title: John C. Frémont

text: Responding the best he could to the Confederate and state militia threat, Frémont raised volunteer troops, purchased open market weapons and equipment, and sent his wife, Jessie, to Washington, D.C., where she lobbied President Lincoln for more reinforcements. While commanding the Department of the West, Frémont was looking for a brigadier general to command a post at Cairo. At first Frémont was going to appoint John Pope, but upon the recommendation of Major McKinstry, he interviewed unobtrusive Brigadier General Ulysses S. Grant. Grant had a reputation for being a "drifter and a drunkard" in the Old Army, but Frémont viewed Grant independently using his own judgment. Frémont concluded that Grant was an "unassuming character not given to self elation, of dogged persistence, of iron will". Frémont chose Grant and appointed him commander of the Cairo post in October 1861. Grant was sent to Ironton, with 3,000 untrained troops, to stop a potential Confederate attack led by Confederate General William J. Hardee. Immediately thereafter, Frémont sent Grant to Jefferson City, to keep it safe from a potential attack by Confederate General Price a week after the Battle of Wilson's Creek. Grant got the situation in control at Jefferson City, drilling and disciplining troops, increased supply lines, and deploying troops on the outskirts of the city. The city was kept safe as Price and his troops, badly battered from the Battle of Wilson's Creek, retreated.


title: John C. Frémont

text: With Price retreating, Frémont become more aggressive and went on the offensive. Frémont knew the key to victory in the West was capturing control of the Mississippi River for the Union forces. Frémont decided to meet Confederate General Leonidas Polk head-on to control the trunk of the Mississippi. In a turning point of the Civil War, on August 27, 1861, Frémont gave Ulysses S. Grant field command in charge of a combined Union offensive whose goal was to capture Memphis, Vicksburg, and New Orleans, to keep Missouri and Illinois safe from Confederate attack. On August 30, Grant assumed charge of the Union Army on the Mississippi. With Frémont's approval, Grant proceeded to capture Paducah, Kentucky, without firing a shot, after Polk had violated Kentucky neutrality and had captured Columbus. The result was that the Kentucky legislature voted to remain in the Union.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Desiring to regain the upper hand and make up for Union losses at the Battle of Wilson's Creek and the occupation of Lexington, Frémont and about 40,000 troops set out to regain Springfield. On October 25, 1861, Frémont's forces, led by Major Charles Zagonyi, won the First Battle of Springfield. This was the first and only Union victory in the West for the year 1861. On November 1, Frémont ordered Grant to make a demonstration against Belmont, a steamboat landing across the river from Columbus, in an effort to drive Confederate General Price from Missouri. Grant had earlier requested to attack Columbus, but Frémont had overruled Grant's initiative.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Frémont came under increasing pressure for decisive action, as Confederates controlled half of Missouri, Confederate troops under Price and McCulloch remained ready to strike, and rebel guerillas were wreaking havoc, wrecking trains, cutting telegraph lines, burning bridges, raiding farms, and attacking Union posts. Confederate sympathies in stronger slave-holding counties needed to be reduced or broken up. Confederate warfare was causing thousands of Union loyalists to take refuge, destitute, in Illinois, Iowa, and Kansas. Radicals in his camp and his wife Jessie urged Frémont to free the slaves of known Confederate supporters. They argued that these men were in rebellion and no longer protected by the Constitution, and it was legal to confiscate rebel property, including their slaves.


title: John C. Frémont

text: So, on the morning of August 30, 1861, at dawn, Frémont, without notifying President Lincoln, issued a proclamation putting Missouri under martial law. The edict declared that civilians taken in arms against would be subject to court martial and execution, that the property of those who aided secessionists would be confiscated, and that the slaves of all rebels were immediately emancipated. This last clause caused much concern. Kentucky was still "neutral", and Unionists there feared Frémont's action would sway opinion there toward secession. One group in Louisville implored President Abraham Lincoln's friend Joshua Speed to tell Lincoln:


title: John C. Frémont

text: Lincoln, fearing that Frémont's emancipation order would tip Missouri (and other Border states) to secession, asked Frémont to revise the order. Frémont refused to do so, and sent his wife to plead his case. President Lincoln told Jessie that Frémont "should never have dragged the Negro into the war". When Frémont remained obdurate, Lincoln publicly revoked the emancipation clause of the proclamation on 11 September. Frémont's abolitionist allies attacked Lincoln for this, creating more bad feeling. Meanwhile, the War Department compiled a report on Frémont's misconduct as commander in Missouri. This included the arrest of Frank Blair, which ended Frémont's alliance with the Blair family, who had backed him for the presidential nomination in 1856.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Finally Lincoln decided Frémont had to go. He issued an order removing Frémont from command of the Western Department, which was hand-delivered to him by Lincoln's friend Leonard Swett on 2 November. Lincoln's actions prompted much hostility among Radical Republicans throughout the North, even from old friends like Senator Orville Browning. Lincoln himself later privately stated his sympathy for Frémont, noting that the first reformer in some area often overreaches and fails, but he continued to insist that Frémont had exceeded his authority and endangered the Union cause.


title: John C. Frémont

text: After being dismissed by Lincoln, Frémont left Springfield and returned to St. Louis. On the outside Frémont expressed joy being free from the cares of duty, but on the inside Frémont was smolderingly angry believing the Republicans ran an incompetent war and that the Blairs, acting under malicious motives, were responsible for what he believed to be his unjustified firing by Lincoln. More humiliations followed, Frémont's Zagonyi Guard was mustered out of the Army without pay, and all the contracts he made were suspended upon approval from Washington. Pressure soon mounted among Radicals and Frémont supporters for his reinstatement of command in the Army.


title: John C. Frémont

text: In March 1862, Lincoln placed Frémont in command of the Mountain Department, which was responsible for parts of western Virginia, eastern Tennessee and eastern Kentucky, although he had clearly lost trust in the Pathfinder.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Frémont and his army and two other generals, Nathaniel P. Banks and Irvin McDowell, and their respective armies, were in charge of protecting the Shenandoah Valley and Washington D.C. Rather than having these armies under one command, Lincoln and Stanton micromanaged their movements. Confederate General Stonewall Jackson took advantage of this divided command and systematically attacked each Union Army, putting fear in Washington, D.C., taking spoils and thousands of prisoners. Early in June 1862 Frémont pursued the Confederate General Stonewall Jackson for eight days, finally engaging part of Jackson's force, led by Richard S. Ewell, at Battle of Cross Keys. Frémont commanded 10,500 Union troops while Ewell commanded about 5,000 Confederate troops. Frémont had moved down the Valley Pike from the northwest through Harrisonburg to Cross Keys, while Union Brigadier General James Shields closed in from the northeast, hoping to entrap Jackson's forces. Ewell who was in charge of defending Jackson's western flank established strong defensive positions.


title: John C. Frémont

text: On June 8, 1862, at 10:00 am Frémont's infantry, composed of German immigrants, advanced on the Confederate line opening the Battle of Cross Keys and slowly pushed back the Confederate advance. The 15th Alabama Infantry held off Frémont's attack for a half hour, followed by a long range artillery duel. The Confederates, reinforced by the 44th Virginia regiment, beat back several Union assaults. Frémont launched a major attack, but the Confederates held their fire until the German Union soldiers were up close, releasing a devastating volley that repelled the Union assault. Frémont withdrew, declining to launch a second assault, and the Confederates gained the territory previously occupied by the Union Army. Fronting Frémont's Army by a holding brigade, Ewell's men, on order's from Jackson, retreated to Port Republic. At the Battle of Port Republic the following day, Frémont attacked Jackson's rear flank using artillery, but did not launch a major assault. By that afternoon Jackson put his army in motion to Brown's Gap beyond the reach of Frémont's artillery. Jackson and his army managed to slip out of the Shenandoah Valley and rejoin Robert E. Lee in Richmond. Lincoln ordered Shields and Frémont to withdraw from the Shenandoah Valley. Frémont was criticized for being late in linking up with McDowell at Strasburg and allowing Jackson's army to escape.


title: John C. Frémont

text: When the Army of Virginia was created on June 26, 1862, to include General Frémont's corps with John Pope in command, Frémont declined to serve on the grounds that he was senior to Pope, and for personal reasons. He went to New York City, where he remained throughout the war, expecting to receive another command, but none was forthcoming. In 1863, African Americans in Poughkeepsie, New York, tried to raise "a 10,000-man all-Black army to be known as the 'Fremont Legion.' It would be commanded by General John C. Frémont, a hero to many African Americans because of his August 1861 unilateral order freeing slaves in Missouri... Ultimately, nothing came of the Fremont Legion proposal." Recognizing that he would not be able to contribute further to the Union Army's efforts, Frémont resigned his commission in June 1864.


title: John C. Frémont

text: In 1860 the Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln for president, who won the presidency and then ran for re-election in 1864. The Radical Republicans, a group of hard-line abolitionists, were upset with Lincoln's positions on the issues of slavery and postwar reconciliation with the southern states. These radicals had bitterly resented Lincoln's dismissal of Frémont in 1861 over his emancipation edict in St. Louis. On May 31, 1864, the short-lived "Radical Democracy Party" nominated Frémont (age 51) for president in Cleveland. Frémont was supported by Radical Republicans, immigrants from Western Germany, and War Democrats. This fissure in the Republican Party divided the party into two factions: the anti-Lincoln Radical Republicans, who nominated Frémont, and the pro-Lincoln Republicans. On September 22, 1862, Lincoln had issued his own Emancipation Proclamation, effective January 1, 1863, that "forever" freed slaves in Southern states fighting under the Confederacy. Frémont reluctantly withdrew from the election on September 22, 1864. The following day, in a prearranged compromise, Lincoln removed ultra-conservative Montgomery Blair from his cabinet.


