title: Castile and León

text: The internal trade of Castile and León is concentrated in the sector of food, automotive, fabric and footwear. For foreign trade, according to the region, vehicles and car chassis are mainly exported in Province of Ávila, Province of Palencia and Province of Valladolid, tires in Province of Burgos and Province of Valladolid, steel bars and slate manufactures in León, beef in Province of Salamanca, pigs in Province of Segovia, rubber manufactures in Province of Soria and goat and sheep meat, together with wine, in Province of Zamora.


title: Castile and León

text: Castile and León also exports a lot of wine, being Province of Valladolid the one that more bottles sells abroad. As regards imports, vehicles and their accessories, such as engines or tires, are in the lead. The Region also imports mainly products from France, Italy, United Kingdom, [Germany, [Portugal and the United States and exports mostly to the countries of the European Union and to Turkey, Israel and United States.


title: Castile and León

text: Castilla y León has an extensive rail network, including the principal lines from Madrid to Cantabria and Galicia. The line from Paris to Lisbon crosses the region, reaching the Portuguese frontier at Fuentes de Oñoro in Salamanca. Astorga, Burgos, León, Miranda de Ebro, Palencia, Ponferrada, Medina del Campo and Valladolid are all important railway junctions.


title: Castile and León

text: Railways operate in several different gauges: Iberian gauge (), UIC gauge () and Narrow gauge (). Except for some narrow-gauge lines, trains are operated by Renfe on lines maintained by the Administrador de Infraestructuras Ferroviarias (ADIF); both of these are national, state-owned companies.


title: Castile and León

text: The road network is regulated by the Ley de carreteras 10/2008 de Castilla y León (Highway Law 10/2008 of Castile and León). This law allows for the possibility of


title: Castile and León

text: roads financed by the private sector through concessions, as well as the public construction of roads that has long prevailed.


title: Hoopoe

text: Hoopoes () are colourful birds found across Africa, Asia, and Europe, notable for their distinctive "crown" of feathers. Three living and one extinct species are recognized, though for many years all of the extant species were lumped as a single species—"Upupa epops". In fact, some taxonomists still consider all three species conspecific. Some authorities also keep the African and Eurasian hoopoe together but split the Madagascar hoopoe. The Eurasian hoopoe is common in its range and has a large population, so it is evaluated as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. However, their numbers are declining in Western Europe. Conversely, the hoopoe has been increasing in numbers at the tip of the South Sinai, Sharm el-Sheikh. There are dozens of nesting pairs that remain resident all year round.


title: Hoopoe

text: The genus "Upupa" was introduced in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his "Systema Naturae". The type species is the Eurasian hoopoe ("Upupa epops"). "Upupa" and ἔποψ ("epops") are respectively the Latin and Ancient Greek names for the hoopoe; both, like the English name, are onomatopoeic forms which imitate the cry of the bird.


title: Hoopoe

text: The hoopoe was classified in the clade Coraciiformes, which also includes kingfishers, bee-eaters, and rollers. A close relationship between the hoopoe and the wood hoopoes is also supported by the shared and unique nature of their stapes. In the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy, the hoopoe is separated from the Coraciiformes as a separate order, the Upupiformes. Some authorities place the wood hoopoes in the Upupiformes as well. Now the consensus is that both hoopoe and the wood hoopoes belong with the hornbills in the Bucerotiformes.


title: Hoopoe

text: The fossil record of the hoopoes is very incomplete, with the earliest fossil coming from the Quaternary. The fossil record of their relatives is older, with fossil wood hoopoes dating back to the Miocene and those of an extinct related family, the Messelirrisoridae, dating from the Eocene.


title: Hoopoe

text: Formerly considered a single species, the hoopoe has been split into three separate species: the Eurasian hoopoe, Madagascar hoopoe and the resident African hoopoe. One accepted separate species, the Saint Helena hoopoe, lived on the island of St Helena but became extinct in the 16th century, presumably due to introduced species.


title: Hoopoe

text: The genus "Upupa" was created by Linnaeus in his "Systema naturae" in 1758. It then included three other species with long curved bills:


title: Hoopoe

text: Formerly, the greater hoopoe-lark was also considered to be a member of this genus (as "Upupa alaudipes").


title: Hoopoe

text: Hoopoes are widespread in Europe, Asia, and North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar. Most European and north Asian birds migrate to the tropics in winter. In contrast, the African populations are sedentary all year. The species has been a vagrant in Alaska; "U. e. saturata" was recorded there in 1975 in the Yukon Delta. Hoopoes have been known to breed north of their European range, and in southern England during warm, dry summers that provide plenty of grasshoppers and similar insects, although as of the early 1980s northern European populations were reported to be in the decline, possibly due to changes in climate.


title: Hoopoe

text: The hoopoe has two basic requirements of its habitat: bare or lightly vegetated ground on which to forage and vertical surfaces with cavities (such as trees, cliffs or even walls, nestboxes, haystacks, and abandoned burrows) in which to nest. These requirements can be provided in a wide range of ecosystems, and as a consequence the hoopoe inhabits a wide range of habitats such as heathland, wooded steppes, savannas and grasslands, as well as forest glades. The Madagascar species also makes use of more dense primary forest. The modification of natural habitats by humans for various agricultural purposes has led to hoopoes becoming common in olive groves, orchards, vineyards, parkland and farmland, although they are less common and are declining in intensively farmed areas. Hunting is of concern in southern Europe and Asia.


title: Hoopoe

text: Hoopoes make seasonal movements in response to rain in some regions such as in Ceylon and in the Western Ghats. Birds have been seen at high altitudes during migration across the Himalayas. One was recorded at about by the first Mount Everest expedition.


title: Hoopoe

text: In what was long thought to be a defensive posture, hoopoes sunbathe by spreading out their wings and tail low against the ground and tilting their head up; they often fold their wings and preen halfway through. They also enjoy taking dust and sand baths. Adults may begin their moult after the breeding season and continue after they have migrated for the winter.


title: Hoopoe

text: The diet of the hoopoe is mostly composed of insects, although small reptiles, frogs and plant matter such as seeds and berries are sometimes taken as well. It is a solitary forager which typically feeds on the ground. More rarely they will feed in the air, where their strong and rounded wings make them fast and manoeuverable, in pursuit of numerous swarming insects. More commonly their foraging style is to stride over relatively open ground and periodically pause to probe the ground with the full length of their bill. Insect larvae, pupae and mole crickets are detected by the bill and either extracted or dug out with the strong feet. Hoopoes will also feed on insects on the surface, probe into piles of leaves, and even use the bill to lever large stones and flake off bark. Common diet items include crickets, locusts, beetles, earwigs, cicadas, ant lions, bugs and ants. These can range from in length, with a preferred prey size of around . Larger prey items are beaten against the ground or a preferred stone to kill them and remove indigestible body parts such as wings and legs.


title: Hoopoe

text: Hoopoes are monogamous, although the pair bond apparently only lasts for a single season. They are also territorial. The male calls frequently to advertise his ownership of the territory. Chases and fights between rival males (and sometimes females) are common and can be brutal. Birds will try to stab rivals with their bills, and individuals are occasionally blinded in fights. The nest is in a hole in a tree or wall, and has a narrow entrance. It may be unlined, or various scraps may be collected. The female alone is responsible for incubating the eggs. Clutch size varies with location: Northern Hemisphere birds lay more eggs than those in the Southern Hemisphere, and birds at higher latitudes have larger clutches than those closer to the equator. In central and northern Europe and Asia the clutch size is around 12, whereas it is around four in the tropics and seven in the subtropics. The eggs are round and milky blue when laid, but quickly discolour in the increasingly dirty nest. They weigh . A replacement clutch is possible.


title: Hoopoe

text: Hoopoes have well-developed anti-predator defences in the nest. The uropygial gland of the incubating and brooding female is quickly modified to produce a foul-smelling liquid, and the glands of nestlings do so as well. These secretions are rubbed into the plumage. The secretion, which smells like rotting meat, is thought to help deter predators, as well as deter parasites and possibly act as an antibacterial agent. The secretions stop soon before the young leave the nest. From the age of six days, nestlings can also direct streams of faeces at intruders, and will hiss at them in a snake-like fashion. The young also strike with their bill or with one wing.


title: Hoopoe

text: The incubation period for the species is between 15 and 18 days, during which time the male feeds the female. Incubation begins as soon as the first egg is laid, so the chicks are born asynchronously. The chicks hatch with a covering of downy feathers. By around day three to five, feather quills emerge which will become the adult feathers. The chicks are brooded by the female for between 9 and 14 days. The female later joins the male in the task of bringing food. The young fledge in 26 to 29 days and remain with the parents for about a week more.


title: Hoopoe

text: The diet of the hoopoe includes many species considered by humans to be pests, such as the pupae of the processionary moth, a damaging forest pest which few other birds will eat because of its irritating hairs. For this reason the species is afforded protection under the law in many countries.


title: Hoopoe

text: Hoopoes are distinctive birds and have made a cultural impact over much of their range. They were considered sacred in Ancient Egypt, and were "depicted on the walls of tombs and temples". At the Old Kingdom, the hoopoe was used in the iconography as a symbolic code to indicate the child was the heir and successor of his father. They achieved a similar standing in Minoan Crete.


title: Hoopoe

text: In the Torah, Leviticus 11:13–19, hoopoes were listed among the animals that are detestable and should not be eaten. They are also listed in Deuteronomy as not kosher.


title: Hoopoe

text: The Hoopoe, known as the (), also appears with King Solomon in the Quran in Surah 27 ٱلنَّمْل "Al-Naml" (The Ant):


title: Hoopoe

text: The connection of the hoopoe with Solomon and the Queen of Sheba in the Qur'anic tradition is mentioned in passing in Rudyard Kipling's Just So story, "The Butterfly that Stamped".


title: Hoopoe

text: In the pre-Islamic Vainakh religion of Chechnya, Ingushetia and Dagestan the hoopoe was sacred to the important goddess Tusholi and known as "Tusholi's hen". As "her" bird it could only be hunted with the express permission of the goddess's high priest, and even then only for strictly medicinal purposes.


title: Hoopoe

text: Hoopoes were seen as a symbol of virtue in Persia. A hoopoe was a leader of the birds in the Persian book of poems "The Conference of the Birds" ("Mantiq al-Tayr" by Attar) and when the birds seek a king, the hoopoe points out that the Simurgh was the king of the birds.


