title: The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

text: At the territorial convention, Ranse is nominated as their delegate to Congress, but withdraws after a representative of the cattle barons calls him a murderer, feeling that he cannot build a career out of "killing a man". Tom arrives and, in an inception flashback, explains to Ranse that it was he, not Ranse, that killed Valance; knowing that Ranse could never hope to beat Valance, Tom shot him with Pompey's rifle at the same time he fired. Tom encourages Ranse to accept the nomination for Hallie's sake before quietly walking out of the convention.


title: The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

text: In the present, Ranse's rising political achievements – state governor, senator, ambassador to the United Kingdom, and likely vice-presidential nominee in the upcoming election – fill in the intervening years, but the editor, knowing that publishing the story would ruin Ranse's legacy, chooses to burn his notes and leave him to conduct Tom's funeral in peace. On the return trip to Washington, D.C., Ranse contemplates retiring to Shinbone, which pleases Hallie. As he thanks the train conductor for the railroad's many courtesies, the conductor answers, "Nothing's too good for the man who shot Liberty Valance!"


title: The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

text: In contrast to prior John Ford Westerns, such as "The Searchers" (1956) and "She Wore a Yellow Ribbon" (1949), "The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance" was shot in black-and-white on Paramount's soundstages. Many stories and speculations exist to explain this decision. Ford claimed to prefer that medium over color: "In black and white, you've got to be very careful. You've got to know your job, lay your shadows in properly, get your perspective right, but in color, there it is," he said. "You might say I'm old fashioned, but black and white is real photography." Ford also reportedly argued that the climactic shoot-out between Valance and Stoddard would not have worked in color.


title: The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

text: Others have interpreted the absence of the magnificent outdoor vistas so prevalent in earlier Ford Westerns as "a fundamental reimagining [by Ford] of his mythic West" – a grittier, less romantic, more realistic portrayal of frontier life. A more pragmatic interpretation cites the fact that Wayne and Stewart, two of Hollywood's biggest stars working together for the first time, were arguably considerably older (54 and 53, respectively) than the characters they were playing. Filming in black and white helped ease the suspension of disbelief necessary to accept that disparity. According to cinematographer William H. Clothier, however, "There was one reason and one reason only ... Paramount was cutting costs. Otherwise we would have been in Monument Valley or Brackettville and we would have had color stock. Ford had to accept those terms or not make the film."


title: The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

text: Another condition imposed by the studio, according to Van Cleef, was that Wayne be cast as Doniphon. Ford resented the studio's intrusion and retaliated by taunting Wayne relentlessly throughout the filming. "He didn't want Duke [Wayne] to think he was doing "him" any favors," Van Cleef said. Strode recounted that Ford "kept needling Duke about his failure to make it as a football player", comparing him to Strode (a former NFL running back), whom he pronounced "a real football player". (Wayne's football career at USC had been curtailed by injuries.) He also ridiculed Wayne for failing to enlist during World War II, during which Ford filmed a series of widely praised combat documentaries for the Office of Strategic Services and was wounded at the Battle of Midway, and Stewart served with distinction as a bomber pilot and commanded a bomber group. "How rich did you get while Jimmy was risking his life?" he demanded. Wayne's avoidance of wartime service was a major source of guilt for him in his later years. Another credible explanation is that Ford kept Wayne off balance to intensify the focus and power of his performance.


title: The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

text: Stewart related that midway through filming, Wayne asked him why he, Stewart, never seemed to be the target of Ford's venomous remarks. Other cast- and crew-members also noticed Stewart's apparent immunity from Ford's abuse. Then, toward the end of filming, Ford asked Stewart what he thought of Strode's costume for the film's beginning and end, when the actors were playing their parts 25 years older. Stewart replied, "It looks a bit Uncle Remussy to me." Ford responded, "What's wrong with Uncle Remus?" He called for the crew's attention and announced, "One of our "players" doesn't like Woody's costume. Now, I don't know if Mr. Stewart has a prejudice against Negroes, but I just wanted you all to know about it." Stewart said he "wanted to crawl into a mouse hole", but Wayne told him, "Well, welcome to the club. I'm glad you made it."


title: The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

text: Ford's behavior "...really pissed Wayne off," Strode said, "but he would never take it out on Ford," the man largely responsible for his rise to stardom. "He ended up taking it out on me." While filming an exterior shot on a horse-drawn cart, Wayne almost lost control of the horses and knocked Strode away when he attempted to help. When the horses did stop, Wayne tried to pick a fight with the younger and fitter Strode. Ford called out, "Don't hit him, Woody, we need him." Wayne later told Strode, "We gotta work together. We both gotta be professionals." Strode blamed Ford for nearly all the friction on the set. "What a miserable film to make," he added.


title: The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

text: Stewart received top billing over Wayne on promotional posters and the trailers, but in the film itself, Wayne's screen card appears first and slightly higher on a sign post. The studio also specified that Wayne's name appear before Stewart's on theatre marquees, reportedly at Ford's request. "Wayne actually played the lead," Ford said, to Peter Bogdanovich. "Jimmy Stewart had most of the sides [sequences with dialogue], but Wayne was the central character, the motivation for the whole thing."


title: The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

text: The film's music score was composed by Cyril J. Mockridge, but in scenes involving Hallie's relationships with Doniphon and Stoddard, Ford reprised Alfred Newman's "Ann Rutledge Theme", from "Young Mr. Lincoln". He told Bogdanovich that he used the theme in both films to evoke repressed desire and lost love. The film scholar Kathryn Kalinak notes that Ann Rutledge's theme "encodes longing" and "fleshes out the failed love affair between Hallie and Tom Doniphon, the growing love between Hallie and Ranse Stoddard, and the traumatic loss experienced by Hallie over her choice of one over the other, none of which is clearly articulated by dialogue." Portions of the song There'll Be a Hot Time in the Old Town Tonight are played in scenes by bar musicians and a marching band.


title: The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

text: Mockridge's main theme that opens the picture can also be heard, in a somewhat different form, in a trailer for "River of No Return" with Robert Mitchum and Marilyn Monroe released in 1953, currently available for viewing as the trailer for "River of No Return" on Amazon.com.


title: The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

text: The Burt Bacharach-Hal David song "(The Man Who Shot) Liberty Valance" became a top-10 hit for Gene Pitney. Though based upon the movie's plotline, it was not used in the film. Pitney said in an interview that he was in the studio about to record the song when "... Bacharach informed us that the film just came out." It seems unlikely that the song would be used for the opening credits since its lyrics give the film's surprise ending away. The picture was released April 18, 1962, and the song entered the "Billboard" Hot 100 the week ending April 28, 1962, peaking at number four in June. Jimmie Rodgers also recorded the song, in the Gene Pitney style. James Taylor covered it on his 1985 album "That's Why I'm Here", as did The Royal Guardsmen on their 1967 album "Snoopy vs. the Red Baron". It was also covered by Australian rock band Regurgitator on its 1998 David/Bacharach tribute album "To Hal and Bacharach". Members of the Western Writers of America chose it as one of the top 100 Western songs of all time.


title: The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

text: "The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance" was released in April 1962, and achieved both financial and critical success. Produced for $US3.2 million, it grossed $8 million, making it the 15th-highest grossing film of 1962. Edith Head's costumes were nominated for an Academy Award for Best Costume Design (black-and-white), one of the few Westerns ever nominated in that category.


title: The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

text: Contemporary reviews were generally positive, although a number of critics thought the final act was a letdown. "Variety" called the film "entertaining and emotionally involving," but thought if the film had ended 20 minutes earlier, "it would have been a taut, cumulative study of the irony of heroic destiny," instead of concluding with "condescending, melodramatic, anticlimactic strokes. What should have been left to enthrall the imagination is spelled out until there is nothing left to savor or discuss."


title: The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

text: "The Monthly Film Bulletin" agreed, lamenting that the "final anticlimactic 20 minutes ... all but destroy the value of the disarming simplicity and natural warmth which are Ford's everlasting stock-in-trade." Despite this, the review maintained that the film "has more than enough gusto to see it through," and that Ford had "lost none of his talent for catching the real heart, humor and violent flavor of the Old West in spite of the notable rustiness of his technique." A. H. Weiler of "The New York Times" wrote that "Mr. Ford, who has struck more gold in the West than any other film-maker, also has mined a rich vein here," but opined that the film "bogs down" once Stoddard becomes famous, en route to "an obvious, overlong, and garrulous anticlimax."


title: The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

text: Richard L. Coe of "The Washington Post" called the film "a leisurely yarn boasting fine performances," but was bothered by "the incredulous fact that the lively townsfolk of Shinbone didn't polish off Valence [sic] for themselves. On TV, he would have been dispatched by the second commercial, and the villainy would have passed to some shadowy employer, some ruthless rancher who didn't want statehood." John L. Scott of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote, "Director Ford is guilty of a few lengthy, slow periods in his story-telling, but for the most part the old, reliable Ford touches are there." "Harrison's Reports" gave the film a grade of "Very Good", but Brendan Gill of "The New Yorker" was negative and called it "a parody of Mr. Ford's best work."


title: The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

text: More recent assessments have been more uniformly positive. The film is considered one of Ford's best, and in one poll, ranked with "The Searchers" and "The Shootist" as one of Wayne's best Westerns. Roger Ebert wrote that each of the 10 Ford/Wayne westerns is "... complete and self-contained in a way that approaches perfection", and singled out "Liberty Valance" as "the most pensive and thoughtful" of the group. Director Sergio Leone ("Once Upon a Time in the West", "The Good, the Bad and the Ugly") listed Ford as a major influence on his work, and "Liberty Valance" as his favorite Ford film. "It was the only film," he said, "where [Ford] learned about something called pessimism." In a retrospective analysis, "The New York Times" called "Liberty Valance" "...one of the great Western classics," because "it questions the role of myth in forging the legends of the West, while setting this theme in the elegiac atmosphere of the West itself, set off by the aging Stewart and Wayne." "The New Yorker"'s Richard Brody described it as "the greatest American political movie", because of its depictions of a free press, town meetings, statehood debates, and the "civilizing influence" of education in frontier America.


title: Lungfish

text: Lungfish are freshwater vertebrates belonging to the order Dipnoi. Lungfish are best known for retaining ancestral characteristics within the Osteichthyes, including the ability to breathe air, and ancestral structures within Sarcopterygii, including the presence of lobed fins with a well-developed internal skeleton. Lungfish represent the closest living relatives of the tetrapods.


title: Lungfish

text: Today there are only six known species of lungfish, living in Africa, South America, and Australia. The fossil record shows that lungfish were abundant since the Triassic. While vicariance would suggest this represents an ancient distribution limited to the Mesozoic supercontinent Gondwana, the fossil record suggests advanced lungfish had a widespread freshwater distribution and the current distribution of modern lungfish species reflects extinction of many lineages subsequent to the breakup of Pangaea, Gondwana and Laurasia. Lungfish have historically been referred to as salamanderfish, but this term more often refers to "Lepidogalaxias salamandroides".