title: John C. Frémont

text: In 1864, the Frémonts purchased an estate ranch in present-day Sleepy Hollow, New York from the newspaper publisher James Watson Webb. They named it "Pocaho", an Indian name. For Jessie it was a chance to recapture some of the charm and isolation of living in the countryside, now that John had retired from politics. The house, now at 7 Pokahoe Drive in Sleepy Hollow, is currently a private residence.


title: John C. Frémont

text: The state of Missouri took possession of the Pacific Railroad in February 1866, when the company defaulted in its interest payment. In June 1866 the state conveyed the company to Frémont in a private sale. He reorganized its assets as the Southwest Pacific Railroad in August, but less than a year later (June 1867), the railroad was repossessed by the state after Frémont was unable to pay the second installment of the purchase price. The Panic of 1873, caused by over speculation in the railroad industry, and the depression that followed, wiped out much of Frémont's remaining wealth. Their financial straits required the Frémonts to sell Pocaho in 1875, and to move back to New York City.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Frémont was appointed governor of the Arizona Territory by President Rutherford B. Hayes and served from 1878 to 1881. He spent little time in Arizona, and was asked to resume his duties in person or resign; Frémont chose resignation. Destitute, the family depended on the publication earnings of his wife Jessie.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Frémont lived on Staten Island in retirement. In April 1890, he was reappointed as a major general and then added to the Army's retired list, an action taken to ease his financial condition by enabling him to qualify for a pension.


title: John C. Frémont

text: On Sunday, July 13, 1890, at the age of 77, Frémont died of peritonitis at his residence at 49 West Twenty-fifth Street in New York. His death was unexpected and his brief illness was not generally known. On Tuesday, July 8, Frémont had been affected by the heat of a particularly hot summer day. On Wednesday he came down with a chill and was confined to his bedroom. His symptoms progressed to peritonitis (an abdominal infection) which caused his death. At the time he died, Frémont was popularly known as the "Pathfinder of the Rocky Mountains". Initially interred at Trinity Church Cemetery, he was reinterred in Rockland Cemetery in Sparkill, New York on March 17, 1891.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Although Frémont was often caught up in controversy, he played a major role in opening up the American West to settlement by American pioneers, in part by attacks on Native Americans. His reliable accounts, including published maps, narrations, and scientific documentations of his expeditions, guided American emigrants overland into the West starting in the mid-1840s. Frémont, popularly known as "The Pathfinder" during his times, was considered an American hero. Many people believed that Frémont's arrest and court-martial by Kearny during the Mexican–American War were unjustified.


title: John C. Frémont

text: During the Civil War, Frémont's victory over the Confederates at Springfield was the only successful Union battle in the Western Department in 1861. Frémont's reputation, however, was damaged after he was relieved of command by Lincoln for insubordination. After leaving the Mountain Department in 1862, Frémont's active service career in the war virtually ended. Frémont's 1861 promotion of Ulysses S. Grant, going against the grain of Army gossip, was fruitful; Grant went on to become the greatest Union general. He invested heavily in the railroad industry, but the Panic of 1873 wiped out Frémont's fortune, and his appearance thereafter looked tired and aging.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Frémont is remembered for his planting of the American flag on the Rocky Mountains during his first expedition, symbolically claiming the West for the United States. For his botanical records and information collected on his explorations, many plants are named in honor of Frémont. A large statue/sculpture of Frémont is displayed at "Pathfinder Regional Park" near Florence, Colorado.


title: John C. Frémont

text: In his memoirs, Frémont coined the phrase "Golden Gate" for the strait between Marin County and San Francisco County.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Frémont's biographer Allan Nevins said there were two fascinating things about Frémont. The first was the "unfailing drama of his life; a life wrought out of the fiercest tempests and most radiant bursts of sunshine". The second was Frémont's dramatic career asking, "How could the man who sometimes succeeded so dazzlingly at other times fail so abysmally?" Nevins said that Frémont's psychological problem was in part attributed to his inheritance of impulsiveness and brilliancy from his "emotionally and ill-balanced" parents. Nevins said Frémont was encouraged by his parents to heighten his inherited self-reliant, heedless, and adventuresome traits and that he lacked the discipline his passionate spirit and quick mind most needed.


title: John C. Frémont

text: Concerning Frémont's tenure as commander of the West, Lincoln thought Frémont was personally honest, but his "cardinal mistake" was that "he isolates himself, and allows nobody to see him; and by which he does not know what is going on in the very matter he is dealing with." Many historians are in agreement with Lincoln.


title: John C. Frémont

text: According to Rebecca Solnit, the celebrated murders of Californios Berryessa and his two nephews on the shores of San Rafael, commanded by Frémont during the Bear Flag Revolt on June 28, 1846, highlighted a dubious path to California's statehood. Solnit wrote that Frémont's unpopularity in California, while Frémont was a Republican candidate during the presidential election of 1856, and losing the state, was in part due to this incident. Although their killings are not disputed, the events surrounding their deaths are in controversy. Frémont and his men may have been taking revenge on the deaths of two Osos by Californios. Frémont may have mistaken the de Haro brothers for soldiers, while one person contends that the murders represented the racism of the white Osos. Berryessa and his two nephews may have been considered Native Americans by European Americans, and received harsher treatment from Frémont and Carson.


title: Driver's license

text: A driver's license is a legal authorization, or the official document confirming such an authorization, for a specific individual to operate one or more types of motorized vehicles—such as motorcycles, cars, trucks, or buses—on a public road. Such licenses are often plastic and the size of a credit card.


title: Driver's license

text: In most international agreements the wording "driving permit" is used, for instance in the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic. In this article's country specific sections, the local spelling variant is used.


title: Driver's license

text: Most American jurisdictions issue a permit with "driver license" printed on it but some use "driver's license", which is conversational American English.


title: Driver's license

text: Canadian English uses both "driver's licence" as well as "driver licence" (Atlantic Canada). The Australian and New Zealand English equivalent is "driver licence". In British English and in many former British colonies it is "driving licence".


title: Driver's license

text: The laws relating to the licensing of drivers vary between jurisdictions. In some jurisdictions, a permit is issued after the recipient has passed a driving test, while in others, a person acquires their permit before beginning to drive. Different categories of permit often exist for different types of motor vehicles, particularly large trucks and passenger vehicles. The difficulty of the driving test varies considerably between jurisdictions, as do factors such as age and the required level of competence and practice.


title: Driver's license

text: Karl Benz, inventor of the modern car, received a written ""Genehmigung"" (permit) from the Grand Ducal authorities to operate his car on public roads in 1888 after residents complained about the noise and smell of his "Motorwagen". Up until the start of the 20th century, European authorities issued similar permits to drive motor vehicles "ad hoc," if at all.


title: Driver's license

text: Mandatory licensing for drivers in the United Kingdom came into force on 1 January 1904 after the Motor Car Act 1903 received royal assent. Every car owner had to register their vehicle with their local government authority and be able to prove registration of their vehicle on request. The minimum qualifying age was set at 17. The "driving licence" gave its holder 'freedom of the road' with a maximum speed limit. Compulsory testing was introduced in 1934, with the passing of the Road Traffic Act.


title: Driver's license

text: Prussia, then a kingdom within the German Empire, introduced compulsory licensing on 29 September 1903. A test on mechanical aptitude had to be passed and the "Dampfkesselüberwachungsverein" ("steam boiler supervision association") was charged with conducting these tests. In 1910, the German imperial government mandated the licensing of drivers on a national scale, establishing a system of tests and driver's education requirements that was adopted in other countries.


title: Driver's license

text: Other countries in Europe also introduced driving tests during the twentieth century, the last of them being Belgium where, until as recently as 1977, it was possible to purchase and hold a permit without having to undergo a driving test.


title: Driver's license

text: As traffic-related fatalities soared in North America, public outcry provoked legislators to begin studying the French and German statutes as models. On 1 August 1910, North America's first licensing law for motor vehicles went into effect in the U.S. state of New York, though it initially applied only to professional chauffeurs. In July 1913, the state of New Jersey became the first to require "all" drivers to pass a mandatory examination before being licensed.


title: Driver's license

text: In 1909, the Convention with Respect to the International Circulation of Motor Vehicles recognized the need for qualifications, examination, and authorization for international driving.


title: Driver's license

text: The notion of an "International Driving Permit" was first mooted in an international convention held in Paris in 1926, .


title: Driver's license

text: In 1949, the United Nations hosted the Geneva Convention on Road Traffic that standardised rules on roads, occupants, rules, signs, driver's permits and such. It specified that national "driving permits" should be pink and that an "International Driving Permit" for driving in a number of countries should have grey covers with white pages and that "The entire last page shall be drawn up in French".


title: Driver's license

text: In 1968, the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, ratified in 1977 and further updated in 2011, further modernised these agreements.


title: Driver's license

text: Its main regulations about drivers permits are in Annex 6 (Domestic Driving Permit) and Annex 7 (International Driving Permit). The currently active version of those is in force in each contracting party no later than "29 March 2011" (Article 43).


title: Driver's license

text: In 2018, ISO/IEC standard 18013 was published which established guidelines for the design format and data content of an ISO-compliant driving licence (IDL). The design approach is to establish a secure domestic driving permit (DDP) and accompanying booklet for international use, instead of the international driving permit (IDP) paper document. The main ideology is a minimum acceptable set of requirements with regards to content and layout of the data elements, with sufficient freedom afforded to the issuing authorities of driving licences to meet domestic needs.


title: Driver's license

text: The specifications of the layout of the booklet is defined in Annex G of ISO/IEC 18013-1:2018. There are two options; a booklet with some personalisation or a booklet with no personalisation. The booklet shall be marginally larger than an ID-1 size card, with an insert pocket for storage of the card, and for convenient carrying of the booklet. The front cover should include the logo of the UN or the issuing country and the words "Translation of Driving Licence" and "Traduction du Permis de Conduire ".


