title: Marin Čilić

text: Despite mixed form since his Wimbledon campaign, Čilić defeated world No. 1, Rafael Nadal, at the Australian Open after the Spaniard retired hurt in the fifth set, going on to reach another Grand-Slam final against Federer. This made him the first Croatian to ever reach the singles final at Melbourne Park. He eventually lost in five sets. The match garnered minor criticism from some tennis pundits for being played indoors to favour Federer, despite the Australian Open traditionally being an outdoor event. Čilić later admitted that he found it difficult to adjust to the changed conditions. However, it remained disputed that who among the two players was going to be favored in indoor conditions. At the conclusion of the tournament, Čilić reached a career-high ATP ranking of No. 3. He remained at that position for 12 weeks, before being surpassed by Alexander Zverev.


title: Marin Čilić

text: In the first two Masters 1000 events of the season Čilić was defeated by Philipp Kohlschreiber (at Indian Wells, in the round of 32) and John Isner, the eventual champion of Miami. In the clay-court season, Čilić played four tournaments reaching the quarterfinals of Monte Carlo, the semifinals of Rome, and the quarterfinals at the French Open. Čilić failed to defend his only title from the 2017 season at Istanbul, losing in his opening match to Malek Jaziri. This defeat marked the first time since February 2014 that Čilić had not held any tournament on the ATP Tour.


title: Marin Čilić

text: At Queen's Club, Čilić was the top seed. He reached the final, where he contested a close match with Djokovic, coming out on top in three sets saving match point in the process to claim his second title at Queen's Club and second career win over Djokovic. At Wimbledon, he was drawn in the top half and was considered one of the biggest threats to Roger Federer's title defense. He was upset in the second round by Guido Pella in five sets, after comfortably winning the first two sets.


title: Marin Čilić

text: During the North American summer hard-court swing, Čilić made strong showings in Toronto and Cincinnati, losing in both tournaments to the eventual champion in tight three setters (Rafael Nadal in Toronto and Novak Djokovic in Cincinnati). At the US Open, Čilić recovered from a two set deficit to defeat teenager Alex de Minaur in the third round. Čilić eventually lost in the quarterfinals against Kei Nishikori in a replay of the 2014 final.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić helped Croatia reach the Davis Cup finals for the second time in three years, winning one of his two singles rubbers against the USA. In October, Čilić suffered a string of early exits at Tokyo, Shanghai, and Basel. He rebounded from this trough in form at the Paris Masters reaching the quarterfinals for a third consecutive year before losing to Djokovic in three sets. By winning a set he ended the Serb's streak of 30 consecutive sets won.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić qualified for the Tour Finals for a third successive time and fourth time overall. His disappointing record at the event continued winning only one of his three round-robin matches, bringing his overall record at the event to .


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić led the Croatian national team at the 2018 Davis Cup final against France on the clay courts of Lille. After comfortably defeating Tsonga in his first match, Čilić found himself in the same position he was in the 2016 final, having to win his second rubber to guarantee Croatia the title. This time however, Čilić defeated his opponent, Lucas Pouille, in straight sets to grab the decisive victory for Croatia.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić started his year at Australian Open. In his third round match against Fernando Verdasco, Čilić saved two match points and came back from a two set deficit to advance to the fourth round. This was the seventh time in Čilić's career that he had won a match after being down two sets. In the fourth round, Čilić was upset by an in-form Roberto Bautista Agut.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Over his next three tournaments, Čilić only managed to win one match, while being eliminated early at Dubai, Indian Wells, and Miami. As a result of his poor form in the early hard court season, Čilić fell from the worlds top ten for the first time in over two years.


title: Marin Čilić

text: After another two winless tournaments to start the clay court season (at Monte-Carlo and Budapest), Čilić finally broke his slump at the Madrid Masters by winning three consecutive matches against Martin Kližan, Jan-Lennard Struff, & Laslo Đere on the way to the quarterfinals. However, he had to withdraw before his match against Djokovic due to food poisoning. By reaching the quarterfinals, Čilić became one of the few players on the Tour to reach the quarterfinal stage of all nine Masters 1000 tournaments. Čilić lost his second round match at both Rome and the French Open, to Jan-Lennard Struff and Grigor Dimitrov respectively.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić failed to defend his Queen's Club title, leaving the Croat out of the top 15 for the first time in five years. This also marked the first time since August 2008 that Čilić had not reached a tournament final in over a year. Čilić lost in the second round of Wimbledon to João Sousa in straight sets.


title: Marin Čilić

text: In the North American summer hard-court season, Čilić competed in Washington, Montreal, Cincinnati, and the US Open in New York. Čilić fell from the world's top 20 after failing to match his previous year's performance at the first three events. At the US Open, Čilić reached the fourth round where he showed improvements to form during a four set loss against eventual champion Nadal.


title: Marin Čilić

text: On 17 October 2019, he reached his 500th career match win at the 2019 Kremlin Cup in Moscow becoming the 10th active player in the list. Čilić ended the year ranked No. 39 in the ATP rankings. It marked the first time that he had failed to win a singles title since 2007.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić started the year at the 2020 Australian Open where he beat Corentin Moutet, Benoît Paire, and Roberto Bautista Agut before losing to Milos Raonic in straight sets. At the Open 13, Čilić lost in the Round of 16 to Denis Shapovalov. He lost in the first rounds of the Dubai Tennis Championships and the Cincinnati Masters to Benoît Paire and Denis Shapovalov respectively. At the 2020 US Open, he beat Denis Kudla and Norbert Gombos before losing to Dominic Thiem in four sets. He was once again defeated by Thiem in the first round of the 2020 French Open in straight sets, and in 2021, he was defeated in the second round by Roger Federer in 4 sets.


title: Marin Čilić

text: He won the 2021 Stuttgart Open, defeating 3rd seed Félix Auger-Aliassime in the final in straight sets, his 19th singles title and first in three years. At Wimbledon 2021, he reached 3rd round where he was knocked out by Daniil Medvedev after winning the first two sets.


title: Marin Čilić

text: At the 2020 Tokyo Olympics, he reached the second round in singles where he lost to Pablo Carreño Busta. In the doubles tournament, together with Ivan Dodig, he reached the final, where they lost to their countrymen Mate Pavić and Nikola Mektić. It was the third time in the Olympics men's doubles' history that the same country won both gold and silver, and the first one since 1908.


title: Marin Čilić

text: At the 2021 US Open he retired in the first round in the fifth set against Philipp Kohlschreiber. It was his first retirement in more than 800 matches on the tour and the first time he had failed to make it past the opening round at Flushing Meadows in 13 attempts.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić played at the 2021 Kremlin Cup where he reached the final seeded sixth. He beat Damir Dzumhur in three sets before defeating Tommy Paul in straight sets. He once again won in straight sets against Pedro Martínez in the quarterfinals and against Ričardis Berankis in the semifinals. He lost to Aslan Karatsev in straight sets in the final.


title: Marin Čilić

text: He won the St. Petersburg Open, defeating 5th seed Taylor Fritz in a three-sets final for his 20th singles title. On the way to the title, he also defeated Albert Ramos Viñolas, Karen Khachanov, Roberto Bautista Agut and Botic van de Zandschulp. With this title he became only the sixth active player in 2021 with 20 titles after Federer, Nadal, Djokovic, Murray and del Potro. He also returned back into the top 30 after 2 years to World No. 28 on 1 November 2021.


title: Marin Čilić

text: At the Adelaide International 1 tournament, he recorded his 550th win and became one of only seven active players to have over 550 wins and 40th man overall in the Open Era.


title: Marin Čilić

text: Čilić entered the 2022 Australian Open as the 27th seed. He defeated Emilio Gómez in the first round in straight sets, Norbert Gombos in the second round in four sets, and fifth seed Andrey Rublev in the third round in four sets. He lost to ninth seed Félix Auger-Aliassime in the fourth round in four sets.


title: Marin Čilić

text: At the 2022 French Open Čilić defeated Attila Balazs in the first round, Marton Fucsovics in the second, Gilles Simon in the third before taking out number 2 seed Daniil Medvedev in straight sets in the round of 16. With this result, he secured his return into the top 20 in the rankings. He won against Andrey Rublev in the quarterfinals in a long five sets match with a super tiebreak in the fifth — the first ever played on Court Philippe Chatrier — winning the last 9 points in a row and lasting 4 hours and 10 minutes to reach his first semifinal at this Major. He became only the 5th active player besides the Big Four, and the first Croatian player to reach this level at all four Grand Slams. He then lost to Casper Ruud in the semifinals.


title: Marin Čilić

text: At the Canadian Open he recorded his 350th hard court win, becoming only the fifth active player, behind the Big Four, to reach the milestone.


title: Marin Čilić

text: At the 2022 US Open, Čilić defeated Dan Evans in the third round. In the fourth round, he lost to Carlos Alcaraz in a five set match lasting almost four hours.


title: Marin Čilić

text: In October, Cilic reached the final of Tel Aviv Open, where he lost in straight sets to number 1 seed Novak Djokovic, who played his first official tournament since winning Wimbledon. As a result he returned to the top 15 in the rankings at world No. 14 on 3 October 2022.


title: Marin Čilić

text: As of 2018 Čilić plays with the Head YouTek Radical MidPlus with a custom drilled 16x19 string pattern, painted to look like the Head Graphene Touch Prestige Mid. For strings he uses a hybrid of Babolat VS Touch mains and Luxilon ALU Power crosses. He wore Fila apparel until the 2011 season, when he got a 5-year contract with Li-Ning, switching back to Fila in 2016. At the start of the 2020 season, Čilić started wearing head apparel.