title: Lungfish

text: All lungfish demonstrate an uninterrupted cartilaginous notochord and an extensively developed palatal dentition. Basal ("primitive") lungfish groups may retain marginal teeth and an ossified braincase, but derived lungfish groups, including all modern species, show a significant reduction in the marginal bones and a cartilaginous braincase. The bones of the skull roof in primitive lungfish are covered in a mineralized tissue called cosmine, but in post-Devonian lungfishes, the skull roof lies beneath the skin and the cosmine covering is lost. All modern lungfish show significant reductions and fusions of the bones of the skull roof, and the specific bones of the skull roof show no homology to the skull roof bones of ray-finned fishes or tetrapods. During the breeding season, the South American lungfish develops a pair of feathery appendages that are actually highly modified pelvic fins. These fins are thought to improve gas exchange around the fish's eggs in its nest.


title: Lungfish

text: Through convergent evolution, lungfishes have evolved internal nostrils similar to the tetrapods' choana, and a brain with certain similarities to the Lissamphibian brain (except for the Queensland lungfish, which branched off in its own direction about 277 million years ago and has a brain resembling that of the "latimeria").


title: Lungfish

text: The dentition of lungfish is different from that of any other vertebrate group. "Odontodes" on the palate and lower jaws develop in a series of rows to form a fan-shaped occlusion surface. These odontodes then wear to form a uniform crushing surface. In several groups, including the modern lepidosireniformes, these ridges have been modified to form occluding blades.


title: Lungfish

text: The modern lungfishes have a number of larval features, which suggest paedomorphosis. They also demonstrate the largest genome among the vertebrates.


title: Lungfish

text: Modern lungfish all have an elongate body with fleshy, paired pectoral and pelvic fins and a single unpaired caudal fin replacing the dorsal, caudal and anal fins of most fishes.


title: Lungfish

text: Lungfish have a highly specialized respiratory system. They have a distinct feature in that their lungs are connected to the larynx and pharynx without a trachea. While other species of fish can breathe air using modified, vascularized gas bladders, these bladders are usually simple sacs, devoid of complex internal structure. In contrast, the lungs of lungfish are subdivided into numerous smaller air sacs, maximizing the surface area available for gas exchange.


title: Lungfish

text: Most extant lungfish species have two lungs, with the exception of the Australian lungfish, which has only one. The lungs of lungfish are homologous to the lungs of tetrapods. As in tetrapods and bichirs, the lungs extend from the ventral surface of the esophagus and gut.


title: Lungfish

text: Of extant lungfish, only the Australian lungfish can breathe through its gills without needing air from its lungs. In other species, the gills are too atrophied to allow for adequate gas exchange. When a lungfish is obtaining oxygen from its gills, its circulatory system is configured similarly to the common fish. The spiral valve of the conus arteriosus is open, the bypass arterioles of the third and fourth gill arches (which do not actually have gills) are shut, the second, fifth and sixth gill arch arterioles are open, the ductus arteriosus branching off the sixth arteriole is open, and the pulmonary arteries are closed. As the water passes through the gills, the lungfish uses a buccal pump. Flow through the mouth and gills is unidirectional. Blood flow through the secondary lamellae is countercurrent to the water, maintaining a more constant concentration gradient.


title: Lungfish

text: When breathing air, the spiral valve of the conus arteriosus closes (minimizing the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood), the third and fourth gill arches open, the second and fifth gill arches close (minimizing the possible loss of the oxygen obtained in the lungs through the gills), the sixth arteriole's ductus arteriosus is closed, and the pulmonary arteries open. Importantly, during air breathing, the sixth gill is still used in respiration; deoxygenated blood loses some of its carbon dioxide as it passes through the gill before reaching the lung. This is because carbon dioxide is more soluble in water. Air flow through the mouth is tidal, and through the lungs it is bidirectional and observes "uniform pool" diffusion of oxygen.


title: Lungfish

text: Lungfish are omnivorous, feeding on fish, insects, crustaceans, worms, mollusks, amphibians and plant matter. They have an intestinal spiral valve rather than a true stomach.


title: Lungfish

text: African and South American lungfish are capable of surviving seasonal drying out of their habitats by burrowing into mud and estivating throughout the dry season. Changes in physiology allow it to slow its metabolism to as little as one sixtieth of the normal metabolic rate, and protein waste is converted from ammonia to less-toxic urea (normally, lungfish excrete nitrogenous waste as ammonia directly into the water).


title: Lungfish

text: Lungfish can be extremely long-lived. A Queensland lungfish at the Shedd Aquarium in Chicago was part of the permanent live collection from 1933 to 2017 after a previous residence at the Sydney Aquarium; at perhaps 90 years old, it was euthanized following a decline in health consistent with old age.


title: Lungfish

text: A primitive Australian fish living in a San Francisco museum is believed to be the oldest living aquarium fish in the world. Methuselah is a four-foot-long (1.2-meter) Australian lungfish, weighing around 40 lb (18.1 kg).


title: Lungfish

text: About 420 million years ago, during the Devonian, the last common ancestor of both lungfish and the tetrapods split into two separate evolutionary linages, with the ancestor of the extant coelacanths diverging a little earlier from a sarcopterygian progenitor. The fossil of Youngolepis from about 415 million years ago already show significant modification of their jaws and jaw muscles towards the specialized lungfish feeding mechanism. "Diabolepis", a 400 million year old lungfish, is the oldest known unmistakingly durophagous vertebrate, and shows that the lungfishes had adapted to a diet including hard-shelled prey very early in their evolution. The transition could have taken as little as 7 million years.


title: Lungfish

text: It is worth noting that, despite the name "lungfish", fish evolved lungs before lungfish, or even lobe-finned fish. The common ancestor of lobe-finned and ray-finned fish had lungs, but in most surviving branches of ray-finned fish these evolved into swim bladders used for flotation, instead of breathing. Some, like the bichirs, do retain their lungs, and several other traits that appear to have been common to lobe-finned and ray-finned fish.


title: Lungfish

text: While the coelacanth shares some traits with the tetrapods (reptiles, amphibians, birds and mammals), the lungfish have other tetrapod traits which are absent in the coelacanth. Evidence suggests that the tetrapods are related more closely to lungfish than to coelacanths.


title: Lungfish

text: The Queensland lungfish, "Neoceratodus forsteri", is endemic to Australia. Fossil records of this group date back 380 million years, around the time when the higher vertebrate classes were beginning to evolve. Fossils of lungfish belonging to the genus "Neoceratodus" have been uncovered in northern New South Wales, indicating that the Queensland lungfish has existed in Australia for at least 100 million years, making it a living fossil and one of the oldest living vertebrate genera on the planet. It is the most primitive surviving member of the ancient air-breathing lungfish (Dipnoi) lineages. The five other freshwater lungfish species, four in Africa and one in South America, are very different morphologically to "N. forsteri". The Queensland lungfish can live for several days out of the water if it is kept moist, but will not survive total water depletion, unlike its African counterparts.


title: Lungfish

text: The South American lungfish, "Lepidosiren paradoxa", is the single species of lungfish found in swamps and slow-moving waters of the Amazon, Paraguay, and lower Paraná River basins in South America. Notable as an obligate air-breather, it is the sole member of its family native to the Americas. Relatively little is known about the South American lungfish, or "scaly salamander-fish". When immature it is spotted with gold on a black background. In the adult this fades to a brown or gray color. Its tooth-bearing premaxillary and maxillary bones are fused like other lungfish. South American lungfishes also share an autostylic jaw suspension (where the palatoquadrate is fused to the cranium) and powerful adductor jaw muscles with the extant lungfish (Dipnoi). Like the African lungfishes, this species has an elongate, almost eel-like body. It may reach a length of . The pectoral fins are thin and threadlike, while the pelvic fins are somewhat larger, and set far back. The fins are connected to the shoulder by a single bone, which is a marked difference from most fish, whose fins usually have at least four bones at their base; and a marked similarity with nearly all land-dwelling vertebrates. The gills are greatly reduced and essentially non-functional in the adults.


title: Lungfish

text: The marbled lungfish, "Protopterus aethiopicus", is found in Africa. The marbled lungfish is smooth, elongated, and cylindrical with deeply embedded scales. The tail is very long and tapers at the end. They are the largest of the African lungfish species as they can reach a length of up to 200 cm. The pectoral and pelvic fins are also very long and thin, almost spaghetti-like. The newly hatched young have branched external gills much like those of newts. After 2 to 3 months the young transform (called metamorphosis) into the adult form, losing the external gills for gill openings. These fish have a yellowish gray or pinkish toned ground color with dark slate-gray splotches, creating a marbling or leopard effect over the body and fins. The color pattern is darker along the top and lighter below. The marbled lungfish's genome contains 133 billion base pairs, making it the largest known genome of any vertebrate. The only organisms known to have more base pairs are the protist "Polychaos dubium" and the flowering plant "Paris japonica" at 670 billion and 150 billion, respectively.


title: Lungfish

text: The gilled lungfish, "Protopterus amphibius" is a species of lungfish found in East Africa. It generally reaches only long, making it the smallest extant lungfish in the world. This lungfish is uniform blue, or slate grey in colour. It has small or inconspicuous black spots, and a pale grey belly.


title: Lungfish

text: The west African lungfish "Protopterus annectens" is a species of lungfish found in West Africa. It has a prominent snout and small eyes. Its body is long and eel-like, some 9-15 times the length of the head. It has two pairs of long, filamentous fins. The pectoral fins have a basal fringe and are about three times the head length, while its pelvic fins are about twice the head length. In general, three external gills are inserted posterior to the gill slits and above the pectoral fins. It has cycloid scales embedded in the skin. There are 40-50 scales between the operculum and the anus and 36-40 around the body before the origin of the dorsal fin. It has 34-37 pairs of ribs. The dorsal side is olive or brown in color and the ventral side is lighter, with great blackish or brownish spots on the body and fins except on its belly. They reach a length of about 100 cm in the wild .


title: Lungfish

text: The spotted lungfish, "Protopterus dolloi", is a species of lungfish found in Africa. Specifically, it is found in the Kouilou-Niari Basin of the Republic of the Congo and Ogowe River basin in Gabon. It is also found in the lower and Middle Congo River Basins. "Protopterus dolloi" can aestivate on land by surrounding itself in a layer of dried mucus. It can reach a length of up to 130 cm.


title: Lungfish

text: Recent molecular genetic analyses strongly support a sister relationship of lungfishes and tetrapods (Rhipidistia), with coelacanths branching slightly earlier.


title: Lungfish

text: The relationships among lungfishes are significantly more difficult to resolve. While Devonian lungfish had enough bone in the skull to determine relationships, post-Devonian lungfish are represented entirely by skull roofs and teeth, as the rest of the skull is cartilaginous. Additionally, many of the taxa already identified may not be monophyletic.


title: Lungfish

text: Current phylogenetic studies support the following relationships of major lungfish taxa: Class Osteichthyes, subclass Sarcopterygii, order Dipnoi.