title: Driver's license

text: Many countries, including Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States, have no national identification cards. Since many people do have driving permits, they are often accepted as proof of identity. In some territories, non-drivers can apply for identification-only cards with a similar format to a driving permit. Most identity cards and driving permits are credit card size—the "ID-1" size and shape defined in ISO/IEC 7810.


title: Driver's license

text: A Hong Kong Driving Licence carries the same number as the holder's ID card, but has no photograph. As such, it is not a legal document for proof of age for purchase of alcohol. Upon control, both must be presented. Plans to make the newly phased in Smart ID contain driver licensing information have been shelved.


title: Driver's license

text: Similarly, the Saudi Arabian government require all drivers to carry an ID card in addition to a driving permit and present them whenever requested. In Saudi Arabia using a permit instead is only permitted if the request is made for on-site inspection/identification purposes, especially at checkpoints. Expatriates may be requested to present their visas as well.


title: Driver's license

text: Many European countries require drivers to produce their permit on demand when driving. Some European countries require adults to carry proof of identity at all times, but a driving permit is not valid for identification in every European country.


title: Driver's license

text: In the United Kingdom most drivers are not required to carry their "Driving Licence". A driver may be required by a constable or vehicle examiner to produce this, but may provide it at a specified police station within seven days; the police issue a form for this purpose.


title: Driver's license

text: In Denmark, Finland, Norway, Spain and Sweden, the driving permit number is listed along with the bearer's national identification number. Banks and public authorities use the same number for customer databases, making the permit fully useful for identification purposes.


title: Driver's license

text: In Canada and the United States, driving permits are issued by the provinces (or territories) and states, respectively and do not look the same nationwide. They are also used as a "de facto" or government-issued identification document for the holder.


title: Driver's license

text: The American Association of Motor Vehicle Administrators provides a standard for the design of driving permits and identification cards issued by AAMVA member jurisdictions, which include all 50 US states, the District of Columbia, and Canadian territories and provinces. The newest card design standard released is the 2020 AAMVA DL/ID Card Design Standard (CDS).


title: Driver's license

text: Most government issuers of driving permits also provide a government-issued identification card with similar attributes to those residents within their jurisdictions who do not have or maintain a valid driving permit, making it easier for them to do things such as open a bank account and perform any other activities that require official identification. Identification cards serve as government-issued photo ID but do not enable a person to operate a motor vehicle, a fact typically noted on the ID via the phrase 'Not a driver's licence' or similar wording. This type of photo ID is referred to as a Photo Card in some jurisdictions (for example, the Ontario Photo Card).


title: Driver's license

text: Government-issued ID cards are also issued to out-of-state residents and those who do not drive automobiles. For example, college students enrolled in an institution of higher education outside their state of residence receive an ID Card (for example, a domiciled Texas resident enrolled at UCLA where the individual retains their Texas Driver License and holds a California state issued ID card) which is used for bank account and financial affairs. This is also applicable to those who own business assets and not domiciled in a state or city as a resident (for example, someone domiciled in Los Angeles and owning either a business or real estate property in Florida). In the U.S, no individual is permitted to hold multiple valid driver licenses simultaneously.


title: Driver's license

text: In Canada and the United States, the abbreviation DLN is commonly used for a driver's license number. Five states in the northern United States (Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Vermont and Washington) and two provinces in Canada (British Columbia and Manitoba) also offer an "enhanced driver's license" (EDL), which is a driving permit that has an embedded RFID chip and is accepted at the federal level in lieu of a passport for land and sea (but not air) border crossings between the US and Canada. The EDL program was also previously offered in Ontario and Quebec, but is no longer offered there.


title: Driver's license

text: In the United States, New Zealand, Australia, the UK, the Republic of Ireland and sometimes Canada, people who drive commercially are required to have permits. The cost of taking the tests and examinations usually means that an employer will subsidize their drivers.


title: Driver's license

text: Egyptian citizens are entitled to a driver's licence once they have reached the age of 18. To obtain their licences, applicants must pass a driving test as well as several computer test. To pass, all a person had to do was drive six metres forward and then reverse six metres. The test was updated to make it more difficult; now the applicant has to get 8 out of 10 answers correct in a computer test, then pass a forward and reverse S-track test in addition to an assessment of parking skills.


title: Driver's license

text: Driver's licensing in Ghana is conducted by the nation's Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority. The legal driving age is 18.


title: Driver's license

text: In Nigeria, the minimum age to qualify for a drivers licence is 18. The applicant would first attend training at an accredited driving school. Then, the driving school will present the applicant to a Vehicle Inspection Officer (VIO) for a driving test. Upon passing the driving test the applicant would obtain a certificate of proficiency from the VIO. The applicant then completes a drivers license application form at the Drivers Licence Centre (DLC) or downloads the form online. Afterwards he pays a licence fee online or at the Bank and presents his application form to the Board of Internal Revenue (BIR) Officer and VIO at the DLC for endorsement. After all these procedures he goes to the Federal Road Safety Corps (FRSC) Officer at the DLC for biometric data capture. He is given a temporary drivers licence which is valid for 60 days. He picks up the original drivers licence at the BIR Office after 60 days.


title: Driver's license

text: The minimum driving age in South Africa is 17, when drivers may drive with an adult who holds a valid driving licence, after passing a learner's theory test. At 18, a driving licence can be obtained after passing the road test. Small motorcycles may be driven from the age of 16. To obtain a permit, applicants must pass a written or computer-based test to obtain a learner's licence, and then pass a road test to obtain the driving license. Categories for permits include CODE B (normal vehicles), CODE C1 (LDV), CODE EC (heavy trucks), CODE A (motorcycle).


title: Driver's license

text: The learners licence theory test will contain three sets of questions with multiple answer options; test-takers will have to select the correct answer. Some Driving Licence Test Centres use computers for the test, whereas others require test-takers to complete the test using a test paper and pen.


title: Driver's license

text: Driving licences are issued by the Tanzania Revenue Authority. The legal driving age for motorcycles is 16 and for other motor vehicles is 18.


title: Driver's license

text: Zimbabwean drivers licences are issued by the Vehicle Inspection Department (VID) which is an arm of the government under the Ministry of Transport & Infrastructural Development. Drivers can be licensed for class 4 vehicles at the age of sixteen and eighteen for class 2 vehicles. Public transport vehicles are in class 1 and the minimum age is twenty five. A theory based learners licence which has 25 questions is the first step. The questions for this test include diagrams, road rules and road signs and has to be answered in under eight minutes. After passing the test, the candidate gets a provisional learners license which enables the candidate to drive under supervision from a driving instructor or anyone with a full driving licence.


title: Driver's license

text: After the theory test learner drivers have to start practical driving lessons covering key driving skills. To qualify for a driving test one must have completed thirty lessons.


title: Driver's license

text: Minimum age for holding a driving permit is 18 for private cars, light goods vehicle, motorcycles and motortricycles. For commercial vehicles the age is 21.


title: Driver's license

text: Drivers are legally obliged to carry a valid driving licence whilst driving and this must be produced if required to do so by a police officer.


title: Driver's license

text: People older than 70 have to undergo strict medical tests in order to obtain a permit that has limited validity and requires renewal after a certain period.


title: Driver's license

text: The minimum driving age in India is 16 to drive any kind of gearless motorcycle like scooters and mopeds without gear and 18 for cars and motorcycles with gear like bikes , scooters with gear (old type of scooters like bajaj chetak which are not currently available in market) . The Regional Transport Office (RTO/RTA) issue their own driving licences in various states. Drivers are legally obliged to carry a valid driving permit (driving licence) in India while driving, and it must be produced if required to do so by a police officer.


title: Driver's license

text: In India, people aged 50 or more, have to undergo strict medical tests in order to obtain a permit that has limited validity and requires renewal every five years. A Commercial Driving Licence is valid for 3 years and then requires to be renewed.


title: Driver's license

text: India introduced the driving license chip card in October 2019, and set up a nationwide driving licence database to fight against duplication.


title: Driver's license

text: In Indonesia, to drive a motor vehicle, one must own a legal Indonesian Driving License ( or SIM). It is a card which legally permits one to drive a motor vehicle. In Indonesia, there are classes for each driving license for which is allowed to drive a type of motor vehicle:


title: Driver's license

text: The classes above are also allowed by the age of the driver according to the class of the driving license. The ages are accordingly issued to the different classes of the driver's choice:


title: Driver's license

text: The Gold License is granted to any driver who, at the point of license renewal, has at least five years of clean driving history (no driving infractions). According to implications in the Road Traffic Laws Reforms that took place on May 10, 1995, all such licenses are marked with a gold band over the license's expiration date as well as the word 優良 (excellent) printed in black, below.


title: Driver's license

text: Those who hold a gold license have the added benefit of qualifying for the Superior Drivers Course at the time of renewal, a significantly shorter and less-expensive renewal process. In some cases, they can bypass the main license center and have their license renewed at a separate Superior Drivers License Renewal Center.


title: Driver's license

text: Moreover, because such license holders are proven to have been free of accidents and moving violations for at least five years, they are deemed low-risk and qualify for optional car insurance discounts. To qualify, drivers must be accident and violation-free for 5 years and 41 days prior to their birthday on their license's expiration. The period in which the license holder's driving history is reviewed begins on the 40th day prior to their birthday of that year. Should the license holder be deemed to qualify, they will receive a decision in the mail with the word 優良 printed on it.


title: Driver's license

text: Even the so-called "Paper Drivers" who hold licenses but never drive, who technically are without violation or accident, can lose their eligibility to obtain a gold license for several reasons including if their car is used by a drunk driver or to support drunk driving in any way.


title: Driver's license

text: The minimum age for obtaining a driving licence varies between 16 and 21, although there is a concern about teenage driving safety.


title: Driver's license

text: The minimum age for a permit to ride two wheelers is 16. For light vehicles with four wheels it is 18. After 2 years experience with light vehicles a permit can be obtained to drive private hire and heavy vehicles. However, once the age of 60 years is reached permits can not be renewed for private hire and heavy vehicles.