title: Hoopoe

text: Hoopoes were thought of as thieves across much of Europe, and harbingers of war in Scandinavia. In Estonian tradition, hoopoes are strongly connected with death and the underworld; their song is believed to foreshadow death for many people or cattle. In medieval ritual magic, the hoopoe was thought to be an evil bird. The "Munich Manual of Demonic Magic", a collection of magical spells compiled in Germany frequently requires the sacrifice of a hoopoe to summon demons and perform other magical intentions.


title: Hoopoe

text: Tereus, transformed into the hoopoe, is the king of the birds in the Ancient Greek comedy "The Birds" by Aristophanes. In Ovid's "Metamorphoses", book 6, King Tereus of Thrace rapes Philomela, his wife Procne's sister, and cuts out her tongue. In revenge, Procne kills their son Itys and serves him as a stew to his father. When Tereus sees the boy's head, which is served on a platter, he grabs a sword but just as he attempts to kill the sisters, they are turned into birds—Procne into a swallow and Philomela into a nightingale. Tereus himself is turned into an "epops" (6.674), translated as "lapwing" by Dryden and "lappewincke" ("lappewinge") by John Gower in his "Confessio Amantis", or "hoopoe" in A.S. Kline's translation. The bird's crest indicates his royal status, and his long, sharp beak is a symbol of his violent nature. English translators and poets probably had the northern lapwing in mind, considering its crest.


title: Hoopoe

text: The hoopoe was chosen as the national bird of Israel in May 2008 in conjunction with the country's 60th anniversary, following a national survey of 155,000 citizens, outpolling the white-spectacled bulbul. The hoopoe appears on the logo of the University of Johannesburg and is the official mascot of the university's sports teams. The municipalities of Armstedt and Brechten, Germany, have a hoopoe in their coats of arms.


title: Hoopoe

text: In Morocco, hoopoes are traded live and as medicinal products in the markets, primarily in herbalist shops. This trade is unregulated and a potential threat to local populations.


title: Hoopoe

text: In Manipur, one of the states comprising Northeast India, the hoopoe is still used by traditional Muslim healers in a variety of preparations believed locally to benefit a number of conditions both medical and spiritual.


title: Hoopoe

text: Manipur abuts upon Myanmar and has been a cultural crossroads and melting pot of cultures for over 2,500 years. Its traditional medicine may thus reflect influences from an unusually wide area, including not only the Indian subcontinent but also Central Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia and even the further-flung regions of Siberia, the Arctic, Micronesia and Polynesia. Ibopishak and Bimola record four Manipuri folk medicinal uses of the hoopoe which specify neither the body part of the bird used nor its method of preparation:


title: Hoopoe

text: More specifically, it is believed that if an essence (method of preparation unspecified) prepared from the bird is dropped into the eye, it will remove superfluous eyelashes and strengthen the memory.


title: Hoopoe

text: Furthermore the authors record the following local Manipuri beliefs concerning specific body parts of the hoopoe:


title: Hoopoe

text: While Ibopishak and Bimola are unable to find any discernible effect of hoopoe tissue alone upon the dissolution of kidney stones, they do note that their experiments reveal that hoopoe tissue potentiates the effects of the Manipuri medicinal plant "Cissus javana", when employed to treat such calculi (local healers use bird and plant in just such a combination for this purpose). Since, however, there was no control used involving the tissues of any other bird species, it remains unclear whether there are any medicinal properties peculiar to hoopoe tissue deriving from a distinctive chemistry.


title: Hoopoe

text: Harrison Tordoff, a World War II fighter ace and later a noted ornithologist, named his P-51 Mustang as "Upupa epops", the scientific name of the hoopoe bird.


title: Hoopoe

text: The questioned sighting of a blue-crested hoopoe in the British countryside is the basis of “A Rare Bird,” a 2012 episode of the British mystery series Midsomer Murders.


title: History of homosexuality

text: Societal attitudes towards same-sex relationships have varied over time and place, from requiring all males to engage in same-sex relationships to casual integration, through acceptance, to seeing the practice as a minor sin, repressing it through law enforcement and judicial mechanisms, and to proscribing it under penalty of death.


title: History of homosexuality

text: In a 1976 study, Gwen Broude and Sarah Greene compared attitudes towards and frequency of homosexuality in the ethnographic studies available in the Standard cross-cultural sample. They found that out of 42 communities: homosexuality was accepted or ignored in 9; 5 communities had no concept of homosexuality; 11 considered it undesirable but did not set punishments, and 17 strongly disapproved and punished. Of 70 communities, homosexuality was reported to be absent or rare in frequency in 41, and present or not uncommon in 29.


title: History of homosexuality

text: It was accepted in some forms in ancient Greece. However, in later cultures influenced by Abrahamic religions, the law and the church established sodomy as a transgression against divine law or a crime against nature. Throughout the majority of Christian history, most Christian theologians and denominations have considered homosexual behavior as immoral or sinful.


title: History of homosexuality

text: Many male historical figures, including Socrates, Lord Byron, Edward II, and Hadrian, have had terms such as "gay" or "bisexual" applied to them; some scholars, such as Michel Foucault, have regarded this as risking the anachronistic introduction of a contemporary social construct of sexuality foreign to their times, though others challenge this.


title: History of homosexuality

text: A common thread of constructionist argument is that no one in antiquity or the Middle Ages experienced homosexuality as an exclusive, permanent, or defining mode of sexuality. John Boswell has countered this argument by citing ancient Greek writings by Plato, which describe individuals exhibiting exclusive homosexuality.


title: History of homosexuality

text: Among Indigenous peoples of the Americas prior to European colonization, a number of Nations had respected ceremonial and social roles for homosexual, bisexual, and gender-nonconforming individuals in their communities; in many contemporary Native American and First Nations communities, these roles still exist. While each Indigenous culture has their own names for these individuals, a modern, pan-Indian term that was adopted in 1990 is "Two-Spirit". This new term has not been universally accepted, having been criticized by traditional communities who already have their own terms for the people being grouped under this "urban neologism", and by those who reject what they call the "western" binary implications, such as implying that Natives believe these individuals are "both male and female". However, it has generally met with more acceptance than the anthropological term it replaced.


title: History of homosexuality

text: Homosexual and gender-variant individuals were also common among other pre-conquest civilizations in Latin America, such as the Aztecs, Mayans, Quechuas, Moches, Zapotecs, and the Tupinambá of Brazil.


title: History of homosexuality

text: The Spanish conquerors were horrified to discover sodomy openly practiced among native peoples, and attempted to crush it out by subjecting the "berdaches" (as the Spanish called them) under their rule to severe penalties, including public execution, burning and being torn to pieces by dogs.


title: History of homosexuality

text: Homosexuality is widely documented in ancient China and attitudes towards it varied through time, location, and social class. Chinese literature recorded multiple anecdotes of man engaging in homosexual relationships. In the story of "the leftover peach"(余桃), set during the Spring and Autumn Era, the historian Han Fei recorded an anecdote in the relationship of Mi Zixia (彌子瑕) and Duke Ling of Wei (衛靈公) in which Mizi Xia shared an especially delicious peach with his lover. The story of the cut sleeve(断袖) recorded the Emperor Ai of Han sharing a bed his lover, Dongxian (董賢); when Emperor Ai woke up later, he carefully cut off his sleeve, so as not to awake Dongxian, who had fallen asleep on top of it. Scholar Pan Guangdan (潘光旦) came to the conclusion that many emperors in the Han dynasty had one or more male sex partners. However, except in unusual cases, such as Emperor Ai, the men named for their homosexual relationships in the official histories appear to have had active heterosexual lives as well.


title: History of homosexuality

text: With the rise of the Tang dynasty, China became increasingly influenced by the sexual mores of foreigners from Western and Central Asia, and female companions began to replace male companions in terms of power and familial standings. The following Song dynasty was the last dynasty to include a chapter on male companions of the emperors in official documents. During these dynasties, the general attitude toward homosexuality was still tolerant, but male lovers started to be seen as less legitimate compared to wives and men are usually expected to get married and continue the family line.


title: History of homosexuality

text: During the Ming Dynasty, it is said that the Zhengde Emperor had a homosexual relationship with a Muslim leader named Sayyid Husain. In later Ming Dynasty, homosexuality began to be referred to as the "southern custom" due to the fact that Fujian was the site of a unique system of male marriages, attested to by the scholar-bureaucrat Shen Defu and the writer Li Yu, and mythologized by in the folk tale, The Leveret Spirit.


title: History of homosexuality

text: The Qing dynasty instituted the first law against consensual, non-monetized homosexuality in China. However, the punishment designated, which included a month in prison and 100 heavy blows, was actually the lightest punishment which existed in the Qing legal system. Homosexuality started to become eliminated in China by the Self-Strengthening Movement, when homophobia was imported to China along with Western science and philosophy.


title: History of homosexuality

text: Homosexuality in Japan, variously known as "shudo" or "nanshoku", has been documented for over one thousand years and had some connections to the Buddhist monastic life and the samurai tradition. This same-sex love culture gave rise to strong traditions of painting and literature documenting and celebrating such relationships.


title: History of homosexuality

text: Similarly, in Thailand, "kathoey", or "ladyboys," have been a feature of Thai society for many centuries, and Thai kings had male as well as female lovers. While "kathoey" may encompass simple effeminacy or transvestism, it most commonly is treated in Thai culture as a third gender. They are generally accepted by society.


title: History of homosexuality

text: The earliest Western documents (in the form of literary works, art objects, and mythographic materials) concerning same-sex relationships are derived from ancient Greece.


title: History of homosexuality

text: The formal practice, an erotic yet often restrained relationship between a free-born (i.e. not a slave or freedman) adult male and a free-born adolescent, was valued for its pedagogic benefits and as a means of population control, though occasionally blamed for causing societal disorder. Plato praised its benefits in his early writings but in his late works proposed its prohibition. In the "Symposium" (182B-D), Plato equates acceptance of homosexuality with democracy, and its suppression with despotism, saying that homosexuality "is shameful to barbarians because of their despotic governments, just as philosophy and athletics are, since it is apparently not in best interests of such rulers to have great ideas engendered in their subjects, or powerful friendships or physical unions, all of which love is particularly apt to produce".


