 2013 in Argentina and its last cover was the Argentinian model Valeria Degenaro.


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: On February 27, 2014, entrepreneur Sardar Biglari, the founder of Biglari Holdings and Biglari Capital, purchased "Maxim". "We plan to build the business on multiple dimensions," he said at the time, "thereby energizing our readership and viewership." In September 2014, he hired Kate Lanphear, former style director of "Elle" and "", as editor, in an attempt to remake it as a luxury, lifestyle, and fashion journal, at an annual salary that was thought to be more than $700,000. During Lanphear's tenure, the September 2015 issue featured actor Idris Elba on its cover, marking the first time that the magazine did not have a woman on the cover. Lanphear left the magazine in November 2015.


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: In January 2016, Biglari officially took over as editor-in-chief of "Maxim", though a "Maxim" staffer said that the new masthead title just formalized what had always been clear since Biglari's purchase; Biglari exercises full editorial control over "Maxim". At one point in 2015, the staffer said, Biglari decided to throw out a nearly complete version of the December issue to completely redesign the magazine. On January 13, 2016, Gilles Bensimon joined Biglari as a special creative director. "What drew me to "Maxim" was Sardar's vision for the brand," said Bensimon.


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: In April 2021, Maxim collaborated with international sports betting operator, Carousel Group, to create MaximBet, a licenced iGaming and sports betting services provider. In September 2021, MaximBet made its debut in Colorado, when they partnered with Johnny Nolon's Saloon and Gambling Emporium. In late September 2021, MaximBet expanded its operations and its brand launched in Indiana.


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: In October 2021, MaximBet hosted a private event at the Wings Over the Rockies Air and Space Museum featuring performances by Fat Joe and Cheat Codes. In December 2021, MaximBet lend aid toward the Colorado wildfire relief by donating $10,000.


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: In April 2022, just after the Major League Baseball lockout ended, MaximBet entered into an endorsement deal with an active MLB player, Charlie Blackmon of the Colorado Rockies, as a brand ambassador.


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: In 2004, the Gender Issues Centre, an on-campus feminist organization at Lakehead University in Thunder Bay, Ontario, protested an on-campus "Thunder Bay Boob Idol" event sponsored by "Maxim" and Coors Light. The Centre described "Maxim" as consisting of "sexist bravado and racist imagery". In 2006, Alok Jha of "The Guardian" criticized "Maxim" for encouraging excessive alcohol consumption and sexual objectification of women.


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: In June 2007, Israeli diplomat David Saranga invited "Maxim" to the country. In what came to be known as "beers and babes", the magazine did photo shoots of near-naked Israeli women who serve in the army. The campaign drew an angry reaction from lawmaker Colette Avital, a former diplomat who served as Israel's consul-general in New York City in the 1990s. Prof. John H. Brown of Georgetown University described the spread as the first event in a new branch of public diplomacy.


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: In February 2008, "Maxim" was criticized by The Black Crowes for rating their upcoming CD, "Warpaint," without hearing the entire album. Black Crowes manager Pete Angelus said, ""Maxim"s actions seem to completely lack journalistic integrity and intentionally mislead their readership." According to Crowes, the magazine stated in an email, "Of course, we always prefer to hearing music, but sometimes there are big albums that we don’t want to ignore that aren’t available to hear, which is what happened with the Crowes. It’s either an educated guess preview or no coverage at all, so in this case we chose the former." The magazine's editorial director James Kaminsky later apologized, stating, "It is "Maxim"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s editorial policy to assign star ratings only to those albums that have been heard in their entirety. Unfortunately, that policy was not followed in the March 2008 issue of our magazine and we apologize to our readers." Facing more criticism over rating albums without listening to them, "Maxim" magazine maintains it was previewing CDs in its March 2008 issue, not reviewing them, and the mistake was to include star ratings.


