title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: It is, however, in algebraic geometry and related fields where Grothendieck did his most important and influential work. From approximately 1955 he started to work on sheaf theory and homological algebra, producing the influential "Tôhoku paper" ("Sur quelques points d'algèbre homologique", published in the Tohoku Mathematical Journal in 1957) where he introduced abelian categories and applied their theory to show that sheaf cohomology may be defined as certain derived functors in this context.


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: Homological methods and sheaf theory had already been introduced in algebraic geometry by Jean-Pierre Serre and others, after sheaves had been defined by Jean Leray. Grothendieck took them to a higher level of abstraction and turned them into a key organising principle of his theory. He shifted attention from the study of individual varieties to his "relative point of view" (pairs of varieties related by a morphism), allowing a broad generalization of many classical theorems. The first major application was the relative version of Serre's theorem showing that the cohomology of a coherent sheaf on a complete variety is finite-dimensional; Grothendieck's theorem shows that the higher direct images of coherent sheaves under a proper map are coherent; this reduces to Serre's theorem over a one-point space.


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: In 1956, he applied the same thinking to the Riemann–Roch theorem, which recently had been generalized to any dimension by Hirzebruch. The Grothendieck–Riemann–Roch theorem was announced by Grothendieck at the initial Mathematische Arbeitstagung in Bonn, in 1957. It appeared in print in a paper written by Armand Borel with Serre. This result was his first work in algebraic geometry. Grothendieck went on to plan and execute a programme for rebuilding the foundations of algebraic geometry, which at the time were in a state of flux and under discussion in Claude Chevalley's seminar. He outlined his programme in his talk at the 1958 International Congress of Mathematicians.


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: His foundational work on algebraic geometry is at a higher level of abstraction than all prior versions. He adapted the use of non-closed generic points, which led to the theory of schemes. Grothendieck also pioneered the systematic use of nilpotents. As 'functions' these can take only the value 0, but they carry infinitesimal information, in purely algebraic settings. His "theory of schemes" has become established as the best universal foundation for this field, because of its expressiveness as well as its technical depth. In that setting one can use birational geometry, techniques from number theory, Galois theory, commutative algebra, and close analogues of the methods of algebraic topology, all in an integrated way.


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: Grothendieck is noted for his mastery of abstract approaches to mathematics and his perfectionism in matters of formulation and presentation. Relatively little of his work after 1960 was published by the conventional route of the learned journal, circulating initially in duplicated volumes of seminar notes; his influence was to a considerable extent personal. His influence spilled over into many other branches of mathematics, for example the contemporary theory of D-modules. Although lauded as "the Einstein of mathematics", his work also provoked adverse reactions, with many mathematicians seeking out more concrete areas and problems.


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: The bulk of Grothendieck's published work is collected in the monumental, yet incomplete, "Éléments de géométrie algébrique" ("EGA") and "Séminaire de géométrie algébrique" ("SGA"). The collection, "Fondements de la Géometrie Algébrique" ("FGA"), which gathers together talks given in the Séminaire Bourbaki, also contains important material.


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: Grothendieck's work includes the invention of the étale and l-adic cohomology theories, which explain an observation made by André Weil that argued for a connection between the topological characteristics of a variety and its diophantine (number theoretic) properties. For example, the number of solutions of an equation over a finite field reflects the topological nature of its solutions over the complex numbers. Weil had realized that to prove such a connection, one needed a new cohomology theory, but neither he nor any other expert saw how to accomplish this until such a theory was expressed by Grothendieck.


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: This program culminated in the proofs of the Weil conjectures, the last of which was settled by Grothendieck's student Pierre Deligne in the early 1970s after Grothendieck had largely withdrawn from mathematics.


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: In Grothendieck's retrospective "Récoltes et Semailles", he identified twelve of his contributions that he believed qualified as "great ideas". In chronological order, they are:


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: Here the term "yoga" denotes a kind of "meta-theory" that may be used heuristically; Michel Raynaud writes the other terms "Ariadne's thread" and "philosophy" as effective equivalents.


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: Grothendieck wrote that, of these themes, the largest in scope was topoi, as they synthesized algebraic geometry, topology, and arithmetic. The theme that had been most extensively developed was schemes, which were the framework ""par excellence"" for eight of the other themes (all but 1, 5, and 12). Grothendieck wrote that the first and last themes, topological tensor products and regular configurations, were of more modest size than the others. Topological tensor products had played the role of a tool rather than of a source of inspiration for further developments; but he expected that regular configurations could not be exhausted within the lifetime of a mathematician who devoted oneself to it. He believed that the deepest themes were motives, anabelian geometry, and Galois–Teichmüller theory.


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: Grothendieck is considered by many to be the greatest mathematician of the twentieth century. In an obituary David Mumford and John Tate wrote:


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: Although mathematics became more and more abstract and general throughout the 20th century, it was Alexander Grothendieck who was the greatest master of this trend. His unique skill was to eliminate all unnecessary hypotheses and burrow into an area so deeply that its inner patterns on the most abstract level revealed themselves–and then, like a magician, show how the solution of old problems fell out in straightforward ways now that their real nature had been revealed.


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: By the 1970s, Grothendieck's work was seen as influential, not only in algebraic geometry and the allied fields of sheaf theory and homological algebra, but influenced logic, in the field of categorical logic.


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: Grothendieck approached algebraic geometry by clarifying the foundations of the field, and by developing mathematical tools intended to prove a number of notable conjectures. Algebraic geometry has traditionally meant the understanding of geometric objects, such as algebraic curves and surfaces, through the study of the algebraic equations for those objects. Properties of algebraic equations are in turn studied using the techniques of ring theory. In this approach, the properties of a geometric object are related to the properties of an associated ring. The space (e.g., real, complex, or projective) in which the object is defined, is extrinsic to the object, while the ring is intrinsic.


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: Grothendieck laid a new foundation for algebraic geometry by making intrinsic spaces ("spectra") and associated rings the primary objects of study. To that end, he developed the theory of schemes that informally can be thought of as topological spaces on which a commutative ring is associated to every open subset of the space. Schemes have become the basic objects of study for practitioners of modern algebraic geometry. Their use as a foundation allowed geometry to absorb technical advances from other fields.


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: His generalization of the classical Riemann–Roch theorem related topological properties of complex algebraic curves to their algebraic structure and now bears is entitled, the Grothendieck–Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch theorem. The tools he developed to prove this theorem started the study of algebraic and topological K-theory, which explores the topological properties of objects by associating them with rings. After direct contact with Grothendieck's ideas at the Bonn Arbeitstagung, topological K-theory was founded by Michael Atiyah and Friedrich Hirzebruch.


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: Grothendieck's construction of new cohomology theories, which use algebraic techniques to study topological objects, has influenced the development of algebraic number theory, algebraic topology, and representation theory. As part of this project, his creation of topos theory, a category-theoretic generalization of point-set topology, has influenced the fields of set theory and mathematical logic.


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: The Weil conjectures were formulated in the later 1940s as a set of mathematical problems in arithmetic geometry. They describe properties of analytic invariants, called local zeta functions, of the number of points on an algebraic curve or variety of higher dimension. Grothendieck's discovery of the ℓ-adic étale cohomology, the first example of a Weil cohomology theory, opened the way for a proof of the Weil conjectures, ultimately completed in the 1970s by his student Pierre Deligne. Grothendieck's large-scale approach has been called a "visionary program". The ℓ-adic cohomology then became a fundamental tool for number theorists, with applications to the Langlands program.


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: Grothendieck's conjectural theory of motives was intended to be the "ℓ-adic" theory but without the choice of "ℓ", a prime number. It did not provide the intended route to the Weil conjectures, but has been behind modern developments in algebraic K-theory, motivic homotopy theory, and motivic integration. This theory, Daniel Quillen's work, and Grothendieck's theory of Chern classes, are considered the background to the theory of algebraic cobordism, another algebraic analogue of topological ideas.


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: Grothendieck's emphasis on the role of universal properties across varied mathematical structures brought category theory into the mainstream as an organizing principle for mathematics in general. Among its uses, category theory creates a common language for describing similar structures and techniques seen in many different mathematical systems. His notion of abelian category is now the basic object of study in homological algebra. The emergence of a separate mathematical discipline of category theory has been attributed to Grothendieck's influence, although unintentional.


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: The novel "Colonel Lágrimas" ("Colonel Tears" in English, available by Restless Books) by Puerto Rican–Costa Rican writer Carlos Fonseca is a semibiographic novel about Grothendieck.


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: In the novel "When We Cease to Understand the World", Benjamin Labatut dedicates one chapter to the story of Grothendieck.


title: Alexander Grothendieck

text: In the novel “The Passenger” by Cormac McCarthy one of the main characters is the student of Grothendieck.


title: The Walking Dead (season 4)

text: The fourth season of "The Walking Dead", an American post-apocalyptic horror television series on AMC, premiered on October 13, 2013, and concluded on March 30, 2014, consisting of 16 episodes. Developed for television by Frank Darabont, the series is based on the eponymous series of comic books by Robert Kirkman, Tony Moore, and Charlie Adlard. It was executive produced by Kirkman, David Alpert, Scott M. Gimple, Greg Nicotero, Tom Luse, and Gale Anne Hurd, with Gimple assuming the role of showrunner after Glen Mazzara's departure from the series. The fourth season was well received by critics. It was nominated for multiple awards and won three, including Best Syndicated/Cable Television Series for the second consecutive year, at the 40th Saturn Awards.


title: The Walking Dead (season 4)

text: This season adapts material from issues #40–61 of the comic book series and introduces notable comic characters, including Bob Stookey (Lawrence Gilliard Jr.), Sgt. Abraham Ford (Michael Cudlitz), Dr. Eugene Porter (Josh McDermitt) and Rosita Espinosa (Christian Serratos), as well as the Chambler Family, a modified version of the Chalmers Family from a tie-in novel, "".