title: History of homosexuality

text: Aristotle, in his "Politics", dismissed Plato's ideas about abolishing homosexuality (2.4); he explains that barbarians like the Celts accorded it a special honour (2.6.6), while the Cretans used it to regulate the population (2.7.5).


title: History of homosexuality

text: Little is known of female homosexuality in antiquity. Sappho, born on the island of Lesbos, was included by later classical Greek people in the canonical list of nine lyric poets. The adjectives deriving from her name and place of birth ("sapphic" and "lesbian") came to be applied to female homosexuality beginning in the 19th century. Sappho's poetry centers on passion and love for various personages and both genders. The narrators of many of her poems speak of infatuations and love (sometimes requited, sometimes not) for various females, but descriptions of physical acts between women are few and subject to debate. There is no evidence that she ran an academy for girls.


title: History of homosexuality

text: In ancient Rome, the young male body remained a focus of male sexual attention, but relationships were between older free men and slaves or freed youths who took the receptive role in sex. The Hellenophile emperor Hadrian is renowned for his relationship with Antinous. However, after the transition to Christianity, by 390 A.D., Emperor Theodosius I made homosexuality a legally punishable offense for the passive partner: "All persons who have the shameful custom of condemning a man's body, acting the part of a woman's to the sufferance of alien sex (for they appear not to be different from women), shall expiate a crime of this kind in avenging flames in the sight of the people." In 558, toward the end of his reign, Justinian expanded the proscription to the active partner as well, warning that such conduct can lead to the destruction of cities through the "wrath of God". Notwithstanding these regulations, taxes on brothels of boys available for homosexual sex continued to be collected until the end of the reign of Anastasius I in 518.


title: History of homosexuality

text: Through the medieval period, homosexuality was generally condemned and thought to be the moral of the story of Sodom and Gomorrah. Historians debate if there were any prominent homosexuals and bisexuals at this time, but it is argued that figures such as Edward II, Richard the Lionheart, Philip II Augustus, and William Rufus were engaged in same-sex relationships.


title: History of homosexuality

text: Also during the medieval period, there were legal arrangements called adelphopoiesis ("brother-making") in the Eastern Mediterranean or "affrèrement" ("enbrotherment") in France that allowed two men to share living quarters and pool their resources, sharing "one bread, one wine, one purse." Historians such as John Boswell and Allan A. Tulchin have argued that these arrangements amounted to an early form of same-sex marriage. This interpretation of these arrangements remains controversial.


title: History of homosexuality

text: During the Renaissance, wealthy cities in northern Italy—Florence and Venice in particular—were renowned for their widespread practice of same-sex love, engaged in by a considerable part of the male population and constructed along with the classical pattern of Greece and Rome. But even as many of the male population were engaging in same-sex relationships, the authorities, under the aegis of the Officers of the Night, were prosecuting, fining, and imprisoning a good portion of that population. Many of the prominent artists who defined the Renaissance such as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci are believed to have had relationships with men. The decline of this period of relative artistic and erotic freedom was precipitated by the rise to power of the moralizing monk Girolamo Savonarola.


title: History of homosexuality

text: In England, Geoffery Chaucer's "The Pardoner's Tale" centered around an enigmatic and deceptive character who is also at one point described as "a gelding or a mare", suggesting that the narrator thought the Pardoner to be either a eunuch ("gelding") or a homosexual.


title: History of homosexuality

text: The relationships of socially prominent figures, such as King James I and the Duke of Buckingham, served to highlight the issue, including in anonymously authored street pamphlets: "The world is chang'd I know not how, For men Kiss Men, not Women now;...Of J. the First and Buckingham: He, true it is, his Wives Embraces fled, To slabber his lov'd Ganimede"


title: History of homosexuality

text: The anonymous "Love Letters Between a Certain Late Nobleman and the Famous Mr. Wilson" was published in 1723 in England and was presumed by some modern scholars to be a novel.


title: History of homosexuality

text: The 1749 edition of John Cleland's popular novel "Fanny Hill" includes a homosexual scene, but this was removed in its 1750 edition. Also in 1749, the earliest extended and serious defense of homosexuality in English, "Ancient and Modern Pederasty Investigated and Exemplified", written by Thomas Cannon, was published, but was suppressed almost immediately. It includes the passage: "Unnatural Desire is a Contradiction in Terms; downright Nonsense. Desire is an amatory Impulse of the inmost human Parts." Around 1785 Jeremy Bentham wrote another defense, but this was not published until 1978. Executions for sodomy continued in the Netherlands until 1803 and in England until 1835.


title: History of homosexuality

text: Between 1864 and 1880 Karl Heinrich Ulrichs published a series of twelve tracts, which he collectively titled "Research on the Riddle of Man-Manly Love." In 1867 he became the first self-proclaimed homosexual person to speak out publicly in defense of homosexuality when he pleaded at the Congress of German Jurists in Munich for a resolution urging the repeal of anti-homosexual laws. "Sexual Inversion" by Havelock Ellis, published in 1896, challenged theories that homosexuality was abnormal, as well as stereotypes, and insisted on the ubiquity of homosexuality and its association with intellectual and artistic achievement. Although medical texts like these (written partly in Latin to obscure the sexual details) were not widely read by the general public, they did lead to the rise of Magnus Hirschfeld's Scientific Humanitarian Committee, which campaigned from 1897 to 1933 against anti-sodomy laws in Germany, as well as a much more informal, unpublicized movement among British intellectuals and writers, led by such figures as Edward Carpenter and John Addington Symonds. Beginning in 1894 with "Homogenic Love", Socialist activist and poet Edward Carpenter wrote a string of pro-homosexual articles and pamphlets, and "came out" in 1916 in his book "My Days and Dreams". In 1900, Elisar von Kupffer published an anthology of homosexual literature from antiquity to his own time, "Lieblingminne und Freundesliebe in der Weltliteratur". His aim was to broaden the public perspective of homosexuality beyond its being viewed simply as a medical or biological issue, but also as an ethical and cultural one. Sigmund Freud, among others, argued that neither predominantly different- nor same-sex sexuality were the norm, instead that what is called "bisexuality" is the normal human condition thwarted by society.


title: History of homosexuality

text: These developments suffered several setbacks, both coincidental and deliberate. For example, in 1895, famed playwright Oscar Wilde was convicted of "gross indecency" in the United Kingdom, and lurid details from the trials (especially those involving young male sex workers) led to increased scrutiny of all facets of relationships between men. The most destructive backlash occurred when the Third Reich specifically targeted LGBT people in the Holocaust.


title: History of homosexuality

text: There are a handful of accounts by Arab travelers to Europe during the mid-1800s. Two of these travelers, Rifa'ah al-Tahtawi and Muhammad sl-Saffar, show their surprise that the French sometimes deliberately mis-translated love poetry about a young boy, instead referring to a young female, to maintain their social norms and morals.


title: History of homosexuality

text: Among modern Middle Eastern countries, same-sex intercourse officially carries the death penalty in several nations, including Saudi Arabia and Iran.


title: History of homosexuality

text: Today, governments in the Middle East often ignore, deny the existence of, or criminalize homosexuality. Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, during his 2007 speech at Columbia University, asserted that there were no gay people in Iran. Gay people may live in Iran, however they are forced to keep their sexuality veiled from the society, funded and encouraged by government legislation and traditional norms.


title: History of homosexuality

text: Some ancient religious Assyrian texts contain prayers for divine blessings on homosexual relationships. Freely pictured art of anal intercourse, practiced as part of a religious ritual, dated from the 3rd millennium BC and onwards. Homosexual relationships with royal attendants, between soldiers, and those where a social better was submissive or penetrated were treated as rape or seen as bad omens, and punishments were applied.


title: History of homosexuality

text: The "Laws of Manu", the foundational work of Hindu law, mentions a "third sex", members of which may engage in nontraditional gender expression and homosexual activities. The Kama Sutra, written in the 4th century, describes techniques by which homosexuals perform fellatio. Further, such homosexual men were also known to marry, according to the Kama Sutra: "There are also third-sex citizens, sometimes greatly attached to one another and with complete faith in one another, who get married together." (KS 2.9.36).


title: History of homosexuality

text: In many societies of Melanesia, especially in Papua New Guinea, same-sex relationships were an integral part of the culture until the middle of the last century. The Etoro and Marind-anim for example, even viewed heterosexuality as sinful and celebrated homosexuality instead. In many traditional Melanesian cultures a prepubertal boy would be paired with an older adolescent who would become his mentor and who would "inseminate" him (orally, anally, or topically, depending on the tribe) over a number of years in order for the younger to also reach puberty. Many Melanesian societies, however, have become hostile towards same-sex relationships since the introduction of Christianity by European missionaries.


title: History of homosexuality

text: Homosexuality in ancient Egypt is a passionately disputed subject within Egyptology: historians and egyptologists alike debate what kind of view the Ancient Egyptians society fostered about homosexuality. Only a handful of direct hints have survived to this day and many possible indications are only vague and offer plenty of room for speculation.


title: History of homosexuality

text: The best known case of possible homosexuality in Ancient Egypt is that of the two high officials Nyankh-Khnum and Khnum-hotep. Both men lived and served under pharaoh Niuserre during the 5th Dynasty (c. 2494–2345 BC). Nyankh-Khnum and Khnum-hotep each had families of their own with children and wives, but when they died their families apparently decided to bury them together in one and the same mastaba tomb. In this mastaba, several paintings depict both men embracing each other and touching their faces nose-on-nose. These depictions leave plenty of room for speculation, because in Ancient Egypt the nose-on-nose touching normally represented a kiss.


title: History of homosexuality

text: Egyptologists and historians disagree about how to interpret the paintings of Nyankh-khnum and Khnum-hotep. Some scholars believe that the paintings reflect an example of homosexuality between two married men and prove that the Ancient Egyptians accepted same-sex relationships. Other scholars disagree and interpret the scenes as an evidence that Nyankh-khnum and Khnum-hotep were twins, even possibly conjoined twins. No matter what interpretation is correct, the paintings show at the very least that Nyankh-khnum and Khnum-hotep must have been very close to each other in life as in death.


