title: Frank Vogel

text: Vogel grew up in Wildwood Crest, New Jersey. During his eighth grade year, he was featured in an episode of "Late Night with David Letterman" during the Stupid Human Tricks segment, in which he spun a basketball on a toothbrush while brushing his teeth.


title: Frank Vogel

text: On December 10, 1990, Vogel's childhood home caught fire and everything in the house was destroyed. Vogel, who was 17 years old at the time, and his mother—the only two people in the house at the time—escaped out of a window.


title: Frank Vogel

text: At Juniata College in Huntingdon, Pennsylvania, Vogel was a starter for the Division III basketball team.


title: Frank Vogel

text: In 1994, Vogel transferred to the University of Kentucky. Vogel served as the student manager for the Kentucky Wildcats men's team under head coach Rick Pitino in the 1994–95 season. The following season, Pitino resurrected the school's junior varsity team, and Vogel played for them. Vogel graduated from Kentucky with a B.S. in biology in 1998.


title: Frank Vogel

text: Vogel began his career as the head video coordinator for the Boston Celtics under head coach Rick Pitino. He retained that position for five years before being promoted to assistant coach in the 2001–02 season.


title: Frank Vogel

text: After coaching with Boston, Vogel went on to become an assistant for the Philadelphia 76ers. Vogel left the 76ers to become an advance scout for the Los Angeles Lakers from 2005 to 2006 and the Washington Wizards from 2006 to 2007.


title: Frank Vogel

text: On January 30, 2011, after O'Brien was fired from his head coaching position, Vogel was named interim coach. As interim coach, Vogel led the Pacers to the playoffs for the first time since 2006. Vogel was officially named as the Pacers' head coach on July 6, 2011.


title: Frank Vogel

text: Shortly before the Indiana Pacers were to take on the Miami Heat in the 2012 Eastern Conference semifinals, Vogel criticized his opponents for alleged flopping: "They are the biggest flopping team in the NBA. It'll be very interesting (to see) how the referees officiate the series and how much flopping they reward... Every drive to the basket, they have guys not making a play on the ball, but sliding in front of drivers. Often times they're falling down even before contact is even being made. It'll be interesting to see how the series is officiated." He was fined $15,000 by the league for these remarks.


title: Frank Vogel

text: On April 7, 2013, the Pacers clinched their first Central Division title since the 2003–04 season. They finished the 2012–13 season with a 49–32 record, clinching the third seed in the Eastern Conference. After defeating both the Atlanta Hawks and the New York Knicks in six games, the Pacers went on to face the Miami Heat in the Eastern Conference Finals. In Game 1, the Pacers were defeated by the Heat 103–102 in overtime after LeBron James drove by Paul George for a wide-open layup with 2.2 seconds left on the clock. Vogel was roundly criticized for leaving the Pacers' primary defender, Roy Hibbert, on the bench during the final play. Vogel said that he made that decision out of concern of Chris Bosh and acknowledged that he might do it differently next time. In a back-and-forth series where neither team won consecutive games, the Pacers lost in seven games.


title: Frank Vogel

text: On January 14, 2014, Vogel was named the Eastern Conference head coach for the 2014 NBA All-Star Game. He had guided the team to their best start in franchise history, en route to a 56–26 record, good for first in the Eastern Conference. However, for the second consecutive year, the Pacers lost to the Miami Heat in the Conference Finals.


title: Frank Vogel

text: Vogel signed a two-year contract extension with the Indiana Pacers, to keep him through 2016. With Paul George missing all but six games of the season due to injury, the Pacers just missed the playoffs due to tiebreakers with the Brooklyn Nets. Vogel brought the team back to the playoffs with a retooled and rejuvenated roster the following season, however they fell to the Toronto Raptors in seven games in the first round.


title: Frank Vogel

text: On May 5, 2016, following the loss to the Raptors, Pacers' president Larry Bird announced that Vogel's contract would not be renewed, citing a need for "a new voice" to lead the players. He departed Indiana as the franchise's all-time leader in NBA wins (Bobby "Slick" Leonard has the most total victories as the Pacers' head coach, with the majority coming in the ABA).


title: Frank Vogel

text: On May 20, 2016, Vogel was named the head coach of the Orlando Magic. He oversaw a young, developing team and dealt with a change in the front office after his first year when Rob Hennigan, the general manager who hired him, was replaced with John Hammond. He went 54–110, missing the playoffs both seasons. On April 12, 2018, Vogel was fired by the Magic after the conclusion of the 2017–18 season.


title: Frank Vogel

text: On May 13, 2019, Vogel was named the head coach of the Los Angeles Lakers. In his first season in 2019–20, the Lakers developed into one of the league's top defensive teams. He led the team to a 52–19 record and an NBA championship, having the best record in the Western Conference and third-best record in the league. Vogel was named a head coach of 2020 NBA All-Star Game due to the Lakers holding the best record in the West. In the playoffs, the Lakers defeated the Portland Trail Blazers, Houston Rockets, and Denver Nuggets in five games each. In the 2020 NBA Finals, they beat the Miami Heat in six games to claim the 17th NBA title in Lakers' history, tying Boston for the most championships. The team spent over 100 days in the NBA bubble after the season resumed from its four-month suspension due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Frank Vogel

text: In his second season, the Lakers finished with a 42–30 record as Anthony Davis and LeBron James sustained injuries throughout the season. Training camp began 71 days after the end of the NBA Finals, the shortest NBA offseason ever. The Lakers were 21–6 when Davis injured his Achilles, which sidelined him for 30 games. They advanced from the play-in tournament and made the playoffs as the No. 7 seed, but were eliminated in the first round by the eventual Western Conference champion Phoenix Suns in six games.


title: Frank Vogel

text: After trading for Russell Westbrook, the Lakers entered the 2021–22 season as the favorites to win the conference. Vogel used 41 different starting lineups, as James and Davis again missed significant time to injuries. The Lakers finished 11th in the Western Conference with a 33–49 record and missed the playoffs. On April 11, 2022, Vogel was fired by the Lakers. He went 127–98 in three seasons.


title: Horizon

text: The horizon is the apparent line that separates the surface of a celestial body from its sky when viewed from the perspective of an observer on or near the surface of the relevant body. This line divides all viewing directions based on whether it intersects the relevant body's surface or not.