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: Jiminy Cricket's appearance differs somewhat from that of actual crickets, which range from black to light brown and have long antennae and six legs; Jiminy Cricket has short antennae, a greenish-brown hue, and four limbs; like most Disney characterizations, he is bipedal. He dresses in the manner of a 19th- or early 20th-century gentleman, characteristically wearing a blue top hat and carrying a burgundy umbrella. Since his debut in "Pinocchio", he has become an iconic Disney character, making numerous other appearances, including in "Fun and Fancy Free" (1947) as the host and in "Mickey's Christmas Carol" (1983) as the Ghost of Christmas Past.


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: "Jiminy", along with variants "Jiminy Christmas" and "Jiminy cricket" have been used as minced oaths for "Jesus Christ" since at least 1803. "Jiminy Cricket!" was uttered in "Pinocchio"s immediate Disney predecessor, 1937's "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" by the seven dwarfs. It also occurs in the 1938 Mickey Mouse cartoon "Brave Little Tailor".


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: The character was designed by Ward Kimball, who had been very disappointed and was about to leave the Disney studio when much of the work he did for "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" was cut from the final version of that film. However, Walt Disney persuaded him to stay by giving him the assignment of supervising the animation of Jiminy Cricket.


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: Jiminy Cricket has been voiced in English by six actors. He was originally performed by singer Cliff Edwards, who voiced the character for Disney through the 1960s and sang Jiminy's most famous song, "When You Wish Upon a Star". After Edwards' death, Clarence Nash voiced him for a brief period of time, until 1973, when Eddie Carroll took over the role as Jiminy's voice actor. Carroll played the role for 37 years, until his death in 2010. Actor Hal Smith voiced Jiminy in the "Pinocchio Read-Along Storybook" in 1992. Actor Phil Snyder next voiced Jiminy for the "Kingdom Hearts" video game series until his retirement from voice acting in 2014 to concentrate on his career teaching. Actor Joe Ochman took over the role at that time, beginning with "Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix"s installment of "", and he has been the voice of Jiminy since 2014.


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: Raphael Sbarge voices Jiminy in "Once Upon a Time" where he portrays him in human form as well. In the Italian dub of the Disney adaptation, Jiminy Cricket was voiced by Carlo Romano. In French he is voiced by Roger Carel. In the live action adaption, he is voiced by Joseph Gordon-Levitt.


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: After "Pinocchio", Jiminy appeared in "Fun and Fancy Free" as the host of the cartoon segments. The character also hosted a one-hour segment ABC Radio special in 1947, improbably concerning the year 1960. He also hosted many Disney television specials. Additionally, in a recurring segment of the children's television series "The Mickey Mouse Club", he taught a generation how to spell "encyclopedia".


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: Jiminy Cricket also appears at the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts as a meetable character, and in Pinocchio's Daring Journey, a dark ride themed to the movie from which he originated, found at three of the Disney parks worldwide (i.e. in California, Japan and France).


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: A minuscule version of him can also be spotted on the It's a Small World ride in Disneyland California.


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: In the 1950s–1970s, Jiminy Cricket appeared in four series of educational films aimed at grade-school audiences. In the "I'm No Fool" series, he advised children how to steer clear of dangerous traffic, sharp objects, strangers, exposed electrical lines, and so forth. Several of those series were first shown on "The Mickey Mouse Club" from 1955 through 1959.


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: The second series called "You", teaches about the human body with the refrain "You are a human animal". This, too, was originally shown on the "Mickey Mouse Club". The third series, "The Nature Of Things", combined live-action and animation, and the fourth series was called "Encyclopedia". In the 1950s, on "The Mickey Mouse Club", he also sang two related songs related to safety: "Stop, Look, And Listen", and "Safety First".


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: On Disneyland Records, Jiminy Cricket sang the yuletide song "Kris, Kris Kringle (With A Tingle-Ingle-Ingle)" in a vaudevillian Tin Pan Alley style, first singing the song straight, and the second time speaking half of the song in rhythm. He ended the song by wishing everyone a "Merry Christmas".


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: In 1988, he made a brief cameo in "Who Framed Roger Rabbit", when Eddie Valiant first drives through Toontown.


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: Jiminy appeared in "Mickey's Christmas Carol" as the Ghost of Christmas Past. The badge is given to him by the Blue Fairy at the end of "Pinocchio" marking him as an official conscience now declares him to be the Ghost of Christmas Past. Scrooge is perplexed at his size, but Jiminy shoots back at him that if Scrooge were measured by his amount of kindness, "you'd be no bigger than a speck of dust!" Nevertheless, Jiminy shows him Scrooge's bygone Christmases: (Scrooge) while working at Fezziwig's, and putting his money before his love, whom he never saw again. When Scrooge begs the minuscule ghost to take him away from these bad memories, Jiminy reminds him that he "fashioned these memories" himself.


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: Edwards (as Jiminy) performed the narration for several 78 RPM children's records. Two of them were Bongo (originally part of the animated feature "Fun and Fancy Free") and "The Littlest Outlaw". He also made some children's records simply as Cliff Edwards, including "Old MacDonald Had a Farm".


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: Jiminy appears in several comics, (first appearance in "Mickey Mouse Magazine" Vol. 5 No. 3 in 1939), such as various issues of "Walt Disney's Comics and Stories," and he is featured on the covers of "Four Color" # 701, 795, 897 and 989.


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: Jiminy Cricket is among the numerous Disney characters who appear in the television series "House of Mouse"; he also appears in the movie. He is most often sat on a table with Cri-Kee from "Mulan". A running gag in the series involves Timon from "The Lion King"' trying to eat him, and his rescue by Pumbaa.


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: Jiminy (both in fairy-tale cricket form and as his "real world" human alias, Archie Hopper) is a core character on the Disney-owned ABC television series "Once Upon a Time", played by Raphael Sbarge. In the series, which finds cursed fairy tale characters living in present-day Maine without memory of their true origins, Jiminy/Archie serves as the town counselor and "conscience". He also has a dalmatian named Pongo. The series adds additional backstory for the character, portraying his life as the human son of con artists, who inadvertently causes the death of a couple after striking a deal with Rumplestiltskin; Rumplestiltskin gave Jiminy a potion to give to his parents to get them out of his life, but his parents realized what he had planned and switched the potion with an identical bottle that was given to the couple that his parents had targeted for their latest con. He is eventually turned into the ethical cricket from previous portrayals by the Blue Fairy. In his cricket form, he is charged to look after and guide the dead couple's son, Geppetto, as long as he lives.


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: In "Disappearing Act", Jiminy (voiced once again by Joe Ochman) makes a cameo appearance alongside other Disney magical characters like the Fairy Godmother from "Cinderella", Flora, Fauna, and Merriweather from "Sleeping Beauty", Merlin from "The Sword in the Stone", and the Blue Fairy, to help Mickey realize he had the magic inside him all along.


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: On October 25, 2019, it was reported that Disney is developing an undetermined animated project focused on Jiminy Cricket for its upcoming streaming service, Disney+. Joseph Gordon-Levitt voiced the character in the 2022 live-action adaptation of the film, which was released exclusively on Disney+.


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: Jiminy Cricket is a main character in the game "Disney's Villains' Revenge", wherein he must help the player save the stories of "Dumbo", "Alice in Wonderland", "Peter Pan" and "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" from the stories' respective villains: the Ringmaster, the Queen of Hearts, Captain Hook, and the Evil Queen.


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: He appears in the "Kingdom Hearts" video game series as the chronicler of player character Sora's travels, writing journals and keeping a cast list of the figures they meet, friend or foe. In the original "Kingdom Hearts", he has some direct involvement with characters and elements based on the film "Pinocchio". He has a substantially bigger part in the sequel, "", frequently talking to Sora and offering advice. His role in "Kingdom Hearts II" is smaller than in the first game; he only appears in one cutscene. He also appears in "Kingdom Hearts Coded". A dream world version of Jiminy Cricket appears in ""; as it is a dream, those who are no longer in their world appear, either via travel or death. He returns in "Kingdom Hearts III".


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: In the English releases he is voiced by Eddie Carroll for "Kingdom Hearts", "Kingdom Hearts II", and "", Phil Snyder for "" and "" (following Carroll's death in 2010), and Joe Ochman for the HD cinematics of "Re:Coded" for "Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix" and "Kingdom Hearts III" (following Snyder's retirement in 2014). In the Japanese version, Jiminy was voiced by Kaneta Kimotsuki until his death in 2016 and by Yōhei Tadano since "Kingdom Hearts III".


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: Jiminy Cricket is a playable character in the mobile game "Disney Magic Kingdoms". He is a limited time character, debuting during an event focused on "Pinocchio".


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: Jiminy Cricket can be seen meeting and greeting guests from time to time in the Disney Parks, most prominently at Disney's Animal Kingdom at Rafiki's Planet Watch. His signature features the 'J' as an umbrella.