title: History of homosexuality

text: It remains unclear what exact view the Ancient Egyptians fostered about homosexuality. Any document and literature that actually contains sexually orientated stories never name the nature of the sexual deeds, but instead uses stilted and flowery paraphrases. While the stories about Seth and his sexual behavior may reveal rather negative thoughts and views, the tomb inscription of Nyankh-khnum and Khnum-hotep may instead suggest that homosexuality was likewise accepted. Ancient Egyptian documents never clearly say that same-sex relationships were seen as reprehensible or despicable. And no Ancient Egyptian document mentions that homosexual acts were set under penalty. Thus, a straight evaluation remains problematic.


title: History of homosexuality

text: In the 19th century Mwanga II (1868–1903) the Kabaka of Buganda regularly had sex with his male page.


title: History of homosexuality

text: After World War II, the history of homosexuality in Western societies progressed on very similar and often intertwined paths.


title: History of homosexuality

text: In 1948, American biologist Alfred Kinsey published "Sexual Behavior in the Human Male", popularly known as the Kinsey Reports. In 1957, the UK government commissioned the Wolfenden report to review the country's anti-sodomy laws; the final report advised decriminalizing consensual homosexual conduct, though the laws were not actually changed for another ten years.


title: History of homosexuality

text: Homosexuality was deemed to be a psychiatric disorder for many years, although the studies this theory was based on were later determined to be flawed. In 1973 homosexuality was declassified as a mental illness in the United Kingdom. In 1986 all references to homosexuality as a psychiatric disorder were removed from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) of the American Psychiatric Association.


title: History of homosexuality

text: During the Sexual Revolution, the different-sex sexual ideal became completely separated from procreation, yet at the same time was distanced from same-sex sexuality. Many people viewed this freeing of different-sex sexuality as leading to more freedom for same-sex sexuality.


title: History of homosexuality

text: The Stonewall riots were a series of violent conflicts between New York City police officers and the patrons of the Stonewall Inn, a gay hangout in Greenwich Village. The riot began on Friday, June 27, 1969, during a routine police raid, when trans women and men, gay men, lesbians, street queens, and other street people fought back in the spirit of the civil rights movements of the era. This riot ended on the morning of 28 June, but smaller demonstrations occurred in the neighborhood throughout the remainder of the week. In the aftermath of the riots, many gay rights organizations formed such as the Gay Liberation Front (GLF). A year later the first gay pride march was held to mark the anniversary of the uprising.


title: History of homosexuality

text: In an 1868 letter to Karl Heinrich Ulrichs, the terms "homosexual" and "heterosexual" were coined by Karl-Maria Kertbeny and then published in two pamphlets in 1869. These became the standard terms when used by Richard von Krafft-Ebing in his Psychopathia Sexualis (1886). The term "bisexuality" was invented in the 20th century as sexual identities became defined by the predominant sex to which people are attracted and thus a label was needed for those who are not predominantly attracted to one sex. This points out that the history of sexuality is not solely the history of different-sex sexuality plus the history of same-sex sexuality, but a broader conception viewing of historical events in light of our modern concept or concepts of sexuality taken at its most broad and/or literal definitions.


title: History of homosexuality

text: Historical personalities are often described using modern sexual identity terms such as "straight", "bisexual", "gay" or "queer". Those who favour the practice say that this can highlight such issues as discriminatory historiography by, for example, putting into relief the extent to which same-sex sexual experiences are excluded from biographies of noted figures, or to which sensibilities resulting from same-sex attraction are excluded from literary and artistic consideration of important works, and so on. As well as that, an opposite situation is possible in the modern society: some LGBT-supportive researchers stick to the homosexual theories, excluding other possibilities.


title: History of homosexuality

text: However, many, especially in the academic world, regard the use of modern labels as problematic, owing to differences in the ways that different societies constructed sexual orientation identities and to the connotations of modern words like "queer". For example, in many societies same-sex sex acts were expected, or completely ignored, and no identity was constructed on their basis at all. Other academics acknowledge that, for example, even in the modern day not all men who have sex with men identify with any of the modern related terms, and that terms for other modern constructed or medicalized identities (such as nationality or disability) are routinely used in anachronistic contexts as mere descriptors or for ease of modern understanding; thus they have no qualms doing the same for sexual orientation. Academic works usually specify which words will be used and in which context. Readers are cautioned to avoid making assumptions about the identity of historical figures based on the use of the terms mentioned above.


title: History of homosexuality

text: Greek men had great latitude in their sexual expression, but their wives were severely restricted and could hardly move about the town unsupervised if she was old enough that people would ask whose mother she was, not whose wife she was.


title: History of homosexuality

text: Men could also seek adolescent boys as partners as shown by some of the earliest documents concerning same-sex pederastic relationships, which come from Ancient Greece. Though slave boys could be bought, free boys had to be courted, and ancient materials suggest that the father also had to consent to the relationship. Such relationships did not replace marriage between man and woman, but occurred before and during the marriage. A mature man would not usually have a mature male mate (though there were exceptions, among whom Alexander the Great); he would be the "erastes" (lover) to a young "eromenos" (loved one). Dover suggests that it was considered improper for the eromenos to feel desire, as that would not be masculine. Driven by desire and admiration, the erastes would devote himself unselfishly by providing all the education his eromenos required to thrive in society. In recent times, Dover's theory suggests that questioned in light of massive evidence of ancient art and love poetry, a more emotional connection than earlier researchers liked to acknowledge. Some research has shown that ancient Greeks believed semen to be the source of knowledge and that these relationships served to pass wisdom on from the erastes to the eromenos.


title: History of homosexuality

text: The "conquest mentality" of the ancient Romans shaped Roman homosexual practices. In the Roman Republic, a citizen's political liberty was defined in part by the right to preserve his body from physical compulsion or use by others; for the male citizen to submit his body to the giving of pleasure was considered servile. As long as a man played the penetrative role, it was socially acceptable and considered natural for him to have same-sex relations, without a perceived loss of his masculinity or social standing. Sex between male citizens of equal status, including soldiers, was disparaged, and in some circumstances penalized harshly. The bodies of citizen youths were strictly off-limits, and the "Lex Scantinia" imposed penalties on those who committed a sex crime "(stuprum)" against a freeborn male minor. Male slaves, prostitutes, and entertainers or others considered "infames" (of no social standing) were acceptable sex partners for the dominant male citizen to penetrate.


title: History of homosexuality

text: "Homosexual" and "heterosexual" were thus not categories of Roman sexuality, and no words exist in Latin that would precisely translate these concepts. A male citizen who willingly performed oral sex or received anal sex was disparaged. In courtroom and political rhetoric, charges of effeminacy and passive sexual behaviors were directed particularly at "democratic" politicians "(populares)" such as Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. Until the Roman Empire came under Christian rule, there is only limited evidence of legal penalties against men who were presumably "homosexual" in the modern sense.


title: Farley Granger

text: Farley Earle Granger Jr. (July 1, 1925 – March 27, 2011) was an American actor, best known for his two collaborations with director Alfred Hitchcock: "Rope" in 1948 and "Strangers on a Train" in 1951.


title: Farley Granger

text: Granger was first noticed in a small stage production in Hollywood by a Goldwyn casting director, and given a significant role in "The North Star" (1943), a controversial film praising the Soviet Union at the height of World War II, but later condemned for its political bias. Another war film, "The Purple Heart" (1944), followed, before Granger's naval service in Honolulu, in a unit that arranged troop entertainment in the Pacific. Here he made useful contacts, including Bob Hope, Betty Grable and Rita Hayworth. It was also where he began exploring his bisexuality, which he said he never felt any need to conceal.


title: Farley Granger

text: His role in Hitchcock's "Rope", a fictionalized account of the Leopold and Loeb murder case of 1924, earned him much critical praise though the film got mixed reviews. Hitchcock then cast him again in "Strangers on a Train", as a tennis star drawn into a double murder plot by a wealthy psychopath, played by Robert Walker. Granger would describe this as his happiest film-making experience, and was deeply saddened by Walker's death shortly after shooting.


title: Farley Granger

text: Granger continued to appear on stage, film and television well into his 70s. His work ranged from classical drama on Broadway to several Italian-language films and major documentaries about Hollywood. He tended to find fault with his directors and scriptwriters, however, and his career remains defined by the two Hitchcock films.


title: Farley Granger

text: Granger was born in San Jose, California, the son of Eva (née Hopkins) and Farley Earle Granger, Sr. He lived at 1185 Hanchett Avenue in the Hanchett Residence Park neighborhood.


title: Farley Granger

text: His wealthy father owned a Willys-Overland automobile dealership, and the family frequently spent time at their beach house in Capitola on Monterey Bay. Following the stock market crash in 1929, the Grangers were forced to sell both their homes and most of their personal belongings and move into an apartment above the family business, where they remained for the next two years. As a result of this financial setback and the loss of their social status, both of Granger's parents began to drink heavily. Eventually the remainder of their possessions were sold at auction to settle their debts, and the elder Granger used the last car on his lot to spirit away the family to Los Angeles in the middle of the night.


title: Farley Granger

text: The family settled in a small apartment in a seedy part of Hollywood, and Granger's parents worked at various temporary jobs. Their drinking increased, and the couple frequently fought. Hoping he might become a tap dancer, Granger's mother enrolled him at Ethel Meglin's, the dance and drama instruction studio where Judy Garland and Shirley Temple had started.


title: Farley Granger

text: Granger's father found work as a clerk in the North Hollywood branch of the California Department of Unemployment, and his salary allowed him to put a small down payment on a house in Studio City, where their neighbor was actor/dancer Donald O'Connor. At his office, Granger's father became acquainted with comedian Harry Langdon, who advised him to take his son to a small local theatre where open auditions for "The Wookie", a British play about Londoners struggling to survive during World War II, were being held. Granger's use of a Cockney accent impressed the director, and he was cast in multiple roles. The opening night audience included talent agent Phil Gersh and Samuel Goldwyn casting director Bob McIntyre, and the following morning Gersh contacted Granger's parents and asked them to bring him to his office that afternoon to discuss the role of Damian, a teenaged Russian boy in the film "The North Star".


title: Farley Granger

text: Granger auditioned for producer Goldwyn, screenwriter Lillian Hellman and director Lewis Milestone. Hellman was trying to convince Montgomery Clift to leave the Broadway play in which he was appearing, and when her efforts proved to be futile, the role was given to Granger. Goldwyn signed him to a seven-year contract for $100 per week.