title: Driver's license

text: There is an online procedure hosted by Nepal's Department of Transport Management with a written exam only for new applicants. Subsequent written exams are not necessary to add additional categories to an existing permit. A practical, road test is undertaken after passing the written exam.


title: Driver's license

text: The minimum age for eligibility for a learner's permit is 18 years. Drivers' information is recorded against the Computerized National ID Card number which is issued at the age of 18. The Licence Issuing Authorities vary in each district and work under the relevant District Police.


title: Driver's license

text: A new credit card format driving licence has been introduced. The licence bears the digital photo, signature and blood group information of the card holder. A record of traffic violations is stored automatically in the database. To obtain a driving licence one must register for a learner's permit at any of the local District Police's designated licence offices and then, after 42 days, one can apply for test for a regular full licence.


title: Driver's license

text: The test phase consists of a theory based test followed by a short practical test. Only those who pass the theory test are allowed to take the practical test. The whole test stage is a single day process where both tests are to be taken the same day. The driving licence currently issued holds basic information of the driver including name, Father's name, date of birth, address, authorized vehicle types, emergency contact, blood group, fingerprint impression, driver photo. The licence also has a magnetic strip though its viability is yet to be made public.


title: Driver's license

text: Driving permits in the Philippines consists of three types. These are "Student Permit", "Non-Professional" and "Professional". The minimum age for driving in the Philippines is 17 years old provided that the driver has applied for a "Student Permit" and is accompanied by a person with a "Professional" or "Non-Professional" permit. An applicant can only apply for a "Non-Professional" driving license one month after acquiring a "Student Permit". An applicant needs to have a "Non-Professional" driving license for 1 week in order to be eligible for a "Professional" driving license. An applicant must pass both the Land Transportation Office written exam and a practical driving exam. If the applicant fails the tests, the applicant must wait for a month before being able to take the tests again.


title: Driver's license

text: Driving licences in Singapore are issued by the traffic police. The minimum age to obtain a provisional driving licence (PDL), which allows the holder to practice driving while under the supervision of an authorised driving instructor, is 18. A provisional driving licence is obtained once the individual has passed the basic theory test. PDL holders are then required to sit for and pass the final theory test before they are allowed to sit for the practical driving test. Once they have passed the practical driving test, they are issued with a driving licence which allows for driving without supervision, though new drivers are required to display probationary plates when driving for the first year after their licence is issued.


title: Driver's license

text: In South Korea, one must hold a driving license called "운전면허증" or an international driving permit. The international driving permit is valid for 1 year starting from the date of entry. If one is going to stay in South Korea longer than a year, it is necessary to change the international permit to a local permit by visiting the driver's license testing center.


title: Driver's license

text: For South Korean driving licenses, there are classes which permit driving different types of motor vehicle:


title: Driver's license

text: Besides the type of the license, the license may have a special condition. Depending on the special condition given, the driver must satisfy the condition below to be able to drive. Driving a vehicle without satisfying the given condition is considered as unlicensed driving.


title: Driver's license

text: New E-Smart Card driving licences are available in Sri Lanka. These cards are intended for use in the proposed "Point System".


title: Driver's license

text: In Sri Lanka, a driving licence is the official document which authorizes its holder to operate various types of motor vehicles on public roads. They are administered by the Department of Motor Traffic (DMT). The minimum age is 18 years for all vehicle types.


title: Driver's license

text: In Taiwan, driving permits () are issued by the Ministry of Transportation and Communications to a qualified driver. The number of the driver license in Taiwan is the same as the ID number of the license holder's household registration in Taiwan. In Taiwan, the driver license is sometimes accepted as a valid identity document, since the information on a driver license replicates most of that on a Taiwanese National Identification Card.


title: Driver's license

text: Driving in Thailand without a driving licence is prohibited and is punishable by fines. Moreover, in case of a road accident, a driver without a permt can be considered as the guilty party. Also, an unlicensed driver who was in a road accident will be refused medical insurance payments


title: Driver's license

text: It isn't difficult to get a driving licence in Thailand. In fact it is accessible to foreigners too. When the package of documents will be collected the person needs to appeal to the Transport Authority and sign up for the exam. Waiting time usually is near one month.


title: Driver's license

text: The exam includes theoretical and practical parts held on the same day. Reaction tests are conducted before the exam. The applicant gets a temporary ID valid for one year. It may be extended for five years, but only if the applicant lives in Thailand on a non-immigrant visa. An International Driving Permit is recognized in Thailand. With its help it is easy to get a local permit without doing the exams.


title: Driver's license

text: There are different plastic cards for motorcycles and vehicles. Therefore, documents and exams need to be done twice.


title: Driver's license

text: Vietnam has a minimum age of 16 for mopeds under and 18 for motorcycles producing more than . Minimum age for holding a driving permit is 18 for cars and small truck, 21 for commercial vehicles.


title: Driver's license

text: Drivers are legally obliged to carry a valid driving licence whilst driving and this must be produced if required to do so by a police officer.


title: Driver's license

text: In Vietnam, there are classes for each driving license for which is allowed to drive a type of motor vehicle:


title: Driver's license

text: The classes above are also allowed by the age of the driver according to the class of the driving license. The ages are accordingly issued to the different classes of the driver's choice:


title: Driver's license

text: The European Union has adopted a common format for driving permits within all 30 European Economic Area member states (EU, Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway), and a common set of driving permit categories. There are other national categories for tractors, large motorcycles, motorised wheel boats, motor tricycles (modern voiturettes, Category B1 or S), and military categories such as for driving tanks. National categories mean they are not harmonised and only valid within the issuing country.


title: Driver's license

text: The European driving licence was introduced to replace the 110 different plastic and paper driving permits. The common format with the same information in the same place on all permits allows documents to be understood, even if they are in a different language.


title: Driver's license

text: The system for handling the penalty points remains different in each country, for the existence of points, initial number of points, revolving, and number of points removed (or added) for each penalty.


title: Driver's license

text: The categories have become more complicated with subcategories. The letter E is now always used with another category.


title: Driver's license

text: The minimum age for getting a driver's licence in Iceland is 17 for a B class license, a B class licence will qualify a person to drive low powered motorcycles ("" two stroke or equivalent, for more powerful bikes one will have to obtain an A class license), Tractors, ATVs and automobiles that do not exceed a GVWR of or 8 passengers.


title: Driver's license

text: The minimum age in Iceland to get a C1 class (vehicles up to GVWR) is 18, for a C class (vehicles exceeding 7,500 kg) one will have to have obtained a 12-point licence (obtainable without getting a ticket for a whole year) and have reached the age of 21 years.


title: Driver's license

text: The minimum age in Iceland for a D1 class licence is 21 years old and D class (and DE class) license is 23 years old, the same rules apply as with a C/CE class license.


title: Driver's license

text: The minimum age for getting a driving licence in Norway is 16 for A1, T (tractor), 18 for A-C1, 21 for C/D1 and 24 for D. The driver's licenses issued before 2013 are revoked when he/she has reached an age of 100. The driving licences for A-B, BE, S and T issued after 2013 are always revoked after 15 years, and can be renewed after that for more 15 years. For persons aged 60–75, the driving licence becomes invalid before the 75th birthday and subsequently a valid health certificate is needed. Then a driving licences is issued with the same length as the health certificate. The driving licences for C-D1E are revoked after 5 years and can be renewed after that for 5 more years and, with a valid health certificate a new license for C-D1E is issued every year after the age of 70.


title: Driver's license

text: Minimum age to obtain category B driving licence in Poland is 18, category C1 and C1+E is also 18. The minimum age to obtain category C and C+E is 21 years of age. Category D (large bus) is 24.


title: Driver's license

text: The minimum age to obtain a driving licence is 16 years. During the first two years after obtaining the licence the driver is called a beginner (Macedonian: почетник) and has limited rights concerning driving speed and when he/she can drive without a co-driver in the front seat who doesn't have a drivers licence (until 23:00). Beginning in 2007, the driving licence format was changed from a pink booklet to a credit-card sized card.


title: Driver's license

text: Russia was one of the first countries to create a driving licence. In 1895, the mayor of Saint Petersburg, Baron von Wahl issued permits to ride “motorised bicycles.” The year following, the Minister of Railways and Communication laid down the first code for cars. Russia's first licences were issued in 1900 by Saint Petersburg authorities, and Russia joined an international convention in 1909. However, due to a relatively small number of cars, the attempts to create a standardized Russian licence were rather sporadic and limited to major urban areas. No comprehensive system of driver licensing was present until 1936, when the Soviet government organized and standardized traffic and driving regulations, with the statewide system regulated by specialized police authorities.


title: Driver's license

text: Russia employs a system of driver's licences very similar to the EU standard. Since 2014 there are 14 main categories that require a driving licence: A, A1, B, B1, C, C1, D, D1, BE, CE, C1E, DE, D1E, M and two additional categories: Tm (tram) and Tb (trolleybus).


title: Driver's license

text: The current licence style, introduced in 2011, is a laminated plastic card similar to the European driving licence card in dimensions and outward appearance, with the bearer's photo and name (in Latin and Cyrillic scripts), place/date of issue, allowed categories, and signature. The reverse of the card features a detailed list of allowed categories. This new style is fully compliant with the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, and therefore is acceptable in all its signatory states and countries. Older credit-card-style and booklet-style licenses are also occasionally seen although they are no longer issued and are increasingly rare as a result. The Russian driving licence is also sometimes supplemented by a special card called "временное разрешение" (temporary permission), which serves for registering offense points and as a temporary licence if the primary license has been seized by the authorities for serious traffic offenses. This supplement has been abolished and reinstated a countless number of times as the views of the traffic police change.