title: The Walking Dead (season 4)

text: The season continues the story of Rick Grimes (Andrew Lincoln) and his group of survivors as they continue to survive in a post-apocalyptic world invaded by flesh-eating zombies, dubbed "walkers". Set several months after the attempted attack on the prison by The Governor (David Morrissey) and his army, Rick has renounced his leadership in order to live a quiet and more peaceful life in contrast to his cold-hearted nature in the previous season. Striving to hold onto humanity, Rick and his fellow survivors struggle to maintain their close to an ideal life at the prison as problems arise in the face of new evil, and threats within and outside the premises, including a deadly flu strain and the return of the vengeful Governor.


title: The Walking Dead (season 4)

text: A fourth season of the show, consisting of 16 episodes, was confirmed in December 2012. Production began in Senoia, Georgia on May 6, 2013. In July 2013, it was reported that David S. Goyer would be directing the penultimate episode of the season, however Goyer did not direct the episode due to scheduling conflicts. Greg Nicotero, who replaced Goyer, directed three episodes for the season, while Tricia Brock and Ernest Dickerson each directed two episodes. Michelle MacLaren returned this season to direct the season finale, after previously directing episodes in seasons one and two. Comic book co-creator Robert Kirkman wrote two episodes of the season. Filming was completed on November 23, 2013.


title: The Walking Dead (season 4)

text: In an interview with showrunner Scott Gimple, he shares: "The ultimate inspiration for "The Walking Dead" is the comic book. Sometimes, we can go far away from the comic book story, but often we ultimately serve the comic book story. And even when we go far away from it, we're inspired by it - and the novels as well. And then beyond that, all of the great stuff that we have consumed along the way, from zombie movies to "Star Wars" to other comics to really highbrow movies like "The Grand Illusion" to "Jaws". And also really, world history. The plague storyline was inspired by both Camus' "The Plague" and other stories about the plague I heard in Edinburgh. But really, it starts with the comic book."


title: The Walking Dead (season 4)

text: Following the two previous web series in 2011 and 2012, another set of webisodes titled "The Oath" was released on October 1, 2013.


title: The Walking Dead (season 4)

text: The fourth season features thirteen series regulars, with nine actors receiving opening credits billing, while four others are credited as "Also starring". Melissa McBride and Scott Wilson, who portray Carol Peletier and Hershel Greene, respectively, were added in the opening sequence after previously being credited as "Also starring". David Morrissey, who plays The Governor, is not credited among the main cast until his reappearance in the episode "Live Bait". Credited as "Also starring" are Emily Kinney (Beth Greene), Chad L. Coleman (Tyreese Williams), and Sonequa Martin-Green (Sasha Williams), who were promoted from recurring status, and Lawrence Gilliard Jr., who joins the main cast as Bob Stookey. Wilson and Morrissey were both removed from the opening credits, and as series regulars after the episode "After". However, Wilson was re-added to the opening credits and as a series regular for the season finale, "A".


title: The Walking Dead (season 4)

text: Lennie James was initially reported to return as Morgan Jones, Rick's first human encounter in the apocalypse, however showrunner Scott M. Gimple confirmed that he would not appear in the fourth season, saying that he was misquoted. Despite this, Gimple stated that Morgan would return in later seasons. Morgan eventually returned in the series' fifth season.


title: The Walking Dead (season 4)

text: The fourth season of "The Walking Dead" has been well received from critics. On Metacritic, the season holds a score of 75 out of 100, indicating "generally favorable reviews", based on 16 critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season holds an 81% with an average rating of 7.60 out of 10 based on 32 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads: "Consistently thrilling, with solid character development and enough gore to please grindhouse fans, this season of "The Walking Dead" continues to demonstrate why it's one of the best horror shows on television."


title: The Walking Dead (season 4)

text: For the 40th Saturn Awards, the fourth season of "The Walking Dead" received four nominations and three wins. The wins were for Best Syndicated/Cable Television Series, Best Supporting Actress on Television (Melissa McBride), and Best Performance by a Younger Actor in a Television Series (Chandler Riggs). The only other nomination was for Best Guest Starring Role on Television (David Morrissey).


title: The Walking Dead (season 4)

text: The season also received two nominations for the 66th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards: Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series ("Too Far Gone") and Outstanding Special Visual Effects in a Supporting Role ("30 Days Without an Accident"). Additionally, the season was also nominated for Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Television Series at the 20th and 21st Screen Actors Guild Awards for both halves of the season, respectively. Melissa McBride was nominated for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Series at the 4th Critics' Choice Television Awards.


title: The Walking Dead (season 4)

text: The fourth season was released on region 1/A DVD and Blu-ray on August 26, 2014. It was also released in limited edition Blu-ray packaging, a replica of the tree walker (featured in the episode "Isolation"), designed by Greg Nicotero and sculpted by McFarlane Toys. Special features include "Inside "The Walking Dead"" and "The Making of "The Walking Dead"" featurettes for every episode; six other featurettes titled, "Drawing Inspiration", "Hershel", "The Governor is Back", "Society, Science & Survival", "Inside KNB Studios" and "A Journey Back to Brutality"; deleted scenes from eight episodes; and audio commentaries on six episodes; and two extended episodes. Also, the final line of the season is uncensored, with Rick saying "They're fucking with the wrong people". This uncensored line change was added to the finale itself, unlike similar changes in the future taking the space of a secondary version of the episode inside bonus features.


title: Timothy Bottoms

text: Timothy James Bottoms (born August 30, 1951) is an American actor and film producer. He is best known for playing the lead in "Johnny Got His Gun" (1971); Sonny Crawford in "The Last Picture Show" (1971), where he and his fellow co-stars, Cybill Shepherd and Jeff Bridges, rose to fame; and as James Hart, the first-year law student who battles with Prof. Kingsfield, in the film adaptation "The Paper Chase" (1973). He is also known for playing the main antagonist in the disaster film "Rollercoaster" (1977) and for playing President George W. Bush multiple times, including on the sitcom "That's My Bush!", the comedy film "" and the docudrama "".


title: Timothy Bottoms

text: Bottoms was born in Santa Barbara, California, the eldest of four sons of Betty (née Chapman) and James "Bud" Bottoms, a sculptor and art teacher.


title: Timothy Bottoms

text: He graduated from Santa Barbara High School in 1970, where he had been a member of the swimming team. During his time there he gained acting and singing experience during various theater productions.


title: Timothy Bottoms

text: Bottoms made his film debut in 1971 as Joe Bonham in Dalton Trumbo's "Johnny Got His Gun". The same year, he appeared alongside his brother Sam in "The Last Picture Show". (He portrayed the same character in the 1990 sequel "Texasville"). In 1973's "The Paper Chase", he starred as Harvard law student Hart facing the fearsome Professor Kingsfield (John Houseman). Among the other films he has appeared in are "Love and Pain and the Whole Damn Thing "(1973), "The Crazy World of Julius Vrooder" (1974), "Operation Daybreak" (1975), "A Small Town in Texas" (1976), "Rollercoaster" (1977) "Hurricane" (1979), "Invaders from Mars" (1986) and "Elephant "(2003).


title: Timothy Bottoms

text: As a result of both a physical resemblance to U.S. President George W. Bush and an ability to impersonate his voice, Bottoms has portrayed Bush in three widely varying productions. In 2000 and 2001, he played a parody of Bush in the Comedy Central sitcom "That's My Bush!"; he subsequently appeared as Bush in a cameo appearance in the family film "". Finally, following the September 11 attacks, Bottoms once again played Bush, this time in a serious fashion, in the TV film "", one of the first films to be based upon the attacks.


title: Timothy Bottoms

text: During an episode of the Fox television show "That '70s Show" in which a tornado warning has been issued and the students of the high school are trapped, Bottoms is seen as the panicking principal. He appeared in a recurring role during the first season of the FX series "Dirt" as Gibson Horne, who owned the magazine that series main character Lucy Spiller worked for.


title: Timothy Bottoms

text: He also co-produced the documentary "Picture This – The Times of Peter Bogdanovich in Archer City, Texas" (1991), a behind-the-scenes work about the making of the films "The Last Picture Show" and "Texasville". In the documentary, he revealed that he had a crush on his co-star Cybill Shepherd during "The Last Picture Show," but she did not reciprocate his romantic feelings, even though she said in a separate interview that she found him "very attractive". He was also heavily featured in the Metallica video for "One", which featured footage of the film "Johnny Got His Gun".


title: Timothy Bottoms

text: He is the eldest brother of actors Joseph Bottoms (born 1954), Sam Bottoms (1955–2008) and Ben Bottoms (born 1960). In 1967, Bottoms toured Europe as part of the Santa Barbara Madrigal Society.


title: Timothy Bottoms

text: Bottoms has been married twice, first to folksinger Alicia Cory in 1975. They had a son, Bartholomew, before divorcing in 1982. His marriage to Marcia Moreheart in 1984 produced three children: Bodie, Bridget, and Benton.


title: Leslie West

text: Leslie West (born Leslie Abel Weinstein; October 22, 1945 – December 23, 2020) was an American guitarist, singer and songwriter. He was the co-founder, guitarist and co-lead vocalist of the rock band Mountain.


title: Leslie West

text: West was born on October 22, 1945, in New York City to Jewish parents, but grew up in Hackensack, New Jersey, and in East Meadow, New York, Forest Hills, New York,


title: Leslie West

text: and Lawrence, New York. After his parents divorced, he changed his surname to West. His musical career began with the Vagrants, an R&B/blue-eyed soul-rock band influenced by the likes of the Rascals that was one of the few teenage garage rock acts to come out of the New York metropolitan area itself (as opposed to the Bohemian Greenwich Village scene of artists, poets, and affiliates of the Beat Generation, which produced bands like The Fugs and The Velvet Underground). The Vagrants had two minor hits in the Eastern United States; 1966's "I Can't Make a Friend" and a cover of Otis Redding's "Respect" the following year.