title: Farley Granger

text: The studio publicity department was concerned audiences would confuse Granger with British actor Stewart Granger, so they suggested he change his name and offered him a list from which to choose. "The names were all interchangeable, like Gordon Gregory and Gregory Gordon. I didn't want to change my name," Granger later recalled. "I liked Farley Granger. It was my father's name, and his grandfather's name. They kept bringing me new combinations, and finally I offered to change it to Kent Clark. I was the only one who thought it was funny." Eventually the studio issued a press release announcing Farley Granger, a senior at North Hollywood High School, had been cast in "The North Star" after he responded to an ad in the local paper. "I thought that was a really dumb story," said Granger. "The truth was much more interesting."


title: Farley Granger

text: Making the film proved to be a fortunate start to Granger's career. He enjoyed working with director Milestone and fellow cast members Dana Andrews, Anne Baxter, Walter Brennan and Jane Withers, and during filming he met composer Aaron Copland, who remained a friend in later years. When released in 1943, the film was savaged by critics working for newspapers owned by William Randolph Hearst, a staunch anti-Communist who felt the movie was Soviet propaganda.


title: Farley Granger

text: For Granger's next film, he was loaned out to 20th Century Fox, where Darryl F. Zanuck cast him in "The Purple Heart" (1944), in which he was directed by Milestone and again co-starred with Dana Andrews. Granger became a close friend of supporting cast member Sam Levene, a character actor from New York City who took him under his wing. He also became a friend of Roddy McDowall and found himself linked with June Haver in gossip columns and fan magazines.


title: Farley Granger

text: Upon completion of "The Purple Heart", Granger enlisted in the United States Navy. Following U.S. Navy Recruit Training in Farragut, Idaho, he sailed from Treasure Island in San Francisco to Honolulu. During the 17-day crossing, he suffered from chronic seasickness and lost 23 pounds, and upon arrival in Hawaii he was admitted to the hospital for several days of rehydration. As a result, the remainder of his military career was spent onshore, where he first was assigned to the cleanup crew at an enlisted men's club situated at the end of Waikiki Beach and then to a unit in Honolulu that worked with Army Special Services that was commanded by classical actor Maurice Evans, who put together and arranged entertainment for all the troops in the Pacific. It was here that he had the opportunity to meet and mingle with visiting entertainers such as Bob Hope, Bing Crosby, Betty Grable, Rita Hayworth, Hedy Lamarr, Gertrude Lawrence, and many others.


title: Farley Granger

text: It was during his naval stint in Honolulu that Granger had his first sexual experiences, one with a hostess at a private club and the other with a Navy officer visiting the same venue, both on the same night. He was startled to discover he was attracted to both men and women equally, and in his memoir he observed,I finally came to the conclusion that for me, everything I had done that night was as natural and as good as it felt ... I never have felt the need to belong to any exclusive, self-defining, or special group ... I was never ashamed, and I never felt the need to explain or apologize for my relationships to anyone ... I have loved men. I have loved women.


title: Farley Granger

text: Granger returned to civilian life and was pleased to discover his parents had curbed their drinking and were treating each other more civilly. Goldwyn increased his weekly salary to $200 and presented him with a 1940 Ford Coupe. The actor was introduced to Saul Chaplin and his wife Ethel, who became his lifelong mentor, confidante and best friend. Through the couple, Granger met Betty Comden, Adolph Green, Jerome Robbins, Leonard Bernstein and Gene Kelly, who invited him to join his open house gatherings that included Judy Garland, Lena Horne, Frank Sinatra, Betty Garrett, Johnny Mercer, Harold Arlen and Stanley Donen. Most influential among his new acquaintances was director Nicholas Ray, who cast Granger in his film noir "They Live by Night". The film was nearing completion in October 1947 when Howard Hughes acquired RKO Radio Pictures, and the new studio head shelved it for nearly a year before releasing it in 1948 under the title "They Live by Night" in a single theater in London. Enthusiastic reviews led RKO to finally release the film in the States in late 1949. During the two years it had remained in limbo, it had been screened numerous times in private screening rooms, and one of the people who saw it during this period was Alfred Hitchcock, who was preparing "Rope".


title: Farley Granger

text: Granger was in New York when he was summoned to return to Hollywood and discuss "Rope" with Hitchcock. The night before their initial meeting, Granger coincidentally met Arthur Laurents, who had written the film's screenplay, which was based on the 1929 play "Rope's End" by Patrick Hamilton, a fictionalized account of the Leopold and Loeb murder case of 1924. It was not until he began reading the script that he connected its author with the man he had met the previous night. Granger and Laurents met again, and Laurents invited the actor to spend the night. He declined, but when the offer was extended again several days later, he accepted. It proved to be the start of a romantic relationship that lasted about a year and a frequently tempestuous friendship that extended for decades beyond their breakup.


title: Farley Granger

text: In "Rope", Granger and John Dall portrayed two intellectuals who commit a murder simply to prove they can get away with it. The two characters and their former professor, played by Jimmy Stewart, were supposed to be homosexual, and Granger and Dall discussed the subtext of their scenes. Because The Hays Office was keeping close tabs on the project, however, the final script was so discreet that Laurents remained uncertain of whether Stewart ever realized that his own character was homosexual. Hitchcock shot the film in continuous, uninterrupted 10-minute takes, the amount of time a reel of Technicolor film lasted, and, as a result, technical problems frequently brought the action to a frustrating halt throughout the 21-day shoot. The film ultimately received mixed reviews in 1948, although most critics were impressed by Granger, who in later years said he was happy to be part of the experience, but wondered "what the film would have been like had [Hitchcock] shot it normally" and "had he not had to worry about censorship".


title: Farley Granger

text: Upon the completion of "Rope", Goldwyn cast Granger, Teresa Wright, David Niven and Evelyn Keyes in "Enchantment" (1948), which was panned for a weak script and indifferent direction by Irving Reis. It failed at the box office, as did his next project, "Roseanna McCoy" (1949), during which he and Laurents parted ways. While filming "Side Street" (1950) on location in Manhattan for Anthony Mann, Granger briefly became involved with Leonard Bernstein, who invited him to join him on his South American tour. By the time Granger completed the film, the composer/conductor had married Costa Rican pianist and actress Felicia Montealegre. The two men remained friends until Bernstein's death.


title: Farley Granger

text: In November 1949 Granger, who had two years to go on his contract with Goldwyn, signed a new five-year contract with the producer.


title: Farley Granger

text: Granger's next two films for Goldwyn in 1950, "Edge of Doom" and "Our Very Own", were unpleasant working experiences, and the actor refused to allow the producer to loan him to Universal Pictures for an inferior magic carpet saga. When he was placed on suspension, he decided to accompany Ethel Chaplin, who had separated from her husband, and her daughter on a trip to Paris. At the last moment they were joined by Arthur Laurents, who remained behind when the group departed for London to see the opening of the New York City Ballet, which had been choreographed by Jerome Robbins. He and Granger engaged in a casual affair until the actor was summoned to return to New York to help publicize "Edge of Doom" and "Our Very Own", both of which received dreadful reviews. Goldwyn cancelled the nationwide openings of the latter, hoping to salvage it by adding wraparound scenes that would change the focus of the film, and Granger refused to promote it any further. Once again placed on suspension, he departed for Europe, where he spent time in Italy, Austria and Germany with Laurents before being contacted about an upcoming film by Alfred Hitchcock.


title: Farley Granger

text: The project was "Strangers on a Train" (1951), in which Granger was cast as tennis player and aspiring politician Guy Haines. He is introduced to psychopathic Bruno Anthony, portrayed by Robert Walker, who suggests they swap murders, with Bruno killing Guy's wife and Guy disposing of Bruno's father. As with "Rope", there was a homosexual subtext to the two men's relationship, although it was toned down from Patricia Highsmith's 1950 original novel. Granger and Walker, whose wife Jennifer Jones had recently left him for David O. Selznick, became close friends and confidantes during filming, and Granger was devastated when Walker died from an accidental combination of alcohol and barbiturates prior to the film's release. It proved to be a box office hit, the first major success of Granger's career, and his "happiest filmmaking experience".


title: Farley Granger

text: On December 31, 1950, Granger picked up close friend Shelley Winters to escort her to Sam Spiegel's traditional New Year's Eve gala. The actress kept him waiting for nearly two hours, and they argued while en route to the party. Once there, they went their separate ways, and Granger met Ava Gardner. The two left to hear Nat King Cole perform at a nearby nightclub and then went to Granger's home, where they began an intense affair that lasted until Gardner began filming "Show Boat" a month later.


title: Farley Granger

text: Having reconciled, Granger and Winters went to New York City, where they audited classes at the Actors Studio and the Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre. Winters subscribed to the concept of method acting, but Granger felt an actor "had to be faithful to the text, not adapt it to some personal sense memory," and their disagreement triggered more arguments. Their plan to pursue individual training programs was disrupted when both were called back to Hollywood. Goldwyn cast Granger in "I Want You", a 1951 drama about the effect the Korean War has on an American family still trying to recover from World War II. Granger thought the screenplay by Irwin Shaw was "not only dull, but felt dated," but welcomed the opportunity to work with Dana Andrews and Dorothy McGuire. Goldwyn expected the film to be as successful as "The Best Years of Our Lives" (1946), but it proved to be as "tepid and old-fashioned" as Granger feared and, opening after cease-fire negotiations with Korea had begun, no longer topical, and it died at the box office. His subsequent projects – a screwball comedy with Winters called "Behave Yourself!" (1951), the "Gift of the Magi" segment of the anthology film "O. Henry's Full House" (1952), and the musical film "Hans Christian Andersen" (1952) – were no more successful. During the filming of the latter, he appeared on set in a Camel commercial.


title: Farley Granger

text: Eager to work with Vincente Minnelli, Granger accepted a role opposite Leslie Caron and Ethel Barrymore in "Mademoiselle", one of three segments in the 1953 MGM film "The Story of Three Loves". The film's producer, Gottfried Reinhardt, also directed the other two segments, and he mercilessly edited "Mademoiselle" in order to give his stories more screen time. Unhappy with the direction his career was taking, Granger sought solace with Shelley Winters, who was separated from Vittorio Gassman, and the two friends resumed their love affair, which at one point nearly had culminated in marriage. Their relationship was complicated, but Granger felt "it works for us."