title: Horizon

text: The "true horizon" is a theoretical line, which can only be observed to any degree of accuracy when it lies along a relatively smooth surface such as that of Earth's oceans. At many locations, this line is obscured by terrain, and on Earth it can also be obscured by life forms such as trees and/or human constructs such as buildings. The resulting intersection of such obstructions with the sky is called the "visible horizon". On Earth, when looking at a sea from a shore, the part of the sea closest to the horizon is called the offing.


title: Horizon

text: The true horizon surrounds the observer and it is typically assumed to be a circle, drawn on the surface of a perfectly spherical model of the relevant celestial body. With respect to Earth, the center of the true horizon is below the observer and below sea level. Its distance from the observer varies from day to day due to atmospheric refraction, which is greatly affected by weather conditions. Also, the higher the observer's eyes are from sea level, the farther away the horizon is from the observer. For instance, in standard atmospheric conditions, for an observer with eye level above sea level by , the horizon is at a distance of about .


title: Horizon

text: When observed from very high standpoints, such as a space station, the horizon is much farther away and it encompasses a much larger area of Earth's surface. In this case, the horizon would no longer be a perfect circle, not even a plane curve such as an ellipse, especially when the observer is above the equator, as the Earth's surface can be better modeled as an ellipsoid than as a sphere.


title: Horizon

text: The word "horizon" derives from the Greek () 'separating circle', where is from the verb ὁρίζω () 'to divide, to separate', which in turn derives from () 'boundary, landmark'.


title: Horizon

text: Historically, the distance to the visible horizon has long been vital to survival and successful navigation, especially at sea, because it determined an observer's maximum range of vision and thus of communication, with all the obvious consequences for safety and the transmission of information that this range implied. This importance lessened with the development of the radio and the telegraph, but even today, when flying an aircraft under visual flight rules, a technique called attitude flying is used to control the aircraft, where the pilot uses the visual relationship between the aircraft's nose and the horizon to control the aircraft. Pilots can also retain their spatial orientation by referring to the horizon.


title: Horizon

text: In many contexts, especially perspective drawing, the curvature of the Earth is disregarded and the horizon is considered the theoretical line to which points on any horizontal plane converge (when projected onto the picture plane) as their distance from the observer increases. For observers near sea level, the difference between this "geometrical horizon" (which assumes a perfectly flat, infinite ground plane) and the "true horizon" (which assumes a spherical Earth surface) is imperceptible to the unaided eye. However, for someone on a hill looking out across the sea, the true horizon will be about a degree below a horizontal line.


title: Horizon

text: In astronomy, the horizon is the horizontal plane through the eyes of the observer. It is the fundamental plane of the horizontal coordinate system, the locus of points that have an altitude of zero degrees. While similar in ways to the geometrical horizon, in this context a horizon may be considered to be a plane in space, rather than a line on a picture plane.


title: Horizon

text: Ignoring the effect of atmospheric refraction, distance to the true horizon from an observer close to the Earth's surface is about


title: Horizon

text: On terrestrial planets and other solid celestial bodies with negligible atmospheric effects, the distance to the horizon for a "standard observer" varies as the square root of the planet's radius. Thus, the horizon on Mercury is 62% as far away from the observer as it is on Earth, on Mars the figure is 73%, on the Moon the figure is 52%, on Mimas the figure is 18%, and so on.


title: Horizon

text: If the Earth is assumed to be a featureless sphere (rather than an oblate spheroid) with no atmospheric refraction, then the distance to the horizon can easily be calculated.


title: Horizon

text: At the horizon, the line of sight is a tangent to the Earth and is also perpendicular to Earth's radius.


title: Horizon

text: If the observer is close to the surface of the earth, then it is valid to disregard "h" in the term , and the formula becomes-


title: Horizon

text: Using kilometres for "d" and "R", and metres for "h", and taking the radius of the Earth as 6371 km, the distance to the horizon is


title: Horizon

text: Using imperial units, with "d" and "R" in statute miles (as commonly used on land), and "h" in feet, the distance to the horizon is


title: Horizon

text: If "d" is in nautical miles, and "h" in feet, the constant factor is about 1.06, which is close enough to 1 that it is often ignored, giving:


title: Horizon

text: These formulas may be used when "h" is much smaller than the radius of the Earth (6371 km or 3959 mi), including all views from any mountaintops, airplanes, or high-altitude balloons. With the constants as given, both the metric and imperial formulas are precise to within 1% (see the next section for how to obtain greater precision).


title: Horizon

text: If "h" is significant with respect to "R", as with most satellites, then the approximation is no longer valid, and the exact formula is required.


title: Horizon

text: Another relationship involves the great-circle distance "s" along the arc over the curved surface of the Earth to the horizon; with "γ" in radians,


title: Horizon

text: The distance "s" can also be expressed in terms of the line-of-sight distance "d"; from the second figure at the right,


title: Horizon

text: The distances "d" and "s" are nearly the same when the height of the object is negligible compared to the radius (that is, "h" ≪ "R").


title: Horizon

text: When the observer is elevated, the horizon zenith angle can be greater than 90°. The maximum visible zenith angle occurs when the ray is tangent to Earth's surface; from triangle OCG in the figure at right,


title: Horizon

text: where formula_21 is the observer's height above the surface and formula_22 is the angular dip of the horizon. It is related to the horizon zenith angle formula_23 by:


title: Horizon

text: To compute the greatest distance at which an observer can see the top of an object above the horizon, compute the distance to the horizon for a hypothetical observer on top of that object, and add it to the real observer's distance to the horizon. For example, for an observer with a height of 1.70 m standing on the ground, the horizon is 4.65 km away. For a tower with a height of 100 m, the horizon distance is 35.7 km. Thus an observer on a beach can see the top of the tower as long as it is not more than 40.35 km away. Conversely, if an observer on a boat () can just see the tops of trees on a nearby shore (), the trees are probably about 16 km away.