title: Lungfish

text: In 2017, Anne Kemp, Lionel Calvin, and Guillaume Guinot found a different classification for more derived lungfish. In this new analysis, all extant lungfish belong in the suborder Ceratodontoidei, and despite their similar appearance there is no distinct clade containing only "Ceratodus", "Neoceratodus", and their closest allies.


title: Lungfish

text: New analyses of the relationships of the recently discovered "Persephonichthys chthonica" and modern lungfishes robustly places both taxa within dipterid-grade dipnoans rather than within a clade containing Late Devonian ‘phaneropleurids’ and common Late Paleozoic lungfishes such as "Sagenodus". Monophyly of post-Devonian lungfishes is not supported and the Carboniferous-Permian taxon "Sagenodus" is found to be incidental to the origins of modern lungfishes, suggesting widespread convergence in Late Paleozoic lungfishes.


title: Aromanians

text: The Aromanians () are an ethnic group native to the southern Balkans who speak Aromanian, an Eastern Romance language. They traditionally live in central and southern Albania, south-western Bulgaria, northern and central Greece and North Macedonia, and can currently be found in central and southern Albania, south-western Bulgaria, south-western North Macedonia, northern and central Greece, southern Serbia and south-eastern Romania (Northern Dobruja). An Aromanian diaspora living outside these places also exists. The Aromanians are known by several other names, such as "Vlachs" or "Macedo-Romanians" (sometimes used to also refer to the Megleno-Romanians).


title: Aromanians

text: The term "Vlachs" is used in Greece and in other countries to refer to the Aromanians, with this term having been more widespread in the past to refer to all Romance-speaking peoples of the Balkan Peninsula and Carpathian Mountains region (Southeast Europe).


title: Aromanians

text: Their vernacular, Aromanian, is an Eastern Romance language very similar to Romanian, which has many slightly varying dialects of its own. It descends from the Vulgar Latin spoken by the Paleo-Balkan peoples (Romanized Thracians and the related Dacians for example) subsequent to their Romanization. The Aromanian language shares many common features with Albanian, Bulgarian and Greek; however, although it has many loanwords from Greek, Slavic, and Turkish, its lexicon remains majority Romance in origin.


title: Aromanians

text: The term "Aromanian" derives directly from the Latin "Romanus", meaning Roman citizen. The initial "a-" is a regular epenthetic vowel, occurring when certain consonant clusters are formed, and it is not, as folk etymology sometimes has it, related to the negative or privative "a-" of Greek (also occurring in Latin words of Greek origin). The term was coined by Gustav Weigand in his 1894 work "Die Aromunen". The first book to which many scholars have referred to as the most valuable to translate their ethnic name is a grammar printed in 1813 in Vienna by Mihail G. Boiagi. It was titled Γραμματική Ρωμαϊκή ήτοι Μακεδονοβλαχική/"Romanische oder Macedonowlachische Sprachlehre" ("Romance or Macedono-Vlach Grammar").


title: Aromanians

text: The terms "Vlach" is an exonym used since medieval times. Aromanians call themselves "Rrãmãn" or "Armãn", depending on which of the two dialectal groups they belong, and identify as part of the "Fara Armãneascã" ("Aromanian tribe") or the "Populu Armãnescu" ("Aromanian people"). The endonym is rendered in English as "Aromanian", in Romanian as "Aromâni", in Greek as "Armanoi" (Αρμάνοι), in Albanian as "Arumunët", in Bulgarian as "Arumani" (Арумъни), in Macedonian as "Aromanci" (Ароманци), in Serbo-Croatian as "Armani" and "Aromuni".


title: Aromanians

text: The term "Vlach" was used in medieval Balkans as an exonym for all the Romance-speaking (Romanized) people of the region, as well as a general name for shepherds, but nowadays is commonly used for the Aromanians and Meglenites, Daco-Romanians being named Vlachs only in Serbia, Bulgaria and North Macedonia. The term is noted in the following languages: Greek "Vlachoi" (), Albanian "Vllah", Bulgarian, Serbian and Macedonian "Vlasi" (Bласи), Turkish "Ulahlar", Hungarian "Oláh". It is noteworthy that the term Vlach also meant "bandit" or "rebel" in Ottoman historiography, and that the term was also used as an exonym for mainly Orthodox Christians in Ottoman-ruled western Balkans (mainly denoting Serbs), as well as by the Venetians for the immigrant Slavophone population of the Dalmatian hinterland (also mainly denoting Serbs).


title: Aromanians

text: German academic Thede Kahl, expert on Aromanian studies, divides the Aromanians into two main groups, the "Rrãmãnji" and "Armãnji", which are further divided into sub-groups.


title: Aromanians

text: In the South Slavic countries, such as Serbia, North Macedonia and Bulgaria, the nicknames used to refer to the Aromanians are usually "Vlasi" (South Slavic for Vlachs and Wallachians) and "Tsintsari" (also spelled "Tzintzari, Cincari" or similar), which is derived from the way the Aromanians pronounce the word meaning five, "tsintsi". In Romania, the demonym "Macedoni", "Machedoni" or "Macedoromâni" is also used. In Albania, the terms "Vllah" ("Vlach") and "Çoban" or "Çobenj" (from Turkish "çoban", "shepherd") are used.


title: Aromanians

text: The Aromanian community in Albania is estimated up to 200,000 people, including those who no longer speak the language. Tanner estimates that the community constitutes 2% of the population. In Albania, Aromanian communities inhabit Moscopole, their most famous settlement, the Kolonjë District (where they are concentrated), a quarter of Fier (Aromanian "Ferãcã"), while Aromanian was taught, as recorded by Tom Winnifrith, at primary schools in Andon Poçi near Gjirokastër (Aromanian "Ljurocastru"), Shkallë (Aromanian "Scarã") near Sarandë, and Borovë near Korçë (Aromanian "Curceau") (1987).


title: Aromanians

text: A Romanian research team concluded in the 1960s that Albanian Aromanians migrated to Tirana, Stan Karbunarë, Skrapar, Pojan, Bilisht and Korçë, and that they inhabited Karaja, Lushnjë, Moscopole, Drenovë (Aromanian "Dãrnova") and Boboshticë (Aromanian "Bubushtitsa").


title: Aromanians

text: There was an important community of Aromanians in Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina that was probably assimilated by local dwellers. Initially they were Christians but around year 1000 they adhered to Bogomil/Patarene Christian sect and were Serbianized. After the Turkish occupation, the Aromanians of Bosnia and Herzegovina converted to Islam faith due to economic and religious motifs. There are many artifacts of Aromanians in Bosnia and Herzegovina, mainly in their necropolises. These necropolises cover all Bosnia and consist of funerary monuments, generally without crosses.


title: Aromanians

text: The Aromanian language is related to the Vulgar Latin spoken in the Balkans during the Roman period. It is hard to establish the history of the Vlachs in the Balkans, with a gap between the barbarian invasions and the first mentions of the Vlachs in the 11th and 12th centuries. Byzantine chronicles are unhelpful, and only in the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries the term "Vlach" becomes more frequent, although it proves problematic to distinguish sorts of Vlachs as it was used for various subjects, such as the empire of the Asen dynasty, Thessaly, and Romania across the Danube. It has been assumed that Aromanians are descendants of Roman soldiers or Latinized original populations (Greeks, Illyrians, Thracians or Dardanians), due to the historical Roman military presence in the territory inhabited by the community. According to David Binder, the Greek connection is "undoubtedly the strongest". Many Romanian scholars maintain that the Aromanians were part of a Daco-Romanian migration from the north of the Danube between the 6th and 10th centuries, supporting the theory that the 'Great Romanian' population descend from the ancient Dacians and Romans. Greek scholars view the Aromanians as descendants of Roman legionaries that married Greek women. There is no evidence for either theory, and Winnifrith deems them improbable. The little evidence that exists points that the Vlach (Aromanian) homeland was in the Northern Balkans, North of the Jireček Line demarcating the Latin and Greek linguistic influence spheres. With the Slavic breakthrough of the Danube frontier in the 7th century, Latin-speakers were pushed further southwards. Based on linguistic considerations, Olga Tomic concludes that Aromanians moved from Thrace to their present locations after the Slavic invasion of Thrace, though before the Megleno-Romanians.


title: Aromanians

text: In 2006 "Bosch et al." attempted to determine if the Aromanians are descendants of Latinised Dacians, Greeks, Illyrians, Thracians or a combination of these, but it was shown that they are genetically indistinguishable from the other Balkan populations. Linguistic and cultural differences between Balkan groups were deemed too weak to prevent gene flow among the groups.


title: Aromanians

text: Haplogroup R1b is the most common haplogroup among two or three of the five tested Aromanian populations, which is not shown as a leading mark of the Y-DNA locus in other regions or ethnic groups on the Balkan Peninsula. On the 16 Y-STR markers from the five Aromanian populations, Jim Cullen's predictor speculates that over half of the mean frequency of 22% R1b of the Aromanian populations is more likely to belong to the L11 branch. L11 subclades form the majority of Haplogroup R1b in Italy and western Europe, while the eastern subclades of R1b are prevailing in populations of the eastern Balkans.


title: Aromanians

text: The Aromanians or Vlachs first appear in medieval Byzantine sources in the 11th century, in the "Strategikon of Kekaumenos" and Anna Komnene's "Alexiad", in the area of Thessaly. In the 12th century, the Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela records the existence of the district of "Vlachia" near Halmyros in eastern Thessaly, while the Byzantine historian Niketas Choniates places "Great Vlachia" near Meteora. Thessalian Vlachia was apparently also known as "Vlachia in Hellas". Later medieval sources also speak of an "Upper Vlachia" in Epirus, and a "Little Vlachia" in Aetolia-Acarnania, but "Great Vlachia" is no longer mentioned after the late 13th century.


title: Aromanians

text: The medieval Vlachs (Aromanians) of Herzegovina are considered authors of the famous funerary monuments with petroglyphs ( in Serbian) from Herzegovina and surrounding countries. The theory of the Vlach origin was proposed by Bogumil Hrabak (1956) and Marian Wenzel and more recently was supported by the archeological and anthropological researches of skeleton remains from the graves under stećci. The theory is much older and was first proposed by Arthur Evans in his work "Antiquarian Researches in Illyricum" (1883). While doing research with Felix von Luschan on stećak graves around Konavle, he found that a large number of skulls were not of Slavic origin but similar to older Illyrian and Arbanasi tribes, as well as noting that Dubrovnik memorials recorded those parts inhabited by the Vlachs until the 15th century.


title: Aromanians

text: A distinct Aromanian consciousness was not developed until the 19th century, and was influenced by the rise of other national movements in the Balkans.