title: Farley Granger

text: Granger's next project was "Small Town Girl" (1953), a musical with Jane Powell, Ann Miller and Bobby Van. Upon its completion, he bought his release from Goldwyn, a costly decision that left him with serious financial difficulties. Granger was determined to move to Manhattan to study acting and perform on stage, but his agent convinced him to accept a role in "Senso" (1954), directed by Luchino Visconti and co-starring Alida Valli. Filming in Italy lasted nine months, although Granger frequently was idle during this period, allowing him free time to explore Italy and even spend a long weekend in Paris, where he had a brief affair with Jean Marais. During his time in Venice, Granger renewed his friendship with Peggy Guggenheim, whom he had met during his earlier trip to Italy with Arthur Laurents, and he met Mike Todd, who cajoled him into making a cameo appearance as a gondolier in his 1956 epic "Around the World in 80 Days". He finally returned to Hollywood exhausted but happy about the experience.


title: Farley Granger

text: Upon his return to the States, Darryl F. Zanuck offered Granger a two-picture deal, and in quick succession he made "The Girl in the Red Velvet Swing", in which he portrayed tycoon Harry Kendall Thaw, and "The Naked Street", a melodrama the actor thought was "preachy, trite and pedestrian," although he welcomed the opportunity to work with Anthony Quinn and Anne Bancroft. Both films were released in 1955.


title: Farley Granger

text: The same year, Granger moved to New York and began studying with Bob Fosse, Gloria Vanderbilt, James Kirkwood and Tom Tryon in a class taught by Sandy Meisner at the Neighborhood Playhouse. During this period he made his Broadway debut in "The Carefree Tree", a play with music based on an old Chinese legend. The cast included Janice Rule as Granger's love interest and Alvin Ailey, Frances Sternhagen, Jerry Stiller and Sada Thompson in supporting roles. The play closed after only 24 performances, but shortly after its demise Rule moved in with Granger, and before long they were making wedding plans. They gradually realized the love their characters had felt on stage actually had not carried over into real life, and the two went their separate ways, although they remained friends until her death in 2003.


title: Farley Granger

text: With both his film and theatrical career foundering, Granger turned to television. His dramatic TV debut came when he appeared in "Splendid With Swords", an episode of "Schlitz Playhouse of Stars" in 1955. He starred in "Beyond This Place" (1957), an adaptation of the A.J. Cronin 1950 novel of the same title, with Shelley Winters and Peggy Ann Garner, and joined Julie Harris for a 1961 remake of "The Heiress" (1949). He also was featured in episodes of "Climax Mystery Theater", "Ford Television Theatre", "The 20th Century Fox Hour", "Robert Montgomery Presents", "Playhouse 90", "Wagon Train", "Kraft Television Theatre", "The United States Steel Hour", and "The Bell Telephone Hour", and in later years "Get Smart", "Run for Your Life", "Ironside", "The Name of the Game" and "Hawaii Five-O", among others.


title: Farley Granger

text: In 1959, Granger returned to Broadway as Fitzwilliam Darcy opposite Polly Bergen as Elizabeth Bennet in "First Impressions", a musical adaptation of "Pride and Prejudice" with a book and direction by Abe Burrows. The tryout in New Haven was a disaster, and reviews were mixed. Things improved slightly during the Philadelphia run, but by the time the production reached New York, Bergen – who was fighting bitterly with co-star Hermione Gingold – was experiencing serious vocal problems, and some of her songs would be cut during each performance, creating confusion for the rest of the cast. Only two of seven critics wrote favorable reviews, Bergen was replaced by understudy Ellen Hanley, and the musical closed in less than three months. Later that year, he was cast in "The Warm Peninsula", a play by Joe Masteroff. Co-starring Julie Harris, June Havoc and Larry Hagman, it received fair reviews and closed after only 86 performances.


title: Farley Granger

text: Despite his three unsuccessful Broadway experiences, Granger continued to focus on theater in the early 1960s. He accepted an invitation from Eva Le Gallienne to join her National Repertory Theatre. During their first season, while the company was in Philadelphia, John F. Kennedy was assassinated. The President had attended NRT's opening night and post-performance gala in the nation's capital, so the news hit everyone in the company especially hard. Granger had become a close friend of production supervisor Robert Calhoun, and although both had felt a mutual attraction, they never had discussed it. That night they became lovers.


title: Farley Granger

text: Granger finally achieved some success on Broadway in "The Seagull", "The Crucible", "The Glass Menagerie", and "Deathtrap". He starred opposite Barbara Cook in a revival of "The King and I" at the off-Broadway New York City Center, and in 1979 he was cast in the Roundabout Theatre Company production of "A Month in the Country". In 1986 he won the Obie Award for his performance in the Lanford Wilson play "Talley & Son".


title: Farley Granger

text: In the early 1970s, Granger and Calhoun moved to Rome, where the actor made a series of Italian language films, most notably the Spaghetti Western "They Call Me Trinity" (1970) and the thriller film "What Have They Done to Your Daughters?" (1974), alongside Mario Adorf, which was directed by Massimo Dallamano. He appeared in an episode of the ABC police drama "Nakia" in 1974 and also appeared on several soap operas, including "One Life to Live" in 1976, on which his portrayal of Will Vernon garnered him a nomination for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, "The Edge of Night" in 1979, and "As the World Turns" in 1987-1988, produced by Calhoun.


title: Farley Granger

text: Later he appeared in several documentaries discussing Hollywood in general and Alfred Hitchcock in particular. In 1995, he was interviewed on camera for "The Celluloid Closet", discussing the depiction of homosexuality in film and the use of subtext in various films, including his own.


title: Farley Granger

text: In 2003, Granger made his last film appearance in "". In it, he tells the story of leaving Hollywood at the peak of his fame, buying out his contract from Samuel Goldwyn, and moving to Manhattan to work on the Broadway stage.


title: Farley Granger

text: In 2007, Granger published the memoir "Include Me Out", co-written with domestic partner Robert Calhoun (born 24 November 1930). In the book, named after one of Goldwyn's famous malapropisms, he freely discusses his career and personal life.


title: Farley Granger

text: Granger died of natural causes in his Manhattan apartment on March 27, 2011, at age 85. His body was cremated and his ashes given to family after a service at The Riverside restaurant.


title: Farley Granger

text: For his contribution to television, Granger has a star located at 1551 Vine Street on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Electric car use by country varies worldwide, as the adoption of plug-in electric vehicles is affected by consumer demand, market prices, availability of charging infrastructure, and government policies, such as purchase incentives and long term regulatory signals (ZEV mandates, emissions regulations, fuel economy standards, and phase-out of internal combustion engine vehicles).


title: Electric car use by country

text: Plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) are generally divided into all-electric or battery electric vehicles (BEVs), that run only on batteries, and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs), that combine battery power with internal combustion engines. The popularity of electric vehicles has been expanding rapidly due to government subsidies, their increased range and lower battery costs, and environmental sensitivity. However, the stock of plug-in electric cars represented just 1% of all passengers vehicles on the world's roads by the end of 2020, of which pure electrics constituted two-thirds.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Global cumulative sales of highway-legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles reached 1 million units in September 2015, 5 million in December 2018, and passed the 10 million milestone in 2020. By mid-2022, there were over 20 million light-duty plug-in vehicles on the world's roads. Sales of plug-in passenger cars achieved a 9% global market share of new car sales in 2021, up from 4.6% in 2020, and 2.5% in 2019.


title: Electric car use by country

text: The PEV market has been shifting towards fully electric battery vehicles. The global ratio between BEVs and PHEVs went from 56:44 in 2012, to 60:40 in 2015, and rose to 74:26 in 2019. The ratio was to 71:29 in 2021.


title: Electric car use by country

text: , China had the largest stock of highway legal plug-in passenger cars with 10 million units, 46% of the global fleet in use. China also dominates the plug-in light commercial vehicle and electric bus deployment, with its stock reaching over 500,000 buses in 2019, 98% of the global stock, and 247,500 electric light commercial vehicles, 65% of the global fleet.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Europe had about 5.5 million plug-in passenger cars at the end of 2021, accounting for over 32% of the global stock. Europe also has the world's second largest electric light commercial vehicle stock, with about 220,000 vans. , cumulative sales in the United States totaled 2.32 million plug-in cars, with California listed as the largest U.S. plug-in regional market with 1 million plug-in cars sold by November 2021.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Norway has the highest market penetration per capita in the world, and also has the world's largest plug-in segment market share of new car sales, 86.2% in 2021. Over 10% of all passenger cars on Norwegian roads were plug-ins in October 2018, and rose to 22% in 2021.


title: Electric car use by country

text: The global stock of plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) between 2005 and 2009 consisted exclusively of all-electric cars (BEV), totaling about 1,700 units in 2005, and almost 6,000 in 2009. The plug-in stock rose to about 12,500 units in 2010, of which 350 were plug-in hybrids (PHEVs). By comparison, during the of the electric car at the beginning of the 20th century, the EV stock peaked at approximately 30,000 vehicles. After the introduction of the Think City, Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt in late December 2010, the first mass-production plug-in electric cars by major manufacturers, plug-in sales grew to about 50,000 units in 2011, to 125,000 in 2012, and almost 213,000 cars and utility vans in 2013. Sales totaled over 315,000 units in 2014, up 48% from 2013. In March 2014, Norway became the first country where over 1 in every 100 passenger cars on the roads was a plug-in, and, by October 2018, 1 in every 10 passenger cars registered in Norway was a plug-in.