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: More recently, Cricket and the Blue Fairy are the hosts of the "" fireworks display at the Magic Kingdom theme park.


title: Jiminy Cricket

text: Cricket also hosts the Nighttime parade, "SpectroMagic" In the Magic Kingdom (replaced in early 2010 for an updated version of the Main Street Electrical Parade).


title: Second World

text: The Second World is a term originating during the Cold War for the industrial socialist states that were under the influence of the Soviet Union. In the first two decades following World War II, 19 communist states emerged; all of these were at least originally within the Soviet sphere of influence, though some (notably Yugoslavia and China) broke with Moscow and developed their own path of socialism while retaining Communist governments. Most communist states remained part of this bloc until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991; afterwards, only five communist states remained: China, Cuba, Laos, North Korea, and Vietnam. Along with "First World" and "Third World", the term was used to divide the states of Earth into three broad categories.


title: Second World

text: The concept of "Second World" was a construct of the Cold War and the term is still largely used to describe former communist countries that are between poverty and prosperity, many of which are now capitalist states, such as Eastern Europe. Subsequently, the actual meaning of the terms "First World", "Second World," and "Third World" changed from being based on political ideology to an economic definition. The three-world theory has been criticized as crude and relatively outdated for its nominal ordering (1; 2; 3) and sociologists have instead used the words "developed", "developing", and "underdeveloped" as replacement terms for global stratification (which in turn have been criticized as displaying a colonialist mindset); nevertheless, the three-world theory is still popular in contemporary literature and media. This might also cause semantic variation of the term between describing a region's political entities and its people.


title: Second World

text: The Three Worlds Model was used to rank the development of countries and their economies during the Cold War. First World countries were capitalist and industrial; they shared similar political and economic institutions, and retained influence over parts of the former colonial world. Second World countries advocated socialism and shared certain characteristics such as centrally planned economic systems, single-party states, and mainly medium income levels. The First World and the Second World were competing for political and economic influence over developing nations known as the Third World.


title: Second World

text: The Human Development Index is an index used to rank countries and is quantified by looking at a country's human development such as life expectancy, education, and per capita income indicators. The scale is 0-1 and they are put into one of four categories; 0-.55 is low, .55-.70 is medium, .70-.80 is high and very high tops out at .80-1.0. The Second World countries from the Cold War era currently range from medium human development to very high human development in terms of HDI.


title: Second World

text: Some examples of Cold-War definition Second World countries were Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Mongolia, North Korea, Poland, Romania, the Soviet Union, and the German Democratic Republic. In a socio-economic sense, similar to those assumed by the terms First and Third world in the post-Cold War environment, the clearest definition for the Second World would be newly industrialized countries such as Thailand, India, Malaysia, Philippines, Turkey, Mexico, and Brazil. Second World countries are countries that are more stable and more developed than Third World countries which exist in parts of Africa, South and Central America and south Asia, but less stable and less developed than First World countries such as Norway, the United States, or France. Developing countries are countries that are less industrialized and have lower per capita income levels.


title: Second World

text: The powerful economies of the West are still sometimes described as "First World", but the term "Second World" became largely obsolete following the collapse of the Soviet Union.


title: Mars family

text: The Mars family is an American family that owns the eponymous confectionery company Mars, Inc. In 1988, the family was ranked as the richest family in the United States of America by "Fortune" magazine. It has since been surpassed by the Walton family and the Koch family, and was ranked as the third richest family in America in 2016.


title: Mars family

text: Upon the death of Forrest Mars Sr., he and his two sons were ranked No. 29, 30, and 31 by "Forbes" magazine's list of richest Americans, and they each had a worth of approximately $4 billion. In March 2010 the three children of Forrest Mars were tied for 52nd place amongst the world's richest people, according to "Forbes", with a net worth of each. One of these sons, Forrest Mars Jr., died in 2016, and his four daughters inherited his wealth, with three of them working for the company as of 2019. As of April 2020, the combined private fortune of the family members was estimated at around $126 billion, making them one of the richest families in the world.


title: Mars family

text: The family is very protective of their privacy. They rarely, if ever, give press interviews or, with the exception of Jacqueline Mars and Victoria B. Mars, are photographed in public.


title: ISmart Shankar

text: iSmart Shankar is a 2019 Indian Telugu-language science fiction masala film written and directed by Puri Jagannadh, who co-produced the film with Charmme Kaur. It stars Ram Pothineni in the titular role along with Satyadev Kancharana, Nabha Natesh, and Nidhhi Agerwal. The film follows an assassin who helps the cops when a slain cop's memories are transferred to his brain. It features music composed by Mani Sharma.


title: ISmart Shankar

text: The film is released theatrically on 18 July 2019. It is a commercial success, running for more than 100 days at the box office. A sequel titled "Double iSmart" has been announced. The film received mixed reviews from critics with praise for the cast's performance, score and action sequences but criticism for the second half and climax.


title: ISmart Shankar

text: "Ismart" Shankar is a street-smart assassin who works under another assassin named Kaka. One day, Shankar encounters a rough woman named Chandini, when he was extorting money from an apartment complex builder. Impressed, Shankar falls for Chandini and tries various ways to impress her. Despite being annoyed at first, Chandini realizes her mistake. Under Kaka's orders, Shankar kills CM Kasi Vishwanath and escapes to Goa with Chandini. However, the cops learn about their location and a shootout ensues where Chandini gets killed and Shankar getting arrested. Meanwhile, Sara, a neuroscientist who is working on memory transfer has achieved successful results with rats. Sara's boyfriend/fianceè Arun is a CBI officer, who is investigating Kasi Vishwanath's murder, believes that a higher force had planned and killed him. Shankar gets released from prison and deduces that Kaka had a major role in Chandni's death and has been ordered to kill him as well.


title: ISmart Shankar

text: Kaka tries to escape, but Shankar shoots Kaka in Sarah's car and flees while Sara calls Arun. Arun catches a guy, but the guy is killed in a car accident and Arun's higher officials are after him to find the killer. When Arun is about to crack the case, he is shot and killed by the goons. CBI officer Chandrakanth is desperate to know about the killer, where they transfer Arun's memory to Shankar with Sara's help, knowing that Arun's memory will remove his past. Shankar wakes up and experiences memories that aren't his own. He gets enraged when Sara reveals the truth to him and realizes that he will forget Chandni in a few days. Shankar experiences brief flashes where he becomes Arun, but reverts to being Shankar. Shankar finds Arun's house and discovers a bag that has evidences about the murderer, where he calls the Chandrakanth to meet him in Goa. When Arun is about to reveal the identity of the murderers, he reverts back to Shankar and beats all the cops and takes Sara at knifepoint, where he escapes.


title: ISmart Shankar

text: After a few events, Shankar reverts back to Arun and reveals to Chandrakanth that Kasi Vishwanath's son Devendra and brother-in-law Central Minister Ramamurthy are the murderers. With the help of Chandrakanth, Shankar devises a plan to arrest Devendra and Ramamurthy with the evidence in Benaras. Devendra gets exposed and escapes, where Arun follows him, but Devendra and his men continuously beat Arun in his head, which results in Arun getting reverted back to Shankar. Sara tells Shankar that Devendra is responsible for Chandni's murder. After a tragic/dramatic fight between Shankar and Devendra, Shankar kills Devendra, thus avenging Chandini's death. Sara and Arun/Shankar leave for Hong Kong on vacation, where Arun/Shankar proposes to Sara, who happily agrees.


title: ISmart Shankar

text: Principal photography began in January 2019 in Hyderabad. The first schedule finished in February 2019. The second schedule took place in Goa and the filming resumed in March 2019. The cast have shot action scenes of the film in April 2019 and the third schedule took place in Varanasi. The filming was completed in mid May 2019.


title: ISmart Shankar

text: The film was released theatrically on 18 July 2019. The film was also dubbed and released in Hindi on YouTube on 16 February 2020 by Aditya Movies. The Hindi dubbed version crossed more than 200 million views.


title: ISmart Shankar

text: "Firstpost" gave 3 out of 5 stars stating, "iSmart Shankar is proof enough that Puri Jagannadh is back with a bang. It might not be his best film, but it’s certainly his most watchable film in years. And Ram is a ball of energy. iSmart Shankar might have its roots in Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, but Puri Jagannadh gives it his own spin and reimagines it as a quintessential Telugu mass film.".


title: ISmart Shankar

text: "The Times of India" gave 2.5 out of 5 stars stating, "In this make-believe world, when rules change by-the-minute, it’s hard to give a damn". "Sify" gave 2.5 out of 5 stars stating "iSmart Shankar is aimed at frontbenchers. Despite the idea of transplantation of memories being new, the rest of the story and its treatment are over-the-top and too clichéd. This is a loud mass action-thriller".


title: ISmart Shankar

text: A sequel titled Double iSmart has been announced. In September 2022, it has been reported that the sequel is currently being developed due to Jagannadh's film, "Jana Gana Mana," being shelved.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, (26 June 182417 December 1907) was a British mathematician, mathematical physicist and engineer born in Belfast. Professor of Natural Philosophy at the University of Glasgow for 53 years, he did important work in the mathematical analysis of electricity and formulation of the first and second laws of thermodynamics, and did much to unify the emerging discipline of physics in its contemporary form. He received the Royal Society's Copley Medal in 1883, was its president 1890–1895, and in 1892 was the first British scientist to be elevated to the House of Lords.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Absolute temperatures are stated in units of kelvin in his honour. While the existence of a coldest possible temperature (absolute zero) was known prior to his work, Kelvin is known for determining its correct value as approximately −273.15 degrees Celsius or −459.67 degrees Fahrenheit. The Joule–Thomson effect is also named in his honour.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: He worked closely with mathematics professor Hugh Blackburn in his work. He also had a career as an electric telegraph engineer and inventor, which propelled him into the public eye and ensured his wealth, fame and honour. For his work on the transatlantic telegraph project he was knighted in 1866 by Queen Victoria, becoming Sir William Thomson. He had extensive maritime interests and was most noted for his work on the mariner's compass, which previously had limited reliability.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: He was ennobled in 1892 in recognition of his achievements in thermodynamics, and of his opposition to Irish Home Rule, becoming Baron Kelvin, of Largs in the County of Ayr. The title refers to the River Kelvin, which flows near his laboratory at the University of Glasgow's Gilmorehill home at Hillhead. Despite offers of elevated posts from several world-renowned universities, Kelvin refused to leave Glasgow, remaining until his eventual retirement from that post in 1899. Active in industrial research and development, he was recruited around 1899 by George Eastman to serve as vice-chairman of the board of the British company Kodak Limited, affiliated with Eastman Kodak. In 1904 he became Chancellor of the University of Glasgow.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: His home was the red sandstone mansion Netherhall, in Largs, which he built in the 1870s and where he died. The Hunterian Museum at the University of Glasgow has a permanent exhibition on the work of Kelvin including many of his original papers, instruments, and other artefacts, such as his smoking pipe.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: William Thomson's father, James Thomson, was a teacher of mathematics and engineering at the Royal Belfast Academical Institution and the son of a farmer. James Thomson married Margaret Gardner in 1817 and, of their children, four boys and two girls survived infancy. Margaret Thomson died in 1830 when William was six years old.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: William and his elder brother James were tutored at home by their father while the younger boys were tutored by their elder sisters. James was intended to benefit from the major share of his father's encouragement, affection and financial support and was prepared for a career in engineering.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: In 1832, his father was appointed professor of mathematics at Glasgow and the family moved there in October 1833. The Thomson children were introduced to a broader cosmopolitan experience than their father's rural upbringing, spending mid-1839 in London and the boys were tutored in French in Paris. Much of Thomson's life during the mid-1840s was spent in Germany and the Netherlands. Language study was given a high priority.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Thomson had heart problems and nearly died when he was 9 years old. He attended the Royal Belfast Academical Institution, where his father was a professor in the university department. In 1834, aged 10, he began studying at the University of Glasgow, not out of any precociousness; the University provided many of the facilities of an elementary school for able pupils, and this was a typical starting age.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: In school, Thomson showed a keen interest in the classics along with his natural interest in the sciences. At the age of 12 he won a prize for translating Lucian of Samosata's "Dialogues of the Gods" from Ancient Greek to English.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: In the academic year 1839/1840, Thomson won the class prize in astronomy for his "Essay on the figure of the Earth" which showed an early facility for mathematical analysis and creativity. His physics tutor at this time was his namesake, David Thomson.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Throughout his life, he would work on the problems raised in the essay as a coping strategy during times of personal stress. On the title page of this essay Thomson wrote the following lines from Alexander Pope's "Essay on Man". These lines inspired Thomson to understand the natural world using the power and method of science:


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Thomson became intrigued with Fourier's "Théorie analytique de la chaleur" and committed himself to study the "Continental" mathematics resisted by a British establishment still working in the shadow of Sir Isaac Newton. Unsurprisingly, Fourier's work had been attacked by domestic mathematicians, Philip Kelland authoring a critical book. The book motivated Thomson to write his first published scientific paper under the pseudonym "P.Q.R.", defending Fourier, and submitted to the "Cambridge Mathematical Journal" by his father. A second P.Q.R. paper followed almost immediately.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: While on holiday with his family in Lamlash in 1841, he wrote a third, more substantial P.Q.R. paper "On the uniform motion of heat in homogeneous solid bodies, and its connection with the mathematical theory of electricity". In the paper he made remarkable connections between the mathematical theories of heat conduction and electrostatics, an analogy that James Clerk Maxwell was ultimately to describe as one of the most valuable "science-forming ideas."


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: William's father was able to make a generous provision for his favourite son's education and, in 1841, installed him, with extensive letters of introduction and ample accommodation, at Peterhouse, Cambridge. While at Cambridge, Thomson was active in sports, athletics and sculling, winning the Colquhoun Sculls in 1843. He also took a lively interest in the classics, music, and literature; but the real love of his intellectual life was the pursuit of science. The study of mathematics, physics, and in particular, of electricity, had captivated his imagination. In 1845 Thomson graduated as Second Wrangler. He also won the First Smith's Prize, which, unlike the tripos, is a test of original research. Robert Leslie Ellis, one of the examiners, is said to have declared to another examiner "You and I are just about fit to mend his pens."


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: In 1845, he gave the first mathematical development of Michael Faraday's idea that electric induction takes place through an intervening medium, or "dielectric", and not by some incomprehensible "action at a distance". He also devised the mathematical technique of electrical images, which became a powerful agent in solving problems of electrostatics, the science which deals with the forces between electrically charged bodies at rest. It was partly in response to his encouragement that Faraday undertook the research in September 1845 that led to the discovery of the Faraday effect, which established that light and magnetic (and thus electric) phenomena were related.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: He was elected a fellow of St. Peter's (as Peterhouse was often called at the time) in June 1845. On gaining the fellowship, he spent some time in the laboratory of the celebrated Henri Victor Regnault, at Paris; but in 1846 he was appointed to the chair of natural philosophy in the University of Glasgow. At twenty-two he found himself wearing the gown of a professor in one of the oldest Universities in the country, and lecturing to the class of which he was a first year student a few years before.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: By 1847, Thomson had already gained a reputation as a precocious and maverick scientist when he attended the British Association for the Advancement of Science annual meeting in Oxford. At that meeting, he heard James Prescott Joule making yet another of his, so far, ineffective attempts to discredit the caloric theory of heat and the theory of the heat engine built upon it by Sadi Carnot and Émile Clapeyron. Joule argued for the mutual convertibility of heat and mechanical work and for their mechanical equivalence.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Thomson was intrigued but sceptical. Though he felt that Joule's results demanded theoretical explanation, he retreated into an even deeper commitment to the Carnot–Clapeyron school. He predicted that the melting point of ice must fall with pressure, otherwise its expansion on freezing could be exploited in a "perpetuum mobile". Experimental confirmation in his laboratory did much to bolster his beliefs.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: In 1848, he extended the Carnot–Clapeyron theory further through his dissatisfaction that the gas thermometer provided only an operational definition of temperature. He proposed an "absolute temperature scale" in which "a unit of heat descending from a body A at the temperature "T"° of this scale, to a body B at the temperature ("T"−1)°, would give out the same mechanical effect "[work]", whatever be the number" T"." Such a scale would be "quite independent of the physical properties of any specific substance." By employing such a "waterfall", Thomson postulated that a point would be reached at which no further heat (caloric) could be transferred, the point of "absolute zero" about which Guillaume Amontons had speculated in 1702. "Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat", published by Carnot in French in 1824, the year of Lord Kelvin's birth, used −267 as an estimate of the absolute zero temperature. Thomson used data published by Regnault to calibrate his scale against established measurements.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: —But a footnote signalled his first doubts about the caloric theory, referring to Joule's "very remarkable discoveries". Surprisingly, Thomson did not send Joule a copy of his paper, but when Joule eventually read it he wrote to Thomson on 6 October, claiming that his studies had demonstrated conversion of heat into work but that he was planning further experiments. Thomson replied on 27 October, revealing that he was planning his own experiments and hoping for a reconciliation of their two views.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Thomson returned to critique Carnot's original publication and read his analysis to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in January 1849, still convinced that the theory was fundamentally sound. However, though Thomson conducted no new experiments, over the next two years he became increasingly dissatisfied with Carnot's theory and convinced of Joule's. In February 1851 he sat down to articulate his new thinking. He was uncertain of how to frame his theory and the paper went through several drafts before he settled on an attempt to reconcile Carnot and Joule. During his rewriting, he seems to have considered ideas that would subsequently give rise to the second law of thermodynamics. In Carnot's theory, lost heat was "absolutely lost" but Thomson contended that it was ""lost to man" irrecoverably; but not lost in the material world". Moreover, his theological beliefs led Thompson to extrapolate the second law to the cosmos, originating the idea of universal heat death.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Compensation would require "a creative act or an act possessing similar power", resulting in a "rejuvenating universe" (as Thompson had previously compared universal heat death to a clock running slower and slower, although he was unsure whether it would eventually reach thermodynamic equilibrium and "stop for ever"). Kelvin also formulated the heat death paradox (Kelvin’s paradox) in 1862, which uses the second law of thermodynamics to disprove the possibility of an infinitely old universe; this paradox was later extended by Rankine.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: In final publication, Thomson retreated from a radical departure and declared "the whole theory of the motive power of heat is founded on ... two ... propositions, due respectively to Joule, and to Carnot and Clausius." Thomson went on to state a form of the second law:


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: In the paper, Thomson supported the theory that heat was a form of motion but admitted that he had been influenced only by the thought of Sir Humphry Davy and the experiments of Joule and Julius Robert von Mayer, maintaining that experimental demonstration of the conversion of heat into work was still outstanding.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: As soon as Joule read the paper he wrote to Thomson with his comments and questions. Thus began a fruitful, though largely epistolary, collaboration between the two men, Joule conducting experiments, Thomson analysing the results and suggesting further experiments. The collaboration lasted from 1852 to 1856, its discoveries including the Joule–Thomson effect, sometimes called the Kelvin–Joule effect, and the published results did much to bring about general acceptance of Joule's work and the kinetic theory.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Thomson published more than 650 scientific papers and applied for 70 patents (not all were issued). Regarding science, Thomson wrote the following:


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Though now eminent in the academic field, Thomson was obscure to the general public. In September 1852, he married childhood sweetheart Margaret Crum, daughter of Walter Crum; but her health broke down on their honeymoon, and over the next 17 years, Thomson was distracted by her suffering. On 16 October 1854, George Gabriel Stokes wrote to Thomson to try to re-interest him in work by asking his opinion on some experiments of Michael Faraday on the proposed transatlantic telegraph cable.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Faraday had demonstrated how the construction of a cable would limit the rate at which messages could be sent – in modern terms, the bandwidth. Thomson jumped at the problem and published his response that month. He expressed his results in terms of the data rate that could be achieved and the economic consequences in terms of the potential revenue of the transatlantic undertaking. In a further 1855 analysis, Thomson stressed the impact that the design of the cable would have on its profitability.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Thomson contended that the signalling speed through a given cable was inversely proportional to the square of the length of the cable. Thomson's results were disputed at a meeting of the British Association in 1856 by Wildman Whitehouse, the electrician of the Atlantic Telegraph Company. Whitehouse had possibly misinterpreted the results of his own experiments but was doubtless feeling financial pressure as plans for the cable were already well under way. He believed that Thomson's calculations implied that the cable must be "abandoned as being practically and commercially impossible".