title: Horizon

text: Referring to the figure at the right, the top of the lighthouse will be visible to a lookout in a crow's nest at the top of a mast of the boat if


title: Horizon

text: As another example, suppose an observer, whose eyes are two metres above the level ground, uses binoculars to look at a distant building which he knows to consist of thirty storeys, each 3.5 metres high. He counts the storeys he can see, and finds there are only ten. So twenty storeys or 70 metres of the building are hidden from him by the curvature of the Earth. From this, he can calculate his distance from the building:


title: Horizon

text: It is similarly possible to calculate how much of a distant object is visible above the horizon. Suppose an observer's eye is 10 metres above sea level, and he is watching a ship that is 20 km away. His horizon is:


title: Horizon

text: kilometres from him, which comes to about 11.3 kilometres away. The ship is a further 8.7 km away. The height of a point on the ship that is just visible to the observer is given by:


title: Horizon

text: which comes to almost exactly six metres. The observer can therefore see that part of the ship that is more than six metres above the level of the water. The part of the ship that is below this height is hidden from him by the curvature of the Earth. In this situation, the ship is said to be hull-down.


title: Horizon

text: Due to atmospheric refraction the distance to the visible horizon is further than the distance based on a simple geometric calculation. If the ground (or water) surface is colder than the air above it, a cold, dense layer of air forms close to the surface, causing light to be refracted downward as it travels, and therefore, to some extent, to go around the curvature of the Earth. The reverse happens if the ground is hotter than the air above it, as often happens in deserts, producing mirages. As an approximate compensation for refraction, surveyors measuring distances longer than 100 meters subtract 14% from the calculated curvature error and ensure lines of sight are at least 1.5 metres from the ground, to reduce random errors created by refraction.


title: Horizon

text: If the Earth were an airless world like the Moon, the above calculations would be accurate. However, Earth has an atmosphere of air, whose density and refractive index vary considerably depending on the temperature and pressure. This makes the air refract light to varying extents, affecting the appearance of the horizon. Usually, the density of the air just above the surface of the Earth is greater than its density at greater altitudes. This makes its refractive index greater near the surface than at higher altitudes, which causes light that is travelling roughly horizontally to be refracted downward. This makes the actual distance to the horizon greater than the distance calculated with geometrical formulas. With standard atmospheric conditions, the difference is about 8%. This changes the factor of 3.57, in the metric formulas used above, to about 3.86. For instance, if an observer is standing on seashore, with eyes 1.70 m above sea level, according to the simple geometrical formulas given above the horizon should be 4.7 km away. Actually, atmospheric refraction allows the observer to see 300 metres farther, moving the true horizon 5 km away from the observer.


title: Horizon

text: This correction can be, and often is, applied as a fairly good approximation when atmospheric conditions are close to standard. When conditions are unusual, this approximation fails. Refraction is strongly affected by temperature gradients, which can vary considerably from day to day, especially over water. In extreme cases, usually in springtime, when warm air overlies cold water, refraction can allow light to follow the Earth's surface for hundreds of kilometres. Opposite conditions occur, for example, in deserts, where the surface is very hot, so hot, low-density air is below cooler air. This causes light to be refracted upward, causing mirage effects that make the concept of the horizon somewhat meaningless. Calculated values for the effects of refraction under unusual conditions are therefore only approximate. Nevertheless, attempts have been made to calculate them more accurately than the simple approximation described above.


title: Horizon

text: Outside the visual wavelength range, refraction will be different. For radar (e.g. for wavelengths 300 to 3 mm i.e. frequencies between 1 and 100 GHz) the radius of the Earth may be multiplied by 4/3 to obtain an effective radius giving a factor of 4.12 in the metric formula i.e. the radar horizon will be 15% beyond the geometrical horizon or 7% beyond the visual. The 4/3 factor is not exact, as in the visual case the refraction depends on atmospheric conditions.


title: Horizon

text: where "R" is the radius of the Earth, "ψ" is the dip of the horizon and "δ" is the refraction of the horizon. The dip is determined fairly simply from


title: Horizon

text: where "h" is the observer's height above the Earth, "μ" is the index of refraction of air at the observer's height, and "μ" is the index of refraction of air at Earth's surface.


title: Horizon

text: where formula_34 is the angle between the ray and a line through the center of the Earth. The angles "ψ" and formula_34 are related by


title: Horizon

text: A much simpler approach, which produces essentially the same results as the first-order approximation described above, uses the geometrical model but uses a radius . The distance to the horizon is then


title: Horizon

text: Results from Young's method are quite close to those from Sweer's method, and are sufficiently accurate for many purposes.


title: Horizon

text: From a point above Earth's surface, the horizon appears slightly convex; it is a circular arc. The following formula expresses the basic geometrical relationship between this visual curvature formula_40, the altitude formula_21, and Earth's radius formula_42:


title: Horizon

text: The curvature is the reciprocal of the curvature angular radius in radians. A curvature of 1.0 appears as a circle of an angular radius of 57.3° corresponding to an altitude of approximately above Earth's surface. At an altitude of , the cruising altitude of a typical airliner, the mathematical curvature of the horizon is about 0.056, the same curvature of the rim of circle with a radius of 10 m that is viewed from 56 cm directly above the center of the circle. However, the apparent curvature is less than that due to refraction of light by the atmosphere and the obscuration of the horizon by high cloud layers that reduce the altitude above the visual surface.


title: Horizon

text: The horizon is a key feature of the picture plane in the science of graphical perspective. Assuming the picture plane stands vertical to ground, and "P" is the perpendicular projection of the eye point "O" on the picture plane, the horizon is defined as the horizontal line through "P". The point "P" is the vanishing point of lines perpendicular to the picture. If "S" is another point on the horizon, then it is the vanishing point for all lines parallel to "OS". But Brook Taylor (1719) indicated that the horizon plane determined by "O" and the horizon was like any other plane:


title: Horizon

text: The peculiar geometry of perspective where parallel lines converge in the distance, stimulated the development of projective geometry which posits a point at infinity where parallel lines meet. In her book "Geometry of an Art" (2007), Kirsti Andersen described the evolution of perspective drawing and science up to 1800, noting that vanishing points need not be on the horizon. In a chapter titled "Horizon", John Stillwell recounted how projective geometry has led to incidence geometry, the modern abstract study of line intersection. Stillwell also ventured into foundations of mathematics in a section titled "What are the Laws of Algebra ?" The "algebra of points", originally given by Karl von Staudt deriving the axioms of a field was deconstructed in the twentieth century, yielding a wide variety of mathematical possibilities. Stillwell states