title: Electric car use by country

text: In five years, global sales of highway legal light-duty plug-in vehicles increased more than ten-fold, totaling more than 565,000 units in 2015—an 80% increase from 2014, driven mainly by China and Europe. About 775,000 plug-in electric cars and vans were sold in 2016, and 1.22 million in 2017—up 57% from 2016—with China accounting for about half of global sales. The global market share of the new light-duty plug-in segment reached 1.3% in 2017, up from 0.86% in 2016, and 0.38% in 2014. Global light-duty plug-in vehicle sales passed the 3 million milestone in November 2017 and 5 million at the end 2018. Global sales totaled 2,018,247 plug-in passenger cars in 2018, up 72% from 2017, with a market share of 2.1%. The BEV:PHEV ratio rose to 69:31 in 2018 and to 74:26 in 2019. By the end of 2019 the stock of light-duty plug-in vehicles totaled about 7.5 million units. Worldwide sales in 2019 rose to 2,209,831 units with a global market share of 2.5%. The combined number of PEV and hybrid cars sold in the European Union hit a record in July 2020, accounting for 18% of the total number of passenger cars sold. It also was the first time that more than 200,000 electric cars were sold in a single month.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Albania is considered one of the best countries for emissions for electric cars as it generates all of its electricity from hydroelectric power. Electric cars are currently used by the Albanian Police Force. The Interior Minister claimed, that the cost of fuel per would be less than 120 Albanian leke (less than 1 euro). Saytaxi is the first taxi company in Albania that offers electric vehicles and operates a fast EV (electric vehicles) charging point, and have been operating in the country since 2014. Its goal is to replace 80% of all non-electric cars with electric in the taxi business.


title: Electric car use by country

text: On 31 October 2017, Tirana became one of the few European capital cities to use electric buses when they tested a Solaris Urbino 12, with the purpose of reducing pollution. Tirana's goal is to gradually convert 10 to 20 percent of the bus fleet into electric ones.


title: Electric car use by country

text: The total stock of electric vehicles in Australia is approximately 21,000 as of 2020. In May 2021, electric vehicles accounted for 2% of new car sales in Australia, with approximately 5,000 Tesla vehicles sold in the first half of 2021. However, it has been predicted that approximately 66% of Australians will be driving electric cars by 2030. Moreover, 56% of Australians would consider an electric car when they next bought a vehicle. In early 2020, electric vehicle registrations nearly doubled the registrations of the previous year, showing the rapidly increasing popularity of electric vehicles in Australia.


title: Electric car use by country

text: The Tesla Model 3 is Australia's most popular electric vehicle accounting for 70% of EV sales in 2019.


title: Electric car use by country

text: The Labor-led opposition government in Australia in 2019 proposed a 50% electric vehicle target by 2030. Government analysis in 2019 also forecasted 50% of all new cars sold in Australia by 2035 will be electric on the current path.


title: Electric car use by country

text: The state of Victoria is Australia's most important electric vehicle market with the highest number of electric vehicle purchases in Australia between 2011 and 2017 with a total of 1,324 car sales.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Victoria also manufactures electric vehicles with a commercial electric vehicle manufacturing facility to be established in 2021, producing 2,400 vehicles per year.


title: Electric car use by country

text: In March 2021, the Hyundai Nexo became the first fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) to be released in Australia. Coinciding with the release of the Nexo, the first publicly available hydrogen refuelling station in Australia opened the same day in Canberra.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Despite no federal EV sales target, Victoria aim for 50% of new car sales to be electric vehicles by 2030. The South Australian government also aim for 100% of new car sales to be electric vehicles by 2035.


title: Electric car use by country

text: The NSW Government is also considering an official ban date for the sale of petrol and diesel vehicles.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Nationally, fuel efficient vehicles attract less Luxury Car Tax, leading to a saving of up to $2,648.


title: Electric car use by country

text: ACT offers $15,000 interest free loan Victorian EV drivers pay a reduced rate of stamp duty and $100 off registration fees In ACT BEVs stamp duty exempt and 20% reduction in registration fees with the first 2 years of registration free EVs exempt from stamp duty until 2023 In Tasmania Car rental companies are exempt from registration fees on new and used EVs


title: Electric car use by country

text: The Federal Government pledged to spend $74.5 million on charging infrastructure in the budget in 2021. The Federal Government is also contributing $15 million to a national electric vehicle charging network built by Evie Networks and connecting Melbourne, Canberra, Sydney, Adelaide and Brisbane.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Sales of new battery electric vehicles (BEV) rose from 1677 in 2015 to 6764 in 2018. At the first half of 2019, 4913 new BEV were sold, representing 2.8% of the overall sales.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Sales of electric cars rose from 97 units in 2009, to 116 in 2010, 425 in 2011, to 900 in 2012. Of the latter, only 350 units were sold to individuals. Then, sales of new battery electric vehicles (BEV) rose from 1358 in 2015 to 3647 in 2018. At the first half of 2019, 4601 new BEV were sold, representing 1.5% of the overall sales.


title: Electric car use by country

text: The Belgian government established purchase incentives for BEVs, ending in 2012. Hybrids were not eligible. A separate subsidy supported investments in public charging stations.


title: Electric car use by country

text: , 2,214 hybrid and electric vehicles were registered in the state of São Paulo In March 2013, the first two Leafs were deployed in Rio de Janeiro to operate as taxis. In September 2014 the BMW i3 became the first EV available for retail customers. , other retail plug-ins were the BMW i8 and the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV.


title: Electric car use by country

text: In May 2014 São Paulo City passed a municipal law to exempt EV, hybrids and fuel cell vehicles from the city's driving restriction scheme (see also road space rationing#São Paulo) and purchase incentives.


title: Electric car use by country

text: In April 2018, the city of São José dos Campos ordered 30 electric BYD vehicles for use by the police and government.


title: Electric car use by country

text: In March 2019, Renault released the Zoe in Brazil, and, in April 2019, Jac released the E40 as the cheapest electric car in Brazil, at R$129.990, Nissan announced the Leaf to be released in Brazil in the first half of 2019


title: Electric car use by country

text: There were 560 electric motorbikes and 520 electric cars officially registered in Bulgaria by the end of March 2018. By early 2020 the total number of electric cars in Bulgaria is estimated to be at least 1100. Sales of new battery electric vehicles (BEV) rose from 21 in 2015 to 194 in 2018, with only 6 in 2016. At the first half of 2019, 141 new BEV were sold, representing 0.7% of the overall sales.


title: Electric car use by country

text: The government does not provide grants for buying electric cars, but at least it does not apply road tax to them. Parking electric vehicles in central urban parking zones is free of charge as well.


title: Electric car use by country

text: In 2012, 'green taxi' hybrid cabs went into service in Sofia. In 2017, test electric buses joined the public transport fleet of Sofia and in 2018 and 2019, 35 new electric buses went into service. It is estimated that by 2021, 20% of the bus fleet of Sofia will be electric. Other cities and towns such as Plovdiv, Pernik and Haskovo are also ordering electric buses.


title: Electric car use by country

text: The first car sharing company in Bulgaria Spark.bg uses only electric cars and as of August 2020 it has a fleet of around 500 electric vehicles and over 200 available charging stations in Sofia. Courier company Speedy uses 20 electric Renault Kangoo.


title: Electric car use by country

text: The stock of plug-in electric passenger cars in Canada in use totaled 141,100 units at the end of 2019, consisting of 78,680 all-electric cars and 62,380 plug-in hybrids.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Purchase and other incentives for new EVs are offered by the provinces of Quebec and British Columbia.


title: Electric car use by country

text: In October 2016, Quebec passed legislation that obliges major carmakers to offer an increasing number of PHEV and BEV models, beginning with 3.5% in 2018 and rising to 15.5% in 2020, using a tradable credit system.


title: Electric car use by country

text: , China had the world's largest stock of highway legal plug-in passenger cars with 7.84 million units, corresponding to about 46% of the global plug-in car fleet in use. Of these, all-electric cars accounted for 81.6% of the all new energy passenger cars in circulation. The plug-in car segment achieved a record 15% market share in 2021. Plug-in passenger cars represent 2.6% of all cars on Chinese roads at the end of 2021.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Domestically produced cars dominate new energy car sales in China, accounting for about 96% of sales in 2017. Another particular feature of the Chinese passenger plug-in market is the dominance of small entry level vehicles.


title: Electric car use by country

text: , China also dominated the plug-in light commercial vehicle and electric bus deployment, with its stock reaching over 500,000 buses in 2019, 98% of the global stock, and 247,500 electric light commercial vehicles, 65% of the global fleet. In addition, the country also leads sales of medium- and heavy duty electric trucks, with over 12,000 trucks sold, and nearly all battery electric. Since 2011, cumulative sales of all classes of new energy vehicles (NEV) totaled 7.4 million at the end of September 2021.


title: Electric car use by country

text: The Mitsubishi i-MiEV was the first EV in Chile. The first public quick charging station was opened in April 2011.


title: Electric car use by country

text: In August 2014 Mitsubishi replaced the i-Miev with the Outlander PHEV. Later that year BMW introduced their "i" range with the i3; Renault launched their Zero Emission (Z.E.) lineup, including the Fluence Z.E. sedan, the Kangoo utility van and Zoe city car. The French brand sold 22 electric vehicles in their first month in the Chilean market.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Latin America's first battery electric taxi fleet of 45 vehicles was launched at the beginning of 2013 in Bogotá, the largest electric taxi fleet in South America at the time. These taxis were exempted from the Pico y placa driving restriction scheme. The program is an effort to improve air quality and set an example.


title: Electric car use by country

text: The BMW i3 was introduced in Colombia in 2014. The BEV Renault Twizy quadricycle was introduced in the Colombian market in June 2015 and, , 203 Twizys had been sold. Sales of the Outlander P-HEV were scheduled to begin in September 2015. Sales of other electric vehicles totaled, , 35 Mitsubishi i-MiEVs (purchased by an electricity company), 25 BMW i3s, 19 Renault Kangoos (corporate purchases), and 4 Nissan Leafs (corporate purchases).


title: Electric car use by country

text: In 2013 the government established incentives to promote EV adoption. These include the exemption from the driving restriction scheme in place in Colombian cities such as Bogotá and Medellín. The government exempted BEV and PHEV cars from import duties for three years, with an annual quota of 750 cars of each type.


title: Electric car use by country

text: , Costa Rica had a stock of 2,529 light-duty all-electric vehicles. In addition, the country had a stock of 858 all-electric motorcycles. The fleet of fully electric cars grew from 86 units in 2010 to 200 in 2017. After the approval of the 2018 law that granted import duty and value added tax exemptions, the fleet grew from 398 units in 2018, to 1,484 in 2020, and for the first time, more than 1,000 units were sold in 2021. Plug-in hybrids and conventional hybrid electric vehicles do not have government financial incentives, therefore they are not included in this statistical data.