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Thomson attacked Whitehouse's contention in a letter to the popular "Athenaeum" magazine, pitching himself into the public eye. Thomson recommended a larger conductor with a larger cross section of insulation. He thought Whitehouse no fool, and suspected that he might have the practical skill to make the existing design work. Thomson's work had attracted the attention of the project's undertakers. In December 1856, he was elected to the board of directors of the Atlantic Telegraph Company.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Thomson became scientific adviser to a team with Whitehouse as chief electrician and Sir Charles Tilston Bright as chief engineer but Whitehouse had his way with the specification, supported by Faraday and Samuel F. B. Morse.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Thomson sailed on board the cable-laying ship in August 1857, with Whitehouse confined to land owing to illness, but the voyage ended after when the cable parted. Thomson contributed to the effort by publishing in the "Engineer" the whole theory of the stresses involved in the laying of a submarine cable, and showed that when the line is running out of the ship, at a constant speed, in a uniform depth of water, it sinks in a slant or straight incline from the point where it enters the water to that where it touches the bottom.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Thomson developed a complete system for operating a submarine telegraph that was capable of sending a character every 3.5 seconds. He patented the key elements of his system, the mirror galvanometer and the siphon recorder, in 1858.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Whitehouse still felt able to ignore Thomson's many suggestions and proposals. It was not until Thomson convinced the board that using purer copper for replacing the lost section of cable would improve data capacity, that he first made a difference to the execution of the project.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: The board insisted that Thomson join the 1858 cable-laying expedition, without any financial compensation, and take an active part in the project. In return, Thomson secured a trial for his mirror galvanometer, which the board had been unenthusiastic about, alongside Whitehouse's equipment. Thomson found the access he was given unsatisfactory and the "Agamemnon" had to return home following the disastrous storm of June 1858. In London, the board was about to abandon the project and mitigate their losses by selling the cable. Thomson, Cyrus West Field and Curtis M. Lampson argued for another attempt and prevailed, Thomson insisting that the technical problems were tractable. Though employed in an advisory capacity, Thomson had, during the voyages, developed a real engineer's instincts and skill at practical problem-solving under pressure, often taking the lead in dealing with emergencies and being unafraid to assist in manual work. A cable was completed on 5 August.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Thomson's fears were realized when Whitehouse's apparatus proved insufficiently sensitive and had to be replaced by Thomson's mirror galvanometer. Whitehouse continued to maintain that it was his equipment that was providing the service and started to engage in desperate measures to remedy some of the problems. He succeeded in fatally damaging the cable by applying 2,000 V. When the cable failed completely Whitehouse was dismissed, though Thomson objected and was reprimanded by the board for his interference. Thomson subsequently regretted that he had acquiesced too readily to many of Whitehouse's proposals and had not challenged him with sufficient vigour.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: A joint committee of inquiry was established by the Board of Trade and the Atlantic Telegraph Company. Most of the blame for the cable's failure was found to rest with Whitehouse. The committee found that, though underwater cables were notorious in their lack of reliability, most of the problems arose from known and avoidable causes. Thomson was appointed one of a five-member committee to recommend a specification for a new cable. The committee reported in October 1863.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: In July 1865, Thomson sailed on the cable-laying expedition of the but the voyage was dogged by technical problems. The cable was lost after had been laid and the project was abandoned. A further attempt in 1866 laid a new cable in two weeks, and then recovered and completed the 1865 cable. The enterprise was now feted as a triumph by the public and Thomson enjoyed a large share of the adulation. Thomson, along with the other principals of the project, was knighted on 10 November 1866.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: To exploit his inventions for signalling on long submarine cables, Thomson now entered into a partnership with C. F. Varley and Fleeming Jenkin. In conjunction with the latter, he also devised an automatic curb sender, a kind of telegraph key for sending messages on a cable.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Thomson took part in the laying of the French Atlantic submarine communications cable of 1869, and with Jenkin was engineer of the Western and Brazilian and Platino-Brazilian cables, assisted by vacation student James Alfred Ewing. He was present at the laying of the Pará to Pernambuco section of the Brazilian coast cables in 1873.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Thomson's wife, Margaret, died on 17 June 1870, and he resolved to make changes in his life. Already addicted to seafaring, in September he purchased a 126-ton schooner, the "Lalla Rookh" and used it as a base for entertaining friends and scientific colleagues. His maritime interests continued in 1871 when he was appointed to the Board of Enquiry into the sinking of .


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: In June 1873, Thomson and Jenkin were on board the "Hooper", bound for Lisbon with of cable when the cable developed a fault. An unscheduled 16-day stop-over in Madeira followed and Thomson became good friends with Charles R. Blandy and his three daughters. On 2 May 1874 he set sail for Madeira on the "Lalla Rookh". As he approached the harbour, he signalled to the Blandy residence "Will you marry me?" and Fanny (Blandy's daughter Frances Anna Blandy) signalled back "Yes". Thomson married Fanny, 13 years his junior, on 24 June 1874.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Over the period 1855 to 1867, Thomson collaborated with Peter Guthrie Tait on a text book that founded the study of mechanics first on the mathematics of kinematics, the description of motion without regard to force. The text developed dynamics in various areas but with constant attention to energy as a unifying principle.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: A second edition appeared in 1879, expanded to two separately bound parts. The textbook set a standard for early education in mathematical physics.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Kelvin made significant contributions to atmospheric electricity for the relatively short time for which he worked on the subject, around 1859. He developed several instruments for measuring the atmospheric electric field, using some of the electrometers he had initially developed for telegraph work, which he tested at Glasgow and whilst on holiday on Arran. His measurements on Arran were sufficiently rigorous and well-calibrated that they could be used to deduce air pollution from the Glasgow area, through its effects on the atmospheric electric field. Kelvin's water dropper electrometer was used for measuring the atmospheric electric field at Kew Observatory and Eskdalemuir Observatory for many years, and one was still in use operationally at Kakioka Observatory in Japan until early 2021. Kelvin may have unwittingly observed atmospheric electrical effects caused by the Carrington event (a significant geomagnetic storm) in early September 1859.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Between 1870 and 1890 the vortex atom theory, which purported that an atom was a vortex in the aether, was popular among British physicists and mathematicians. Thomson pioneered the theory, which was distinct from the seventeenth century vortex theory of Descartes in that Thomson was thinking in terms of a unitary continuum theory, whereas Descartes was thinking in terms of three different types of matter, each relating respectively to emission, transmission, and reflection of light. About 60 scientific papers were written by approximately 25 scientists. Following the lead of Thomson and Tait, the branch of topology called knot theory was developed. Kelvin's initiative in this complex study that continues to inspire new mathematics has led to persistence of the topic in history of science.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Thomson was an enthusiastic yachtsman, his interest in all things relating to the sea perhaps arising from, or fostered by, his experiences on the "Agamemnon" and the "Great Eastern".


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Thomson introduced a method of deep-sea depth sounding, in which a steel piano wire replaces the ordinary hand line. The wire glides so easily to the bottom that "flying soundings" can be taken while the ship is at full speed. A pressure gauge to register the depth of the sinker was added by Thomson.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: About the same time he revived the Sumner method of finding a ship's position, and calculated a set of tables for its ready application.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: During the 1880s, Thomson worked to perfect the adjustable compass to correct errors arising from magnetic deviation owing to the increased use of iron in naval architecture. Thomson's design was a great improvement on the older instruments, being steadier and less hampered by friction. The deviation due to the ship's magnetism was corrected by movable iron masses at the binnacle. Thomson's innovations involved much detailed work to develop principles identified by George Biddell Airy and others, but contributed little in terms of novel physical thinking. Thomson's energetic lobbying and networking proved effective in gaining acceptance of his instrument by The Admiralty.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Charles Babbage had been among the first to suggest that a lighthouse might be made to signal a distinctive number by occultations of its light, but Thomson pointed out the merits of the Morse code for the purpose, and urged that the signals should consist of short and long flashes of the light to represent the dots and dashes.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Thomson did more than any other electrician up to his time in introducing accurate methods and apparatus for measuring electricity. As early as 1845 he pointed out that the experimental results of William Snow Harris were in accordance with the laws of Coulomb. In the "Memoirs of the Roman Academy of Sciences" for 1857 he published a description of his new divided ring electrometer, based on the old electroscope of Johann Gottlieb Friedrich von Bohnenberger and he introduced a chain or series of effective instruments, including the quadrant electrometer, which cover the entire field of electrostatic measurement. He invented the current balance, also known as the "Kelvin balance" or "Ampere balance" ("SiC"), for the precise specification of the ampere, the standard unit of electric current. From around 1880 he was aided by the electrical engineer Magnus Maclean FRSE in his electrical experiments.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: In 1893, Thomson headed an international commission to decide on the design of the Niagara Falls power station. Despite his belief in the superiority of direct current electric power transmission, he endorsed Westinghouse's alternating current system which had been demonstrated at the Chicago World's Fair of that year. Even after Niagara Falls Thomson still held to his belief that direct current was the superior system.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Acknowledging his contribution to electrical standardisation, the International Electrotechnical Commission elected Thomson as its first President at its preliminary meeting, held in London on 26–27 June 1906. "On the proposal of the President [Mr Alexander Siemens, Great Britain], secounded [sic] by Mr Mailloux [US Institute of Electrical Engineers] the Right Honorable Lord Kelvin, G.C.V.O., O.M., was unanimously elected first President of the Commission", minutes of the Preliminary Meeting Report read.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Kelvin made an early physics-based estimation of the age of the Earth. Given his youthful work on the figure of the Earth and his interest in heat conduction, it is no surprise that he chose to investigate the Earth's cooling and to make historical inferences of the Earth's age from his calculations. Thomson was a creationist in a broad sense, but he was not a 'flood geologist' (a view that had by the 1840s). He contended that the laws of thermodynamics operated from the birth of the universe and envisaged a dynamic process that saw the organisation and evolution of the Solar System and other structures, followed by a gradual "heat death". He developed the view that the Earth had once been too hot to support life and contrasted this view with that of uniformitarianism, that conditions had remained constant since the indefinite past. He contended that "This earth, certainly a moderate number of millions of years ago, was a red-hot globe … ."