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: Nuclear marine propulsion is propulsion of a ship or submarine with heat provided by a nuclear reactor. The power plant heats water to produce steam for a turbine used to turn the ship's propeller through a gearbox or through an electric generator and motor. Nuclear propulsion is used primarily within naval warships such as nuclear submarines and supercarriers. A small number of experimental civil nuclear ships have been built.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: Compared to oil- or coal-fuelled ships, nuclear propulsion offers the advantages of very long intervals of operation before refueling. All the fuel is contained within the nuclear reactor, so no cargo or supplies space is taken up by fuel, nor is space taken up by exhaust stacks or combustion air intakes. However, the low fuel cost is offset by high operating costs and investment in infrastructure, so nearly all nuclear-powered vessels are military.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: Most naval nuclear reactors are of the pressurized water type, with the exception of a few attempts at using liquid sodium-cooled reactors. A primary water circuit transfers heat generated from nuclear fission in the fuel to a steam generator; this water is kept under pressure so it does not boil. This circuit operates at a temperature of around . Any radioactive contamination in the primary water is confined. Water is circulated by pumps; at lower power levels, reactors designed for submarines may rely on natural circulation of the water to reduce noise generated by the pumps.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: The hot water from the reactor heats a separate water circuit in the steam generator. That water is converted to steam and passes through steam driers on its way to the steam turbine. Spent steam at low pressure runs through a condenser cooled by seawater and returns to liquid form. The water is pumped back to the steam generator and continues the cycle. Any water lost in the process can be made up by desalinated sea water added to the steam generator feed water.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: In the turbine, the steam expands and reduces its pressure as it imparts energy to the rotating blades of the turbine. There may be many stages of rotating blades and fixed guide vanes. The output shaft of the turbine may be connected to a gearbox to reduce rotation speed, then a shaft connects to the vessel's propellers. In another form of drive system, the turbine turns an electrical generator, and the electric power produced is fed to one or more drive motors for the vessel's propellers. The Russian, U.S. and British navies rely on direct steam turbine propulsion, while French and Chinese ships use the turbine to generate electricity for propulsion (turbo-electric transmission).


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: Some nuclear submarines have a single reactor, but Russian submarines have two, and so had . Most American aircraft carriers are powered by two reactors, but had eight. The majority of marine reactors are of the pressurized water type, although the U.S. and Soviet navies have designed warships powered with liquid metal cooled reactors.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: While land-based reactors in nuclear power plants produce up to around 1600 megawatts of net electrical power (the nameplate capacity of the EPR), a typical marine propulsion reactor produces no more than a few hundred megawatts. Some small modular reactors (SMR) are similar to marine propulsion reactors in capacity and some design considerations and thus nuclear marine propulsion (whether civilian or military) is sometimes proposed as an additional market niche for SMRs. Unlike for land-based applications where hundreds of acres can be occupied by installations like Bruce Nuclear Generating Station, at sea tight space limits dictate that a marine reactor must be physically small, so it must generate higher power per unit of space. This means its components are subject to greater stresses than those of a land-based reactor. Its mechanical systems must operate flawlessly under the adverse conditions encountered at sea, including vibration and the pitching and rolling of a ship operating in rough seas. Reactor shutdown mechanisms cannot rely on gravity to drop control rods into place as in a land-based reactor that always remains upright. Salt water corrosion is an additional problem that complicates maintenance.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: As the core of a seagoing reactor is much smaller than a power reactor, the probability of a neutron intersecting with a fissionable nucleus before it escapes into the shielding is much lower. As such, the fuel is typically more highly enriched (i.e., contains a higher concentration of U vs. U) than that used in a land-based nuclear power plant, which increases the probability of fission to the level where a sustained reaction can occur. Some marine reactors run on relatively low-enriched uranium which requires more frequent refueling. Others run on highly enriched uranium, varying from 20% U, to the over 96% U found in U.S. submarines, in which the resulting smaller core is quieter in operation (a big advantage to a submarine). Using more-highly enriched fuel also increases the reactor's power density and extends the usable life of the nuclear fuel load, but is more expensive and a greater risk to nuclear proliferation than less-highly enriched fuel.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: A marine nuclear propulsion plant must be designed to be highly reliable and self-sufficient, requiring minimal maintenance and repairs, which might have to be undertaken many thousands of miles from its home port. One of the technical difficulties in designing fuel elements for a seagoing nuclear reactor is the creation of fuel elements that will withstand a large amount of radiation damage. Fuel elements may crack over time and gas bubbles may form. The fuel used in marine reactors is a metal-zirconium alloy rather than the ceramic UO (uranium dioxide) often used in land-based reactors. Marine reactors are designed for long core life, enabled by the relatively high enrichment of the uranium and by incorporating a "burnable poison" in the fuel elements, which is slowly depleted as the fuel elements age and become less reactive. The gradual dissipation of the "nuclear poison" increases the reactivity of the core to compensate for the lessening reactivity of the aging fuel elements, thereby extending the usable life of the fuel. The compact reactor pressure vessel is provided with an internal neutron shield, which reduces the damage to the steel from constant neutron bombardment.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: Decommissioning nuclear-powered submarines has become a major task for U.S. and Russian navies. After defuelling, U.S. practice is to cut the reactor section from the vessel for disposal in shallow land burial as low-level waste (see the "ship-submarine recycling program"). In Russia, whole vessels, or sealed reactor sections, typically remain stored afloat, although a new facility near Sayda Bay is to provide storage in a concrete-floored facility on land for some submarines in the far north.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: Russia built a floating nuclear power plant for its far eastern territories. The design has two 35 MWe units based on the KLT-40 reactor used in icebreakers (with refueling every four years). Some Russian naval vessels have been used to supply electricity for domestic and industrial use in remote far eastern and Siberian towns.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: In 2010, Lloyd's Register was investigating the possibility of civilian nuclear marine propulsion and rewriting draft rules (see text under "Merchant Ships").


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: Insurance of nuclear vessels is not like the insurance of conventional ships. The consequences of an accident could span national boundaries, and the magnitude of possible damage is beyond the capacity of private insurers. A special international agreement, the "Brussels Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships", developed in 1962, would have made signatory national governments liable for accidents caused by nuclear vessels under their flag but was never ratified owing to disagreement on the inclusion of warships under the convention. Nuclear reactors under United States jurisdiction are insured by the provisions of the Price–Anderson Act.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: By 1990, there were more nuclear reactors powering ships (mostly military) than there were generating electric power in commercial power plants worldwide.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: Under the direction of U.S. Navy Captain (later Admiral) Hyman G. Rickover, the design, development and production of nuclear marine propulsion plants started in the United States in the 1940s. The first prototype naval reactor was constructed and tested at the Naval Reactor Facility at the National Reactor Testing Station in Idaho (now called the Idaho National Laboratory) in 1953.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: The first nuclear submarine, , put to sea in 1955 (SS was a traditional designation for U.S. submarines, while SSN denoted the first "nuclear" submarine).