title: Aromanians

text: Until then, the Aromanians, as Eastern Orthodox Christians, were subsumed with other ethnic groups into the wider ethnoreligious group of the "Romans" (in Greek "Rhomaioi", after the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire), which in Ottoman times formed the distinct "Rum millet". The "Rum millet" was headed by the Greek-dominated Patriarchate of Constantinople, and the Greek language was used as a "lingua franca" among Balkan Orthodox Christians throughout the 17th–19th centuries. As a result, wealthy, urbanized Aromanians were culturally Hellenized and played a major role in the dissemination of Greek language and culture; indeed, the first book written in Aromanian was written in the Greek alphabet and aimed at spreading Greek among Aromanian-speakers.


title: Aromanians

text: By the early 19th century, however, the distinct Latin-derived nature of the Aromanian language began to be studied in a series of grammars and language booklets. In 1815, the Aromanians of Budapest requested permission to use their language in liturgy, but it was turned down by the local metropolitan.


title: Aromanians

text: The establishment of a distinct Aromanian national consciousness, however, was hampered by the tendency of the Aromanian upper classes to be absorbed in the dominant surrounding ethnicities, and espouse their respective national causes as their own. So much did they become identified with the host nations that Balkan national historiographies portray the Aromanians as the "best Albanians", "best Greeks" and "best Bulgarians", leading to researchers calling them the "chameleons of the Balkans". Consequently, many Aromanians played a prominent role in the modern history of the Balkan nations: the revolutionary Pitu Guli, Greek Prime Minister Ioannis Kolettis, Greek magnate Georgios Averoff, Greek Defence Minister Evangelos Averoff, Serbian Prime Minister Vladan Đorđević, Patriarch Athenagoras I of Constantinople, Romanian metropolitan Andrei Şaguna, the Wallachian and Moldavian rulers of the Ghica family, etc.


title: Aromanians

text: Following the establishment of independent Romania and the autocephaly of the Romanian Orthodox Church in the 1860s, the Aromanians increasingly began to come under the influence of the Romanian national movement. Although vehemently opposed by the Greek church, the Romanians established an extensive state-sponsored cultural and educative network in the southern Balkans: the first Romanian school was established in 1864 by the Aromanian Dimitri Atanasescu, and by the early 20th century there were 100 Romanian churches and 106 schools with 4,000 pupils and 300 teachers. As a result, Aromanians divided into two main factions, one pro-Greek, the other pro-Romanian, plus a smaller focusing exclusively on its Aromanian identity.


title: Aromanians

text: With the support of the Great Powers, and especially Austria-Hungary, the "Aromanian-Romanian movement" culminated in the recognition of the Aromanians as a distinct "millet" (the Ullah Millet) by the Ottoman Empire on 22 May 1905, with corresponding freedoms of worship and education in their own language. Nevertheless, due to the advanced assimilation of the Aromanians, this came too late to lead to the creation of a distinct Aromanian national identity; indeed, as Gustav Weigand noted in 1897, most Aromanians were not only indifferent, but actively hostile to their own national movement.


title: Aromanians

text: At the same time, the Greek–Romanian antagonism over Aromanian loyalties intensified with the armed Macedonian Struggle, leading to the rupture of diplomatic relations between the two countries in 1906. During the Macedonian Struggle, most Aromanians participated on the "patriarchist" (pro-Greek) side, but some sided with the "exarchists" (pro-Bulgarians). However, following the Balkan Wars of 1912–13, Romanian interest waned, and when it revived in the 1920s it was designed more towards encouraging the Romanians' "Macedonian brothers" to emigrate to Southern Dobruja, where there were strong non-Romanian minorities.


title: Aromanians

text: While Romanian activity declined, from World War I on and with its involvement in Albania, Italy made some efforts—not very successful—in converting pro-Romanian sympathies into pro-Italian ones. In World War II, during the Axis occupation of Greece, Italy encouraged Aromanian nationalists to form an "Aromanian homeland", the so-called Principality of the Pindus. The project never gained much traction among the local population, however. On the contrary, many leading figures of the Greek Resistance against the Axis, like Andreas Tzimas, Stefanos Sarafis, and Alexandros Svolos, were Aromanians. The "principality" project collapsed with the Italian armistice in 1943.


title: Aromanians

text: The date of the announcement of the Ottoman "irade" of 23 May 1905 has been adopted in recent times by Aromanians in Albania, Australia, Bulgaria and North Macedonia as the "Aromanian National Day" (), but notably not in Greece or among the Aromanians in the Greek diaspora. In Romania, every 10 May, the Balkan Romanianness Day is celebrated instead for the same event. This observance is meant for the Aromanians but also for the Megleno-Romanians and the Istro-Romanians.


title: Aromanians

text: In modern times, Aromanians generally have adopted the dominant national culture, often with a dual identity as both Aromanian and Greek/Albanian/Bulgarian/Macedonian/Serbian/etc. Aromanians are also found outside the borders of Greece. There are many Aromanians in southern Albania and in towns all over the Balkans, while Aromanians identifying as Romanians are still to be found in areas where Romanian schools were active. There are also many Aromanians who identify themselves as solely Aromanian (even, as in the case of the "Cincars", when they no longer speak the language). Such groups are to be found in southwestern Albania, the eastern parts of North Macedonia, the Aromanians who immigrated to Romania in 1940, and in Greece in the Veria (Aromanian "Veryia") and Grevena (Aromanian "Grebini") areas and in Athens.


title: Aromanians

text: The Aromanians are predominantly Orthodox Christians, and follow the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar.


title: Aromanians

text: In Aromanian rural areas, clothes differed from the dress of the city dwellers. The shape and the colour of a garment, the volume of the headgear, the shape of a jewel could indicate cultural affiliation and also could show the village people came from. Fustanella usage among Aromanians can be traced to at least the 15th century, with notable examples being seen in the Aromanian stećak of the Radimlja necropolis.


title: Aromanians

text: In Greece, Aromanians are not recognised as an ethnic but as a linguistic minority and, like the Arvanites, have been indistinguishable in many respects from other Greeks since the 19th century. Although Greek Aromanians would differentiate themselves from native Greeks ("Grets") when speaking in Aromanian, most still consider themselves part of the broader Greek nation ("Elini", Hellenes), which also encompasses other linguistic minorities such as the Arvanites or the Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia. Greek Aromanians have long been associated with the Greek national state, actively participated in the Greek Struggle for Independence, and have obtained very important positions in government, although there was an attempt to create an autonomous Aromanian canton under the protection of Italy at the end of World War I, called Principality of the Pindus. Aromanians have been very influential in Greek politics, business and the army. Revolutionaries Rigas Feraios and Giorgakis Olympios, Prime Minister Ioannis Kolettis, billionaires and benefactors Evangelos Zappas and Konstantinos Zappas, businessman and philanthropist George Averoff, Field Marshal and later Prime Minister Alexandros Papagos, and conservative politician Evangelos Averoff were all either Aromanians or of partial Aromanian heritage. It is difficult to estimate the exact number of Aromanians in Greece today. The Treaty of Lausanne of 1923 estimated their number between 150,000 and 200,000, but the last two censuses to differentiate between Christian minority groups, in 1940 and 1951, showed 26,750 and 22,736 Vlachs respectively. Estimates on the number of Aromanians in Greece range between 40,000 and 300,000. Kahl estimates the total number of people with Aromanian origin who still understand the language as no more than 300,000, with the number of fluent speakers under 100,000.


title: Aromanians

text: The majority of the Aromanian population lives in northern and central Greece; Epirus, Macedonia and Thessaly. The main areas inhabited by these populations are the Pindus Mountains, around the mountains of Olympus and Vermion, and around the Prespa Lakes near the border with Albania and the Republic of North Macedonia. Some Aromanians can still be found in isolated rural settlements such as Samarina (Aromanian " Samarina", "Xamarina" or "San Marina"), Perivoli (Aromanian "Pirivoli") and Smixi (Aromanian "Zmixi"). There are also Aromanians (Vlachs) in towns and cities such as Ioannina (Aromanian "Ianina", "Enina" or "Enãna"), Metsovo (Aromanian "Aminciu"), Veria


title: Aromanians

text: Generally, the use of the minority languages has been discouraged in Greece, although recently there have been efforts to preserve the endangered languages (including Aromanian) of Greece.


title: Aromanians

text: Since 1994, the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki offers beginner and advanced courses in "Koutsovlach", and cultural festivals with over 40,000 participants—the largest Aromanian cultural gatherings in the world—regularly take place in Metsovo. Nevertheless, there are no exclusively Aromanian newspapers, and the Aromanian language is almost totally absent from television. Indeed, although as of 2002 there were over 200 Vlach cultural associations in Greece, many did not even feature the term "Vlach" in their titles, and only a few are active in preserving the Aromanian language.


title: Aromanians

text: In 1997, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe passed a resolution encouraging the Balkan states to take steps to rectify the "critical situation" of Aromanian culture and language. This was after pressure from the Union for Aromanian Language and Culture in Germany. In response, the then President of Greece, Konstantinos Stefanopoulos, publicly urged Greek Aromanians to teach the language to their children.


title: Aromanians

text: In 2001, 31 Aromanian mayors and heads of villages signed a protest resolution against the U.S. State Department report on the human rights situation in Greece. They complained "against the direct or indirect characterisation of the Vlach-speaking Greeks as an ethnic, linguistic or other minority, stating that the Vlach-speaking Greeks never requested to be recognised by the Greek state as a minority, stressing that historically and culturally they were and still are an integral part of Hellenism, they would be bilingual and Aromanian would be secondary".


title: Aromanians

text: Furthermore, the largest Aromanian group in Greece (and across the world), the Panhellenic Federation of Cultural Associations of Vlachs in Greece, has repeatedly rejected the classification of Aromanian as a minority language or the Vlachs as a distinct ethnic group separate from the Greeks, considering the Aromanians as an "integral part of Hellenism". The Aromanian (Vlach) Cultural Society, which is associated with Sotiris Bletsas, is represented on the Member State Committee of the European Bureau for Lesser Spoken Languages in Greece.


title: Aromanians

text: There is a large Aromanian community in Albania, which is officially called "Vlach Minority" (), specifically in the southern and central regions of the country. It is estimated that the number of Aromanians in Albania go up to 200,000, including those not speaking the language any more. There are currently timid attempts to establish education in their native language in the town of Divjakë.


title: Aromanians

text: For the last years there seems to be a renewal of the former policies of supporting and sponsoring of Romanian schools for Aromanians of Albania. As a recent article in the Romanian media points out, the kindergarten, primary and secondary schools in the Albanian town of Divjakë where the local Albanian Aromanians pupils are taught classes both in Aromanian and Romanian were granted substantial help directly from the Romanian government. The only Aromanian language church in Albania is the Transfiguration of Jesus (Aromanian "Ayiu Sutir") of Korçë, which was given 2 billion lei help from the Romanian government. They also have a political party named Alliance for Equality and European Justice (ABDE; ), which is the only in the world along with two in North Macedonia, and two social organisations named "Shoqata Arumunët/Vllehtë e Shqiperisë" (The Society of the Aromanians/Vlachs of Albania) and "Unioni Kombëtar Arumun Shqiptar" (The Aromanian Albanian National Union). Many of the Albanian Aromanians (Arvanito Vlachs) have immigrated to Greece, since they are considered in Greece part of the Greek minority in Albania.