title: Driver's license

text: The legal driving age within the Russian Federation is 18 years (16 for motorcycles (A1 and M categories only, not A) and 20 for buses) and to obtain a license one must be physically fit to drive (including certificates of mental fitness and no record of substance abuse). One must also pass a test administered at a local traffic police authority and pay a fee. Tests are divided into theory and practice. The theory test is usually a computerized multiple-choice test on various traffic rules. Twenty multiple-choice questions are asked, only two incorrect answers allowed for a passing grade, five additional questions per mistake. A road test is then administered which includes a demonstration of basic driving skills (steering, slope starting for manual transmission vehicles and backing-up), obstacle course as well as a skills examination for road driving. Four minor errors are allowed for the road driving examination—the obstacle course is pass-fail. The number of retries is unlimited.


title: Driver's license

text: Driving licences are issued by subdivisions of the General Administration for Traffic Safety of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and grant the right to drive on-road vehicles only. The right to drive off-road vehicles is granted by tractorist-machinist's licence, which is issued by state inspections of the supervision of the technical condition of self-propelled machines and other machinery (these state inspections are parts of the regional governments of federal subjects of Russia and may have different names). The Ministry of Agriculture approves the form of the license and the procedure for issuing it. There are 9 categories in tractorist-machinist's licence: AI (quad bikes, snowmobiles and other off-road vehicles with steering that is similar to motorcycle's steering), AII (wheeled cross-country vehicles weighing less than 3,500 kg, including amphibious snow-and-swamp vehicles such as TREKOL-39294, VIKING-29031, etc.), AIII (haul trucks), AIV (off-road buses), B (wheeled and caterpillar tractors with engine power less than 25,7 kW), C (wheeled tractors with engine power from 25,7 kW to 110,3 kW), D (wheeled tractors with engine power over 110,3 kW), E (caterpillar tractors with engine power over 25,7 kW), F (self-propelled agricultural machinery). To obtain the tractorist-machinist's license with AII category applicant must have at least 1-year driving experience by category B of driving licence, AIII category - category C of driving licence, AIV category - category D of driver's license. For getting the tractorist-machinist's licence applicant has to pass theoretical and practice exam on the program approved by the Ministry of Agriculture. If applicant doesn't have the driver's license he also has to pass theoretical exam on the program approved by the General Administration for Traffic Safety of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (knowledge of traffic rules). In the case of deprivation of driving licence by court decision, both licences are lost.


title: Driver's license

text: Even though Switzerland is an EFTA member state, it is not a member of the European Economic Area. Switzerland is instead linked to the EU by a series of bilateral agreements and has generally adopted much of the harmonized EU legislation with regard to driving licenses. Swiss licences can be exchanged in most EEA countries. Switzerland has, since the 2000s, used a system similar to the EU system of vehicle categories and issued credit-card licences that resemble EEA-style.


title: Driver's license

text: To apply for a car driving licence (category B), the applicant must be 17 years old. They must first attend first aid courses, and pass an eyesight test. Passing a theory exam is required to receive a learner's permit valid for two years. This allows holders to drive a car only if accompanied by a person aged 23 or more who has had a full driving licence for a minimum of three years. Before passing the practical exam, the candidate must attend 10 hours of theory lessons on "familiarization with road traffic". Practical driving lessons are not legally required, but are considered a "de facto" prerequisite for passing the practical exam taken with a government official Driving Test Examiner. If the applicant is between 17 and 19 years old, a mandatory 12-month waiting period has to be passed before taking the practical exam. Upon passing the practical exam, a probationary driving permit is issued for three years. To obtain the full, unlimited driving licence after these three years, the candidate must attend one day of further driving training and must not commit any serious traffic violations.


title: Driver's license

text: For motorcycles and heavier vehicles, the regulations are different, and some agrarian vehicles can be driven without a permit. As of 2011, a 45-minute driving lesson costs around , while the various fees and theoretical instruction costs associated with getting a car driving licence can amount to up to , without counting the costs for the two days of further training.


title: Driver's license

text: The theoretical exam must be taken in either German, French, or Italian. In some cantons it is possible to take it in English.


title: Driver's license

text: Turkey has been an associate member since 1963, and its application to accede to the European Economic Community, the predecessor of the European Union (EU), was made on 14 April 1987. Turkey signed a Customs Union agreement with the EU in 1995 and was officially recognized as a candidate for full membership on 12 December 1999, at the Helsinki summit of the European Council.


title: Driver's license

text: On 1 January 2016 new Turkish laws concerning driving licences were implemented. The changes are intended to bring Turkey more in line with existing EU driving regulations and concern all road users in Turkey. A foreign national can drive in Turkey with an EU licence for 6 months. After 6 months it has to be exchanged for a Turkish licence. Application can be made to any Traffic Registration office but the foreign driving licence will not be returned. Instead they will be sent to the issuing authority of the country of origin i.e. for British nationals, DVLA. The DVLA says that expats can drive in the UK on a Turkish licence for up to 12 months, and if they wish to settle back in the UK, the Turkish licence can be exchanged for a UK license.


title: Driver's license

text: In Turkey you must be at least 18 years old in order to drive a car and at least 17 to drive a motorbike. The driving test comprises a practical and theory test, which has been recently made tougher in order to meet European Union regulations.


title: Driver's license

text: Ukrainian driving licences are official documents which authorize their respective holders to operate various types of motor vehicle on public roads.


title: Driver's license

text: Since 9 February 2017, the service of obtaining an international driver's license has become available in Ukraine. It is issued without exams on the basis of a national driver's license, valid for 3 years.


title: Driver's license

text: From 29 December 2021, a mark on passing a practical exam on cars with an automatic transmission in the form of a code "78" will appear in Ukrainian driver's licenses.


title: Driver's license

text: The minimum driving age in the United Kingdom is 16 for mopeds under , and 17 for cars and motorcycles. Access to motorcycles producing more than is restricted to riders with two years experience or aged 21. The British Overseas Territories and the British Crown dependencies issue their own driving licences. There is no legal requirement for a non-professional driver to carry a driving licence in the UK whilst driving, although it must be produced at a police station within seven days, if required to do so by a police officer.


title: Driver's license

text: In the United Kingdom, one must hold a Passenger Carrying Vehicle (PCV) Licence to drive a vehicle with more than eight passenger seats for hire or reward, or a Large Goods Vehicle (LGV) Licence to drive a vehicle with a Gross Vehicle Weight (Maximum Authorized Mass) in excess of . Licences and Driver Certificate of Professional Competence qualification cards must be carried whilst driving vehicles in such categories. Special licences are also required in order to transport hazardous materials.


title: Driver's license

text: Until the UK left the European Union on 1 February 2020, UK driving licences were European driving licences. During the transition period EU law continued to apply to the UK in accordance with the withdrawal agreement, and hence, UK driving licences were valid in the EU and, EU driving licences in the UK until the transition period ended 31 December 2020. The EU flag was removed from UK driving licences when the transition period ended. From 1 January 2021, UK licence holders are still able to use their driving licence to drive in the EU for short visits, with some exceptions. International Driving Permits, as well as arrangements within the Common Travel Area will facilitate driving possibilities between the UK and the EU/EEA countries in those cases.


title: Driver's license

text: In Barbados, a person 16 years or over can apply for a Learner's Permit which allows them to drive for a specified period with an accompanying tutor. During that period they will be tested on their driving skill and their knowledge of road signs and traffic laws. On passing both the written and driving test the full driving licence is issued. Once issued a driving licence is valid for a period of one to five years depending on which period of time the driver chooses to pay for. On the expiry of the period for which the licence is issued, it will become renewable on the last day of the driver's birth month and will again be valid for the time period for which payment is made. Visitors and non-nationals who are the holders of a valid driver's permit issued in their country of residence or origin are not allowed to drive automatically in Barbados but must go to a police station to have a temporary local driving licence issued. The licence is issued on payment of a fee and the production of the visitor's existing permit.


title: Driver's license

text: The age to obtain a Driver's Licence/"permis de conduire" in Canada varies by province, as do the necessary procedures. The minimum age for obtaining a permit to drive unaccompanied in most provinces is 16.


title: Driver's license

text: Every vehicle driver must carry a "Licencia de Conducir", which is issued by COSEVI (Consejo de Seguridad Vial) of the ministry of transport and public infrastructure ("Ministerio de Obras Públicas y Transporte").


title: Driver's license

text: For this permit to be granted there are three needed tests, practical driving (includes driving a car in simulated streets), theoretical driving (a multiple selection written test based on booklet issued by the education department or after taking a special course), and finally a medical test performed by a medical practitioner that tests eyesight, blood pressure and attests the presence of other diseases and behavior of the driver.


title: Driver's license

text: Every citizen can solicit a driver's license at age 18, after being issued the first time, the license must be renewed after two years, and every successive occasion after five years. Foreigners may also obtain a drivers' license if they have residency.


title: Driver's license

text: Besides this document the driver must carry the national identity card ("Cédula de Identidad"), however both documents use the same identification number, the national identity card being the basis of the driver's license number.


title: Driver's license

text: All driver's licenses are given by the government agency SERTRACEN (Servicios de Tránsito Centroamericanos S.A. de C.V.).


title: Driver's license

text: One needs a minimum of 15 years to receive a driver's license (a juvenile license). To get a new license, one needs to pass a vision test, a written test, and a driving test. These tests are given at accredited driving schools. Foreigners with a license from another country can obtain an El Salvador license if they have residency. They will also have to pass a vision test. The driver's license number is the same as the person's Tax ID number.


title: Driver's license

text: El Salvador licenses (as well as vehicle circulation cards) contain a chip which can be read by putting the card in a chip reader.


title: Driver's license

text: A Learner's Permit can be obtained at age 17. After passing both a written and practical test a full "Driver's Licence" can be obtained which will expire on the holder's fifth birthday after the date of issue.