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: The Soviet Union also developed nuclear submarines. The first types developed were the Project 627, NATO-designated with two water-cooled reactors, the first of which, K-3 "Leninsky Komsomol", was underway under nuclear power in 1958.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: Nuclear power revolutionized the submarine, finally making it a true "underwater" vessel, rather than a "submersible" craft, which could only stay underwater for limited periods. It gave the submarine the ability to operate submerged at high speeds, comparable to those of surface vessels, for unlimited periods, dependent only on the endurance of its crew. To demonstrate this was the first vessel to execute a submerged circumnavigation of the Earth (Operation Sandblast), doing so in 1960.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: "Nautilus", with a pressurized water reactor (PWR), led to the parallel development of other submarines like a unique liquid metal cooled (sodium) reactor in , or two reactors in "Triton", and then the s, powered by single reactors, and a cruiser, , in 1961, powered by two reactors.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: By 1962, the United States Navy had 26 operational nuclear submarines and another 30 under construction. Nuclear power had revolutionized the Navy. The United States shared its technology with the United Kingdom, while French, Soviet, Indian and Chinese development proceeded separately.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: After the "Skate"-class vessels, U.S. submarines were powered by a series of standardized, single-reactor designs built by Westinghouse and General Electric. Rolls-Royce plc built similar units for Royal Navy submarines, eventually developing a modified version of their own, the PWR-2 (pressurized water reactor).


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: The largest nuclear submarines ever built are the 26,500 tonne Russian . The smallest nuclear warships to date are the 2,700 tonne French attack submarines. The U.S. Navy operated an unarmed nuclear submarine, the NR-1 Deep Submergence Craft, between 1969 and 2008, which was not a combat vessel but was the smallest nuclear-powered submarine at 400 tons.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: The French Navy operates one carrier equipped with catapults and arresters. The is a 42,000 tonne nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, commissioned in 2001 and is the flagship of the French Navy (Marine Nationale). The ship carries a complement of Dassault Rafale M and E‑2C Hawkeye aircraft, EC725 Caracal and AS532 Cougar helicopters for combat search and rescue, as well as modern electronics and Aster missiles.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: The "Kirov" class, Soviet designation 'Project 1144 Orlan' (sea eagle), is a class of nuclear-powered guided-missile cruisers of the Soviet Navy and Russian Navy, the largest and heaviest surface combatant warships (i.e. not an aircraft carrier or amphibious assault ship) in operation in the world. Among modern warships, they are second in size only to large aircraft carriers, and of similar size to a World War II era battleships. The Soviet classification of the ship-type is "heavy nuclear-powered guided missile cruiser" (). The ships are often referred to as battlecruisers by Western defence commentators due to their size and general appearance.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: The United States Navy at one time had nuclear-powered cruisers as part of its fleet. The first such ship was USS "Long Beach" (CGN-9). Commissioned in 1961, she was the world's first nuclear-powered surface combatant. She was followed a year later by USS "Bainbridge" (DLGN-25). While "Long Beach" was designed and built as a cruiser, "Bainbridge" began life as a frigate, though at that time the Navy was using the hull code "DLGN" for "destroyer leader, guided missile, nuclear".


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: The last nuclear-powered cruisers the Americans would produce would be the four-ship . was commissioned in 1976, followed by in 1977, in 1978 and finally in 1980. Ultimately, all these ships proved to be too costly to maintain and they were all retired between 1993 and 1999.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: SSV-33 Ural ("ССВ-33 Урал"; NATO reporting name: "Kapusta" <nowiki>[</nowiki>Russian for "cabbage"]) was a command and control naval ship operated by the Soviet Navy. "SSV-33"s hull was derived from that of the nuclear-powered s with nuclear marine propulsion. "SSV-33" served in electronic intelligence, missile tracking, space tracking, and communications relay roles. Due to high operating costs, "SSV-33" was laid up.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: "SSV-33" carried only light defensive weapons. These were two AK-176 76 mm guns, four AK-630 30 mm guns, and four quadruple Igla missile mounts.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: The Poseidon (, "Poseidon", NATO reporting name Kanyon), previously known by Russian codename Status-6 (), is a nuclear-powered and nuclear-armed unmanned underwater vehicle under development by Rubin Design Bureau, capable of delivering both conventional and nuclear payloads. According to Russian state TV, it is able to deliver a thermonuclear cobalt bomb of up to 200 megatonnes (four times as powerful as the most powerful device ever detonated, the Tsar Bomba, and twice its maximum theoretical yield) against an enemy's naval ports and coastal cities.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: The following are ships that are or were in commercial or civilian use and have nuclear marine propulsion.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: Nuclear-powered civil merchant ships have not developed beyond a few experimental ships. The U.S.-built , completed in 1962, was primarily a demonstration of civil nuclear power and was too small and expensive to operate economically as a merchant ship. The design was too much of a compromise, being neither an efficient freighter nor a viable passenger liner. The German-built , completed in 1968, a cargo ship and research facility, sailed some on 126 voyages over 10 years without any technical problems. However, it proved too expensive to operate and was converted to diesel. The Japanese , completed in 1972, was dogged by technical and political problems. Its reactor had significant radiation leakage and fishermen protested against the vessel's operation. All of these three ships used low-enriched uranium. "Sevmorput", a Soviet and later Russian LASH carrier with icebreaking capability, has operated successfully on the Northern Sea Route since it was commissioned in 1988. , it is the only nuclear-powered merchant ship in service.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: Civilian nuclear ships suffer from the costs of specialized infrastructure. The "Savannah" was expensive to operate since it was the only vessel using its specialized nuclear shore staff and servicing facility. A larger fleet could share fixed costs among more operating vessels, reducing operating costs.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: Despite this, there is still interest in nuclear propulsion. In November 2010 British Maritime Technology and Lloyd's Register embarked upon a two-year study with U.S.-based Hyperion Power Generation (now Gen4 Energy), and the Greek ship operator Enterprises Shipping and Trading SA to investigate the practical maritime applications for small modular reactors. The research intended to produce a concept tanker-ship design, based on a 70 MWt reactor such as Hyperion's. In response to its members' interest in nuclear propulsion, Lloyd's Register has also re-written its 'rules' for nuclear ships, which concern the integration of a reactor certified by a land-based regulator with the rest of the ship. The overall rationale of the rule-making process assumes that in contrast to the current marine industry practice where the designer/builder typically demonstrates compliance with regulatory requirements, in the future the nuclear regulators will wish to ensure that it is the operator of the nuclear plant that demonstrates safety in operation, in addition to the safety through design and construction. Nuclear ships are currently the responsibility of their own countries, but none are involved in international trade. As a result of this work in 2014 two papers on commercial nuclear marine propulsion were published by Lloyd's Register and the other members of this consortium. These publications review past and recent work in the area of marine nuclear propulsion and describe a preliminary concept design study for a Suezmax tanker that is based on a conventional hull form with alternative arrangements for accommodating a 70 MWt nuclear propulsion plant delivering up to 23.5 MW shaft power at maximum continuous rating (average: 9.75 MW). The Gen4Energy power module is considered. This is a small fast-neutron reactor using lead–bismuth eutectic cooling and able to operate for ten full-power years before refueling, and in service last for a 25-year operational life of the vessel. They conclude that the concept is feasible, but further maturity of nuclear technology and the development and harmonisation of the regulatory framework would be necessary before the concept would be viable.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: Nuclear propulsion has been proposed again on the wave of decarbonization of marine shipping, which accounts for 3–4% of global greenhouse gas emissions.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: Nuclear propulsion has proven both technically and economically feasible for nuclear-powered icebreakers in the Soviet, and later Russian, Arctic. Nuclear-fuelled ships operate for years without refueling, and the vessels have powerful engines, well-suited to the task of icebreaking.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: The Soviet icebreaker "Lenin" was the world's first nuclear-powered surface vessel in 1959 and remained in service for 30 years (new reactors were fitted in 1970). It led to a series of larger icebreakers, the 23,500 ton of six vessels, launched beginning in 1975. These vessels have two reactors and are used in deep Arctic waters. NS "Arktika" was the first surface vessel to reach the North Pole.