title: Leslie West

text: Some of the Vagrants' recordings were produced by Felix Pappalardi, who was also working with Cream on their album "Disraeli Gears". In 1969, West and Pappalardi formed the pioneering hard rock act Mountain, which was also the title of West's debut solo album. "Rolling Stone" identified the band as a "louder version of Cream". With Steve Knight on keyboards and original drummer N. D. Smart, the band appeared on the second day of the Woodstock Festival on Saturday, August 16, 1969, starting an 11-song set at 9 pm.


title: Leslie West

text: The band's original incarnation saw West and Pappalardi sharing vocal duties and playing guitar and bass, respectively. New drummer Corky Laing joined the band shortly after Woodstock. They had success with "Mississippi Queen", which reached No. 21 on the "Billboard" charts and No. 4 in Canada. It was followed by "Theme For an Imaginary Western", written by Cream bassist Jack Bruce. Mountain is one of the bands considered to be forerunners of heavy metal.


title: Leslie West

text: After Pappalardi left Mountain to concentrate on various production projects, West and Laing produced two studio albums and a live release with Jack Bruce under the name West, Bruce and Laing. West, along with keyboard player Al Kooper of Blood, Sweat & Tears, recorded with The Who during the March 1971 "Who's Next" New York sessions. Tracks from the sessions included a cover of Marvin Gaye's "Baby Don't You Do It," and early versions of "Love Ain't For Keepin'" and The Who's signature track "Won't Get Fooled Again". Though the tracks were not originally included on the album (recording restarted in England a few months later without West or Kooper), they appear as bonus tracks on the 1995 and 2003 reissues of "Who's Next" and on the 1998 reissue of "Odds & Sods".


title: Leslie West

text: Mountain reformed in 1973 only to break up again in late 1974. West had acting roles in "Family Honor" (1973) and "The Money Pit" (1986).


title: Leslie West

text: West also played guitar for the track "Bo Diddley Jam" on Bo Diddley's 1976 "20th Anniversary of Rock 'n' Roll" all-star album. Since 1981, Mountain has continued to reform, tour, and record on a regular basis. West teamed up with Ian Gillan of Deep Purple renown, to co-write and play guitar on the song "Hang Me Out To Dry" from the Gillan album "ToolBox", released in Europe in 1991. West and Joe Bonamassa recorded Warren Haynes' "If Heartaches Were Nickels" together. West released it on "Guitarded" (2005), and Bonamassa on "A New Day Yesterday" (2000). In May 1987, West played the band leader in a series of late night pilot shows for Howard Stern on the FOX network. He taped a total of five shows with Stern, which never aired. Stern went on to create a new show dubbed the Channel 9 show without West. West continued to make occasional appearances on radio, notably on Stern's radio show.


title: Leslie West

text: West contributed the music and co-wrote the lyrics to the song "Immortal" on Clutch's 2001 album "Pure Rock Fury", which was a reworked cover of the song "Baby I'm Down" from West's first album. In 2005 he contributed to Ozzy Osbourne's "Under Cover" album, performing guitar on a remake of "Mississippi Queen". In addition to fronting Mountain, West continued to record and perform on his own. His solo album, entitled "Blue Me", was released in 2006 on the Blues Bureau International label. West was inducted into the Long Island Music Hall of Fame on October 15, 2006. In 2007, Mountain released "Masters of War" on Big Rack Records, an album featuring 12 Bob Dylan covers that saw Osbourne providing guest vocals on a rendition of the title track.


title: Leslie West

text: West married his fiancée Jenni Maurer on stage after Mountain's performance at the Woodstock 40th anniversary concert in Bethel, New York (August 15, 2009). A concert crowd of over 15,000 people was present, as West and Maurer were wed under a canopy of upraised electric guitars. On June 20, 2011, West had his right leg amputated as a result of complications from diabetes. West made his first public appearance after his surgery on August 13, 2011. In 2014, West was a guest performer on Eli Cook's album, "Primitive Son". His 2015 album, "Soundcheck", peaked at number 2 on the "Billboard" Top Blues Albums chart.


title: Leslie West

text: Weeks before his death West was scheduled to begin recording a new studio album with a variety of guitarists. That group of musicians including Slash, Zakk Wylde, Dee Snider, and others, came together to record the album, titled "Legacy: A Tribute To Leslie West," which was released on 25 March 2022.


title: Leslie West

text: By the late 1970s, West was recovering from addiction to heroin, morphine, and cocaine. West said in various interviews that his drug problems and similar drug abuse problems of other bandmates, had interfered with the success of both Mountain, and West, Bruce and Laing. In the mid-1980s, just as he was overcoming the drug problems, West was diagnosed with diabetes and his weight fluctuated over the years as he struggled with the disease. In the early 2000s he also survived a short bout with bladder cancer. In 2011, due to complications from his diabetes, West's right leg had to be amputated. West said in a 2014 interview that he believed his past smoking also contributed to the crisis with his leg.


title: Leslie West

text: West went into cardiac arrest on Monday, December 21, 2020 and was rushed to a hospital in nearby Palm Coast where he never regained consciousness. After being contacted by "Rolling Stone", West's brother Larry West confirmed that Leslie West had died. A report by "Variety" based on social media posts made by Larry West states that Leslie West died on Wednesday, December 23, 2020. He was 75.


title: Leslie West

text: West was renowned for helping popularize the Gibson Les Paul Jr. guitar, with a single P-90 pickup, along with the use of Sunn Amplifiers, to create a tone which became his trademark sound.


title: Leslie West

text: Juniors, one "TV Yellow" and the other a sunburst. West also used a modified Gibson Flying V, with the neck pickup removed (he used the hole for an ash tray) and a P-90 pickup fitted at the bridge position. West also had a two-pickup Flying V (serial number 906965) which he used after the "ash tray" Flying V broke. West also used a plexiglass Electra guitar, which is a Japanese copy of the better known Ampeg-made Dan Armstrong guitar, for slide.


title: Leslie West

text: West also played a Westone Pantera guitar. From 1977 to 1982, he used a signature on-board effects MPC model guitar, created by the Japanese company Electra. He most recently used a signature model from Dean Guitars, the USA Soltero Leslie West Signature model, fitted with a custom-designed Dean pickup called "Mountain of Tone." Based on an endorsing contract in the 1970s, West played British-made Burns guitars. West also long favored "headless" guitars, and can be seen playing them on some of the videos he appeared in. In an interview segment on "Night of the Guitars – Live!" West stated that he had narrowed his commonly played instruments down to two: an off-the-shelf Steinberger and a Kramer with DiMarzio pickups.


title: Leslie West

text: In 2005, West received a sponsorship with Carlsbro amplifiers, and could frequently be seen playing through "Carlsbro 50 Top" valve heads. His studio amplifier was a Marshall JMP. Live, he used Marshall JCM 900s. He started endorsing and using Budda Amplification in 2008. He was also associated with Sunn amplifiers, and used a Sunn Coliseum PA head, when it was shipped to him by accident. He claimed that this is the amp that gave him his signature sound in a Gibson interview with West.


title: Leslie West

text: The Sunn amplifiers that West used were of the late 1960s era and were not factory stock. The four-channel amplifier heads' preamps were wired as cascading preamps to channel one, out to the amp's power section. This is what produced the long compressed sustain and distorted overdrive of the great Mountain sound that he is well known for.


title: Leslie West

text: West used Blackstar amps. West also used Budda amplifiers, with a Budda backline visible on stage footage of West's appearances.


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: A part of the ongoing war in the Donbas region of Ukraine, the Second Battle of Donetsk Airport began on 28 September 2014. An earlier battle in May 2014 had left Donetsk International Airport in Ukrainian control. Despite a ceasefire agreement, the Minsk Protocol, in place starting 5 September 2014, fighting broke out between Donetsk People's Republic forces affiliated with Russia, and Ukrainian military and volunteer forces.


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: At the start of the battle, the airport lay between the separatist and Ukrainian lines of control, and was the last part of Donetsk city held by Ukrainian government forces. Heavy fighting over the airport continued into the new year, with some of the worst fighting taking place in January 2015. On 21 January, Donetsk forces overran the government's positions at the airport. The remaining Ukrainian forces were either killed, forced to retreat, or captured.


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: Sporadic skirmishes between DPR and Ukrainian forces continued at Donetsk International Airport following the signing of the Minsk Protocol on 5 September 2014. In late September, these minor incidents became more frequent. Shelling and machine gun fire in the vicinity of the airport were reported on 23 September. According to one anonymous DPR intelligence officer who was interviewed on 25 September, "When they shoot, we reply to show them we're here. They are very well armed inside. They have T-64 tanks and multiple rocket launchers. We don't have what we need to get them out". He also said that Donetsk airport was a "terrible headache" for the DPR. The airport lies to the north of insurgent-controlled Donetsk city proper, and provides a "convenient vantage point" for Ukrainian forces, allowing them to target DPR positions in Donetsk with artillery fire. "Tit-for-tat" exchanges between the parties to the conflict grew more serious in the days following 25 September.


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: The placement of main buildings on the airport made its defense by Ukrainian forces more difficult from the start, because the airport structures are located on the south section, while the runway which served to resupply Ukrainian forces was in the open, thus allowing DPR fighters to easily target them.


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: DPR forces began a "concerted effort" to retake Donetsk International Airport in the last days of September. The worst incident since the start of ceasefire took place on 28 September, when nine Ukrainian soldiers were killed and twenty-seven wounded in a clash with DPR forces. Seven of these died when a tank shell struck a Ukrainian armoured personnel carrier. Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) monitors reported heavy shelling around the airport. Around this time, DPR forces began to establish positions in tower blocks overlooking the airport, including a medical station, staging area, and an artillery observation post. At 06:15 local time on the following day, DPR forces began to barrage the airport with Grad rocket fire. According to DPR leader Alexander Zakharchenko, the insurgent barrage was launched in response to government mortar fire that had been falling on Donetsk city proper. DPR forces used their positions in neighbouring residential buildings to direct artillery fire at the airport.