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: After the publication of Charles Darwin's "On the Origin of Species" in 1859, Thomson saw evidence of the relatively short habitable age of the Earth as tending to contradict Darwin's gradualist explanation of slow natural selection bringing about biological diversity. Thomson's own views favoured a version of theistic evolution sped up by divine guidance. His calculations showed that the Sun could not have possibly existed long enough to allow the slow incremental development by evolution – unless it was heated by an energy source beyond the knowledge of Victorian era science. He was soon drawn into public disagreement with geologists and with Darwin's supporters John Tyndall and T. H. Huxley. In his response to Huxley's address to the Geological Society of London (1868) he presented his address "Of Geological Dynamics" (1869) which, among his other writings, challenged the geologists' assertion that the earth must be vastly old, perhaps billions of years in age.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Thomson's initial 1864 estimate of the Earth's age was from 20 to 400 million years old. These wide limits were due to his uncertainty about the melting temperature of rock, to which he equated the Earth's interior temperature, as well as the uncertainty in thermal conductivities and specific heats of rocks. Over the years he refined his arguments and reduced the upper bound by a factor of ten, and in 1897 Thomson, now Lord Kelvin, ultimately settled on an estimate that the Earth was 20–40 million years old. In a letter published in Scientific American Supplement 1895 Kelvin criticized geologists' estimates of the age of rocks and the age of the earth, including the views published by Charles Darwin, as "vaguely vast age".


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: His exploration of this estimate can be found in his 1897 address to the Victoria Institute, given at the request of the Institute's president George Stokes, as recorded in that Institute's journal "Transactions". Although his former assistant John Perry published a paper in 1895 challenging Kelvin's assumption of low thermal conductivity inside the Earth, and thus showing a much greater age, this had little immediate impact. The discovery in 1903 that radioactive decay releases heat led to Kelvin's estimate being challenged, and Ernest Rutherford famously made the argument in a 1904 lecture attended by Kelvin that this provided the unknown energy source Kelvin had suggested, but the estimate was not overturned until the development in 1907 of radiometric dating of rocks.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: The discovery of radioactivity largely invalidated Kelvin's estimate of the age of the Earth. Although he eventually paid off a gentleman's bet with Strutt on the importance of radioactivity in the Earth's geology, he never publicly acknowledged this because he thought he had a much stronger argument restricting the age of the Sun to no more than 20 million years. Without sunlight, there could be no explanation for the sediment record on the Earth's surface. At the time, the only known source for solar energy was gravitational collapse. It was only when thermonuclear fusion was recognised in the 1930s that Kelvin's age paradox was truly resolved. However, modern cosmology recognizes the Kelvin period in the early life of a star, during which it shines from gravitational energy (correctly calculated by Kelvin) before fusion and the main sequence begins.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: In the winter of 1860–1861 Kelvin slipped on the ice while curling near his home at Netherhall and fractured his leg, causing him to miss the 1861 Manchester meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, and to limp thereafter. He remained something of a celebrity on both sides of the Atlantic until his death.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Thomson remained a devout believer in Christianity throughout his life; attendance at chapel was part of his daily routine. He saw his Christian faith as supporting and informing his scientific work, as is evident from his address to the annual meeting of the Christian Evidence Society, 23 May 1889.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: In the 1902 Coronation Honours list published on 26 June 1902 (the original day of the coronation of Edward VII and Alexandra), Kelvin was appointed a Privy Councillor and one of the first members of the new Order of Merit (OM). He received the order from the King on 8 August 1902, and was sworn a member of the council at Buckingham Palace on 11 August 1902. In his later years he often travelled to his town house at 15 Eaton Place, off Eaton Square in London's Belgravia.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: In November 1907 he caught a chill and his condition deteriorated until he died at his Scottish country seat, Netherhall, in Largs on 17 December.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: At the request of Westminster Abbey, the undertakers Wylie & Lochhead prepared an oak coffin, lined with lead. In the dark of the winter evening the cortege set off from Netherhall for Largs railway station, a distance of about a mile. Large crowds witnessed the passing of the cortege, and shopkeepers closed their premises and dimmed their lights. The coffin was placed in a special Midland and Glasgow and South Western Railway van. The train set off at 8.30 pm for Kilmarnock, where the van was attached to the overnight express to St Pancras railway station in London.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Kelvin's funeral was to be held on 23 December 1907. The coffin was taken from St Pancras by hearse to Westminster Abbey, where it rested overnight in St Faith's Chapel. The following day the Abbey was crowded for the funeral, including representatives from the University of Glasgow and the University of Cambridge, along with representatives from France, Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, the United States, Canada, Australia, Japan, and Monaco. Kelvin's grave is in the nave, near the choir screen, and close to the graves of Isaac Newton, John Herschel, and Charles Darwin. The pall-bearers included Darwin's son, Sir George Darwin.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: Back in Scotland the University of Glasgow held a memorial service for Kelvin in the Bute Hall. Kelvin had been a member of the Scottish Episcopal Church, attached to St Columba's Episcopal Church in Largs, and when in Glasgow to St Mary's Episcopal Church (now, St Mary's Cathedral, Glasgow). At the same time as the funeral in Westminster Abbey, a service was held in St Columba's Episcopal Church, Largs, attended by a large congregation including burgh dignitaries.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: William Thomson is also memorialised on the Thomson family grave in Glasgow Necropolis. The family grave has a second modern memorial to William alongside, erected by the Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow; a society of which he was president in the periods 1856–1858 and 1874–1877.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: In 1884, Thomson led a master class on "Molecular Dynamics and the Wave Theory of Light" at Johns Hopkins University. Kelvin referred to the acoustic wave equation describing sound as waves of pressure in air and attempted to describe also an electromagnetic wave equation, presuming a luminiferous aether susceptible to vibration. The study group included Michelson and Morley who subsequently performed the Michelson–Morley experiment, which subsequently found no luminiferous aether. Thomson did not provide a text but A. S. Hathaway took notes and duplicated them with a Papyrograph. As the subject matter was under active development, Thomson amended that text and in 1904 it was typeset and published. Thomson's attempts to provide mechanical models ultimately failed in the electromagnetic regime. Starting from his lecture in 1884, Kelvin was also the first scientist to formulate the hypothetical concept of dark matter; he then attempted to define and locate some "dark bodies" in the Milky Way.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: On 27 April 1900 he gave a widely reported lecture titled "Nineteenth-Century Clouds over the Dynamical Theory of Heat and Light" to the Royal Institution. The two "dark clouds" he was alluding to were confusion surrounding how matter moves through the aether (including the puzzling results of the Michelson–Morley experiment) and indications that the Law of Equipartition in statistical mechanics might break down. Two major physical theories were developed during the twentieth century starting from these issues: for the former, the theory of relativity; for the second, quantum mechanics. Albert Einstein, in 1905, published the so-called "Annus Mirabilis papers", one of which explained the photoelectric effect, based on Max Planck's discovery of energy quanta which was the foundation of quantum mechanics, another of which described special relativity, and the last of which explained Brownian motion in terms of statistical mechanics, providing a strong argument for the existence of atoms.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: His biographer Silvanus P. Thompson writes that "When Röntgen's discovery of the X-rays was announced at the end of 1895, Lord Kelvin was entirely skeptical, and regarded the announcement as a hoax. The papers had been full of the wonders of Röntgen's rays, about which Lord Kelvin was intensely skeptical until Röntgen himself sent him a copy of his Memoir"; on 17 January 1896, having read the paper and seen the photographs, he wrote Röntgen a letter saying that "I need not tell you that when I read the paper I was very much astonished and delighted. I can say no more now than to congratulate you warmly on the great discovery you have made" He would have his own hand X-rayed in May 1896. (See also N rays.)


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: His forecast for practical aviation (i.e., heavier-than-air aircraft) was negative. In 1896 he refused an invitation to join the Aeronautical Society, writing that "I have not the smallest molecule of faith in aerial navigation other than ballooning or of expectation of good results from any of the trials we hear of." And in a 1902 newspaper interview he predicted that "No balloon and no aeroplane will ever be practically successful."


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: A statement falsely attributed to Kelvin is: "There is nothing new to be discovered in physics now. All that remains is more and more precise measurement." This has been widely misattributed to Kelvin since the 1980s, either without citation or stating that it was made in an address to the British Association for the Advancement of Science (1900). There is no evidence that Kelvin said this, and the quote is instead a paraphrase of Albert A. Michelson, who in 1894 stated: "… it seems probable that most of the grand underlying principles have been firmly established … An eminent physicist remarked that the future truths of physical science are to be looked for in the sixth place of decimals." Similar statements were given earlier by others, such as Philipp von Jolly. The attribution to Kelvin in 1900 is presumably a confusion with his "Two clouds" speech, delivered to the Royal Institution in 1900 (see above), and which on the contrary pointed out areas that would subsequently see revolutions.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: In 1898, Kelvin predicted that only 400 years of oxygen supply remained on the planet, due to the rate of burning combustibles. In his calculation, Kelvin assumed that photosynthesis was the only source of free oxygen; he did not know all of the components of the oxygen cycle. He could not even have known all of the sources of photosynthesis: for example the cyanobacterium "Prochlorococcus"—which accounts for more than half of marine photosynthesis—was not discovered until 1986.


title: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

text: A variety of physical phenomena and concepts with which Thomson is associated are named "Kelvin", including:


title: Mississippian culture

text: The Mississippian culture was a Native American civilization that flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from approximately 800 CE to 1600 CE, varying regionally. It was known for building large, earthen platform mounds, and often other shaped mounds as well. It was composed of a series of urban settlements and satellite villages linked together by loose trading networks. The largest city was Cahokia, believed to be a major religious center located in what is present-day southern Illinois.