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: In December 2019, Presto Media Productions, criticized the ""Maxim" Cover Girl 2019" competition with an independent documentary created by model, actor, and producer Valentina Lucia Faltoni. Her documentary is visible on Vimeo and it is titled: "The Ugly $ide of Beauty Conte$t$"


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: "Maxim" has launched international editions of its magazines since 1995. Most recently, it has launched its 26th and 27th international editions in Serbia and Greece, where it is published by Attica Media. Notably, the magazine has been circulating editions in South Korea, Indonesia, India (defunct), Japan, Portugal (as "Maxmen"), the United States, Thailand, France (as" Maximal"), Russia, Turkey, Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Argentina, Italy, Canada, Poland, Brazil, Germany, Australia, Mexico, and the Philippines (defunct).


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: Each year since 2000, "Maxim" has released the "Maxim" Hot 100. The winners and their corresponding ages and the year in which the magazine was released are listed below.


title: Maxim (magazine)

text: From 2000 until 2015, "Maxim" released the rest of the Hot 100 in order. Since 2016, "Maxim" released the rest of the hot 100 in random order, so those lists are by default sorted alphabetically on this table. These are the rest of the Top 100 each year.


title: Aliyah (wrestler)

text: (born November 23, 1994) is a Canadian professional wrestler. She is currently signed to WWE, where she performs on the SmackDown brand under the ring name Aliyah. She is a former WWE Women's Tag Team Champion. She holds the record for the fastest victory in WWE history at 3.17 seconds. Al-Areebi is the first female Arab-Canadian wrestler to win a championship for WWE.


title: Aliyah (wrestler)

text: Nhooph Al-Areebi was born in Toronto, Ontario. She is of Syrian and Iraqi descent. In 2012, she graduated from St. Joseph's College School, and later attended George Brown College, where she studied nursing. She also attended a circus training school.


title: Aliyah (wrestler)

text: Al-Areebi wrestled on the independent circuit under the ring name Jasmin Areebi, debuting for Squared Circle Wrestling (SCW) in Toronto in January 2013. She wrestled for a variety of promotions in Canada and the United States, including Pure Wrestling Association (PWA), Absolute Intense Wrestling (AIW), and New England Championship Wrestling (NECW).


title: Aliyah (wrestler)

text: On March 17, 2015, it was reported that Al-Areebi had signed a developmental contract with WWE. Her signing was confirmed by WWE on April 13. She made her first appearance at the event on May 20, as part of Tyler Breeze's entrance. She made her in–ring debut on June 20 during an NXT live event, where she competed in a six–person tag team match. In October, she was given the ring name Aliyah.


title: Aliyah (wrestler)

text: Aliyah's television debut took place on the January 12, 2016, episode of "NXT", where she competed in a number one contender's battle royal for Bayley's NXT Women's Championship, which was won by Carmella. On the April 27 episode of "NXT", Aliyah competed in her first televised singles match, where she lost to Carmella.<ref name="NXT 27/04/16"></ref> Towards the end of the year, Aliyah debuted new ring gear and entrance music, leaving her Arabian gimmick,<ref name="NXT 31/08/16"></ref><ref name="NXT 21/09/16"></ref> and picked up her first victory as part of the brand, as she defeated Billie Kay after a distraction by Liv Morgan, only for both of them to be attacked by Kay and Peyton Royce.<ref name="NXT 26/10/16"></ref> This set a six–woman tag team match between Aliyah, Morgan and Ember Moon against The Iconic Duo (Kay and Royce) and Daria Berenato, that was taped on on November 19, where Aliyah's team was victorious.


title: Aliyah (wrestler)

text: On January 3, 2017, Aliyah made her first main roster appearance as she appeared on "SmackDown Live", where she lost to Carmella. Throughout 2018, Aliyah continued losing to various competitors such as Lacey Evans, Ember Moon and Mae Young Classic winner Kairi Sane, while also showing signs of a heel turn. In September, Aliyah, now officially working as a heel, started a short alliance with Evans, and the two had an altercation with Dakota Kai and Deonna Purrazzo, which led to a tag team match, where Aliyah and Evans were victorious, making Aliyah's first victory in over a year.


title: Aliyah (wrestler)

text: After some time away, on the February 13, 2019, episode of "NXT", Aliyah returned working full-time, as she defeated Taynara Conti after interference from Vanessa Borne. The duo then started an alliance and picked up their first victory against Conti and Xia Li, two weeks later on the February 27 episode. In mid November on an episode of "NXT", Aliyah went up against Li in a losing effort, who had kayfabe injured Aliyah's nose in the process with a spin kick. This was done to write her off television, so that she could get cosmetic surgery on her nose.