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: Ukrainian and separatist forces continued to exchange artillery fire. Amidst the continuing fire, a school and bus stop in the Kyivskiy district of Donetsk city, which neighbours the airport, were struck by shells on 1 October. Ten civilians were killed, though no schoolchildren were harmed. According to Joanne Mariner of Amnesty International, it was "impossible to tell" who was responsible for the incident. She also said, however, that "residential areas have been hit by Ukrainian forces firing from the airport", and that DPR forces "also bear responsibility as they have been stationing artillery in residential areas and firing from there, in clear contradiction of the laws of war". Concurrently, DPR forces supported by tanks began to advance into the airport, and seized several hangars, a fuel storage area, and outbuildings. They used these buildings as artillery emplacements, and began to bombard Ukrainian positions from them. DPR forces continued to move forward, and captured the control centre, police station, and hotel, but could not advance further. Mutual shelling continued on 2 October. The situation, according to the Ukrainian government, was "difficult".


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: Amidst heavy artillery fire, DPR forces pressed further into the airport on 3 October. The militants broke into the airport's old terminal building by using smoke bombs for cover. According to a spokesman for the Armed Forces of Ukraine, the militant advance had been supported by "Russian drones". Their tanks turned their guns on the new terminal building, the main stronghold for Ukrainian soldiers at the airport. Despite this, Ukrainian forces later managed to push the insurgents out of half of the old terminal building, and halted their advance. Government forces said that they destroyed two DPR tanks and killed 12 militants in the fighting. According to a Ukrainian military official, it was "the biggest single loss among rebels" since the start of the 5 September ceasefire agreement. Four Ukrainian soldiers died in the fighting, including two from the far-right group Right Sector.


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: DPR forces made another attempt to seize control of Donetsk airport on 9 October. They said that they managed to capture most of the airport, but this did not occur. Government forces repelled the attack. During this skirmish, heavy shelling in districts close to the airport resulted in the deaths of at least five civilians.


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: Fighting between Ukrainian and DPR forces intensified in mid-October. Six people were wounded by shelling on 19 October. A large explosion caused by shelling at a chemical works near the airport on 20 October damaged the Donbass Arena, and caused damage to buildings across Donetsk. DPR authorities said that Ukrainian forces had caused the explosion with a Tochka U missile system, which the Ukrainian government denied. Ukrainian soldiers at the airport, facing constant siege, were forced to hide behind concrete walls. According to a Ukrainian soldier at the airport, DPR forces infiltrated the tunnel network beneath the airport buildings. Ukrainian forces maintained their hold on the control tower and the old terminal building.


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: By 28 October, all but the first three floors of the new terminal building had collapsed. It had become a "blackened skeleton". Ukrainian forces maintained control of the ground and first floors of the airport, whilst DPR forces controlled the second floor and the basement tunnel network. The building had become littered with booby traps and debris, with Ukrainian and DPR forces fighting in a "claustrophobic game of cat and mouse". According to a report that appeared in the "Los Angeles Times", DPR forces constantly shelled the airport, and separatist ground forces attacked Ukrainian troops in the new terminal building at least once a day. The runway had become unusable, covered in destroyed armoured vehicles. The report said that in the new terminal building, "every pane of glass has shattered; every door, wall and ceiling has been pierced with bullets and shrapnel".


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: A representative of the Ukrainian government military operation in Donbas said on 11 November that Ukrainian forces had removed all separatists from the new terminal building at Donetsk airport, and that three Ukrainian flags had been hoisted over it. A volunteer pro-Ukrainian paramilitary Right Sector battalion that had been fighting DPR forces at the airport said that it was leaving, as the airport was firmly under the control of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. A brief ceasefire was agreed to by both parties to the conflict on the night of 16–17 November. According to a Ukrainian military spokesman, this agreement was made only to allow DPR forces to recover their dead and wounded from the airport grounds. By the morning of 17 November, heavy artillery fire once again rocked the airport.


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: The spokesman for the National Security and Defence Council of Ukraine (NSDC), Andriy Lysenko, said on 1 December that Russian special forces were assisting DPR forces at the airport. In an attempt to deescalate the situation in the area, Ukrainian Lt. General Vladimir Askarov and Russian Lt. General Aleksandr Lentsov agreed to hold a meeting to discuss a ceasefire. Following the meeting on 2 December, a general ceasefire was announced. Lt. General Lentsov said that, at the meeting, he and his Ukrainian counterpart discussed the creation of a military joint control centre to co-ordinate implementation of the Minsk Protocol in the Donetsk area. The centre would include Russian, Ukrainian, and OSCE representatives.


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: Ukrainian forces left the old terminal building on 5 December due to heavy shelling by DPR forces that broke the brief ceasefire, but continued to maintain their positions at the new terminal building. At this time, it was reported that the old terminal building had become the main battleground at the airport. The strategic air traffic control tower, which Ukrainian forces used to observe insurgent ground movements, remained under Ukrainian control. It was under constant bombardment by DPR artillery. The nearby village of Pisky, which was under Ukrainian control, had become a completely destroyed "Stalingrad". According to Right Sector volunteer paramilitaries, the ruins of Pisky were used to guard the "Road of Life", the only supply line into Donetsk airport that was controlled by government forces.


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: Over the course of December, there were several rotations of the Ukrainian troops stationed at the airport. These rotations were overseen by the OSCE Special Monitoring Mission to Ukraine. In addition, DPR forces assisted with the rotations under OSCE observation, and helped carry Ukrainian personnel and supplies. Despite occasional reports of gunfire, the OSCE said the rotations "had gone smoothly, since the commanders of both parties had reached an agreement on the cessation of artillery and small arms fire during the rotation".


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: Heavy fighting resumed on 29 December, when DPR forces again attacked government-controlled positions at the airport. Three Ukrainian soldiers were killed in the fighting, along with fourteen insurgents. By 31 December, the insurgents had retreated back to the positions they held prior to the attack. Heavy fighting resumed, however, when DPR forces launched a three-pronged offensive on the strategic village of Pisky. Ukrainian forces said that they were "holding their ground". OSCE monitors reported that Pisky remained under government control, but that DPR forces had taken control of the "Volvo Centre" at its southern entrance.


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: Government forces attacked the DPR-controlled old terminal building on 12 January, but this attack was repelled by DPR forces. On the following day, the leader of the OSCE Special Monitoring Mission to Ukraine in Ukraine said that the situation at the airport had "significantly deteriorated". According to a Ukrainian government official, Ukrainian forces defending the airport were issued an ultimatum by DPR authorities that said that if they did not withdraw from the airport by 17:00 local time, they would "face destruction". Ukrainian forces did not withdraw, leading to heavy shelling by DPR forces. This shelling caused the strategic air traffic control tower to collapse. At the time of the collapse of the tower, DPR forces were within of the new terminal building. One Ukrainian soldier said that the DPR shelling was "sweeping through the terminal", and that DPR forces would "simply destroy" the remaining government troops without support. Ukrainian forces were later able to slow the DPR attack with artillery fire of their own.


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: After four days of heavy shelling of the airport, DPR forces pushed back Ukrainian troops on 14 January, and captured one-third of the new terminal building. On the next day, DPR authorities said that they were under full control of the airport, and an Associated Press reporter confirmed that a DPR flag was flying over the new terminal building. Despite this, fighting continued, and Ukrainian government officials denied that the terminal had been lost. A Ukrainian soldier at the airport said that Ukrainian forces had been forced to hole up in a single hall, and that they were under constant tank fire. DPR leader Alexander Zakharchenko stated that the capture of the airport was the first step toward regaining territory lost to Ukrainian forces during the summer of 2014. He said "Let our countrymen hear this: We will not just give up our land. We will either take it back peacefully, or like that", referring to the capture of the airport. Ukrainian forces said that there had been "no order to retreat" from the airport, and DPR parliament chairman Andrei Purgin said that while DPR forces had gained control of the terminal buildings, fighting was ongoing because "the Ukrainians have lots of places to hide". In the evening, Ukrainian troops launched a counter-attack, and forced the insurgents to retreat from the first floor of the building. Despite this, DPR forces remained in control of the second floor and the basement.


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: A government military operation over the weekend of 17–18 January resulted in Ukrainian forces recapturing most of airport. According to a spokesman for the NSDC, the operation restored the lines of control established by the Minsk Protocol, and therefore did not constitute a violation of it. The operation caused fighting to move toward Donetsk proper, resulting in heavy shelling of residential areas of the city that border the airport. DPR authorities said that they halted government forces at Putylivskiy bridge, which connects the airport and the city proper. The bridge, which was strategically important, was destroyed during the fighting. OSCE monitors reported that shelling had caused heavy damage in the Donetsk residential districts of Kyivsky, Kirovsky, Petrovsky, and Voroshilovsky.


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: Both sides claimed control of the airport on 19 January. DPR authorities acknowledged that the government counter-offensive had resulted in the deaths of 16 of their men, and that 62 had been injured. During the day, insurgents blew up part of the ceiling of the first floor of the new terminal building, causing it to collapse onto holed up Ukrainian soldiers. Many soldiers were wounded by the collapse. According to Airmobile brigade commander Colonel Yevgeny Moysyuk, the collapse was orchestrated by professional Russian soldiers, who had been responsible for forcing Ukrainian forces to hole up on the first floor. Having intercepted their communications, he said that "the language they spoke, the accents, the jargon, the vocabulary – all was Russian Russian, not even Ukrainian Russian". In the evening, a group of Ukrainian troops that had been encircled by insurgents near the airport managed to break out towards the airport, though one soldier was killed. On the following day, a Polish journalist reported from government-controlled Pisky that the airport was mostly under DPR control, but refuted a separatist claim that Pisky had also been captured. In the evening, the Ukrainian Defence Ministry said that DPR forces had blown up the airport's runway. By this point, more than 100 soldiers that were wounded during that airport battle had been evacuated.