title: Driver's license

text: In Mexico the issue of a "licencia para conducir" is regulated by each state, and they all have different rules and requirements. However, all state issued driving permits are recognized across Mexico, and International Driving Permits (IDP) are also recognized.


title: Driver's license

text: A driver is allowed a learner's permit at the age of 15 (in some states), with a fee of approximately 100 US dollars, a year's validity, and a requirement to drive with an adult at all times. At the age of 16, the fee drops to about 30 US dollars, and a driving permit is issued with some usage restrictions, depending on the state, such as a curfew. Drivers are allowed a full permit when a driver turns 18.


title: Driver's license

text: In Trinidad and Tobago, a Learner's Permit can be obtained from age 17. Driver's Permits are issued by the Licensing Authority, which is governed by the Ministry of Works and Transport. In order to legally operate any motor vehicle in Trinidad and Tobago, whether it is on or off public-owned-roads, the operator of the motor vehicle must be in possession of a valid Driver's Permit on their person and is legally endorsed for that class of vehicle. Contravening this provision could warrant a fine of up to and imprisonment.


title: Driver's license

text: The eligible age to first obtain a driver's license varies substantially from state to state, from 14 years, three months, in South Dakota to 17 in New Jersey. In a majority of states one can obtain a license that allows driving without adult supervision by age 16, after passing the requisite tests. Since the driver's license is a commonplace document that carries much of the necessary information needed for identification, it has become the primary method of identification in the United States. Many driving permits and ID cards display small digits next to each data field. This is required by the American Association of Motor Vehicle Administrators' design standard and has been adopted by many US states.


title: Driver's license

text: In the United States, a holder of a driver's license is typically legally allowed to operate a motor vehicle up to 26,000 pounds if no hazardous materials and no more than 16 persons (driver included) are in the vehicle. Most jurisdictions that grant driver's licenses only permit the holder to operate a roadworthy vehicle consisting of four or more wheels. If not one must get a Grade M license which only allows for one to operate a vehicle with no more than three wheels, such as a tricycle. To operate a two-wheel motorized vehicle with a sustainable speed greater than requires an endorsement on the license, typically after successful completion of a theory (written) and practical test.


title: Driver's license

text: On the federal level, motor vehicles with a curb weight of GCWR of or more, a vehicle designed to transport 16 or more passengers (driver included), or a vehicle transporting hazardous materials can only be driven by an operator carrying a Commercial Driver License (Commercial Motor Vehicle Safety Act of 1986). Upon successful completion of theory and practical testing, endorsements can be applied to a CDL to allow legal transport of specialty types of goods:


title: Driver's license

text: Various state statutes also mandate that a CDL must be held to operate vehicles not covered by federal statutes.


title: Driver's license

text: The minimum driving age varies between 16 and 18 years of age in different States and Territories. After the minimum age, a graduated licensing scheme operates, with state variations.


title: Driver's license

text: A "Cook Islands Driving Licence" is issued at police headquarters in Avarua on the main island of Rarotonga, on production of a valid permit from the visitor's home country. To use a scooter or motor cycle (the main hire vehicles for tourists) a short test has to be taken by anyone whose home permit is only valid for cars, in which a police officer observes the applicant riding up and down the main street of the capital.


title: Driver's license

text: There are three different types of "Driver Licence" in New Zealand: learners (blue), restricted (orange) and full (green). Learner licences allow the person to drive, with a wide number of restrictions. Restricted licences allow driving alone between the hours of 5am to 10pm, and require the person to be at least 16 years 6 months old. Restricted licence drivers who passed their practical test in a vehicle with an automatic transmission are not allowed to drive vehicles with manual transmission until they have their full licence. Full licences are restricted to those 18 and over, or 17 years 6 months old if an approved advanced driving course has been successfully completed.


title: Driver's license

text: There are also different and separate endorsements that can allow full licence holders of different classes to carry passengers for commercial use (e.g. buses, taxis, Uber), drive specialist equipment (e.g. forklifts, excavators), tow vehicles, carry dangerous goods, instruct other drivers or conduct driving tests.


title: Driver's license

text: The minimum age for a driving license is 18 years old. It is obtained via a test in a car, a computer and the applicant must present a vision test which says they are permitted to drive


title: Driver's license

text: Second Degree License (Motorcycles): to 16 years old persons (Type "A", for motorcycles less than 150 cm3 engine capacity) and to 18 years old persons (Type "B", to drive motorcycles of any engine capacity).


title: Driver's license

text: Third Degree License (motor vehicles for the private transportation of persons, with a capacity of up to nine seats, including that of the driver; vehicles destined to the transport of load, whose maximum weight does not exceed two thousand five hundred kilograms): Type "A", to people over sixteen years and under eighteen, subject to the special legal regime; Type "B", to persons over eighteen years of age.


title: Driver's license

text: Fourth and Fifth Degree Licenses: To persons over 21 years of age to drive vehicles with a capacity of up to nine seats destined for public transport of passengers and cargo vehicles, whose maximum weight does not exceed six thousand kilograms. Persons over twenty-five years old, to drive all types of vehicles whatever their capacity or use.


title: Driver's license

text: Licensing departments in many countries add an organ donation option on application forms. Sometimes a small picture of a heart or the term "Organ Donor" is printed on the driving permit, to indicate the holder's agreement to donate their organs in case of sudden death, such as after a collision.


title: Driver's license

text: In the United States, this is governed by the Uniform Anatomical Gift Act. In New Zealand and the Republic of Ireland, willingness to donate organs for transplant is also listed on driving permits. In Australia, the system of notating organ donation requests on permits was replaced in July 2005 with a national registration system and the issue of special cards. In Great Britain (England, Wales and Scotland), code "115" is printed on the reverse of their driving permit to indicate that details are on the National Health Service (NHS) Organ Donor Register.


title: Driver's license

text: Many groupings of countries have agreed to recognize driving permits issued by the authorities of any of their members. Examples include the European Union and the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC), where holders of permits issued by any member state can drive in all member states. Most countries worldwide will also recognize the permits of citizens of foreign states wishing to drive as visitors. All EU member countries now issue permits in a standard format, regardless of the language of the permit.


title: Driver's license

text: The International Driving Permit (IDP) (sometimes erroneously called the "International Driver's License") is a booklet which is an authorized translation of a driver's home permit into up to ten languages (including languages with non-Latin scripts such as Arabic, Chinese, Greek, Japanese and Russian). In many cases, it is obtained from a motoring organization such as the Automobile Association or the equivalent in the driver's home country. In other cases, it is delivered by the same government services that deliver ordinary permits. The IDP has no validity except when used in conjunction with the driver's own domestic permit. The existence of the IDP is necessitated by many countries refusing to recognize driving permits written in foreign languages without accompanying certified translations.


title: Driver's license

text: Temporary visitors from the United States to France (less than 90 days) are permitted to drive with a valid US state driver's license. In addition to holding a US driver's license, visitors are advised (but not required) to carry an International Driving permit, or attach a French translation to their US state driver's license.


title: Driver's license

text: China, at present, does not recognize IDPs and requires drivers to get an additional Chinese licence before being officially allowed on all roads. Holders of foreign permits are exempt from certain requirements when obtaining a Chinese permit.


title: Driver's license

text: A minimum driving age often exists regardless of possession of a foreign permit; an American cannot drive below the local minimum age in Europe, nor can a 17-year-old Briton drive in mainland Europe where the minimum age is 18.


title: Driver's license

text: Many countries have established a "driver's license exchange arrangement" after reviews of the foreign jurisdiction's licensing processes. Where standards in the other jurisdiction are comparable in areas such as medical standards, minimum driving age, and knowledge and road testing, an exchange of the foreign jurisdiction's license may occur. This may also be called Driver's License Reciprocity.


title: Driver's license

text: Most issuing authorities require holders of foreign permits taking up residence in their jurisdiction to obtain a local driving permit within a limited time, typically 6 months or 1 year. In most cases, the driver must follow the full local procedure for obtaining a permit, but some jurisdictions have mutual recognition agreements and will exchange the foreign permit for a local one without the need to undertake an additional driving test.


title: Driver's license

text: An exception is the EU, where permits do not need to be exchanged since the introduction of the "common EU driving licence scheme".


title: Driver's license

text: Each state in Australia has different rules for how long a visitor can drive on an international license or a license from a different state. For example, New South Wales allows three months whereas Victoria allows six months. Drivers that move permanently to another state must change their license to a local state license within the prescribed time. This is usually free. In some states, drivers with a full New Zealand driver licence are treated as interstate drivers.


title: Driver's license

text: British Columbia has a reciprocal licence exchange scheme with other Canadian provinces and territories as well as other countries provided the licence is still valid or has been expired for less than three years.


title: Driver's license

text: In Ontario, holders of a (7L) licence, which is given out by British Columbia, Alberta and Saskatchewan, are not restricted to being accompanied by a supervisor while driving in Ontario, until they get their full permit at the age of 18. Ontario has a reciprocal permit exchange scheme for Canadian provinces and territories, Canadian Forces Europe, and some other countries.


title: Driver's license

text: Quebec has a reciprocal licence exchange scheme for Canadian provinces and territories, Canadian Forces Europe, American states and other countries.


title: Driver's license

text: US state driver's licenses can be exchanged from the 18 states below during the first year of legal residence in France: Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Hampshire, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Texas, Virginia and Wisconsin.


title: Driver's license

text: If you are a resident of France (holder of a carte de séjour or carte de résidence), you may drive in France with a valid US state driver's license for a one-year recognition period, beginning on the date of validity of the first carte de séjour (exception for students who are allowed to use their driver's license for the duration of their studies). In addition to having a US state driver's license, residents are also required to attach a French translation done by a sworn translator, or "expert traducteur" or "traducteur assermenté".


title: Driver's license

text: The US Embassy in Berlin, supported by the US Chamber of Commerce in Germany, continues to actively press all US states, territories, and Washington, D.C. to reach an agreement on the reciprocal recognition of driver's licenses with Germany, essentially a waiver of testing requirements.