title: Nuclear marine propulsion

text: For use in shallow waters such as estuaries and rivers, shallow-draft, "Taymyr"-class icebreakers were built in Finland and then fitted with their single-reactor nuclear propulsion system in Russia. They were built to conform to international safety standards for nuclear vessels.


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: Diagnosis: Murder is an American action-comedy-mystery-medical crime drama television series starring Dick Van Dyke as Dr. Mark Sloan, a medical doctor who solves crimes with the help of his son Steve, a homicide detective played by Van Dyke's real-life son Barry. The series began as a spin-off of "Jake and the Fatman" (Dr. Mark Sloan made his first appearance in episode 4.19 "It Never Entered My Mind"), became a series of three television films, and then a weekly television series that debuted on CBS on October 29, 1993. Joyce Burditt wrote the episode in "Jake and the Fatman" and is listed here as the creator of the spin off series.


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: The series struggled at first and was almost cancelled at the end of the second season, but it returned as a midseason replacement in the third season, and was regularly renewed thereafter. were made and aired in the show's eight seasons on the CBS network in the United States and two more TV movies aired after the series' cancellation on May 11, 2001. The show is currently distributed by CBS Television Distribution.


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: In the "Jake and the Fatman" episode, Dr. Mark Sloan was a widower with no sons. Dr. Amanda Bentley is played by Cynthia Gibb in the TV movies and, finally, by Victoria Rowell in the TV series. Stephen Caffrey played Dr. Jack Parker in the movies, a role that went to Scott Baio as Dr. Jack Stewart in the weekly series (first two seasons).


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: The first two TV movies were shot in Vancouver, British Columbia, and the third was shot in Denver, Colorado. The first 8 episodes of the series were also shot (and set) in Denver, before quickly (and without explanation) shifting to Los Angeles for the remainder of the show's run. Since 1997, reruns of the show have been shown in syndication and on Freeform (formerly ABC Family and originally CBN Satellite Service), Ion Television (formerly PAX-TV), Hallmark Channel, 10 Bold, CBS Action and MeTV.


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: The plot centered around (Dick Van Dyke), a former United States Army doctor who served in a MASH unit. After his service ended, Dr. Sloan became a renowned physician and consults with the local police, and can't resist a good mystery or a friend in need. Cases often involved his son, (Barry Van Dyke), and (Michael Tucci in seasons 1–4), a hospital administrator and a close friend of his. Also assisting Dr. Sloan are his colleagues, medical examiner/pathology (Victoria Rowell) and Dr. Jack Stewart (Scott Baio in the first two seasons), who is later replaced by a new resident, Dr. Jesse Travis (Charlie Schlatter from season 3 onward).


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: "Diagnosis: Murder" had a total of eight seasons and 178 episodes which were broadcast on CBS between 1993 and 2001.


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: One unique aspect of the series was that it frequently appropriated characters from various classic television series, or featured veteran actors playing characters inspired by or similar to their classic roles.


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: Over the run of the show, various episodes guest starred at least eight different members of the Van Dyke family:


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: The first season’s filming commenced in July 1993 in Denver, Colorado. Much of the cast as well as the production company personnel from Viacom stayed in the (then) Embassy Suites Hotel in downtown, located at 19th Street between Curtis and Arapahoe. Among the reasons that production of "Diagnosis: Murder" was located in Denver was because the same production people had already been working there since about 1990 filming the new "Perry Mason" made for TV movies.


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: At that same time, Raymond Burr and his associates were busily filming their episodes for "Perry Mason". In and around the Embassy Suites Hotel at that time, it was not unusual to see several semi-trailers parked street-side in support of the production at various office or exterior locations in and around downtown Denver.


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: Both series were produced by the Hargrove, Silverman team with Viacom. Therefore, the business decision to combine both productions at the same location was evident. While the "Perry Mason" series was often filmed in a special courtroom constructed for the production within The Denver City and County Building, "Diagnosis: Murder" was temporarily set at the then recently closed St. Luke’s Hospital on 19th Street just east of downtown.