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: Ukrainian forces attempted to surround the airport in an attempt to push back the insurgents on 20 January. As Ukrainian and DPR forces fought away from the airport, a group of insurgents stormed the ground and second floors of the new terminal building. Ukrainian troops continued to hold out on the first floor of the building until the separatists exploded the second floor at 15:30 EET, causing it to collapse onto them. This killed several soldiers, and proved to be the battle's turning point. By the next day, the remaining Ukrainian forces were either captured, killed, or were forced to withdraw from the building, allowing DPR forces to overrun it. According to one volunteer, 37 Ukrainian troops died. During the fighting, Right Sector leader Dmytro Yarosh was wounded by an exploding Grad rocket in Pisky. He was evacuated out of the conflict zone. A spokesman for the DPR Defence Ministry said that sixteen Ukrainian soldiers who had been buried under rubble in the main terminal building for days had been taken captive, and given medical care. Ukrainian president Petro Poroshenko said on 21 January that Russia had deployed more than 9,000 soldiers and 500 tanks, artillery units, and armoured personnel carriers in Donbas. An article that appeared in "The Daily Telegraph" said that the deployment appeared to be "a response to Kiev's [prior] success" in retaining control of Donetsk airport, and that the influx of weaponry and manpower had made Ukrainian positions at the airport untenable. Following the battle, separatist fighters paraded captured Ukrainian soldiers from the airport at the scene of a bus shelling in Donetsk city proper. Onlookers verbally abused the prisoners, and pelted them with debris from the exploded bus. The loss of the airport was described as a "devastating victory over Ukrainian forces", and a "major blow".


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: During the battle, the word Cyborg () was used to refer to the Ukrainian defenders of the airport. The term was taken from intercepted radio communications of DPR forces referring to Ukrainians as "some kind of cyborgs sitting in there," published on YouTube. Ukrainians picked up the name and started to refer to Ukrainian soldiers inside the airport as cyborgs. It refers to the way that the airport defenders were able to fend off constant attacks by DPR forces in close quarters with little sleep or support, just as science-fiction cyborgs are "indestructible half-men, half-machines", or "superhuman". The cyborgs have become part of Ukrainian national mythos, and are cast in a "near-legendary light" amongst many Ukrainians. The term "cyborg" is usually applied to the following units: 3rd Spetsnaz Regiment, 93rd Mechanised Brigade, 79th Airmobile Brigade, 17th Tank Brigade, and the Right Sector Ukrainian Volunteer Corps.


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: To commemorate those who fell in battle, Ukraine celebrates the Day of Remembrance of the Cyborgs annually on 16 January.


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: The question as to whether control over Donetsk Airport was a strategic necessity for Ukrainian forces was called into question. As early as September 2014, Ukrainian parliament member Dmytro Tymchuk suggested that the airport should be destroyed, and that Ukrainian forces should retreat to a more easily defended position. Tymchuk stated the airport had been rendered unusable by the fighting, and that fears of Russia using it to support the Donetsk People's Republic were overblown. It was also said that the area north of the airport, which is forested, would have been easier to defend than a building surrounded by open space.


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: Likewise, the airport's value to the separatists was also questioned. DPR forces had no access to aeroplanes or other aerial weaponry, and the airport's runway had been rendered useless by shelling. Moreover, following the end of the battle, Ukrainian troops retreated to the village of Pisky, just south-west of the airport's runway. They continued to control this village, meaning that the airport remained within the Ukrainian line-of-fire. It is likely that, because the DPR committed a large force to assaulting the airport, this provided an opening for the Azov Battalion to push the insurgents away from Mariupol.


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: However, the airport served a tactical advantage for Ukrainians. While DPR was focused on airport events closely followed by the media, the Ukrainians managed to push the DPR out of near suburbs of the Donetsk agglomerate.


title: Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

text: A film about the Ukrainian Cyborgs called "" was released on 7 December 2017. The movie secured the top spot at the box office earning US$302,000 on its opening week.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: Polygamy (called plural marriage by Latter-day Saints in the 19th century or the Principle by modern fundamentalist practitioners of polygamy) was practiced by leaders of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) for more than half of the 19th century, and practiced publicly from 1852 to 1890 by between 20 and 30 percent of Latter-day Saint families. Today, various denominations of fundamentalist Mormonism continue to practice polygamy.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: The Latter-day Saints' practice of polygamy has been controversial, both within Western society and the LDS Church itself. The U.S. was both fascinated and horrified by the practice of polygamy, with the Republican platform at one time referencing "the twin relics of barbarism—polygamy and slavery." The private practice of polygamy was instituted in the 1830s by founder Joseph Smith. The public practice of plural marriage by the church was announced and defended in 1852 by a member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, Orson Pratt, at the request of church president Brigham Young.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: For over 60 years, the LDS Church and the United States were at odds over the issue: the church defended the practice as a matter of religious freedom, while the federal government aggressively sought to eradicate it, consistent with prevailing public opinion. Polygamy was probably a significant factor in the Utah War of 1857 and 1858, given Republican attempts to paint Democratic President James Buchanan as weak in his opposition to both polygamy and slavery. In 1862, the United States Congress passed the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act, which prohibited plural marriage in the territories. In spite of the law, Latter-day Saints continued to practice polygamy, believing that it was protected by the First Amendment. In 1879, in "Reynolds v. United States", the Supreme Court of the United States upheld the Morrill Act, stating: "Laws are made for the government of actions, and while they cannot interfere with mere religious belief and opinion, they may with practices."


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: In 1890, when it became clear that Utah would not be admitted to the Union while polygamy was still practiced, church president Wilford Woodruff issued a Manifesto that officially terminated the practice of polygamy. Although this Manifesto did not dissolve existing plural marriages, relations with the United States markedly improved after 1890, such that Utah was admitted as a U.S. state in 1896. After the Manifesto, some church members continued to enter into polygamous marriages, but these eventually stopped in 1904 when church president Joseph F. Smith disavowed polygamy before Congress and issued a "Second Manifesto," calling for all plural marriages in the church to cease, and established excommunication as the consequence for those who disobeyed. Several small "fundamentalist" groups, seeking to continue the practice, split from the LDS Church, including the Apostolic United Brethren (AUB) and the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS Church). Meanwhile, the LDS Church continues its policy of excommunicating members found practicing polygamy, and today actively seeks to distance itself from fundamentalist groups that continue the practice. On its website, the church states that "the standard doctrine of the church is monogamy" and that polygamy was a temporary exception to the rule.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: Many early converts to the religion including Brigham Young, Orson Pratt, and Lyman Johnson, recorded that Joseph Smith was teaching plural marriage privately as early as 1831 or 1832. Pratt reported that Smith told some early members in 1831 and 1832 that plural marriage was a true principle, but that the time to practice it had not yet come. Johnson also claimed to have heard the doctrine from Smith in 1831. Mosiah Hancock reported that his father was taught about plural marriage in the spring of 1832.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: The 1835 and 1844 versions of the church's Doctrine and Covenants (D&C) prohibited polygamy and declared that monogamy was the only acceptable form of marriage:


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: William Clayton, Smith's scribe, recorded early polygamous marriages in 1843: "On the 1st day of May, 1843, I officiated in the office of an Elder by marrying Lucy Walker to the Prophet Joseph Smith, at his own residence. During this period the Prophet Joseph took several other wives. Amongst the number I well remember Eliza Partridge, Emily Partridge, Sarah Ann Whitney, Helen Kimball and Flora Woodworth. These all, he acknowledged to me, were his lawful, wedded wives, according to the celestial order. His wife Emma was cognizant of the fact of some, if not all, of these being his wives, and she generally treated them very kindly."


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: As early as 1832, Mormon missionaries worked successfully to convert followers in Maine of polygamist religious leader Jacob Cochran, who went into hiding in 1830 to escape imprisonment due to his practice of polygamy. Among Cochran's marital innovations was "spiritual wifery," and "tradition assumes that he received frequent consignments of spiritual consorts, and that such were invariably the most robust and attractive women in the community." The majority of what became the Quorum of the Twelve in 1835 attended Mormon conferences held in the center of the Cochranite territory in 1834 and 1835. Brigham Young, an apostle of the church, became acquainted with Cochran's followers as he made several missionary journeys through the Cochranite territory from Boston to Saco, and later married Augusta Adams Cobb, a former Cochranite.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: Joseph Smith publicly condemned polygamy, denied his involvement in it, and participants were excommunicated, as church records and publications reflect. But church leaders nevertheless began practicing polygamy in the 1840s, particularly members of the Quorum of the Twelve. Sidney Rigdon, while he was estranged from the church, wrote a letter in backlash to the "Messenger and Advocate" in 1844 condemning the church's Quorum of the Twelve and their alleged connection to polygamy:


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: At the time, the practice was kept secret from non-members and most church members. Throughout his life, Smith publicly denied having multiple wives.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: However, John C. Bennett, a recent convert to the church and the first mayor of Nauvoo, used ideas of eternal and plural marriage to justify acts of seduction, adultery and, in some cases, the practice of abortion in the guise of "spiritual wifery." Bennett was called to account by Joseph and Hyrum Smith, and was excommunicated from the church. In April 1844, Joseph Smith referred to polygamy as "John C. Bennett's spiritual wife system" and warned "if any man writes to you, or preaches to you, doctrines contrary to the Bible, the Book of Mormon, or the book of Doctrine and Covenants, set him down as an imposter." Smith mused