title: Aromanians

text: Notable Aromanians whose family background hailed from today's Albania include Bishop Andrei Şaguna, and Reverend Llambro Ballamaçi, whereas notable Albanians with an Aromanian family background are actors Aleksandër (Sandër) Prosi, Margarita Xhepa, Albert Vërria, and Prokop Mima, as well as composer Nikolla Zoraqi and singers Eli Fara and Parashqevi Simaku.


title: Aromanians

text: On 13 October 2017, Aromanians received the official status of ethnic minority, through voting of a bill by Albanian Parliament.


title: Aromanians

text: According to official government figures (census 2002), there are 9,695 Aromanians or Vlachs, as they are officially called in North Macedonia. According to the census of 1953 there were 8,669 Vlachs, 6,392 in 1981 and 8,467 in 1994. Aromanians are recognized as an ethnic minority, and are hence represented in Parliament and enjoy ethnic, cultural, linguistic and religious rights and the right to education in their language.


title: Aromanians

text: There are Aromanian cultural societies and associations such as the Union for Aromanian Culture from North Macedonia, The Aromanian League of North Macedonia, The International League of Aromanians and "Comuna Armãneascã "Frats Manachi"", (The Aromanian Community Manaki Brothers) in Bitola (Aromanian "Bituli" or "Bitule"). There also are two political parties representing the Aromanian minority of the country. These are the Democratic Union of the Vlachs of Macedonia (DSVM; , ) and the Party of the Vlachs of Macedonia (PVM; , ). They are the only Aromanian parties in the world along with ABDE in Albania.


title: Aromanians

text: Many forms of Aromanian-language media have been established since the 1990s. North Macedonia's Government provides financial assistance to Aromanian-language newspapers and radio stations. Aromanian-language newspapers such as Phoenix () service the Aromanian community. The Aromanian television program Spark (; Macedonian "Искра" (Iskra)) broadcasts on the second channel of the Macedonian Radio-Television.


title: Aromanians

text: There are Aromanian classes provided in primary schools and the state funds some Aromanian published works (magazines and books) as well as works that cover Aromanian culture, language and history. The latter is mostly done by the first Aromanian Scientific Society, "Constantin Belemace" in Skopje (Aromanian "Scopia"), which has organized symposiums on Aromanian history and has published papers from them. According to the last census, there were 9,596 Aromanians (0.48% of the total population). There are concentrations in Kruševo (Aromanian "Crushuva") 1,020 (20%), Štip (Aromanian "Shtip") 2,074 (4.3%), Bitola 1,270 (1.3%), Struga 656 (1%), Sveti Nikole (Aromanian "San Nicole") 238 (1.4%), Kisela Voda 647 (1.1%) and Skopje 2,557 (0.5%).


title: Aromanians

text: Since the Middle Ages, due to the Turkish occupation and the destruction of their cities, such as Moscopole, Gramoshtea, Linotopi and later on Kruševo, many Aromanians fled their native homelands in the Balkans to settle the Romanian principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, which had a similar language and a certain degree of autonomy from the Turks. These immigrant Aromanians were assimilated into the Romanian population.


title: Aromanians

text: In 1925, 47 years after Dobruja was incorporated into Romania, King Ferdinand gave the Aromanians land and privileges to settle in this region, which resulted in a significant migration of Aromanians into Romania. Today, 25% of the population of the region are descendants of Aromanian immigrants.


title: Aromanians

text: There are currently between 50,000 and 100,000 Aromanians in Romania, most of which are concentrated in Dobruja. According to some Aromanian cultural organizations in Romania, there are some 100,000 Aromanians in Romania, and they are often called "macedoni" ("Macedonians"). Some Aromanian associations even place the total number of people of Aromanian descent in Romania as high as 250,000.


title: Aromanians

text: Recently, there has been a growing movement in Romania, both by Aromanians and by Romanian lawmakers, to recognize the Aromanians either as a separate cultural group or as a separate ethnic group, and extend to them the rights of other minorities in Romania, such as mother-tongue education and representatives in parliament.


title: Aromanians

text: Most of the Aromanians in the Sofia region are descendants of emigrants from the region of Macedonia and northern Greece who arrived between 1850 and 1914.


title: Aromanians

text: In Bulgaria, most Aromanians were concentrated in the region south-west of Sofia, in the region called Pirin, formerly part of the Ottoman Empire until 1913. Due to this reason, a large number of these Aromanians moved to Southern Dobruja, part of the Kingdom of Romania after the Treaty of Bucharest of 1913. After the reinclusion of Southern Dobruja in Bulgaria with the Treaty of Craiova of 1940, most were moved to Northern Dobruja in a population exchange. Another group moved to northern Greece. Nowadays, the largest group of Aromanians in Bulgaria is found in the southern mountainous area, around Peshtera. Most Aromanians in Bulgaria originate from the Gramos Mountains, with some from North Macedonia, the Pindus Mountains in Greece and Moscopole in Albania.


title: Aromanians

text: After the fall of communism in 1989, Aromanians and Romanians (known as "Vlachs" in Bulgaria) have started initiatives to organize themselves under one common association.


title: Aromanians

text: According to the 1926 official census, there were 69,080 Romanians, 5,324 Aromanians, 3,777 "Cutzovlachs", and 1,551 "Tsintsars".


title: Aromanians

text: In medieval times, the Aromanians populated Herzegovina and elevated famous necropolises with petroglyphs (Radimlja, Blidinje, etc.). The Aromanians, known as "Cincari" (Цинцари), migrated to Serbia in the 18th and early 19th centuries. They most often were bilingual in Greek, and were often called "Greeks" ("Grci"). They were influential in the forming of Serbian statehood, having contributed with rebel fighters, merchants and intellectuals. Many Greek Aromanians (Грко Цинцари) came to Serbia with Alija Gušanac as "krdžalije" (mercenaries) and later joined the Serbian Revolution (1804–1817). Some of the notable rebels include Konda Bimbaša and Papazogli. Among the notable people of Aromanian descent are playwright Jovan Sterija Popović (1806–1856), novelist Branislav Nušić (1864–1938), and politician Vladan Đorđević (1844–1930).


title: Aromanians

text: The majority of Serbian people of Aromanian descent do not speak Aromanian and espouse a Serb identity. They live in Niš, Belgrade and some smaller communities in Southern Serbia, such as Knjaževac. The Lunjina Serbian–Aromanian Association was founded in Belgrade in 1991. According to the 2011 census, there were 243 Serbian citizens that identified as ethnic "Cincari". However, unofficial estimates number the Aromanian population of Serbia at 5,000–15,000.


title: Aromanians

text: Aside from the Balkan countries, there are also communities of Aromanian emigrants living in Canada, the United States, France and Germany. Although the largest diaspora community is in select major Canadian cities, Freiburg, Germany has one of the most important Aromanian organisations, the Union for Aromanian Language and Culture. In the United States, the Society Farsharotu is the oldest and most well-known association of Aromanians, founded in 1903 by Nicolae Cican, an Aromanian native of Albania. In France, the Aromanians are grouped in the Trã Armãnami Association of the Aromanians of France.


title: Aromanians

text: The following is a list of notable people of full or partial Aromanian descent. Note that these claims are in many cases disputed or shared with ancestry from other ethnicties.


title: Saskia Reeves

text: Saskia Reeves (born 16 August 1961) is an English actress, best known for her roles in the films "Close My Eyes" (1991) and "I.D." (1995), the 2000 miniseries "Frank Herbert's Dune" and the 2016 film "Our Kind of Traitor".


title: Saskia Reeves

text: Saskia Reeves was born 16 August 1961, and brought up in Twickenham and Paddington, London with her younger sister Imogen, by her Dutch mother and English father. Reeves attended the Lady Eleanor Holles School in Hampton and then studied at London's Guildhall School of Music and Drama.


title: Saskia Reeves

text: Early in her career she performed in puppet shows and in satirical revues at the Covent Garden Community Theatre.


title: Saskia Reeves

text: Her television credits include "Spooks", "The Commander" and the "Bodies" finale. Her stage work includes productions at London's National and Royal Court theatres as well as on international tour.


title: Saskia Reeves

text: In addition to her acting career, Reeves does voice work, including commercials, narration, and book readings.


title: Saskia Reeves

text: In 2008, she starred in English Touring Theatre's revival of Athol Fugard's "Hello and Goodbye" at the Trafalgar Studios in London.


title: Saskia Reeves

text: In 2010, she starred as Anne Darwin, the wife of John Darwin, in BBC4's "Canoe Man", a dramatisation of the John Darwin disappearance case, and co-starred in the BBC1 series "Luther".


title: Saskia Reeves

text: In 2011, Reeves played the matriarch, Anna Brangwen, in the first part of William Ivory's two-part adaptation of D. H. Lawrence's novels "The Rainbow" and "Women in Love", first shown on BBC4. She also had a major role in the 2016 "Midsomer Murders" episode “A Dying Art.”


title: Ali Zafar

text: Ali Zafar (; born 18 May 1980) is a Pakistani singer-songwriter, model, actor, producer, screenwriter and painter. Zafar started out on Pakistani television before becoming a popular musician. He later also established a career in Bollywood and his success led many Pakistani actors to venture into Hindi films. He has received five Lux Style Awards and a Filmfare Award nomination.


title: Ali Zafar

text: Zafar started his career as a music composer and gained popularity with his single "Channo" from his debut album "Huqa Pani", which sold over five million copies worldwide. "Channo" turned out to be a huge success, topping many music charts and earned him several awards for Best Music Album and Artist. Zafar made his acting debut with a leading role in the 2010 Bollywood satire film "Tere Bin Laden", a moderate box office success. His performance in the film garnered critical appreciation and earned him several nominations in the Best Male Debut category, including Filmfare. He then also worked in several films, including "Mere Brother Ki Dulhan", "Chashme Baddoor", and "Dear Zindagi".


title: Ali Zafar

text: Alongside his acting and singing career, Zafar participates in tours, concerts and stage shows, is active in humanitarian work and has a number of endorsement deals. In 2013, Zafar was voted as the ""Sexiest Asian Man on the Planet"", based on a worldwide poll by the British newspaper "Eastern Eye".


title: Ali Zafar

text: On 23 March 2021, Ali Zafar was awarded the highest literary award, Pride of Performance, for his meritorious contribution and achievements in the field of arts and music. He received the award from President of Pakistan Arif Alvi at ceremony at the President House, Islamabad.


title: Ali Zafar

text: Ali Zafar was born on 18 May 1980 in Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan to a Punjabi family. His parents, Mohammad Zafarullah and Kanwal Ameen, were professors at the University of Punjab. He has two brothers, Zain and Danyal; the latter of these is a commercial model who aimed to launch a career as a singer and actor soon. Zafar received his early education from C.A.A. Public School. He graduated from the Government College of Lahore and the National College of Arts.