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: When Raymond Burr became terminally ill later that summer, he no longer was seen at the hotel after having filmed his last episode, "The Case of the Killer Kiss." (1993) In fact, upon his demise, Paul Sorvino was seen entering the hotel building to begin filming what was to be the last "Perry Mason" episode ever filmed in Denver, – "A Perry Mason Mystery: The Case of the Wicked Wives" (1993). Upon completion of that filming, Viacom and the entire production company left Denver in late September, early October 1993, including that of "Diagnosis: Murder". Thus, only the "Diagnosis: Murder" episodes filmed from mid-July through September 1993 were shot in Denver, after which production shifted permanently to Los Angeles.


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: Community General Hospital is the main set for the show. It is six to seven floors depending on the episode. It holds about 400 beds, with three trauma rooms, two psych wards, and one Intensive Care Unit. Dr. Mark Sloan is Chief of Internal Medicine. The Marriott Hotels & Resorts in Woodland Hills, Los Angeles, was used as the exterior of Community General Hospital in the final three seasons of the show (it was also used as a casino in the pilot of CSI).


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: BBQ Bob's is a restaurant that Jesse Travis and Steve Sloan co-own starting in the sixth season. Mark Sloan is also a silent partner. It is located in a small strip mall very close to Community General Hospital. Other stores around it include a jewelry store, travel agency and a bank. It is often frequented by the hospital staff as an alternative to the hospital cafeteria. All staff members get discounts. The exterior of BBQ Bob's was based on a storefront at the Whizin's Center in Agoura, California, where exterior scenes of BBQ Bob's were occasionally filmed.


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: In the first two seasons of the show Mark Sloan lived in a house in Denver, Colorado. No explanation is given when the show shifts to California for all the remaining episodes.


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: Starting in the third season, Mark and Steve Sloan live in a beach house at 3231 Beach Drive, Malibu, with Steve in the basement. The basement was often redressed to act as other sets. The actual house is on Broad Beach Road in Malibu, California. The house was later used as a filming location for the Disney Channel show Hannah Montana.


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: The pilot episode was called "It Never Entered My Mind" from "Jake and The Fatman." Mark Sloan was a widower with no sons. The hospital is called Clairemont Hospital instead of Community General Hospital, and there is no Jack or Amanda. His friends who helped him clear his name are


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: "Diagnosis: Murder" had five TV movies between 1992 and 2002, three of which aired prior to the TV series.


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: Fred Silverman insisted that every season the series devote one episode as a television pilot. The following are known backdoor pilots.


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: On September 12, 2006, CBS Home Entertainment (with distribution by Paramount Pictures) released the complete Season 1 of "Diagnosis: Murder" on Region 1 DVD. The set included the "Jake and the Fatman" episode 4.19, "It Never Entered My Mind," which introduced the character of Dr. Mark Sloan. It did not however, include the TV movies that were made prior to the show's premiere. Seasons 2 and 3 are also now available. After two years since the release of the first season on Region 1 DVD, a Region 2 DVD of "Diagnosis: Murder – Series 1" was released on May 5, 2008, according to Amazon.co.uk


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: On June 26, 2012, Visual Entertainment released ""Diagnosis Murder – The Movie Collection"" on DVD in Region 1 for the very first time. In the US, the release was distributed by Alchemy. The three-disc set featured all three TV movies that aired in 1992/1993 and spawned the weekly TV series as well as the two TV movies that aired after the series ended.


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: On December 31, 2012, it was announced that VEI had acquired the rights to the series (via their sublicensing deal with CBS) and planned on releasing the remaining seasons on DVD in 2013. They subsequently released the fourth and fifth seasons both as two-part volumes and as a complete set on August 27, 2013. The sixth season was released on November 12, 2013, in Canada while it was released in the US on November 26, 2013. The seventh season was released on November 19, 2013, in Canada and in the US on February 11, 2014; the eighth and final season on November 19, 2013, in Canada and in the US on May 27, 2014. VEI also released The Complete Collection On November 12, 2013. It includes all 178 episodes, all 5 of the TV Movies, The "Jake And The Fatman" Episode "It Never Entered My Mind", and an episode of "Mannix" Called "Little Girl Lost" which was A Prequel to the Episode "Hard Boiled Murder" on a 51 Disc set. It also has an exclusive to The Complete Collection a clip of Van Dyke as Rob Petrie In Obsession Part 2.


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: In Australia, Region 4, Season 1 was released on May 15, 2008 and Season 2 on November 6, 2008, no further releases were released. These two releases were distributed by Paramount. On October 14, 2015 Season 1 and 2 were re-released along with Season 3. Season 4 followed on April 20, 2016 and Season 5 on July 20, 2016. These were distributed by Madman Entertainment. Season 6 was released on May 3, 2017, Season 7 on June 7, 2017 and Season 8 on July 5, 2017. These were distributed by Via Vision Entertainment. The Movie Collection was released on August 7, 2019.


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: Between 2003 and 2007, eight original novels were published based on the TV series. All of them were written by Lee Goldberg, a former executive producer and writer on the TV series. According to his website, there will be no more books based on the show. The books are, in order:


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: "The Past Tense" is a prequel to the episode "Voices Carry", which guest-starred Jack Klugman as Harry Trumble, and chronicles Dr. Mark Sloan's first homicide investigation. The final book in the series, "The Last Word", is a sequel of sorts to the episodes "Obsession" and "Resurrection" and features the return of Carter Sweeney, who was played by Arye Gross in the TV series.


title: Diagnosis: Murder

text: Two of the characters in "The Death Merchant" later reappeared in Lee Goldberg's series of novels based on the television series "Monk":


title: Nudge theory

text: Nudge theory is a concept in behavioral economics, decision making, behavioral policy, social psychology, consumer behavior, and related behavioral sciences that proposes adaptive designs of the decision environment (choice architecture) as ways to influence the behavior and decision-making of groups or individuals. Nudging contrasts with other ways to achieve compliance, such as education, legislation or enforcement.


title: Nudge theory

text: The nudge concept was popularized in the 2008 book "Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness", by behavioral economist Richard Thaler and legal scholar Cass Sunstein, two American scholars at the University of Chicago. It has influenced British and American politicians. Several nudge units exist around the world at the national level (UK, Germany, Japan, and others) as well as at the international level (e.g. World Bank, UN, and the European Commission). It is disputed whether "nudge theory" is a recent novel development in behavioral economics or merely a new term for one of many methods for influencing behavior, investigated in the science of behavior analysis.