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: The practice was publicly announced in Salt Lake City, Utah Territory, in 1852, some five years after the Mormons arrived in Utah, and eight years after Smith's death. The doctrine authorizing plural marriage was canonized and published in the 1876 version of the LDS Church's Doctrine and Covenants.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: Top leaders used the examples of the polygamy of God the Father and Jesus Christ in defense of it and these teachings on God and Jesus' polygamy were widely accepted among Mormons by the late 1850s. In 1853, Jedediah M. Grant—who later become a First Presidency member—stated that the top reason behind the persecution of Christ and his disciples was due to their practice of polygamy. Two months later, apostle Orson Pratt taught in a church periodical that "We have now clearly shown that God the Father had a plurality of wives," and that after her death, Mary (the mother of Jesus) may have become another eternal polygamous wife of God. He also stated that Christ had multiple wives as further evidence in defense of polygamy. In the next two years the apostle Orson Hyde also stated during two general conference addresses that Jesus practiced polygamy and repeated this in an 1857 address. This teaching was alluded to by church president Brigham Young in 1870 and First Presidency member Joseph F. Smith in 1883.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: The 1843 polygamy revelation, published posthumously, counseled Smith's wife Emma to accept all of Smith's plural wives, and warns of destruction if the new covenant is not observed. Emma Smith was publicly and privately opposed to the practice and Joseph may have married some women without Emma knowing beforehand. Emma publicly denied that her husband had ever preached or practiced polygamy, which later became a defining difference between the LDS Church under Brigham Young and the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (RLDS Church; now known as the Community of Christ), led by Joseph Smith III. Emma Smith remained affiliated with the RLDS Church until her death at the age of 74. Emma Smith claimed that the very first time she ever became aware of the 1843 polygamy revelation was when she read about it in Orson Pratt's publication "The Seer" in 1853.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: There is a subtle difference between "sealing" (which is a Mormon priesthood ordinance that binds individuals together in the eternities), and "marriage" (a social tradition in which the man and woman agree to be husband and wife in this life). In the early days of Mormonism, common practices and doctrines were not yet well-defined. Even among those who accept the views of conventional historians, there is disagreement as to the precise number of wives Smith had: Fawn M. Brodie lists 48, D. Michael Quinn 46, and George D. Smith 38. The discrepancy is created by the lack of documents to support the alleged marriages to some of the named wives.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: A number of Smith's "marriages" occurred after his death, with the wife being sealed to Smith via a proxy who stood in for him. One historian, Todd M. Compton, documented at least 33 plural marriages or sealings during Smith's lifetime. Richard Lloyd Anderson and Scott H. Faulring came up with a list of 29 wives of Joseph Smith.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: It is unclear how many of the wives Smith had sexual relations with. Many contemporary accounts from Smith's time indicate that he engaged in sexual relations with several of his wives. , there were at least twelve early Latter Day Saints who, based on historical documents and circumstantial evidence, had been identified as potential Smith offspring stemming from plural marriages. In 2005 and 2007 studies, a geneticist with the Sorenson Molecular Genealogy Foundation stated that they had shown "with 99.9 percent accuracy" that five of these individuals were in fact not Smith descendants: Mosiah Hancock (son of Clarissa Reed Hancock), Oliver Buell (son of Prescindia Huntington Buell), Moroni Llewellyn Pratt (son of Mary Ann Frost Pratt), Zebulon Jacobs (son of Zina Diantha Huntington Jacobs Smith), and Orrison Smith (son of Fanny Alger). The remaining seven have yet to be conclusively tested, including Josephine Lyon, for whom current DNA testing using mitochondrial DNA cannot provide conclusive evidence either way. Lyon's mother, Sylvia Sessions Lyon, left her daughter a deathbed affidavit telling her she was Smith's daughter.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: Mormon polygamy was one of the leading moral issues of the 19th Century in the United States, perhaps second only to slavery in importance. Spurred by popular indignation, the U.S. government took a number of steps against polygamy; these were of varying effectiveness.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: As the LDS Church settled in what became the Utah Territory, it eventually was subjected to the power and opinion of the United States. Friction first began to show in the James Buchanan administration and federal troops arrived (see Utah War). Buchanan, anticipating Mormon opposition to a newly appointed territorial governor to replace Brigham Young, dispatched 2,500 federal troops to Utah to seat the new governor, thus setting in motion a series of misunderstandings in which the Mormons felt threatened.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: For the most part, the rest of the United States considered plural marriage offensive. On July 8, 1862, President Abraham Lincoln signed the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act into law, which forbade the practice in U.S. territories. Lincoln made a statement that he had no intentions of enforcing it if the LDS Church would not interfere with him, and so the matter was laid to rest for a time. But rhetoric continued, and polygamy became an impediment to Utah being admitted as a state. Brigham Young preached in 1866 that if Utah will not be admitted to the Union until it abandons polygamy, "we shall never be admitted."


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: After the Civil War, immigrants to Utah who were not members of the church continued the contest for political power. They were frustrated by the consolidation of the members. Forming the Liberal Party, non-Mormons began pushing for political changes and sought to weaken the church's dominance in the territory. In September 1871, Young was indicted for adultery due to his plural marriages. On January 6, 1879, the Supreme Court upheld the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act in "Reynolds v. United States".


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: In February 1882, George Q. Cannon, a prominent leader in the church, was denied a non-voting seat in the U.S. House of Representatives due to his polygamous relations. This revived the issue of polygamy in national politics. One month later, the Edmunds Act was passed by Congress, amending the Morrill Act and made polygamy a felony punishable by a $500 fine and five years in prison. "Unlawful cohabitation," in which the prosecution did not need to prove that a marriage ceremony had taken place (only that a couple had lived together), was a misdemeanor punishable by a $300 fine and six months imprisonment. It also revoked the right of polygamists to vote or hold office and allowed them to be punished without due process. Even if people did not practice polygamy, they would have their rights revoked if they confessed a belief in it. In August, Rudger Clawson was imprisoned for continuing to cohabit with wives that he married before the 1862 Morrill Act.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: In 1887, the Edmunds–Tucker Act allowed the disincorporation of the LDS Church and the seizure of church property; it also further extended the punishments of the Edmunds Act. In July of the same year, the U.S. Attorney General filed suit to seize all church assets.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: The church was losing control of the territorial government, and many members and leaders were being actively pursued as fugitives. Without being able to appear publicly, the leadership was left to navigate "underground."


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: Following the passage of the Edmunds–Tucker Act, the church found it difficult to operate as a viable institution. After visiting priesthood leaders in many settlements, church president Wilford Woodruff left for San Francisco on September 3, 1890, to meet with prominent businessmen and politicians. He returned to Salt Lake City on September 21, determined to obtain divine confirmation to pursue a course that seemed to be agonizingly more and more clear. As he explained to church members a year later, the choice was between, on the one hand, continuing to practice plural marriage and thereby losing the temples, "stopping all the ordinances therein," and, on the other, ceasing plural marriage in order to continue performing the essential ordinances for the living and the dead. Woodruff hastened to add that he had acted only as the Lord directed:


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: The final element in Woodruff's revelatory experience came on the evening of September 23, 1890. The following morning, he reported to some of the general authorities that he had struggled throughout the night with the Lord regarding the path that should be pursued. The result was a 510-word handwritten manuscript which stated his intentions to comply with the law and denied that the church continued to solemnize or condone plural marriages. The document was later edited by George Q. Cannon of the First Presidency and others to its present 356 words. On October 6, 1890, it was presented to the Latter-day Saints at the General Conference and unanimously approved.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: While many church leaders in 1890 regarded the Manifesto as inspired, there were differences among them about its scope and permanence. Contemporary opinions include the contention that the manifesto was more related to an effort to achieve statehood for the Utah territory. Some leaders were reluctant to terminate a long-standing practice that was regarded as divinely mandated. As a result, over 200 plural marriages were performed between 1890 and 1904.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: It was not until 1904, under the leadership of church president Joseph F. Smith, that the church completely banned new plural marriages worldwide. Not surprisingly, rumors persisted of marriages performed after the 1890 Manifesto, and beginning in January 1904, testimony given in the Smoot hearings made it clear that plural marriage had not been completely extinguished.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: The ambiguity was ended in the General Conference of April 1904, when Smith issued the "Second Manifesto," an emphatic declaration that prohibited plural marriage and proclaimed that offenders would be subject to church discipline. It declared that any who participated in additional plural marriages, and those officiating, would be excommunicated from the church. Those disagreeing with the Second Manifesto included apostles Matthias F. Cowley and John W. Taylor, who both resigned from the Quorum of the Twelve. Cowley retained his membership in the church, but Taylor was later excommunicated.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: Although the Second Manifesto ended the official practice of new plural marriages, existing plural marriages were not automatically dissolved. Many Mormons, including prominent church leaders, maintained existing plural marriages into the 1940s and 1950s.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: In 1943, the First Presidency learned that apostle Richard R. Lyman was cohabitating with a woman other than his legal wife. As it turned out, in 1925 Lyman had begun a relationship which he defined as a polygamous marriage. Unable to trust anyone else to officiate, Lyman and the woman exchanged vows secretly. By 1943, both were in their seventies. Lyman was excommunicated on November 12, 1943. The Quorum of the Twelve provided the newspapers with a one-sentence announcement, stating that the ground for excommunication was violation of the law of chastity.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: Over time, many of those who rejected the LDS Church's relinquishment of plural marriage formed small, close-knit communities in areas of the Rocky Mountains. These groups continue to practice "the Principle." In the 1940s, LDS Church apostle Mark E. Petersen coined the term "Mormon fundamentalist" to describe such people. Fundamentalists either practice as individuals, as families, or as part of organized denominations. Today, the LDS Church objects to the use of the term "Mormon fundamentalists" and suggests using the term "polygamist sects" to avoid confusion about whether the main body of Mormon believers teach or practice polygamy.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: Mormon fundamentalists believe that plural marriage is a requirement for exaltation and entry into the highest level of the celestial kingdom. These beliefs stem from statements by 19th-century Mormon authorities including Brigham Young (although some of these leaders gave possibly conflicting statements that a monogamist may obtain at least a lower degree of "exaltation" through mere "belief" in polygamy).