title: Ali Zafar

text: Zafar started his career as a sketch artist at Pearl Continental Hotel in Lahore and then began acting in television serials. He debuted as a television actor by acting in drama serials "Kollege Jeans", "Kanch Ke Par" and "Landa Bazar".


title: Ali Zafar

text: Zafar sang "Jugnuon Se Bhar De Aanchal" for the 2003 film "Shararat". In the same year, he debuted as a musician with the album "Huqa Pani," which was a success. The album sold over 5,000,000 copies worldwide and won several awards and nominations, including the 2004 Lux Style Award for "Best Album" and the 2008 "Best Male Artist" award at the MTV awards, making him one of the most popular pop singers in Pakistan. It was also claimed that Bollywood's popular music directors Himesh Reshammiya and Pritam ripped "Channo" and "Rangeen" from Zafar's album in "Chhore Ki Baatein" for "Fight Club – Members Only" and "Dillagi Mein Jo Beet Jaaye" for "Aashiq Banaya Aapne" respectively.


title: Ali Zafar

text: Zafar released his second album "Masty" in November 2006. The music video of the single "Dekha" was named as the most expensive music video of Pakistan, costing more than ten million rupees. The video was produced by Lux and was shot in Malaysia, featuring Reema Khan, Meera and Aaminah Haq. The song was also made part of the Hollywood film "", which was released in September 2010. He is currently the fourth Pakistani artist after Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, Strings and Atif Aslam to have songs featured in Hollywood films. He also won the "Youth Icon" award in the Lux Style Awards 2007, in Malaysia. Zafar was also offered a role for 2007 film "Khuda Kay Liye", but was unable to sign due to some personal reasons. The role was then performed by Fawad Khan.


title: Ali Zafar

text: In 2010, he made his debut as a leading actor with the Bollywood film "Tere Bin Laden", which was directed by Abhishek Sharma. "Tere Bin Laden" was partially based on Osama Bin Laden and Zafar played a Pakistani journalist from Karachi, who makes fake video of Osama Bin Laden, so that he could go to America. The film released in July 2010, proved to be a major commercial success in India, but was banned in Pakistan. Zafar's performance in the film garnered critical appreciation and earned him Best Male Debut nominations at several award ceremonies, including IIFA Awards, Screen Awards, Zee Cine Awards and Filmfare Awards. He was also named as the first Pakistani to be called to Indian Film Festival at Australia in March 2011 for his movie screening.


title: Ali Zafar

text: In February 2011, Zafar released his third album "Jhoom", which won the 2012 Lux Style Award for "Best Music Album". He made a special appearance in the film "Luv Ka The End", in which he sang a song, "F.U.N. Fun Funna". He also sung the title song for the film "Love Mein Ghum". He also acted alongside Tara D'Souza in the film "Mere Brother Ki Dulhan", starring Imran Khan and Katrina Kaif, and it was released in September 2011.


title: Ali Zafar

text: In March 2012, Zafar starred in the film "London, Paris, New York" with Aditi Rao Hydari. It was directed by Anu Menon, and Zafar also composed the soundtrack for the film. He also performed the soundtrack for the Pakistani drama "Zindagi Gulzar Hai", which won many awards.


title: Ali Zafar

text: Zafar also starred in the romantic comedy film "Chashme Baddoor", directed by David Dhawan. The film was released in April 2013 and was declared a box office super-hit. The same year, he was also featured in an episode of "Burka Avenger", singing his famous song "Channo".


title: Ali Zafar

text: Zafar then also starred in and composed the soundtrack for the film "Total Siyappa", which was a romantic comedy film released in March 2014. He also acted in "Kill Dil", which was released in November.


title: Ali Zafar

text: Zafar released a single "Urain Ge" as tribute to victims of APS Peshawar attack in early 2015, featuring many Pakistani artists. His voice was also featured in the song "DJ", which was sung by Sunidhi Chauhan for the film "Hey Bro". He then also sang a song for Defence Day, "Hanstay Hanstay".


title: Ali Zafar

text: Zafar had performed an item number "Six Pack Abs" in the sequel of his 2010 film "Tere Bin Laden", entitled "", which was released in February 2016. Zafar was also seen in Pakistani film "Lahore Se Aagey". He then appeared in Gauri Shinde's "Dear Zindagi" as a musician alongside the star cast Alia Bhatt. The films were released in November 2016. He then also sung "Hum Roshan to Kal Roshan", which released in December 2016.


title: Ali Zafar

text: In 2018, Zafar starred in Ahsan Rahim's directorial debut romantic action-comedy film "Teefa in Trouble", alongside Maya Ali, which is debut of both the actors in Lollywood, and also the debut of Zafar's Lightingale Productions. He is also working on his fourth music album, and he will be producing another Pakistani film based in Deosai National Park.


title: Ali Zafar

text: After he got fame, Zafar first performed at the ceremony of 3rd Lux Style Awards in 2004. The following year, he did his stage act at 4th Lux Style Awards. He then sang live the songs in 5th Lux Style Awards in 2006 and 6th Lux Style Awards in 2007, and then performed a stage dance with Reema Khan in the 2007 ceremony. He also had performed in Mela Festival at Oslo, Norway in 2008.


title: Ali Zafar

text: He joined "Coke Studio" Pakistan in 2008 and performed three original songs "Allah Hu", "Daastan-e-Ishq" and "Nahi Ray Nahi", and one tribute song "Yaar Daddi Ishq" to Muhammad Juman, in season one and two.


title: Ali Zafar

text: In 2012, Zafar performed at 11th Lux Style Awards with Humaima Malick and also paid tribute to musician Mehdi Hassan by singing his ghazal "Mujhe Tum Nazar Sai". He also performed at the Pantaloons Femina Miss India contest held at Bhavans Ground in Mumbai on 30 March 2012. He then performed at GiMA Awards. He also had performed at 57th Filmfare Awards, but his performance was cut out in the TV release. In 2013, he performed along with Shah Rukh Khan, Katrina Kaif and Preity Zinta at Temptations Reloaded concert in Muscat, Oman.


title: Ali Zafar

text: Zafar then also performed in the Lifestyle Pakistan Expo at Karachi Expo Centre, where he walked the ramp for designer brand ChenOne and also performed with a dhol. He was also invited to perform in 2013 Cannes Film Festival held at Cannes, France. In 2014, he was seen performing with Yami Gautam on Zee Cine Awards. He then also performed in Naz Choudhury's Bollywood Showstoppers at The O2 Arena along with Sonakshi Sinha, Jacqueline Fernandez, Mika Singh and Shahid Kapoor. He then also hosted the first Star Box Office India Awards Ceremony along with Ayushmann Khurrana, where they also gave a musical tribute to Raj Kapoor.


title: Ali Zafar

text: He re-joined "Coke Studio" Pakistan in 2015 for the eight season where he performed three songs. The first song "Rockstar" became popular worldwide, and was also appreciated by Imran Khan, Mahira Khan, Sonu Nigam, Hrithik Roshan and Adnan Sami, and then it was also awarded the title Song of the Year. Zafar then gave tribute to Saleem Raza by performing a second song "Ae Dil" along with Sara Haider. The third song he performed was Sufi "Ajj Din Vehre Vich".


title: Ali Zafar

text: At the logo-launch-event of Pakistan Super League on 20 September 2015, Zafar released and performed on the league anthem "Ab Khel Ke Dikha". He also performed in the launch event of the team Islamabad United on 30 January 2016, where he released team anthem "Chakka Choka". He then also performed in the opening ceremony of 2016 PSL on 4 February. He also performed about 50 concerts across Pakistan within two months in early 2016.


title: Ali Zafar

text: Zafar performed a dancing act on the remix of his "Coke Studio" hit "Rockstar" in the ceremony of 14th Lux Style Awards, after when he was given musical tribute by Jimmy Khan, Uzair Jaswal, Sara Haider and Farhan Saeed separately, in 2015. The following year, he hosted the ceremony, where he performed an opening dance act on his new song paying tribute to Lux Style Awards. He then also gave a musical tribute there, co-singing with Ali Sethi and Qurat-ul-Ain Balouch, to Amjad Sabri who was assassinated in Karachi on 22 June 2016.


title: Ali Zafar

text: The same year, he collaborated with Atif Aslam for the song "Yaarian", and they performed on it on Defence Day. Zafar walked the ramp in September with Mahira Khan, showcasing the bridal collection in Divani's Bagh-e-Bahar show, at the Haveli Barood Khana. He also performed on the stage of 1st Hum Style Awards along with Sohai Ali Abro, where he was also awarded "Most Stylish Male Performer". In his concert on 25 November, he performed the mannequin challenge too.


title: Ali Zafar

text: Zafar released anthem of 2017 PSL "Ab Khel Jamay Ga" in January 2017, upon which he then also performed in its opening ceremony on 9 February in Dubai, and also at its closing ceremony on 5 March in Gaddafi Stadium, Lahore. He also performed at grand finale of Miss Veet in January. On 19 April, he along with his "Teefa in Trouble" co-star Maya Ali, performed in the 16th Lux Style Awards.


title: Ali Zafar

text: In tenth season of "Coke Studio" Pakistan, Zafar performed four songs, after being featured in the promo song "Qaumi Taranah". He performed his original "Julie" alongside his brother Danyal Zafar on guitars under Shani Arshad's production, and "Yo Soch" with Natasha Khan under Strings production. He also gave tribute to Master Inayat Hussain by performing "Jaan-e-Bahaaraan" solo under Shuja Haider's production, and to Junaid Jamshed by "Us Rah Par" with Ali Hamza ft. Strings under Jaffer Zaidi's production.


title: Ali Zafar

text: On 27 October 2017, Zafar performed at the "MTV Unplugged" India concert with Ayushmann Khurrana at Dubai Tennis Stadium.


title: Ali Zafar

text: Zafar married his long-time fiancée Ayesha Fazli, who is a distant relative of Indian actor Aamir Khan, on 28 July 2009 in Lahore, Pakistan. They had a boy in 2010, and a girl in 2015.


title: Ali Zafar

text: His brother-in-law Umair Fazli is a movie director, better known for making the 2016 box office success "Saya e Khuda e Zuljalal".


title: Ali Zafar

text: On 19 April 2018, fellow singer Meesha Shafi accused Ali Zafar of sexual harassment on Twitter. Ali Zafar categorically denied the allegation and said that he would take the matter to court. On 23 June 2018, Ali Zafar filed a 1 billion rupees defamation case against Shafi for slander under the Defamation Ordinance 2002, claiming that Shafi had caused "tremendous injury" to his "reputation, goodwill, livelihood" through "false, slanderous and defamatory" allegations, according to Geo News. The suit read: "As the defamatory statements are patently false, it can only be concluded that this malicious campaign has been launched against the plaintiff as part of a motivated conspiracy to tarnish the plaintiff's good image through making false accusations."