title: Driver's license

text: If approved, drivers from Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Delaware, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Maryland, Michigan, New Mexico, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Puerto Rico, South Carolina, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Virginia, West Virginia, Washington state, Wisconsin, and Wyoming will be exempted from both the road and written driving tests.


title: Driver's license

text: If approved, drivers from Connecticut, District of Columbia, Florida, Indiana, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, North Carolina, Oregon, Tennessee will be exempted from the road tests only.


title: Driver's license

text: As stated on the application form for direct issue of a full Hong Kong driving licence (Rev. 11/2008), when a person has documentary evidence to the Commissioner for Transport's satisfaction that all of the following apply, the person is eligible for direct issue of a Hong Kong permit:


title: Driver's license

text: A foreigner 18 years of age or older and holding a Work Pass/Dependent Pass/Student Pass may drive in Singapore with a valid class 3, 3A or 2B foreign permit, for a period of not more than 12 months. A Singaporean driving licence is required after 12 months. Those on short term social visits may drive with their foreign permit for up to 12 months each time they enter into Singapore. For licences not written in the English language, an International Driving Permit or translation is required.


title: Driver's license

text: In order to convert a foreign permit to a Singapore driving licence, passing the Basic Theory Test (BTT) is required. Overseas theory test results are not admissible for consideration.


title: Driver's license

text: Residents in Sweden having a foreign permit can exchange it for a Swedish licence, if it is from an EEA country, Switzerland or Japan. Foreign licences are valid if the holder has not been living in Sweden for more than a year (and some more requirements).


title: Driver's license

text: The Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency (DVLA), which licenses drivers in Great Britain (England, Scotland and Wales) but not Northern Ireland, exchanges full driving permits issued by:


title: Driver's license

text: The Driver & Vehicle Agency (DVA), which licenses drivers in Northern Ireland, exchanges full driving permits issued by:


title: Driver's license

text: A Driver's License from any US state is valid for temporary use in any other US state, although most states require that a person have a license issued by their state of primary residence. Most states allow residents to convert an out-of-state license to an in-state license without any additional written or road tests.


title: Driver's license

text: Delaware has a reciprocal license exchange for Germany, France, and Taiwan to allow holders of those licenses to obtain a Delaware license without any additional written or road tests.


title: Driver's license

text: A District of Columbia driver's license may be obtained while maintaining an out-of-country driver's license. D.C. driver's licenses may vary for non-US citizens, depending on visa classification. The written test is required for non-US citizens who possess an out-of-country driver's license.


title: Driver's license

text: Florida has a reciprocal license agreement with South Korea, allowing South Korea licenses to be exchanged for a Florida license, and vice versa, without taking a written or road test.


title: Driver's license

text: A New York State driver's license may be obtained by a resident of another country. If the driver has a driver's license from any nation except Canada, they must pass a written test, complete a 5-hour pre-licensing course, and pass a road test to qualify for a driver's license.


title: Driver's license

text: Texas does not require drivers from Canada, France, Germany, or Taiwan to take the written and practical tests, but drivers must agree to a vision test.


title: Driver's license

text: Washington state has a reciprocal license exchange, allowing holders of valid licenses from any other US state, British Columbia, Germany, South Korea, and Taiwan to exchange their license for a Washington State license without taking any written or road tests.


title: Driver's license

text: Virginia has a reciprocal agreement with Canada, France, and Germany. The knowledge and skills tests may be waived if the driver meets residency and other requirements.


title: Yaoundé

text: Yaoundé (; , ) is the capital of Cameroon and, with a population of more than 2.8 million, the second-largest city in the country after the port city Douala. It lies in the Centre Region of the nation at an elevation of about 750 metres (2,500 ft) above sea level.


title: Yaoundé

text: The outpost of Epsumb or Jeundo was founded between the Nyong and Sanaga rivers at the northern edge of the area's forests in 1887 by German explorers as a trading base for rubber and ivory. A military garrison was built in 1895 which enabled further colonization. After Imperial Germany's defeat in World War I, France held eastern Cameroon as a mandate, and Yaoundé was chosen to become the capital of the colony in 1922.


title: Yaoundé

text: Douala remained the more important settlement, but Yaoundé saw rapid growth and continued as the seat of government for the Republic of Cameroon upon its independence in 1960. Most of Yaoundé's economy is still centred on the administrative structure but major industries in Yaoundé include tobacco, dairy products, beer, clay, glass goods and timber. The city has many striking monuments and buildings, such as the Presidential Palace and Palais des Congrès.


title: Yaoundé

text: The earliest inhabitants of Cameroon were likely the Bakas (pygmies). They still inhabit the forests of the south and east provinces. Bantu speakers originating in the Cameroonian highlands were among the first groups to move out before other invaders. During the late 1770s and early 1800s, the Fulani—a pastoral Islamic people of the western Sahel—conquered most of what is now northern Cameroon, subjugating or displacing its largely non-Muslim inhabitants.


title: Yaoundé

text: The outpost of Epsumb or Jeundo was founded between the Nyong and Sanaga rivers at the northern edge of the area's forests in 1887, 1888, or February 1889 by the German explorers Lt. Richard Kund and Hans Tappenbeck by the agreement of the chiefs of Ela Esono. From December 1889 to May 1895, it was occupied by the German botanist Georg August Zenker as an agricultural research station named Jaunde after the local Yaunde or Ewondo people. His settlement served as a base for the area's rubber and ivory trade, purchasing these from the natives in exchange for imported clothing and iron. It was also known in English as Yaunde Station. Major Dominik's establishment of a military garrison at the site in 1895 permitted a Pallotine mission and religious school at nearby Mvolyé (now a suburb).


title: Yaoundé

text: During World War I, Jaunde was occupied by Belgian troops from the Congo. After Imperial Germany's defeat in that war, France held eastern Cameroon as a mandate of the League of Nations and Yaoundé was chosen to become the capital of the colony in 1922.


title: Yaoundé

text: Douala long remained the more important settlement, but Yaoundé saw rapid growth after 1957 due to the cocoa crisis and unrest along the coast. It continued as the seat of government for the Republic of Cameroon upon its independence.


title: Yaoundé

text: Most of Yaoundé's economy is centred on the administrative structure of the civil service and the diplomatic services. Owing to these high-profile central structures, Yaounde has a higher standard of living and security than the rest of Cameroon.


title: Yaoundé

text: Major industries in Yaoundé include tobacco, dairy products, beer, clay, glass goods and timber. It is also a regional distribution centre for coffee, cocoa, copra, sugar cane and rubber.


title: Yaoundé

text: Local residents engage in urban agriculture. The city is estimated to have "50,000 pigs and over a million chickens."


title: Yaoundé

text: In 2010, under Mayor Jean Claude Adjessa Melingui, Yaoundé began a flood reduction project, the Yaoundé City Sanitation Master Plan, to deal with "severe floods [that] disrupted the city 15 to 20 times a year, affecting as many as 100,000 people at a time." After four years, the frequency of flooding had been reduced from fifteen to three times a year, and cases of water-borne diseases such as typhoid and malaria were reduced by almost half. Although Melingui died in 2013, local officials are continuing his efforts to transform the city. Ongoing improvements to sanitation infrastructure are being carried out under a "$152 million plan, largely financed by loans, primarily from the African Development Bank and the French Development Agency", slated for completion in 2017.


title: Yaoundé

text: Despite the security issues and humanitarian crises that have plagued the central African nation, its economy remains stable. In fact, there is diversification of its productive economic activities, with the services sector contributing about half of the total domestic production. However, like many African countries, Cameroon has long suffered from corruption, which dominates almost all the sectors, particularly in the capital city. Oil, gas and mining revenues are rarely reported, which implies massive graft. In addition, there is weak protection of real and intellectual property, and the judicial system is vulnerable to political manipulation.


title: Yaoundé

text: According to Yaoundé City Council data, over 130 floods struck the city between 1980 and 2014, causing massive loss of life and economic damage. However, there has been a reduction of flooding in the city since the establishment of a sanitation master plan to address the issue. Another measure was to relocate people living along the drainage routes and in low-lying flood zones.


title: Yaoundé

text: The city centre houses government offices, some hotels, and the central market. The Bastos district, with most homes owned by Cameroonians, is home to foreign embassies and the expatriate European, American and other continental communities (drawn mainly from the diplomatic corps). The presidential palace and compound are in the Etoudi district.


title: Yaoundé

text: There is a small zoo in the Mvog-Betsi neighbourhood. Yaoundé has a small assortment of Pubs, nightclubs and restaurants.


title: Yaoundé

text: A distance outside Yaoundé is the NGO Ape Action Africa, which rescues and rehabilitates Great Apes threatened with extinction by the illegal bushmeat and deforestation trades.


title: Yaoundé

text: The places of worship in the city are predominantly Christian churches: Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Yaoundé (Catholic Church), Christian Missionary Fellowship International and Associated Churches (Pentecostal), Evangelical Church of Cameroon (World Communion of Reformed Churches), Presbyterian Church in Cameroon (World Communion of Reformed Churches), Union of Baptist Churches in Cameroon (Baptist World Alliance), Full Gospel Mission Cameroon (Assemblies of God). There are also Muslim mosques.


title: Yaoundé

text: Yaoundé features a tropical wet and dry climate (Aw), with constant temperatures throughout the year. However, primarily due to the altitude, temperatures are not quite as hot as one would expect for a city located near the equator. Yaoundé features a lengthy wet season, covering a ten-month span between March and November. However, there is a noticeable decrease in precipitation within the wet season, seen during the months of July and August, almost giving the city the appearance of having two separate rainy seasons. It's primarily due to the relative lull in precipitation during these two months that Yaoundé features a tropical wet and dry climate, as opposed to a tropical monsoon climate.