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: For public relations reasons, the LDS Church has sought vigorously to disassociate itself from Mormon fundamentalists and the practice of plural marriage. Although the LDS Church has requested that journalists not refer to Mormon fundamentalists using the term "Mormon," journalists generally have not complied, and "Mormon fundamentalist" has become standard terminology. Mormon fundamentalists themselves embrace the term "Mormon" and share a religious heritage and beliefs with the LDS Church, including canonization of the Book of Mormon and a claim that Joseph Smith is the founder of their religion.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: Although the LDS Church has abandoned the practice of plural marriage, it has not abandoned the underlying doctrines of polygamy. According to the church's sacred texts and pronouncements by its leaders and theologians, the church leaves open the possibility that it may one day re-institute the practice. It is still the practice of monogamous Mormon couples to be sealed to one another. However, in some circumstances, men and women may be sealed to multiple spouses. Most commonly, a man may be sealed to multiple wives: if his first wife dies, he may be sealed to a second wife. A deceased woman may also be sealed to multiple men, but only through vicarious sealing if they are also deceased.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: As early as the publication of the Book of Mormon in 1830, Latter Day Saint doctrine maintained that polygamy was allowable only if it was commanded by God. The Book of Jacob condemned polygamy as adultery, but left open the proviso that "For if I will, saith the Lord of Hosts, raise up seed unto me, I will command my people; otherwise, they shall hearken unto these things." Thus, the LDS Church today teaches that plural marriage can only be practiced when specifically authorized by God. According to this view, the 1890 Manifesto and Second Manifesto rescinded God's prior authorization given to Joseph Smith.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: However, Bruce R. McConkie controversially stated in his 1958 book, "Mormon Doctrine", that God will "obviously" re-institute the practice of polygamy after the Second Coming of Jesus Christ. This echoes earlier teachings by Brigham Young that the primary purpose of polygamy was to bring about the Millennium. Current official church materials do not make any mention of the future re-institution of plural marriage.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: In the case where a man's first wife dies, and the man remarries, and both of the marriages involve a sealing, LDS authorities teach that in the afterlife, the man will enter a polygamous relationship with both wives. Current apostles Russell M. Nelson and Dallin H. Oaks are examples of such a case.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: Under LDS Church policy, a man whose sealed wife has died does not have to request any permission beyond having a current temple recommend and an interview with his bishop to get final permission for a living ordinance, to be married in the temple and sealed to another woman, unless the new wife's circumstance requires a cancellation of sealing. However, a woman whose sealed husband has died is still bound by the original sealing and must request a cancellation of sealing to be sealed to another man (see next paragraph for exception to this after she dies). In some cases, women in this situation who wish to remarry choose to be married to a subsequent husband and are not sealed to them, leaving them sealed to their first husband for eternity.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: As of 1998, however, women who have died may be sealed to more than one man. In 1998, the LDS Church created a new policy that a woman may also be sealed to more than one man. A woman, however, may not be sealed to more than one man while she is alive. She may only be sealed to subsequent partners after both she and her husband(s) have died. Thus, if a widow who was sealed to her first husband remarries, she may be sealed by proxy to all of her subsequent husband(s), but only after both she and the subsequent husbands have died. Proxy sealings, like proxy baptisms, are merely "offered" to the person in the afterlife, indicating that the purpose is to allow the woman to choose the right man to be sealed to.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: In the twenty-first century, church leadership has taught that doctrinal knowledge about the nature of family relations in the afterlife is limited and there is no official church teaching on how multiple marriages in life play out in the afterlife beyond trust in God that such matters will work out happily.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: A man who is sealed to a woman but later divorced must apply for a "sealing clearance" from the First Presidency in order to be sealed to another woman. Receiving clearance does not void or invalidate the first sealing. A woman in the same circumstances would apply to the First Presidency for a "cancellation of sealing" (sometimes called a "temple divorce"), allowing her to be sealed to another man. This approval voids the original sealing as far as the woman is concerned. Divorced women who have not applied for a sealing cancellation are considered sealed to the original husband. However, according to Joseph Stuart and Dr. Janiece Johnson of the Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship, even in the afterlife the marriage relationship is voluntary, so no person could be forced into an eternal relationship through temple sealing that they do not wish to be in. Divorced women may also be granted a cancellation of sealing, even though they do not intend to marry someone else. In this case, they are no longer regarded as being sealed to anyone and are presumed to have the same eternal status as unwed women.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: According to church policy, after a man has died, he may be sealed by proxy to all of the women to whom he was legally married while he was alive. The same is true for women; however, if a woman was sealed to a man while she was alive, all of her husbands must be deceased before she can be sealed by proxy to them.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: Church doctrine is not entirely specific on the status of men or women who are sealed by proxy to multiple spouses. There are at least two possibilities:


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: Critics of polygamy in the early LDS Church claim that plural marriages produced unhappiness in some wives. LDS historian Todd Compton, in his book "In Sacred Loneliness", described various instances where some wives in polygamous marriages were unhappy with polygamy.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: Critics of polygamy in the early LDS Church claim that church leaders established the practice of polygamy in order to further their immoral desires for sexual gratification with multiple sexual partners. Critics point to the fact that church leaders practiced polygamy in secret from 1833 to 1852, despite a written church doctrine (Doctrine and Covenants 101, 1835 edition) renouncing polygamy and stating that only monogamous marriages were permitted. Critics also cite several first-person accounts of early church leaders attempting to use the polygamy doctrine to enter into illicit relationships with women. Critics also assert that Joseph Smith instituted polygamy in order to cover up an 1835 adulterous affair with a neighbor's daughter, Fanny Alger, by taking Alger as his second wife. Compton dates this marriage to March or April 1833, well before Joseph was accused of an affair. However, historian Lawrence Foster dismisses the marriage of Alger to Joseph Smith as "debatable supposition" rather than "established fact."


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: Others conclude that many Latter-day Saints entered into plural marriage based on the belief that it was a religious commandment, rather than as an excuse for sexual license. For instance, many of the figures who came to be best associated with plural marriage, including church president Brigham Young and his counselor Heber C. Kimball, expressed revulsion at the system when it was first introduced to them. Young famously stated that after receiving the commandment to practice plural marriage in Nauvoo, he saw a funeral procession walking down the street and he wished he could exchange places with the corpse. He recalled that "I was not desirous of shrinking from any duty, nor of failing in the least to do as I was commanded, but it was the first time in my life that I had desired the grave, and I could hardly get over it for a long time." When Kimball first heard of the principle, he believed that he would marry elderly women whom he would care for and who would not be a threat to his first wife Vilate. He was later shocked to learn that he was to marry a younger woman. His biographer writes that he "became sick in body, but his mental wretchedness was too great to allow of his retiring, and he would walk the floor till nearly morning, and sometimes the agony of his mind was so terrible that he would wring his hands and weep like a child." While his wife Vilate had trials "grievous to bear" as a result of her acceptance of plural marriage, she supported her husband in his religious duties, and taught her children that "she could not doubt the plural order of marriage was of God, for the Lord had revealed it to her in answer to prayer."


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: Critics of polygamy in the early LDS Church claim that church leaders sometimes used polygamy to take advantage of young girls for immoral purposes. Historian George D. Smith studied 153 men who took plural wives in the early years of the Latter Day Saint movement, and found that two of the girls were thirteen years old, 13 girls were fourteen years old, 21 were fifteen years old, and 53 were sixteen years old. Historian Todd Compton documented that Joseph Smith married girls of age 13 or 14. Historian Stanly Hirshon documented cases of girls aged 10 and 11 being married to old men.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: However, it seems that Brigham Young attempted to stamp out the practice of men being sealed to excessively young girls. In 1857, he stated, "I shall not seal the people as I have done. Old Father Alread brought three young girls 12 & 13 years old. I would not seal them to him. They would not be equally yoked together. . . . Many get their endowments who are not worthy and this is the way that devils are made."


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: Critics of polygamy in the early LDS Church have documented several cases where deception and coercion were used to induce marriage, for example citing the case of Joseph Smith who warned some potential spouses of eternal damnation if they did not consent to be his wife. In 1893, married LDS Church member John D. Miles traveled to England and proposed to Caroline Owens, assuring her that he was not polygamous. She returned to Utah and participated in a wedding, only to find out after the ceremony that Miles was already married. She ran away, but Miles hunted her down and raped her. She eventually escaped, and filed a lawsuit against Miles that reached the Supreme Court and became a significant case in polygamy case law. Ann Eliza Young, nineteenth wife of Brigham Young, claimed that Young coerced her to marry him by threatening financial ruin of her brother.


title: Mormonism and polygamy

text: Critics of polygamy in the early LDS Church claim that polygamy was used to justify marriage of close relatives that would otherwise be considered immoral. In 1843, Joseph Smith's diary records the sealing of John Milton Bernhisel to his sister, Maria, in a ceremony that included the sealing of Bernhisel to multiple relatives, some of whom were deceased. However, this is understood by most scholars as the collective sealing or binding of the family and not a marriage between Bernhisel and his sister. Similar family sealings are practiced in Latter-Day Saint temples today, where children of parents who were not sealed at the time of their marriage are sealed to their parents and to one another in a group ceremony.


title: Kabhi Kabhie Ittefaq Sey

text: Kabhi Kabhie Ittefaq Sey () is an Indian Television Drama series that premiered on 3 January 2022 and aired on StarPlus and digitally available on Disney+ Hotstar which stars Yesha Rughani and Manan Joshi. Its a Hindi adaptation of Star Jalsha's "Khorkuto" and went off-air on 20 August 2022.


title: Kabhi Kabhie Ittefaq Sey

text: Getting connected initially by their families, and later through a helpless situation they are forced to break up, later on Anubhav and Gungun want to get connected but Anubhav is married to Akriti. Will he be able to be with Gungun and straighten things out with Akriti who hates her cousin?


title: Kabhi Kabhie Ittefaq Sey

text: The casting commenced in October 2021 and actors Delnaaz Irani and Rajiv Kumar were the first to be cast as pivotal recurring characters. Later, Mehul Nisar, Kanwarjit Paintal, Shilpa Kadam and several others actors too were roped in to play pivotal roles.


title: Kabhi Kabhie Ittefaq Sey

text: The pre-production began in July 2021. Shooting commenced in October 2021 and various sequences were shot in Lucknow.


title: Kabhi Kabhie Ittefaq Sey

text: The song ‘Aate Jaate Khoobsurat’ was reverbed in a newer version as the title track for the show. It is sung by Shaan and Neeti Mohan.


title: Pagoda

text: A pagoda is an Asian tiered tower with multiple eaves common to Nepal, India, China, Japan, Korea, Myanmar, Vietnam, and other parts of Asia. Most pagodas were built to have a religious function, most often Buddhist but sometimes Taoist, and were often located in or near viharas. The pagoda traces its origins to the stupa of ancient India.