title: Ali Zafar

text: On 25 June 2018, Court issued "a permanent stay against Meesha Shafi until the final decision of the case", preventing her making further claims against Zafar. Meesha had filed a complaint to the provincial Ombudsperson under the Protection Against Harassment of Women at Workplace Act 2010, which was dismissed on 3 May 2018. Meesha filed an appeal against the order of the Ombudswoman to the Governor of Punjab who also dismissed her appeal, on the grounds that Meesha Shafi was not an employee at the time. On 10 April 2019, the court fined Meesha Shafi Rs. 10,000 over "non-appearance" of her lawyer.


title: Ali Zafar

text: On 29 April 2019, Shafi described how she had first tried to resolve her complaint privately with Zafar's representatives, but Zafar insisted she visit him. On 30 May 2019, nine eyewitnesses, including two women, denied Shafi's allegations of harassment. Kanza Muneer said in her statement that during the rehearsal, at which 11 people were present and videos were made, Zafar and Shafi maintained five to six feet distance from each other. On 11 October 2019, Lahore High Court dismissed Meesha Shafi's appeal.


title: Ali Zafar

text: In his testimony in court Ali Zafar said that he supports the #MeToo movement, which is aimed to end sexual harassment and abuse, but it had been "misused against him". Zafar claimed that it was actually Shafi's lawyer, a renowned women's rights activist who was the master mind behind the conspiracy. "Meesha Shafi's claim in her court testimony that the other women who came forward are unrelated is a complete lie. Our findings exposed that they were deeply interlinked much before the allegations. The common link seems to be Nighat Dad. They were all either working with or for her," Ali Zafar said in his testimony while presenting evidence.


title: Ali Zafar

text: On 6 July 2019, lawyer Hassan Niazi in his tweets alleged Shafi's lawyer, Nighat Dad's NGO deleted its audit report and had foreign funding.


title: Ali Zafar

text: Ali Zafar also filed a criminal case of cybercrime in the Federal Investigation Agency (FIA) and tweeted:


title: Ali Zafar

text: Ali Zafar claimed that a social media campaign was launched against him through fake accounts and allegations, proof of which he submitted in his complaint to the FIA Cyber Crime Department. Many such accounts and Facebook pages in support of Shafi were instantly deleted when Zafar highlighted them on social media.


title: Ali Zafar

text: On December 16, 2020, Federal Investigation Agency (FIA) Cyber Crime Wing found Meesha Shafi and 8 others guilty of running a defamatory drive on social media against Ali Zafar damaging his reputation.


title: Andy Allo

text: Andy Allo (born 13 January 1989) is a Cameroonian-American singer-songwriter, guitarist and actress. She released her first of three albums in 2009, and joined Prince's band, The New Power Generation, in 2011. She had a recurring role in three episodes of the comedy-drama series "The Game" in 2011, followed by a number of other roles, including a supporting role in the 2017 film "Pitch Perfect 3" and the lead role of Nora in Amazon Prime's series "Upload" (2020).


title: Andy Allo

text: Born in Bamenda, Northwest Region, Cameroon, Allo developed an interest in music at an early age; her mother taught her to play the piano at age seven. She also went to PNEU school Bamenda, Cameroon. She is the youngest of five siblings. Allo holds dual citizenship in the United States and Cameroon and moved with her sister Suzanne to Sacramento in 2000 at the age of eleven, joining three other siblings. Her Californian-born mother Sue, was forced to move back after suffering chronic fatigue syndrome. Her father Andrew Allo is an ecologist.


title: Andy Allo

text: Allo's US education began in seventh grade at Arden Middle School in Sacramento, and she graduated in 2006 from El Camino Fundamental High School in Sacramento. Following high school, Allo attended American River College in Sacramento. At that time, Allo formed her own band, Allo and the Traffic Jam, which occasionally performed for tips on the corner of 22nd and J streets in Sacramento.


title: Andy Allo

text: Allo's first solo gig was an open mic night in 2008 at the Fox & Goose Public House in downtown Sacramento. In 2009, she released her first independent album, "UnFresh", a collection of 12 original songs. The album's first single, "Dreamland", features the rapper Blu.


title: Andy Allo

text: Allo's reputation as a musician led her to a role as a singer and guitarist in American musician Prince's band, the New Power Generation, in 2011. She began writing with Prince while on tour, collaborating on three songs, "Superconductor", "The Calm" and "Long Gone", which appear on Allo's album, "Superconductor".


title: Andy Allo

text: "Superconductor" was released on 20 November 2012, and the album debuted at number one on Amazon.com's Soul and R&B charts in France, the United Kingdom and the US The album also features musicians Maceo Parker and Trombone Shorty.. She also appeared in three songs on Prince's 2014 album Art Official Age, in "Breakdown", she sings background vocals, and in both "What It Feels Like" and "Time", she sings co-lead vocals. She would appear again in a Prince album in 2015, when he included "Rocknroll Loveaffair" in Hit n Run Phase Two, and it also includes "Xtralovable", which was originally released in 2011 and included a rap verse by Allo, but it was replaced by a horn section in this version.


title: Andy Allo

text: In October 2014, she released her single "Tongue Tied". "Hello" was released in April 2015 and was funded through PledgeMusic. In the same year she collaborated with Prince on a covers project titled "Oui Can Luv".


title: Andy Allo

text: Allo first appeared on screen in 2011, in three episodes of the comedy-drama series "The Game". She has been interviewed on the talk show "Attack of the Show!", and performed her music on the talk show "Jimmy Kimmel Live!".


title: Andy Allo

text: In 2017, she appeared in the film "Pitch Perfect 3" as Serenity, a member of the band called Evermoist, alongside Ruby Rose. Since 2020, she's played the female lead role of Nora in the Amazon Prime TV series "Upload".


title: Goji

text: Goji, goji berry, or wolfberry () is the fruit of either "Lycium barbarum" or "Lycium chinense", two closely related species of boxthorn in the nightshade family, Solanaceae. "L. barbarum" and "L. chinense" fruits are similar but can be distinguished by differences in taste and sugar content.


title: Goji

text: The fruit has also been an ingredient in traditional Chinese, Korean, and Japanese medicine since at least the 3rd century AD. In pharmacopeias, the fruit of the plant is called by the Latin name "lycii fructus" and the leaves are called "herba lycii".


title: Goji

text: Since about 2000, goji berry and derived products have become common in developed countries as health foods or alternative medicine remedies, extending from exaggerated and unproven claims about their health benefits.


title: Goji

text: The genus name "Lycium" was assigned by Linnaeus in 1753. The Latin name "lycium" is derived from the Greek word λυκιον ("lykion"), used by Pliny the Elder (23–79) and Pedanius Dioscorides (ca. 40–90) for a plant known as dyer's buckthorn, which was probably a "Rhamnus" species. The Greek word refers to the ancient region of Lycia (Λυκία) in Anatolia, where that plant grew.


title: Goji

text: The common English name, "wolfberry", has an unknown origin. It may have arisen from the mistaken assumption that the Latin name "Lycium" was derived from Greek λύκος ("lycos"), meaning "wolf".


title: Goji

text: In the English-speaking world, the name "goji berry" has been used since around 2000. The word "goji" is an approximation of the pronunciation of "gǒuqǐ" (pinyin for 枸杞), the name for the berry-producing plant "L. chinense" in several Chinese dialects.


title: Goji

text: In technical botanical nomenclature, "L. barbarum" is called matrimony vine, while "L. chinense" is Chinese desert-thorn.


title: Goji

text: Young wolfberry shoots and leaves are harvested commercially as a leaf vegetable. The berries are used in dishes as either a garnish or a source of sweetness.


title: Goji

text: Since the early 21st century, the dried fruit, occasionally compared to raisins, has been marketed as a health food, with unsupported health claims about its benefits. In the wake of those claims, dried and fresh goji berries were included in many snack foods and food supplements, such as granola bars. There are products of whole and ground wolfberry seeds and seed oil.


title: Goji

text: Among the extreme claims used to market the product, often referred to as a "superfruit", is the unsupported story that a Chinese man named Li Qing Yuen, who was said to have consumed wolfberries daily, lived to the age of 256 years (1677–1933). This claim apparently originated in a 2003 booklet by Earl Mindell, who claimed also that goji had anti-cancer properties. The booklet contained false and unverified claims.


title: Goji

text: Such exaggerated claims about the health benefits of goji berry and derived products triggered strong reactions, including from government regulatory agencies. In 2006, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) placed two goji juice distributors on notice with warning letters about unproven therapeutic benefits. These statements were in violation of the United States Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act [21 USC/321 (g)(1)] because they "establish[ed] the product as a drug intended for use in the cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease" when wolfberries or juice have had no such scientific evaluation. Additionally stated by the FDA, the goji juice was "not generally recognized as safe and effective for the referenced conditions" and therefore must be treated as a "new drug" under Section 21(p) of the Act. New drugs may not be legally marketed in the United States without prior approval of the FDA.


title: Goji

text: In January 2007, marketing statements for a goji juice product were the subject of an investigative report by consumer advocacy program "Marketplace" produced by the Canadian television network, CBC. In the interview, Earl Mindell (then working for direct-marketing company "FreeLife International, Inc.") falsely claimed the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York had completed clinical studies showing that use of wolfberry juice would prevent 75% of human breast cancer cases.


title: Goji

text: On 29 May 2009, a class action lawsuit was filed against FreeLife in the United States District Court of Arizona. This lawsuit alleged false claims, misrepresentations, false and deceptive advertising and other issues regarding FreeLife's Himalayan Goji Juice, GoChi, and TaiSlim products. This lawsuit sought remedies for consumers who had purchased the products over years. A settlement agreement was reached on 28 April 2010, where FreeLife took steps to ensure that its goji products were not marketed as "unheated" or "raw", and made a contribution to an educational organization.


title: Goji

text: As with many other novel "health" foods and supplements, the lack of clinical evidence and poor quality control in the manufacture of consumer products prevent goji from being clinically recommended or applied.


title: Goji

text: Because of the numerous effects claimed by traditional medicine, there has been considerable basic research to investigate biological properties of the fruit phytochemicals. The composition of the fruits, seeds, roots, and other constituents, such as polysaccharides, has been analyzed, and extracts are under study. However, no biological effects or clinical effectiveness of consuming the fruit itself, its juice, or extracts have been confirmed, .


title: Goji

text: In vitro testing suggests that unidentified wolfberry phytochemicals in goji tea may inhibit metabolism of medications, such as those processed by the cytochrome P450 liver enzymes. Such drugs include warfarin and drugs for diabetes, tachycardia or hypertension.


title: Goji

text: Organochlorine pesticides are conventionally used in commercial wolfberry cultivation to mitigate infestation by insects. China's Green Food Standard, administered by the Chinese Ministry of Agriculture's China Green Food Development Center, permits some pesticide and herbicide use. Agriculture in the Tibetan plateau (where many "Himalayan" or "Tibetan"-branded berries supposedly originate) conventionally uses fertilizers and pesticides, making organic claims for berries originating there dubious.


title: Goji

text: Since the early 21st century, high levels of insecticide residues (including fenvalerate, cypermethrin, and acetamiprid) and fungicide residues (such as triadimenol and isoprothiolane), have been detected by the United States Food and Drug Administration in some imported wolfberries and wolfberry products of Chinese origin, leading to the seizure of these products.