title: Yaoundé

text: Yaoundé Nsimalen International Airport is a major civilian hub, while nearby Yaoundé Airport is used by the military. Train lines run west to the port city of Douala and north to N'Gaoundéré. Many bus companies operate from the city; particularly in the Nsam and Mvan districts. Frequent buses run on the road between Yaoundé and Douala, which has witnessed several fatal accidents. Travel time by road between Douala and Yaounde is approximately 3 hours. Traffic in the city can be heavy during weekdays, but is very light during the weekends. Yaoundé has made significant progress in infrastructure, especially road construction.


title: Yaoundé

text: Cameroon is a bilingual country, where English and French are both official languages; therefore in the city there is a coexistence of French educational system schools, where the degree giving access to university is the Baccalaureate, and all the education is in French, and the English educational system schools, where the degree giving access to university is the GCE Advanced level.


title: Yaoundé

text: There are three American schools in Cameroon, the American School of Yaounde (ASOY) and Rain Forest International School (RFIS), and the American School of Douala (ASD). There is also one Turkish School, The Amity College/School.


title: Yaoundé

text: Yaoundé is the site of several universities: the University of Yaoundé II (on a campus outside of town), the Protestant University of Central Africa (UPAC) and the Catholic University of Central Africa (UCAC). Several of the nation's professional schools are also located in Yaounde (Higher Teacher's training college, École Militaire InterArmes du Cameroun) as well as various schools for Engineers (Polytech), Doctors (CUSS), Nurses and Diplomats.


title: Yaoundé

text: The largest hospital is the Central Hospital of Yaoundé ("Hôpital Central de Yaoundé") with 650 beds. Yaoundé General Hospital ("Hôpital Général de Yaoundé" – HGY) had 302 beds when it was built in 1985. Other hospitals are the Yaoundé Gynaecology, Obstetrics and Pediatrics Hospital ("Hôpital Gynéco-Obstétrique et Pédiatrique de Yaoundé" – HGOPY) and the University Hospital Center of Yaoundé ("Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Yaoundé" – CHU).


title: Yaoundé

text: The national football team plays some of its home matches in the Ahmadou Ahidjo stadium and the football clubs Canon Yaoundé, Impôts FC and Tonnerre Yaoundé are all based in the city. The Grand Prix Chantal Biya, a men's road bicycle racing event on the UCI Africa Tour, starts and finishes in Yaoundé.


title: Yaoundé

text: Yaoundé is also the base for the National Institute of Youth and Sport (); this school trains government workers who will be in charge of sport all across the country during their career.


title: Yaoundé

text: Joel Embiid, center for the Philadelphia 76ers, and Luc Mbah a Moute, who was a forward for the Los Angeles Clippers are from Yaoundé, as are Samuel Umtiti, a footballer for the national team of France and FC Barcelona, Breel Embolo, a footballer for AS Monaco FC and Vincent Aboubakar, a footballer for Porto.


title: Jeremy Bamber

text: Jeremy Nevill Bamber (born Jeremy Paul Marsham; 13 January 1961) is a British convicted murderer. He was convicted of the 1985 White House Farm murders in Tolleshunt D'Arcy, Essex, in which the victims included Bamber's adoptive parents, Nevill and June Bamber; his adoptive sister, Sheila Caffell; and his sister's six-year-old twin sons, Daniel and Nicholas Caffell. Returning a majority guilty verdict, the jury found that, after committing the murders to secure a large inheritance, Bamber had placed the rifle in the hands of his 28-year-old sister, who had been diagnosed with schizophrenia, to make the scene appear to be a murder–suicide.


title: Jeremy Bamber

text: Bamber is serving life imprisonment with a whole life tariff, meaning that he has no possibility of parole. He has repeatedly applied unsuccessfully to have his conviction overturned or his whole life tariff removed; his extended family remains convinced of his guilt. The Criminal Cases Review Commission (CCRC) referred the case to the Court of Appeal in 2001, which upheld the conviction in 2002. The appeal was rejected and the CCRC rejected further applications from Bamber in 2004 and 2012, with the commission stating in 2012 that it had not identified any new evidence or legal argument capable of raising a real possibility that his conviction would be quashed. On 10 March 2021, a new application was lodged with the Criminal CCRC for a referral to the Court of Appeal.


title: Jeremy Bamber

text: Jeremy Bamber was born Jeremy Paul Marsham at St Mary Abbots Hospital, Kensington, London, to Juliet Dorothy Wheeler (born 1938 in Leicester), a vicar's daughter who had had an affair with British Army Sergeant Major Leslie Brian Marsham (born 1931 in Tendring, Essex), a controller at Buckingham Palace. Wheeler gave the baby up for adoption in 1961, the year of his birth, through the Church of England Children's Society. Nevill and June Bamber adopted Bamber when he was six months old. It was only after his conviction that his biological parents were told by reporters that Bamber was their son. They were by then married to each other and working at Buckingham Palace.


title: Jeremy Bamber

text: The Bambers were wealthy farmers who lived in a large Georgian house at White House Farm, near Tolleshunt D'Arcy in Essex. Nevill was a local magistrate and former RAF pilot. In 1957, four years before adopting Jeremy, the couple had adopted a baby girl, Sheila.


title: Jeremy Bamber

text: Bamber attended St Nicholas Primary, followed by Maldon Court, a private prep school. In September 1970 he was sent to Gresham's School, a boarding school in Holt, Norfolk. Bamber left Gresham's with no qualifications, much to Nevill's anger, but managed to pass seven O-levels at The Sixth Form College in Colchester, which he left in 1978. Brett Collins claims Bamber had sexual relationships with men and women, finding that his good looks and charm made him popular with both.


title: Jeremy Bamber

text: After leaving school Nevill financed a trip for Bamber to Australia, where he took a scuba diving course, and to New Zealand. In New Zealand, according to Collins, Bamber was "ripped off" by a would-be heroin dealer in Auckland. Bamber reportedly boasted of smuggling heroin overseas and broke into a jewellery shop to steal two expensive watches, one of which he gave to a girlfriend in the UK. One of Bamber's cousins claimed that he ended up leaving New Zealand in a hurry after friends of his had been involved in an armed robbery.


title: Jeremy Bamber

text: Bamber returned to the UK and worked in restaurants and bars, including a period as a waiter in a Little Chef on the A12; but he later agreed to return home and work on his father's farm. Although Bamber reportedly resented the low wages, he was given a car and lived rent-free in a cottage his father owned at 9 Head Street, Goldhanger, from his family's farmhouse at White House Farm. He also owned eight percent of his family's caravan site, Osea Road Camp Sites Ltd., in Maldon. A few weeks before the murders, Bamber broke into and robbed the caravan park; this was only revealed following the murders, when he admitted to the robbery after his girlfriend Julie Mugford came forward as a witness against him.


title: Jeremy Bamber

text: Bamber claims he alerted police to the shootings at around 3:30am on 7 August 1985. He contests to have told them Nevill had telephoned him to say that Bamber's sister, Sheila Caffell, had gone "berserk" with Nevill's rifle. When police entered the farmhouse at White House Farm, Caffell was found dead on the floor of her parents' bedroom with the rifle up against her throat. June was found in the same room. Caffell's six-year-old twin sons, Nicholas and Daniel, were found in their beds in another upstairs room, while Nevill was found in the kitchen downstairs. The family had been shot a total of twenty-five times, mostly at close range.


title: Jeremy Bamber

text: Sheila had spent time in a psychiatric hospital undergoing treatment for schizophrenia months before the murders. The police believed that she was responsible until Mugford told them Jeremy had implicated himself. The prosecution argued that there was no evidence that Bamber's father had telephoned him, stating that Nevill was too badly injured to have spoken to anyone; that there was no blood on the kitchen phone; and that he would have called the police, not Bamber. They also argued that the silencer was on the rifle when the shots were fired and that Caffell's reach was not long enough to hold the gun and silencer at her throat and press the trigger. In addition, Sheila was not strong enough, they said, to have overcome Nevill in what appeared to have been a violent struggle in the kitchen. They also argued that the fact she had shot herself twice in her apparent suicide attempt was evidence that she was not the killer.


title: Jeremy Bamber

text: Bamber's defence team have unsuccessfully challenged the evidence over the years. They alleged that a police log suggested that Bamber's father had indeed called the police that night and that the silencer may not have been on the gun during the attacks. The evidence about the silencer was unreliable, they argued, because the silencer was found in a farmhouse cupboard by one of Bamber's cousins three days after the murders.


title: Jeremy Bamber

text: Jeremy Bamber is currently confined at HM Prison Wakefield. Whilst there, he has worked as a peer partner, which involves helping other prisoners to read and write, and won several awards for transcribing books in the prison's braille workshop. In 2001, "The Times" alleged that he had been treated with indulgence at HM Prison Long Lartin, Worcestershire, where prisoners were given the key to their cells. Among the allegations claimed that he studied for his GCSE in Sociology and Media Studies, had a daily badminton lesson, and drew pictures of supermodels in an art class, which he later sold through an outside agent.


title: Jeremy Bamber

text: A group of outside supporters has formed around Bamber, and he has reportedly developed several close relationships with women since his conviction. He defended himself on one occasion from a knife attack by another prisoner by using a broken bottle, and on another received twenty-eight stitches on his neck after being attacked while making a telephone call. In 1994, Bamber called a radio station from Long Lartin prison to declare his innocence.


title: Jeremy Bamber

text: Bamber launched two unsuccessful legal actions while in prison to recover a share of his family's estate. His grandmother had cut Bamber out of her will when he was arrested, and most of the inheritance went to June's sister. In 2004, Bamber went to the High Court again to claim a share of the profits from the Bambers' caravan site in Maldon. He had retained his shares after his conviction, but had sold them to pay the legal costs arising from his claim on his grandmother's estate. The court ruled that he was not entitled to any profit from the site because of his conviction.