title: Pagoda

text: Chinese pagodas () are a traditional part of Chinese architecture. In addition to religious use, since ancient times Chinese pagodas have been praised for the spectacular views they offer, and many classical poems attest to the joy of scaling pagodas. Chinese sources credit the Nepalese architect Araniko with introducing the pagoda to China.


title: Pagoda

text: The oldest and tallest pagodas were built of wood, but most that survived were built of brick or stone. Some pagodas are solid with no interior. Hollow pagodas have no higher floors or rooms, but the interior often contains an altar or a smaller pagoda, as well as a series of staircases for the visitor to ascend and to witness the view from an opening on one side of each tier. Most have between three and 13 tiers (almost always an odd number) and the classic gradual tiered eaves.


title: Pagoda

text: In some countries, the term may refer to other religious structures. In Vietnam and Cambodia, due to French translation, the English term "pagoda" is a more generic term referring to a place of worship, although "pagoda" is not an accurate word to describe a Buddhist vihara. The architectural structure of the stupa has spread across Asia, taking on many diverse forms specific to each region. Many Philippine bell towers are highly influenced by pagodas through Chinese workers hired by the Spaniards.


title: Pagoda

text: One proposed etymology is from a South Chinese pronunciation of the term for an eight-cornered tower, , and reinforced by the name of a famous pagoda encountered by many early European visitors to China, the "Pázhōu tǎ" (), standing just south of Guangzhou at Whampoa Anchorage. Another proposed etymology is Persian "butkada", from "but", "idol" and "kada", "temple, dwelling."


title: Pagoda

text: Yet another etymology is from the Sinhala word "dāgaba", derived from Sanskrit "dhātugarbha" or Pali "dhātugabbha": "relic womb/chamber" or "reliquary shrine", i.e. a stupa, by way of Portuguese.


title: Pagoda

text: The origin of the pagoda can be traced to the stupa (3rd century BCE). The stupa, a dome shaped monument, was used as a commemorative monument to house sacred relics and writings. In East Asia, the architecture of Chinese towers and Chinese pavilions blended into pagoda architecture, eventually also spreading to Southeast Asia. Their construction was popularized by the efforts of Buddhist missionaries, pilgrims, rulers, and ordinary devotees to honor Buddhist relics.


title: Pagoda

text: The earliest styles of Chinese pagodas were square-base and circular-base, with octagonal-base towers emerging in the 5th–10th centuries. The highest Chinese pagoda from the pre-modern age is the Liaodi Pagoda of Kaiyuan Monastery, Dingxian, Hebei, completed in the year 1055 AD under Emperor Renzong of Song and standing at a total height of 84 m (275 ft). Although it no longer stands, the tallest pre-modern pagoda in Chinese history was the of Chang'an, built by Emperor Yang of Sui, and possibly the short-lived 6th century Yongning Pagoda () of Luoyang at roughly 137 meter. The tallest pre-modern pagoda still standing is the Liaodi Pagoda. In April 2007 a new wooden pagoda Tianning Temple of Changzhou was opened to the public, the tallest in China, standing 154 m (505 ft).


title: Pagoda

text: Chinese iconography is noticeable in Chinese and other East Asian pagoda architectures. Also prominent is Buddhist iconography such as the image of the Shakyamuni and Gautama Buddha in the "abhaya mudra." In an article on Buddhist elements in Han dynasty art, Wu Hung suggests that in these temples, Buddhist symbolism was fused with native Chinese traditions into a unique system of symbolism.


title: Pagoda

text: Some believed reverence at pagodas could bring luck to students taking the Chinese civil service examinations. When a pagoda of Yihuang County in Fuzhou collapsed in 1210, local inhabitants believed the disaster correlated with the recent failure of many exam candidates in the prefectural examinations The pagoda was rebuilt in 1223 and had a list inscribed on it of the recently successful examination candidates, in hopes that it would reverse the trend and win the county supernatural favor.


title: Pagoda

text: Pagodas come in many different sizes, with taller ones often attracting lightning strikes, inspiring a tradition that the finial decoration of the top of the structure can seize demons. Today many pagodas have been fitted with wires making the finial into a lightning rod.


title: Pagoda

text: Wooden pagodas possess certain characteristics thought to resist earthquake damage. These include the friction damping and


title: Pagoda

text: sliding effect of the complex wooden dougong joints, the structural isolation of floors, the effects of wide eaves analogous to a balancing toy, and the Shinbashira phenomenon that the center column is bolted to the rest of the superstructure.


title: Pagoda

text: Pagodas traditionally have an odd number of levels, a notable exception being the eighteenth-century orientalist pagoda designed by Sir William Chambers at Kew Gardens in London.


title: Pagoda

text: The pagodas in Himalayas are derived from Kath kuni architecture, very different from Chinese and Japanese styles.


title: Pagoda

text: During the Southern and Northern Dynasties pagodas were mostly built of wood, as were other ancient Chinese structures. Wooden pagodas are resistant to earthquakes, and no Japanese pagoda has been destroyed by an earthquake, but they are prone to fire, natural rot, and insect infestation.


title: Pagoda

text: The literature of subsequent eras also provides evidence of the domination of wooden pagoda construction. The famous Tang dynasty poet, Du Mu, once wrote:


title: Pagoda

text: The oldest standing fully wooden pagoda in China today is the Pagoda of Fugong Temple in Ying County, Shanxi, built in the 11th century during the Song/Liao dynasty (see Song Architecture).


title: Pagoda

text: During the Northern Wei and Sui dynasties (386–618) experiments began with the construction of brick and stone pagodas. Even at the end of the Sui, however, wood was still the most common material. For example, Emperor Wen of the Sui dynasty (reigned 581–604) once issued a decree for all counties and prefectures to build pagodas to a set of standard designs, however since they were all built of wood none have survived. Only the Songyue Pagoda has survived, a circular-based pagoda built out of stone in 523 AD.


title: Pagoda

text: The earliest extant brick pagoda is the 40-metre-tall Songyue Pagoda in Dengfeng Country, Henan. This curved, circle-based pagoda was built in 523 during the Northern Wei Dynasty, and has survived for 15 centuries. Much like the later pagodas found during the following Tang Dynasty, this temple featured tiers of eaves encircling its frame, as well as a spire crowning the top. Its walls are 2.5 m thick, with a ground floor diameter of 10.6 m. Another early brick pagoda is the Sui dynasty Guoqing Pagoda built in 597.


title: Pagoda

text: The earliest large-scale stone pagoda is a Four Gates Pagoda at Licheng, Shandong, built in 611 during the Sui dynasty. Like the Songyue Pagoda, it also features a spire at its top, and is built in the pavilion style.


title: Pagoda

text: One of the earliest brick and stone pagodas was a three-storey construction built in the (first) Jin Dynasty (266–420), by Wang Jun of Xiangyang. However, it is now destroyed.


title: Pagoda

text: Brick and stone went on to dominate Tang, Song, Liao and Jin Dynasty pagoda construction. An example is the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda (652 AD), built during the early Tang Dynasty. The Porcelain Pagoda of Nanjing has been one of the most famous brick and stone pagoda in China throughout history.


title: Pagoda

text: Pagodas, in keeping with the tradition of the White Horse Temple, were generally placed in the center of temples until the Sui and Tang dynasties. During the Tang, the importance of the main hall was elevated and the pagoda was moved beside the hall, or out of the temple compound altogether. In the early Tang, Daoxuan wrote a "Standard Design for Buddhist Temple Construction" in which the main hall replaced the pagoda as the center of the temple.


title: Pagoda

text: The design of temples was also influenced by the use of traditional Chinese residences as shrines, after they were philanthropically donated by the wealthy or the pious. In such pre-configured spaces, building a central pagoda might not have been either desirable or possible.


title: Pagoda

text: In the Song dynasty (960–1279), the Chan (Zen) sect developed a new 'seven part structure' for temples. The seven parts—the Buddha hall, dharma hall, monks' quarters, depository, gate, pure land hall and toilet facilities—completely exclude pagodas, and can be seen to represent the final triumph of the traditional Chinese palace/courtyard system over the original central-pagoda tradition established 1000 years earlier by the White Horse Temple in 67. Although they were built outside of the main temple itself, large pagodas in the tradition of the past were still built. This includes the two Ming dynasty pagodas of Famen Temple and the Chongwen Pagoda in Jingyang of Shaanxi.


title: Pagoda

text: A prominent, later example of converting a palace to a temple is Beijing's Yonghe Temple, which was the residence of Yongzheng Emperor before he ascended the throne. It was donated for use as a lamasery after his death in 1735.


title: Pagoda

text: Examples of Han Dynasty era tower architecture predating Buddhist influence and the full-fledged Chinese pagoda can be seen in the four pictures below. Michael Loewe writes that during the Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) period, multi-storied towers were erected for religious purposes, as astronomical observatories, as watchtowers, or as ornate buildings that were believed to attract the favor of spirits, deities, and immortals.


title: Pagoda

text: Pagodas built during the Sui and Tang Dynasty usually had a square base, with a few exceptions such as the Daqin Pagoda:


title: Pagoda

text: Pagodas of the Five Dynasties, Northern and Southern Song, Liao, Jin, and Yuan Dynasties incorporated many new styles, with a greater emphasis on hexagonal and octagonal bases for pagodas:


title: Pagoda

text: Pagodas in the Ming and Qing Dynasties generally inherited the styles of previous eras, although there were some minor variations:


title: Limitless (TV series)

text: Limitless is an American comedy-drama television series that aired on CBS for one season from 2015 to 2016. It is a spin-off of the 2011 film "Limitless", and takes place four years after the movie's events. The series stars Jake McDorman as Brian Finch, who discovers a mysterious nootropic drug NZT-48, which unlocks the full potential of the human brain and gives its user enhanced mental faculties.


title: Limitless (TV series)

text: "Limitless" premiered on CBS on September 22, 2015 to mixed reviews from critics. After a single 22-episode season that ended on April 26, 2016, showrunner Craig Sweeny announced that CBS had cancelled the series.