title: Mississippian culture

text: The Mississippian way of life began to develop in the Mississippi River Valley (for which it is named). Cultures in the tributary Tennessee River Valley may have also begun to develop Mississippian characteristics at this point. Almost all dated Mississippian sites predate 1539–1540 (when Hernando de Soto explored the area), with notable exceptions being Natchez communities. These maintained Mississippian cultural practices into the 18th century.


title: Mississippian culture

text: A number of cultural traits are recognized as being characteristic of the Mississippians. Although not all Mississippian peoples practiced all of the following activities, they were distinct from their ancestors in the adoption of some or all of these traits.


title: Mississippian culture

text: The Mississippians had no writing system or stone architecture. They worked naturally occurring metal deposits, such as hammering and annealing copper for ritual objects such as Mississippian copper plates and other decorations, but did not smelt iron or practice bronze metallurgy.


title: Mississippian culture

text: The Mississippi stage is usually divided into three or more chronological periods. Each period is an arbitrary historical distinction varying regionally. At a particular site, each period may be considered to begin earlier or later, depending on the speed of adoption or development of given Mississippian traits. The "Mississippi period" should not be confused with the "Mississippian culture". The Mississippi period is the chronological stage, while Mississippian culture refers to the cultural similarities that characterize this society.


title: Mississippian culture

text: The term "Middle Mississippian" is also used to describe the core of the classic Mississippian culture area. This area covers the central Mississippi River Valley, the lower Ohio River Valley, and most of the Mid-South area, including western and central Kentucky, western Tennessee, and northern Alabama and Mississippi. Sites in this area often contain large ceremonial platform mounds, residential complexes and are often encircled by earthen ditches and ramparts or palisades.


title: Mississippian culture

text: Middle Mississippian cultures, especially the Cahokia polity located near East St. Louis, Illinois, were very influential on neighboring societies. High-status artifacts, including stone statuary and elite pottery associated with Cahokia, have been found far outside of the Middle Mississippian area. These items, especially the pottery, were also copied by local artists.


title: Mississippian culture

text: The term "South Appalachian Province" was originally used by W. H. Holmes in 1903 to describe a regional ceramic style in the southeast involving surface decorations applied with a carved wooden paddle. By the late 1960s, archaeological investigations had shown the similarity of the culture that produced the pottery and the midwestern "Mississippian pattern" defined in 1937 by the Midwestern Taxonomic System.


title: Mississippian culture

text: In 1967 James B. Griffin coined "South Appalachian Mississippian" to describe the evolving understanding of the peoples of the Southeast. South Appalachian Mississippian area sites are distributed across a contiguous area including Alabama, Georgia, northern Florida, South Carolina, central and western North Carolina, and Tennessee. Chronologically this area became influenced by Mississippian culture later than the Middle Mississippian area (about 1000 CE as compared to 800 CE) to its northwest. It is believed that the peoples of this area adopted Mississippian traits from their northwestern neighbors.


title: Mississippian culture

text: Typical settlements were located on riverine floodplains and included villages with defensive palisades enclosing platform mounds and residential areas. Etowah and Ocmulgee in Georgia are both prominent examples of major South Appalachian Mississippian settlements. Both include multiple large earthwork mounds serving a variety of functions.


title: Mississippian culture

text: Villages with single platform mounds were more typical of the river valley settlements throughout the mountainous area of southwest North and South Carolina, and southeastern Tennessee that were known as the historic Cherokee homelands. In Western North Carolina for example; some 50 such mound sites in the eleven westernmost counties have been identified since the late 20th century, following increased research in this area of the Cherokee homeland.


title: Mississippian culture

text: The Caddoan Mississippian area, a regional variant of the Mississippian culture, covered a large territory, including what is now eastern Oklahoma, western Arkansas, northeastern Texas, and northwestern Louisiana. Archaeological evidence has led to a scholarly consensus that the cultural continuity is unbroken from prehistory to the present, and that the Caddo and related Caddo language speakers in prehistoric times and at first European contact are the direct ancestors of the modern Caddo Nation of Oklahoma.


title: Mississippian culture

text: The climate in this area was drier than areas in the eastern woodlands, hindering maize production, and the lower population on the plains to the west may have meant fewer neighboring competing chiefdoms to contend with. Major sites such as Spiro and the Battle Mound Site are in the Arkansas River and Red River Valleys, the largest and most fertile of the waterways in the Caddoan region, where maize agriculture would have been the most productive. The sites generally lacked wooden palisade fortifications often found in the major Middle Mississippian towns. Living on the western edge of the Mississippian world, the Caddoans may have faced fewer military threats from their neighbors. Their societies may also have had a somewhat lower level of social stratification.


title: Mississippian culture

text: The Caddoan people were speakers of one of the many Caddoan languages. These languages once had a broad geographic distribution, but many are now extinct. The modern languages in the Caddoan family include Caddo and Pawnee.


title: Mississippian culture

text: Hernando de Soto led an expedition into the area in the early 1540s, he encountered several native groups now thought to have been Caddoan. Composed of many tribes, the Caddo were organized into three confederacies, the Hasinai, Kadohadacho, and Natchitoches, which were all linked by their similar languages.


title: Mississippian culture

text: The Plaquemine culture was an archaeological culture in the lower Mississippi River Valley in western Mississippi and eastern Louisiana. Good examples of this culture are the Medora site (the type site for the culture and period) in West Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana, and the Anna, Emerald Mound, Winterville and Holly Bluff sites located in Mississippi. Plaquemine culture was contemporaneous with the Middle Mississippian culture at the Cahokia site near St. Louis, Missouri. It is considered ancestral to the Natchez and Taensa Peoples.


title: Mississippian culture

text: Although the Mississippian culture was heavily disrupted before a complete understanding of the political landscape was written down, many Mississippian political bodies were documented and others have been discovered by research.


title: Mississippian culture

text: Mississippian peoples were almost certainly ancestral to the majority of the American Indian nations living in this region in the historic era. The historic and modern day American Indian nations believed to have descended from the overarching Mississippian culture include: the Alabama, Apalachee, Caddo, Chickasaw, Catawba, Choctaw, Muscogee Creek, Guale, Hitchiti, Ho-Chunk, Houma, Kansa, Missouria, Mobilian, Natchez, Osage, Quapaw, Seminole, Tunica-Biloxi, Yamasee, and Yuchi.


title: Mississippian culture

text: Scholars have studied the records of Hernando de Soto's expedition of 1539–1543 to learn of his contacts with Mississippians, as he traveled through their villages of the Southeast. He visited many villages, in some cases staying for a month or longer. The list of sites and peoples visited by the Hernando de Soto Expedition chronicles those villages. Some encounters were violent, while others were relatively peaceful. In some cases, de Soto seems to have been used as a tool or ally in long-standing native feuds. In one example, de Soto negotiated a truce between the Pacaha and the Casqui.


title: Mississippian culture

text: De Soto's later encounters left about half of the Spaniards and perhaps many hundreds of Native Americans dead. The chronicles of de Soto are among the first documents written about Mississippian peoples and are an invaluable source of information on their cultural practices. The chronicles of the Narváez expedition were written before the de Soto expedition; the Narváez expedition informed the Court of de Soto about the New World.


title: Mississippian culture

text: After the destruction and flight of the de Soto expedition, the Mississippian peoples continued their way of life with little direct European influence. Indirectly, however, European introductions dramatically changed these native societies. Because the natives lacked immunity to infectious diseases unknowingly carried by the Europeans, such as measles and smallpox, epidemics caused so many fatalities that they undermined the social order of many chiefdoms. Some groups adopted European horses and changed to nomadism. Political structures collapsed in many places.


title: Mississippian culture

text: At Joara, near Morganton, North Carolina, Native Americans of the Mississippian culture interacted with Spanish colonizers of the Juan Pardo expedition, who built a base there in 1567 called Fort San Juan. Expedition documentation and archaeological evidence of the fort and Native American culture both exist. The soldiers were at the fort about 18 months (1567–1568) before the natives killed them and destroyed the fort. (They killed soldiers stationed at five other forts as well; only one man of 120 survived.) Sixteenth-century Spanish artifacts have been recovered from the site, marking the first European colonization in the interior of what became the United States.


title: Mississippian culture

text: By the time more documentary accounts were being written, the Mississippian way of life had changed irrevocably. Some groups maintained an oral tradition link to their mound-building past, such as the late 19th-century Cherokee. Other Native American groups, having migrated many hundreds of miles and lost their elders to diseases, did not know their ancestors had built the mounds dotting the landscape. This contributed to the myth of the Mound Builders as a people distinct from Native Americans, which was rigorously debunked by Cyrus Thomas in 1894.


title: N1 (rocket)

text: The N1/L3 (from , "Carrier Rocket"; Cyrillic: Н1) was a super heavy-lift launch vehicle intended to deliver payloads beyond low Earth orbit. The N1 was the Soviet counterpart to the US Saturn V and was intended to enable crewed travel to the Moon and beyond, with studies beginning as early as 1959. Its first stage, Block A, remains the most powerful rocket stage ever flown. However, all four first stages flown failed mid-flight because a lack of static test firings meant that plumbing issues and other adverse characteristics with the large cluster of thirty engines and its complex fuel and oxidizer feeder system were not revealed earlier in development.


title: N1 (rocket)

text: The N1-L3 version was designed to compete with the United States Apollo program to land a person on the Moon, using a similar lunar orbit rendezvous method. The basic N1 launch vehicle had three stages, which were to carry the L3 lunar payload into low Earth orbit with two cosmonauts. The L3 contained one stage for trans-lunar injection; another stage used for mid-course corrections, lunar orbit insertion, and the first part of the descent to the lunar surface; a single-pilot LK Lander spacecraft; and a two-pilot Soyuz 7K-LOK lunar orbital spacecraft for return to Earth.