title: Electric car use by country

text: The first electric car to go on sale in the country was the REVAi, introduced in March 2009. The REVAi, powered by lead–acid batteries, sold 10 units. The Mitsubishi i MiEV was launched in February 2011, with initial availability limited to 25 to 50 units. According to Mitsubishi, Costa Rica was selected at the first market launch in the Americas due to its environmental record, despite the lack of government incentives for purchasing electric cars.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Other all-electric and plug-in hybrid cars introduced early in Costa Rica include the BYD Qin (November 2013), Mitsubishi Outlander (March 2015) and BMW i3 (September 2016).


title: Electric car use by country

text: In 2006 electric cars were exempted from the consumption tax, while conventional vehicles faced a 30% rate.


title: Electric car use by country

text: In October 2012, electric cars were exempted from San José's driving restrictions. EVs were exempted from import duties and the government agreed to deploy charging stations in strategic locations in San José.


title: Electric car use by country

text: In January 2018 went into effect the "Law for the Promotion of Electric Transportation", which promotes the adoption of electric vehicles through the implementation of incentives and tax exemptions when purchasing an all-electric car. The law grants exemption from three taxes: value added, selective consumption and import duties, 100% for electric vehicles price at CIF, and the exempted percentage is reduced gradually as the value goes up, with a cap of . Electric vehicles are also exempt from the annual circulation fee, which phases out by 20% each year during a five-year period.


title: Electric car use by country

text: , 2067 electric cars had been sold in Croatia. Of these, 224 were EVs, while the rest were hybrids. , 201 free public charging stations operated in Croatia.


title: Electric car use by country

text: In 2014 and 2015, the Croatian government initiated purchase incentives. The subsidies were discontinued in 2016, due to ineffectiveness.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Sales of new battery electric vehicles (BEV) rose from 298 in 2015 to 703 in 2018. At the first half of 2019, 360 new BEV were sold, representing 0.3% of the overall sales.


title: Electric car use by country

text: In the late 1980s to early 1990s, a few thousand of the small, one-person and locally produced "Ellert" were sold in Denmark, but relatively few remain today. In the following decade, very few electric cars were sold in Denmark, but a clear increase began around 2010. In 2015, Denmark was the second largest European market for light-duty, plug-in commercial vehicles or utility vans, with over 2,600 plug-in vans sold that year, representing 8.5% of all vans sold. Most vans were plug-in hybrids, accounting for almost all EU plug-in van sales.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Up to and including 2015, electric cars had been exempt from vehicle registration tax, but it was decided that this would be gradually outphased: In 2016, the vehicle registration tax for electric cars was placed at 20% of the normal rate, in 2017 it was planned to increase to 40% and within five years it would become the full rate. This had a large effect on the sale, which drastically fell in 2016–17. As a consequence, it was decided that the increase in vehicle registration tax for electric vehicles would be delayed, being capped at 20% of the normal rate in 2017–19, then gradually increasing until 2023 where it would become the full rate. A new fund for fuel cell vehicles was also started.


title: Electric car use by country

text: In 2020, a new taxation deal was reached, valid for all cars from 2021 to 2030. Its rates depend heavily on the -emission of the car. This means that vehicle registration tax for all-electric cars (BEVs) that cost less than 510,000 DKK (€68,500) will remain very low with a slower than initially planned gradual increase to normal levels, most plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) will increase from 2021 but remain lower than gasoline and diesel cars, and diesel cars will increase. The goal of this plan is to have at least 775,000 electric cars (BEV or PHEV) by 2030. Combined with other plans, it is the goal to have at least 1 million zero-emission or low-emission cars by 2030 and that no new gasoline or diesel cars will be sold in the country from that year.


title: Electric car use by country

text: , there were a total of 2,781,855 registered cars in Denmark, of which more than 5%, or 144,498, are electric (BEV or PHEV).


title: Electric car use by country

text: Estonia was the first country to deploy an EV charging network with nationwide coverage, with fast chargers available along highways at a maximum distance of . , the nationwide network consisted of 165 fast chargers.


title: Electric car use by country

text: In 2011, the government confirmed the sale to Mitsubishi of 10 million carbon dioxide credits in exchange for 507 i-MiEV electric cars. The deal included funding 250 fast charging stations and subsidies for the first 500 private buyers of any electric approved by the EU. The first 50 i-MiEVs were delivered in October 2011, for use by municipal social workers.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Sales of new battery electric vehicles (BEV) rose from 34 in 2015 to 85 in 2018, after a stagnation in 2016 and 2017. At the first half of 2019, 42 new BEV were sold, representing 0.2% of the overall sales.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Estonia's figures are low compared to other advanced economies, attributed to lack of government incentives after the carbon credit scheme was exhausted.


title: Electric car use by country

text: The offer and demand for electric vehicles in the South American nation is reduced. Electric charging stations are present in several shopping malls and public parking in Guayaquil, Quito, Cuenca, Ambato and Loja.


title: Electric car use by country

text: In Ecuador, all electric vehicles are exempt from customs duties and taxes starting in June 2019. The electric vehicle offer in the country is set to increase. The Ecuadorean government has been incentivizing the us of electric vehicles with tax cuts. However, both the offer and demand remained short, encouraging the government to eliminate all duties to electric vehicles.


title: Electric car use by country

text: The first commercially available EV was Kia Soul EV 2016. Being at the moment the brand with the most presence of EV in Ecuador. As of 2021 KIA, BYD and Nissan are among the EV brands offering vehicles for the Ecuadorian market.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Europe had about 5.6 million plug-in electric passenger cars and light commercial vehicles in circulation at the end of 2021. , Europe accounted for 25% of the global stock, the second largest after China. Europe also had the world's second largest electric light commercial vehicle stock after China, with about 220,000 vans.


title: Electric car use by country

text: The 27 Member States of the European Union had 2.24 million plug-in vehicles on the road in 2020, of which plug-in passenger cars represented 94.3%, followed by light commercial vehicles (5.4%), and buses and trucks accounted for 0.3% and 0.03% respectively.


title: Electric car use by country

text: In 2020, and despite the strong decline in global car sales brought by the COVID-19 pandemic, annual sales of plug-in passenger cars in Europe surpassed the 1 million mark for the first time. In addition, Europe outsold China in 2020 as the world's largest plug-in passenger car market for the first time since 2015. In spite of the continued global decline in car sales in 2021 due to the shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic, and the global computer chip shortage, plug-in car sales rose to 2.27 million, up 66% from 2020.


title: Electric car use by country

text: The plug-in car segment had a market share of 1.3% of new car registrations in 2016, rose to 3.6% in 2019, climbed to 11.4% in 2020, and achieved 19% in 2021. , Germany has the largest stock of plug-ins in Europe, with cumulative sales of 1.38 million plug-in cars registered since 2010, followed by France (786,274), the UK (~745,000), Norway (647,000), and the Netherlands (360,000). Germany listed as the top selling European country market since 2019.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Sales of new battery electric vehicles (BEV) rose from 243 in 2015 to 776 in 2018. At the first half of 2019, 995 new BEV were sold, representing 1.7% of the overall sales.


title: Electric car use by country

text: In November 2016, the government set the goal of 250,000 plug-in cars and 50,000 biogas cars on the road by 2030. These goals are part of the Finnish government efforts to comply with the 2015 Paris Agreement.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Basic charging infrastructure is available all over Finland, used for winter engine pre-warming. Because of its climate – cold winters and warm summers – Finland is considered a convenient "test laboratory" for electric cars.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Many companies in Finland are involved in next-generation vehicle manufacturing, including Valmet Automotive, Fortum (concept cars and infrastructure), Vacon (electric motor technology production), Ensto (production of charging units), Elcat (electric vehicle production since the 1980s), Raceabout (specialist electric sport car with very few sales).


title: Electric car use by country

text: Research related to electric cars is in progress at the VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland and Tekes.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Electric car organizations in Finland include the Electric Vehicle Association of Finland and Electric Vehicles Finland. A non-commercial electric car conversion organization is called "Electric Cars – Now!" that converts Toyota Corollas into Li-ion battery-powered electric cars.


title: Electric car use by country

text: , a total of 786,274 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles have been registered in France since 2010, consisting of 512,178 all-electric passenger cars and commercial vans, and 274,096 plug-in hybrids. Of these, around 60,000 were fully electric light commercial vehicles.


title: Electric car use by country

text: A record of 315,978 light-duty plug-in vehicles were registered in 2021, up 62% from 2020, and the light-duty segment's market share rose to 15.1% in 2021. The plug-in electric passenger car segment achieved a market share of 18.3% in 2021.


title: Electric car use by country

text: The stock of plug-in electric vehicles in Germany is the largest in Europe, there were 1,184,416 plug-in cars in circulation on 1 January 2022, representing 2.5% of all passenger cars on German roads, up from 1.2% the previous year. , cumulative sales totaled 1.38 million plug-in passenger cars since 2010. Germany had a stock of 21,890 light-duty electric commercial vehicles in 2019, the second largest in Europe after France. , the country had 27,730 public charging stations.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Germany listed as the top selling plug-in car market in the European continent in 2019 and achieved a market share of 3.10%. Despite the global decline in car sales brought by the COVID-19 pandemic, the segment market share achieved a record 13.6% in 2020. with a record volume of 394,632 plug-in passenger cars registered in 2020, up 263% from 2019, Germany listed for a second year running as the best selling European plug-in market. Both years, the German market led both the fully electric and plug-in hybrid segments. The only country that outsold Germany in 2020 was China. Sales in 2021 surged to 681,410 rechargeable units, capturing a record market share of 26.0%.


title: Electric car use by country

text: Under its National Platform for Electric Mobility, Chancellor Angela Merkel in 2010 set the goal of putting one million electric vehicles on German roads by 2020. Initially, the government did not provide subsidies in favor of research. The Bundestag passed the Electric Mobility Act in March 2015 that authorized local government to grant non-monetary incentives. The measures privilege battery-powered cars, fuel cell vehicles and some PHEVs, by granting local governments the authority to offer additional incentives.


title: Electric car use by country

text: An incentive scheme was approved in April 2016 including purchase subsidies, charging stations and another federal government fleet purchases, with a target of 400,000 electric vehicles. Premium cars, such as the Tesla Model S and BMW i8, were not eligible. In order to meet the climate targets for the transport sector, in 2016 the government set the goal to have from 7 to 10 million plug-in electric cars on the road by 2030, and 1 million charging points available in Germany also by 2030.