title: Goji

text: When ripe, the oblong, red berries are tender and must be picked or shaken from the vine into trays to avoid spoiling. The fruits are preserved by drying them in full sun on open trays or by mechanical dehydration, employing a progressively increasing series of heat exposure over 48 hours.


title: Goji

text: China is the main supplier of wolfberry products in the world, with total exports generating US$120 million in 2004. This production derived from farmed nationwide, yielding 95,000 tons of wolfberries.


title: Goji

text: The majority of commercially produced wolfberry (50,000 tons in 2013, accounting for 45% of China's total yield) comes from "L. barbarum" plantations in the Ningxia and Xinjiang in Northwestern China. The cultivation is centered in Zhongning County, Ningxia, where wolfberry plantations typically range between 40 and 400 hectares (100–1000 acres or 500–6000 "mu") in area.


title: Goji

text: Ningxia goji has been cultivated along the fertile floodplains of the Yellow River for more than 700 years. They are sometimes described commercially as "red diamonds". The region has developed an industrial association of growers, processors, marketers, and scholars of wolfberry cultivation to promote the berry's commercial and export potential. Ningxia goji is the variety used by practitioners of traditional Chinese medicine.


title: Goji

text: Wolfberries are celebrated each August in Ningxia with an annual festival coinciding with the berry harvest. Originally held in Ningxia's capital, Yinchuan, the festival has been based since 2000 in Zhongning County.


title: Goji

text: Besides Ningxia, commercial volumes of wolfberries grow in the Chinese regions of Inner Mongolia, Qinghai, Gansu, Shaanxi, Shanxi, and Hebei.


title: Goji

text: "Lycium barbarum" had been introduced in the United Kingdom in the 1730s by The Duke of Argyll, but the plant was mostly used for hedges and decorative gardening.


title: Goji

text: The UK Food Standards Agency (FSA) had initially placed goji berry in the Novel Foods list. That classification would have required authorisation from the European Council and Parliament for marketing. However, on 18 June 2007, the FSA concluded that there was a significant history of consumption of the fruit before 1997, indicating its safety, and thus removed it from the list.


title: Goji

text: In the first decade of the 21st century, farmers in Canada and the United States began cultivating goji on a commercial scale to meet potential markets for fresh berries, juice, and processed products.


title: Goji

text: Australia imports the majority of its goji berries from China, due to how expensive the Australian labour force is in comparison with the countries that have the largest share of the current market.


title: Sarah Edmondson

text: Sarah Edmondson (born June 22, 1977) is a Canadian actress and podcaster. She is known for supporting roles on Hallmark, and as voice actress in Geronimo Stilton and as “Lina” in the Bratz movies.


title: Sarah Edmondson

text: Edmondson is a former member of NXIVM, a cult founded by Keith Raniere. In 2017, she left the group and confirmed longstanding criticism that NXIVM operated as a cult. The resulting "New York Times" exposé of NXIVM's abusive practices precipitated the downfall of the organisation and its leaders.


title: Sarah Edmondson

text: Edmondson studied in the theatre program at Lord Byng Secondary School, Vancouver, British Columbia. She then graduated from Concordia University, Montreal, with a BFA in Theatre Performance. She has performed in a variety of YTV programs including "Are You Afraid of the Dark", "Student Bodies", "Big Wolf on Campus" and in series such as "Stargate SG-1", "Andromeda", "Godiva's", "Edgemont" and "Continuum". In 2007, Edmondson was nominated for the Leo Awards in the category of "Best Lead Performance by a Female in a Short Drama" for her role in the "Sparklelite Motel".


title: Sarah Edmondson

text: Edmondson is also a playwright. She performed her first play, a solo show, entitled "Dead Bird", at the 2005 Chutzpah Festival.


title: Sarah Edmondson

text: Edmondson starred in Lifetime Television's "Killer Hair" and "Hostile Makeover", and "A Gun to the Head" in 2009, followed by J.J. Abrams's series "Fringe" in 2010.


title: Sarah Edmondson

text: Most recently, Edmondson has been seen in a series of TV series and movies for Hallmark Channel, including "When Calls the Heart" (2014-present), "Love at First Bark" starring Jana Kramer, "Wedding' March 2: Resorting to Love", and "At Home in Mitford", based on the novel of the same name starring Andie MacDowell and Cameron Mathison.


title: Sarah Edmondson

text: She has created original voices for various Barbie, Bratz and Polly Pocket movies. She also voices a number of animated series, including the characters of Lori in "", (2005), Atlanta in "Class of the Titans", Thea Stilton in "Geronimo Stilton", and Sydney Gardner in "Max Steel". Edmondson voiced the character of Windy Whistles in the "" episode "Parental Glideance".


title: Sarah Edmondson

text: Edmondson was previously married to a director. In 2010, she married actor and former Ivy League Quarterback Anthony Ames. The couple has two children. Edmondson is Jewish.


title: Sarah Edmondson

text: Edmondson was involved in the Albany, New York-based organization NXIVM. After leaving it in early 2017, she publicly denounced the organization, stating that she was invited into "DOS", a substructure within NXIVM operated by Keith Raniere and Allison Mack, and was branded with Raniere's and Mack's initials at Mack's Albany home. Edmondson said she was recruited into DOS by her friend and NXIVM member Lauren Salzman. At the time, Edmondson and other DOS recruits were told the brand represented the combination of the elements.


title: Sarah Edmondson

text: In 2017, at the urging of Catherine Oxenberg, Edmondson contacted Frank Parlato, a former NXIVM publicist, to share details about her branding experience. Parlato blogged about it at the Frank Report, with an agreement that he would not disclose Edmondson's name, in order to stop the next branding session from happening.


title: Sarah Edmondson

text: Edmondson filed a complaint with the New York State Department against physician Dr. Danielle Roberts, alleging that Roberts performed the branding. The agency replied that it lacked jurisdiction because the alleged actions did not occur in a doctor-patient relationship, and advised Edmondson to report the matter to the police. After the allegations from Edmondson and others, Roberts was suspended from practice in a Wisconsin Hospital System where she had practiced between 2012 and 2014. Raniere and Mack were subsequently arrested on charges related to DOS; a trial was scheduled for January 2019.


title: Sarah Edmondson

text: Edmondson was the subject of a 2018 CBC podcast: "Uncover: Escaping NXIVM", which is an investigative podcast series about the group, its leader Keith Raniere and one woman's journey to get out.


title: Sarah Edmondson

text: Her memoir, "Scarred: The True Story of How I Escaped NXIVM, the Cult That Bound My Life", was published by Chronicle Books in September 2019.


title: Sarah Edmondson

text: In an interview with Vancouver Film School released February 11, 2020, Edmondson revealed that she had recently undergone surgery to have her brand removed.


title: Sarah Edmondson

text: Edmondson appears in the documentary series "The Vow" directed by Jehane Noujaim and Karim Amer, which premiered on August 23, 2020, on HBO.


title: Sarah Edmondson

text: She launched her own podcast called "A Little Bit Culty", co-hosted by her husband and fellow NXIVM whistleblower Anthony "Nippy" Ames.


title: Nevis

text: Nevis is a small island in the Caribbean Sea that forms part of the inner arc of the Leeward Islands chain of the West Indies. Nevis and the neighbouring island of Saint Kitts constitute one country: the Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis. Nevis is located near the northern end of the Lesser Antilles archipelago, about east-southeast of Puerto Rico and west of Antigua. Its area is and the capital is Charlestown.


title: Nevis

text: Saint Kitts and Nevis are separated by a shallow channel known as "The Narrows". Nevis is roughly conical in shape, with a volcano known as Nevis Peak at its centre. The island is fringed on its western and northern coastlines by sandy beaches composed of a mixture of white coral sand with brown and black sand eroded and washed down from the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The gently-sloping coastal plain ( wide) has natural freshwater springs as well as non-potable volcanic hot springs, especially along the western coast.


title: Nevis

text: The island was named "Oualie" ("Land of Beautiful Waters") by the Kalinago and "Dulcina" ("Sweet Island") by the early British settlers. The name "Nevis" is derived from the Spanish "Nuestra Señora de las Nieves" (which means Our Lady of the Snows); the name was given by its Spanish discoverers and first appeared on maps in the 16th century. Nevis is also known by the sobriquet "Queen of the Caribees", which it earned in the 18th century from sugar plantations.


title: Nevis

text: Nevis is of particular historical significance to Americans because it was the birthplace and early childhood home of Alexander Hamilton. For the British, Nevis is the place where Horatio Nelson was stationed as a young sea captain, and is where he met and married a Nevisian, Frances Nisbet, the young widow of a plantation-owner.


title: Nevis

text: The majority of the approximately 12,000 Nevisians are of primarily African descent, with notable British, Portuguese and Lebanese minority communities. English is the official language, and the literacy rate, 98 percent, is one of the highest in the Western Hemisphere.


title: Nevis

text: In 1498, Christopher Columbus gave the island the name "San Martín" (Saint Martin). However, the confusion of numerous poorly-charted small islands in the Leeward Island chain meant that this name ended up being accidentally transferred to another island, which is still known as Saint-Martin/Sint Maarten.


title: Nevis

text: The current name "Nevis" was derived from a Spanish name "Nuestra Señora de las Nieves" by process of abbreviation and anglicisation. The Spanish name means Our Lady of the Snows. It is not known who chose this name for the island, but it is a reference to the story of a 4th-century Catholic miracle: a snowfall on the Esquiline Hill in Rome. Presumably the white clouds that usually cover the top of Nevis Peak reminded someone of this story of a miraculous snowfall in a hot climate.


title: Nevis

text: Nevis was part of the Spanish claim to the Caribbean islands; a claim pursued until the 1670 Treaty of Madrid, even though there were no Spanish settlements on the island. According to Vincent Hubbard, author of "Swords, Ships & Sugar: History of Nevis", the Spanish ruling caused many of the Arawak groups who were not ethnically Caribs to "be redefined as Kalinago overnight". Records indicate that the Spanish enslaved large numbers of the native inhabitants on the more accessible of the Leeward Islands and sent them to Cubagua, Venezuela to dive for pearls. Hubbard suggests that the reason the first European settlers found so few "Kalinago" on Nevis is that they had already been rounded up by the Spanish and shipped off to be used as slaves.


title: Nevis

text: Nevis had been settled for more than two thousand years by Amerindian people prior to having been sighted by Columbus in 1493. The indigenous people of Nevis during these periods belonged to the Leeward Island Amerindian groups popularly referred to as Arawaks and Kalinago, a complex mosaic of ethnic groups with similar culture and language. Dominican anthropologist Lennox Honychurch traces the European use of the term "Carib" to refer to the Leeward Island aborigines to Columbus, who picked it up from the Taínos on Hispaniola. It was not a name the Kalinago called themselves. "Carib Indians" was the generic name used for all groups believed involved in cannibalistic war rituals, more particularly, the consumption of parts of a killed enemy's body.