title: N1 (rocket)

text: The N1-L3 was underfunded and rushed, starting development in October 1965, almost four years after the Saturn V. The project was badly derailed by the death of its chief designer Sergei Korolev in 1966. Each of the four attempts to launch an N1 failed, with the second attempt resulting in the vehicle crashing back onto its launch pad shortly after liftoff. The N1 program was suspended in 1974, and officially canceled in 1976. All details of the Soviet crewed lunar programs were kept secret until the USSR was nearing collapse in 1989.


title: N1 (rocket)

text: In 1967 the United States and the Soviet Union were in a race to be first to land a human on the Moon. The N1/L3 program received formal approval in 1964, which required development of the N1 launch vehicle, comparable in size to the American Saturn V.


title: N1 (rocket)

text: On Nov. 25, 1967, less than three weeks after the first Saturn V flight during the Apollo 4 mission, the Soviets rolled out an N1 mockup to the newly constructed launch pad 110R at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Soviet Kazakhstan. This Facilities Systems Logistic Test and Training Vehicle, designated 1M1, was designed to give engineers valuable experience in the rollout, launch pad integration, and rollback activities, similar to the Saturn V Facilities Integration Vehicle SA-500F testing at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida in mid-1966. While the crawler transported the Saturn V to the pad vertically, the N1 made the trip horizontally and was then raised to the vertical position at the pad – a standard practice in the Soviet space program. On December 11, after completion of various tests, the N1 rocket was lowered and rolled back to the assembly building. The 1M1 mockup was used repeatedly in the following years for additional launchpad integration tests.


title: N1 (rocket)

text: Although this test was carried out in secret, a US reconnaissance satellite photographed the N1 on the pad shortly before its rollback to the assembly building. NASA Administrator James Webb had access to this and other similar intelligence that showed that the Russians were seriously planning crewed lunar missions. That knowledge influenced several key US decisions in the coming months. The satellite imagery appeared to show the USSR was close to a flight test of the N1, but did not reveal that this particular rocket was just a mockup and that the USSR was many months behind the US in the race to land a human on the Moon. The Soviets were hopeful that they could carry out a test flight of the N1 in the first half of 1968, but for a variety of technical reasons the attempt did not occur for more than a year.


title: N1 (rocket)

text: In May 1961, the US announced the goal of landing a person on the Moon by 1970. During the same month, the "On Reconsideration of the Plans for Space Vehicles in the Direction of Defense Purposes" report set the first test launch of the N1 rocket for 1965. In June, Korolev was given a small amount of funding to start N1 development between 1961 and 1963. At the same time, Korolev proposed a lunar mission based on the new Soyuz spacecraft using an Earth orbit rendezvous profile. Several Soyuz rocket launches would be used to build up a complete Moon mission package, including one for the Soyuz spacecraft, another for the lunar lander, and a few with cislunar engines and fuel. This approach, driven by the limited capacity of the Soyuz rocket, meant that a rapid launch rate would be required to assemble the complex before any of the components ran out of consumables on-orbit. Korolev subsequently proposed that the N1 be enlarged to allow a single launch lunar landing. In November-December 1961, Korolev and others tried to further argue that a super heavy lift rocket could deliver ultra heavy nuclear weapons, such as the just tested Tsar Bomba, or many warheads (up to 17) as further justification for the N1 design. Korolev was not inclined to use the rocket for military uses, but wanted to fulfill his space ambitions and saw military support as vital. The military response was lukewarm – they thought the N1 had little military usefulness and was worried it would divert funds away from pure military uses. Korolev's correspondence with military leaders continued until February 1962 with little progress.


title: N1 (rocket)

text: Meanwhile, Chelomei's OKB-52 proposed an alternate mission with much lower risk. Instead of a crewed landing, Chelomei proposed a series of circumlunar missions to beat the US to the vicinity of the Moon. He also proposed a new booster for the mission, clustering three of his existing UR-200s (known as the SS-10 in the west) to produce a single larger booster, the UR-500. These plans were dropped when Glushko offered Chelomei the RD-270, which allowed the construction of the UR-500 in a much simpler "monoblock" design. He also proposed adapting an existing spacecraft design for the circumlunar mission, the single-cosmonaut LK-1. Chelomei felt that improvements in early UR-500/LK-1 missions would allow the spacecraft to be adapted for two cosmonauts.


title: N1 (rocket)

text: The Strategic Missile Forces of the Soviet military was reluctant to support a politically motivated project with little military utility, but both Korolev and Chelomei pushed for a lunar mission. Between 1961 and 1964, Chelomei's less aggressive proposal was accepted, and development of his UR-500 and the LK-1 were given a relatively high priority.


title: N1 (rocket)

text: Valentin Glushko, who then held a near-monopoly on rocket engine design in the Soviet Union, proposed the RD-270 engine using unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) and nitrogen tetroxide (NO) propellants to power the newly enlarged N1 design. These hypergolic propellants ignite on contact, reducing the complexity of the engine, and were widely used in Glushko's existing engines on various ICBMs. The full flow staged combustion cycle RD-270 was in testing before program cancellation, achieving a higher specific impulse than the gas-generator cycle Rocketdyne F-1 despite the use of UDMH/NO propellants with lower potential impulse. The F-1 engine was five years into its development at the time and still experiencing combustion stability problems.


title: N1 (rocket)

text: Glushko pointed out that the US Titan II GLV had successfully flown crew with similar hypergolic propellants. Korolev felt that the toxic nature of the fuels and their exhaust presented a safety risk for crewed space flight, and that kerosene/LOX was a better solution. The disagreement between Korolev and Glushko over the question of fuels ultimately became a major issue that hampered progress.


title: N1 (rocket)

text: Personal issues between the two played a role, with Korolev holding Glushko responsible for his incarceration at the Kolyma Gulag in the 1930s and Glushko considering Korolev to be cavalier and autocratic towards things outside his competence. The difference of opinions led to a falling out between Korolev and Glushko. In 1962, a committee was appointed to resolve the dispute and agreed with Korolev. Glushko refused outright to work on LOX/kerosene engines, and with Korolev in general. Korolev eventually gave up and decided to enlist the help of Nikolai Kuznetsov, the OKB-276 jet engine designer, while Glushko teamed up with other rocket designers to build the very successful Proton, Zenit, and Energia rockets.


title: N1 (rocket)

text: Kuznetsov, who had limited experience in rocket design, responded with the NK-15, a fairly small engine that would be delivered in several versions tuned to different altitudes. To achieve the required amount of thrust, it was proposed that 30 NK-15s would be used in a clustered configuration. An outer ring of 24 engines and an inner ring of six engines would be separated by an air gap, with airflow supplied via inlets near the top of the booster. The air would be mixed with the exhaust in order to provide some degree of thrust augmentation, as well as engine cooling. The arrangement of 30 rocket engine nozzles on the N1's first stage could have been an attempt at creating a crude version of a toroidal aerospike engine system; more conventional aerospike engines were also studied.


title: N1 (rocket)

text: Korolev proposed a larger N1 combined with the new L3 lunar package based on the Soyuz 7K-L3. The L3 combined rocket stages, the modified Soyuz, and the new LK lunar lander were to be launched by a single N1 to conduct a lunar landing. Chelomei responded with a clustered UR-500-derived vehicle, topped with the L1 spacecraft already under development, and a lander developed by his design bureau. Korolev's proposal was selected as the winner in August 1964, but Chelomei was told to continue with his circumlunar UR-500/L1 work.


title: N1 (rocket)

text: When Khrushchev was overthrown later in 1964, infighting between the two teams started anew. In October 1965, the Soviet government ordered a compromise; the circumlunar mission would be launched on Chelomei's UR-500 using Korolev's Soyuz spacecraft in place of their own Zond ("probe") design, aiming for a launch in 1967, the 50th anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution. Korolev, meanwhile, would continue with his original N1-L3 proposal. Korolev had clearly won the argument, but work on the L1 continued anyway, as well as the Zond.


title: N1 (rocket)

text: Korolev lobbied in 1964 for a crewed circumlunar mission, which was at first rejected, but was passed with the 3 August 1964 Central Committee resolution titled "On work involving the study of the Moon and outer space", with the objective of landing a cosmonaut on the Moon in 1967 or '68.


title: N1 (rocket)

text: In January 1966, Korolev died due to complications of minor surgery. His work on N1-L3 was taken over by his deputy, Vasily Mishin, who did not have Korolev's political astuteness or influence, and was reputed to be a heavy drinker. These problems contributed to the eventual cancellation of the N1 and the lunar mission as a whole, as did four consecutive launch failures with no successes.


title: N1 (rocket)

text: Mishin continued with the N1F project after the cancellation of plans for a crewed Moon landing in the hope that the booster would be used to build the Zvezda moonbase. The program was terminated in 1974 when Mishin was replaced by Glushko. Two N1Fs were being readied for launch at the time, but these plans were canceled.


title: N1 (rocket)

text: The two flight-ready N1Fs were scrapped and their remains could still be found around Baikonur years later used as shelters and storage sheds. The boosters were deliberately broken up in an effort to cover up the USSR's failed Moon attempts, which was publicly stated to be a paper project in order to fool the US into thinking there was a race going on. This cover story lasted until "glasnost", when the remaining hardware was seen publicly on display.


title: N1 (rocket)

text: The program was followed by the "Vulkan" concept for a huge launch vehicle using Syntin/LOX propellants, later replaced by LH2/LOX on the 2nd and 3rd stages. "Vulkan" was superseded by the Energia/Buran program in 1976.


title: N1 (rocket)

text: About 150 of the upgraded engines for the N1F escaped destruction. Although the rocket as a whole was unreliable, the NK-33 and NK-43 engines are rugged and reliable when used as a standalone unit. In the mid-1990s, Russia sold 36 engines for $1.1 million each and a license for the production of new engines to the US company Aerojet General.