title: Aliyah (wrestler)

text: Aliyah returned to in-ring competition March 25, 2020, edition of "NXT", where she lost to Io Shirai in a qualifying match. Aliyah had a match a few weeks later against Li in a losing effort. On the May 6 episode of "NXT", she helped Chelsea Green get a victory over Li and tried to get on the Robert Stone Brand. The following week, on the May 13 episode of "NXT", she tried to impress Stone in a match against Kayden Carter which she lost. When she tried to ask him if she could join his brand, he turned her down. Stone eventually changed his mind and officially joined forces with Aliyah on the June 17 episode of "NXT", after he helped her get a victory over Xia Li. Aliyah and Stone would feud with Rhea Ripley as she lost to her on the June 24 episode of "NXT". The following week on Night 1 of NXT: The Great American Bash, Aliyah competed alongside Stone against Ripley in a handicap match, with the stipulation that if Ripley lost then she would join the Robert Stone Brand, but they were defeated. On the July 13, 2021, episode of "NXT", Aliyah turned on Stone after losing a tag team match with herself and Jessi Kamea versus Kacy Catanzaro and Kayden Carter.


title: Aliyah (wrestler)

text: As part of the 2021 Draft, Aliyah was drafted to the SmackDown brand. Aliyah made her official main roster debut on the November 5 episode of "SmackDown", where she participated in a backstage segment with Jeff Hardy and Sami Zayn. The following week, on the November 12 episode of SmackDown, Aliyah would have her debut match with the brand, competing as a face and teaming with Naomi and Sasha Banks to defeat Shotzi, Shayna Baszler and Natalya. Later that same night, Sonya Deville removed her from the SmackDown Survivor Series team without explanation. She was eventually replaced by Toni Storm. In January, Aliyah would defeat Natalya, in 3.17 seconds, earning her the record for fastest victory in WWE history. At Royal Rumble, Aliyah competed in the 30-woman Royal Rumble match which was won by Ronda Rousey. On the August 29 edition of "Raw", Aliyah and Raquel Rodriguez defeated Dakota Kai and Iyo Sky (formerly Io Shirai) to win the vacant WWE Women's Tag Team Championship, her first championship in WWE. Although it was later seen that she pinned Dakota Kai who was not the legal competitor, nonetheless her team was still crowned champions. On the September 12 episode of "Raw" they lost the titles to Dakota Kai and Iyo Sky, ending their reign at 14 days.


title: Aliyah (wrestler)

text: Al-Areebi first decided she wanted to become a wrestler after watching Beth Phoenix and Mickie James compete at a taping of "Raw" on May 5, 2008. Her favorite wrestlers include Edge and Jeff Hardy. She ran a YouTube channel under the name chickkick21 as a teenager from 2008 - 2012 and made YouTube videos focused on professional wrestling in the internet wrestling community.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: Nephrotic syndrome is a collection of symptoms due to kidney damage. This includes protein in the urine, low blood albumin levels, high blood lipids, and significant swelling. Other symptoms may include weight gain, feeling tired, and foamy urine. Complications may include blood clots, infections, and high blood pressure.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: Causes include a number of kidney diseases such as focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, membranous nephropathy, and minimal change disease. It may also occur as a complication of diabetes or lupus. The underlying mechanism typically involves damage to the glomeruli of the kidney. Diagnosis is typically based on urine testing and sometimes a kidney biopsy. It differs from nephritic syndrome in that there are no red blood cells in the urine.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: Treatment is directed at the underlying cause. Other efforts include managing high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol, and infection risk. A low salt diet and limiting fluids is often recommended. About 5 per 100,000 people are affected per year. The usual underlying cause varies between children and adults.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: Nephrotic syndrome is characterized by large amounts of proteinuria (>3.5 g per 1.73 m body surface area per day, or > 40 mg per square meter body surface area per hour in children), hypoalbuminemia (< 2.5 g/dl), hyperlipidaemia, and edema that begins in the face. Lipiduria (lipids in urine) can also occur, but is not essential for the diagnosis of nephrotic syndrome.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: Nephrotic syndrome can be associated with a series of complications that can affect an individual's health and quality of life:


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: Nephrotic syndrome has many causes and may either be the result of a glomerular disease that can be either limited to the kidney, called "primary" nephrotic syndrome (primary glomerulonephrosis), or a condition that affects the kidney and other parts of the body, called "secondary" nephrotic syndrome.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: They are considered to be "diagnoses of exclusion", i.e. they are diagnosed only after secondary causes have been excluded.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: Secondary causes of nephrotic syndrome have the same histologic patterns as the primary causes, though they may exhibit some differences suggesting a secondary cause, such as inclusion bodies. They are usually described by the underlying cause, such as:


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: The kidney glomerulus filters the blood that arrives at the kidney. It is formed of capillaries with small pores that allow small molecules to pass through that have a molecular weight of less than 40,000 Daltons, but not larger macromolecules such as proteins.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: In nephrotic syndrome, the glomeruli are affected by an inflammation or a "hyalinization" (the formation of a homogenous crystalline material within cells) that allows proteins such as albumin, antithrombin or the immunoglobulins to pass through the cell membrane and appear in urine.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: Albumin is the main protein in the blood that is able to maintain an oncotic pressure, which prevents the leakage of fluid into the extracellular medium and the subsequent formation of edemas.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: As a response to hypoproteinemia the liver commences a compensatory mechanism involving the synthesis of proteins, such as alpha-2 macroglobulin and lipoproteins. An increase in the latter can cause the hyperlipidemia associated with this syndrome.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: Along with obtaining a complete medical history, a series of biochemical tests are required in order to arrive at an accurate diagnosis that verifies the presence of the illness. In addition, imaging of the kidneys (for structure and presence of two kidneys) is sometimes carried out, and/or a biopsy of the kidneys. The first test will be a urinalysis to test for high levels of proteins, as a healthy subject excretes an insignificant amount of protein in their urine. The test will involve a 24-hour bedside urinary total protein estimation. The urine sample is tested for proteinuria (>3.5 g per 1.73 m per 24 hours). It is also examined for urinary casts, which are more a feature of active nephritis. Next a blood screen, comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP) will look for hypoalbuminemia: albumin levels of ≤2.5 g/dL (normal=3.5-5 g/dL). Then a Creatinine Clearance C test will evaluate kidney function particularly the glomerular filtration capacity. Creatinine formation is a result of the breakdown of muscular tissue, it is transported in the blood and eliminated in urine. Measuring the concentration of organic compounds in both liquids evaluates the capacity of the glomeruli to filter blood. Electrolytes and urea levels may also be analysed at the same time as creatinine (EUC test) in order to evaluate kidney function.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: A lipid profile will also be carried out as high levels of cholesterol (hypercholesterolemia), specifically elevated LDL, usually with concomitantly elevated VLDL, is indicative of nephrotic syndrome.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: A kidney biopsy may also be used as a more specific and invasive test method. A study of a sample's anatomical pathology may then allow the identification of the type of glomerulonephritis involved. However, this procedure is usually reserved for adults as the majority of children experience minimal change disease that has a remission rate of 95% with corticosteroids. A biopsy is usually only indicated for children that are "corticosteroid resistant" as the majority have focal and segmental glomeruloesclerosis.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: Further investigations are indicated if the cause is not clear including analysis of auto-immune markers (ANA, ASOT, C3, cryoglobulins, serum electrophoresis), or ultrasound of the whole abdomen.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: Some symptoms that are present in nephrotic syndrome, such as edema and proteinuria, also appear in other illnesses. Therefore, other pathologies need to be excluded in order to arrive at a definitive diagnosis.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: Acute fluid overload can cause edema in someone with kidney failure. These people are known to have kidney failure, and have either drunk too much or missed their dialysis. In addition, when Metastatic cancer spreads to the lungs or abdomen it causes effusions and fluid accumulation due to obstruction of lymphatic vessels and veins, as well as serous exudation.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: The treatment of nephrotic syndrome can be symptomatic or can directly address the injuries caused to the kidney.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: The objective of this treatment is to treat the imbalances brought about by the illness: edema, hypoalbuminemia, hyperlipemia, hypercoagulability and infectious complications.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: In addition to these key imbalances, vitamin D and calcium are also taken orally in case the alteration of vitamin D causes severe hypocalcaemia, this treatment has the goal of restoring physiological levels of calcium in the person.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: The treatment of kidney damage may reverse or delay the progression of the disease. Kidney damage is treated by prescribing drugs:


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: The susceptibility testing in vitro to glucocorticoids on the person's peripheral blood mononuclear cells is associated with the number of new cases of not optimal clinical responses: the most sensitive people in vitro have shown a higher number of cases of corticodependence, while the most resistant people in vitro showed a higher number of cases of ineffective therapy.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: The prognosis for nephrotic syndrome under treatment is generally good although this depends on the underlying cause, the age of the person and their response to treatment. It is usually good in children, because minimal change disease responds very well to steroids and does not cause chronic kidney failure. Any relapses that occur become less frequent over time; the opposite occurs with mesangiocapillary glomerulonephritis, in which the kidney fails within three years of the disease developing, making dialysis necessary and subsequent kidney transplant. In addition children under the age of 5 generally have a poorer prognosis than prepubescents, as do adults older than 30 years of age as they have a greater risk of kidney failure.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: Other causes such as focal segmental glomerulosclerosis frequently lead to end stage kidney disease. Factors associated with a poorer prognosis in these cases include level of proteinuria, blood pressure control and kidney function (GFR).


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: Without treatment nephrotic syndrome has a very bad prognosis especially "rapidly progressing glomerulonephritis", which leads to acute kidney failure after a few months.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: Nephrotic syndrome can affect any age, although it is mainly found in adults with a ratio of adults to children of 26 to 1.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: The syndrome presents in different ways in the two groups: the most frequent glomerulopathy in children is minimal change disease (66% of cases), followed by focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (8%) and mesangiocapillary glomerulonephritis (6%). In adults the most common disease is mesangiocapillary glomerulonephritis (30-40%), followed by focal and segmental glomeruloesclerosis (15-25%) and minimal change disease (20%). The latter usually presents as secondary and not primary as occurs in children. Its main cause is diabetic nephropathy. It usually presents in a person from their 40s or 50s.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: Of the glomerulonephritis cases, approximately 60% to 80% are primary, while the remainder are secondary.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: There are also differences in epidemiology between the sexes, the disease is more common in men than in women by a ratio of 2 to 1.


title: Nephrotic syndrome

text: The epidemiological data also reveals information regarding the most common way that symptoms develop in people with nephrotic syndrome: spontaneous remission occurs in up to 20% or 30% of cases during the first year of the illness. However, this improvement is not definitive as some 50% to 60% of people with Nephrotic syndrome die and/or develop chronic kidney failure 6 to 14 years after this remission. On the other hand, between 10% and 20% of people have continuous episodes of remissions and relapses without dying or jeopardizing their kidney. The main causes of death are cardiovascular, as a result of the chronicity of the syndrome, and thromboembolic accidents.


title: P–n junction

text: A p–n junction is a boundary or interface between two types of semiconductor materials, p-type and n-type, inside a single crystal of semiconductor. The "p" (positive) side contains an excess of holes, while the "n" (negative) side contains an excess of electrons in the outer shells of the electrically neutral atoms there. This allows electrical current to pass through the junction only in one direction. The p-n junction is created by doping, for example by ion implantation, diffusion of dopants, or by epitaxy (growing a layer of crystal doped with one type of dopant on top of a layer of crystal doped with another type of dopant). If two separate pieces of material were used, this would introduce a grain boundary between the semiconductors that would severely inhibit its utility by scattering the electrons and holes.


title: P–n junction

text: p–n junctions are elementary "building blocks" of semiconductor electronic devices such as diodes, transistors, solar cells, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and integrated circuits; they are the active sites where the electronic action of the device takes place. For example, a common type of transistor, the bipolar junction transistor (BJT), consists of two p–n junctions in series, in the form n–p–n or p–n–p; while a diode can be made from a single p-n junction. A Schottky junction is a special case of a p–n junction, where metal serves the role of the n-type semiconductor.