title: Nudge theory

text: There have been some controversies regarding effectiveness of nudges. Maier et al. wrote that, after correcting the publication bias found by Mertens et al., there is no evidence that nudging would have any effect. However, nudging is an umbrella term referring to many techniques, and skeptics of nudging also believe that it is possible that some nudges (e.g. default effect) can be sometimes highly effective and some nudges have minimal if any effect, and call for future work that shift away from investigating average effects but focus on moderators instead. Furthermore, a meta analysis of all unpublished nudging studies carried by nudge units with over 23 million individuals in United Kingdom and United States found support for many nudges, but with substantially weaker effects than effects found in published studies. Moreover, some researchers critized "one-nudge-for-all" approach and advocated for more studies and implementations of personalized nudging (based on individual differences), which appear to be substantially more effective, with more robust and consistent evidence base.


title: Nudge theory

text: The first formulation of the term "nudge" and associated principles was developed in cybernetics by James Wilk before 1995 and described by Brunel University academic D. J. Stewart as "the art of the nudge" (sometimes referred to as "micronudges"). It also drew on methodological influences from clinical psychotherapy tracing back to Gregory Bateson, including contributions from Milton Erickson, Watzlawick, Weakland and Fisch, and Bill O'Hanlon. In this variant, the nudge is a microtargeted design geared towards a specific group of people, irrespective of the scale of intended intervention.


title: Nudge theory

text: In 2008, Richard Thaler and Cass Sunstein's book "Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness" brought nudge theory to prominence. The authors refer to the influencing of behaviour without coercion as "libertarian paternalism" and the influencers as "choice architects".


title: Nudge theory

text: In this form, drawing on behavioral economics, the nudge is more generally applied in order to influence behaviour.


title: Nudge theory

text: One of the most frequently cited examples of a nudge is the etching of the image of a housefly into the men's room urinals at Amsterdam's Schiphol Airport, which is intended to "improve the aim." The book also gained a following among US and UK politicians, in the private sector and in public health.


title: Nudge theory

text: A nudge makes it more likely that an individual will make a particular choice, or behave in a particular way, by altering the environment so that automatic cognitive processes are triggered to favour the desired outcome.


title: Nudge theory

text: An individual's behaviour is not always in alignment with their intentions (a discrepancy known as a "value-action gap"). It is common knowledge that humans are not fully rational beings; that is, people will often do something that is not in their own self-interest, even when they are aware that their actions are not in their best interest. As an example, when hungry, people who diet often underestimate their ability to lose weight, and their intentions to eat healthy can be temporarily weakened until they are satiated.


title: Nudge theory

text: Nobel Laureate Daniel Kahneman describes two distinct systems for processing information as to why people sometimes act against their own self-interest: System 1 is fast, automatic, and highly susceptible to environmental influences; System 2 processing is slow, reflective, and takes into account explicit goals and intentions. When situations are overly complex or overwhelming for an individual's cognitive capacity, or when an individual is faced with time-constraints or other pressures, System 1 processing takes over decision-making. System 1 processing relies on various judgmental heuristics to make decisions, resulting in faster decisions. Unfortunately, this can also lead to suboptimal decisions. In fact, Thaler and Sunstein trace maladaptive behaviour to situations in which System 1 processing overrides an individual's explicit values and goals. It is well documented that habitual behaviour is resistant to change without a disruption to the environmental cues that trigger that behaviour.


title: Nudge theory

text: Nudging techniques aim to use judgmental heuristics to the advantage of the party that is creating the set of choices. In other words, a nudge alters the environment so that when heuristic, or System 1, decision-making is used, the resulting choice will be the most positive or desired outcome. An example of such a nudge is switching the placement of junk food in a store, so that fruit and other healthy options are located next to the cash register, while junk food is relocated to another part of the store.


title: Nudge theory

text: Nudges are small changes in the environment that are easy and inexpensive to implement. Several different techniques exist for nudging, including defaults, social-proof heuristics, and increasing the salience of the desired option.


title: Nudge theory

text: A "default option" is the option that an individual automatically receives if they do nothing. People are more likely to choose a particular option if it is the default option. For example, Pichert & Katsikopoulos (2008) found that a greater number of consumers chose the renewable energy option for electricity when it was offered as the default option.


title: Nudge theory

text: A "social-proof heuristic" refers to the tendency for individuals to look at the behavior of other people to help guide their own behavior. Studies have found some success in using social-proof heuristics to nudge individuals to make healthier food choices.


title: Nudge theory

text: When an individual's attention is drawn towards a particular option, that option will become more salient to the individual and they will be more likely to choose that option. As an example, in snack shops at train stations in the Netherlands, consumers purchased more fruit and healthy snack options when they were relocated next to the cash register. Since then, other similar studies have been made regarding the placement of healthier food options close to the checkout counter and the effect on the consuming behavior of the customers and this is now considered an effective and well-accepted nudge.


title: Nudge theory

text: During their terms, both U.K. Prime Minister David Cameron and U.S. President Barack Obama may have sought to employ nudge theory to advance domestic policy goals in their respective countries. In 2008, the United States appointed Cass Sunstein, who helped develop the theory, as administrator of the Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs. In 2010, the British Behavioural Insights Team, or "Nudge Unit," was established at the British Cabinet Office and headed by psychologist David Halpern.


title: Nudge theory

text: In Australia, the state Government of New South Wales established a Nudge Unit of its own in 2012. In 2016, the federal government followed suit, forming the Behavioural Economics Team of Australia (BETA) as the "central unit for applying behavioural insights...to public policy."


title: Nudge theory

text: In 2020, the British government of Boris Johnson decided to rely on nudge theory to fight the coronavirus pandemic, with Chief Scientific Adviser Patrick Vallance seeking to encourage “herd immunity” with this strategy.


title: Nudge theory

text: For instance, nudge is applied to health, safety, and environment (HSE) with the primary goals of achieving a "zero accident culture." The concept is also used as a key component in a lot of human-resources software.


title: Nudge theory

text: Particular forerunners in the application of nudge theory in corporate settings are top Silicon Valley companies. These companies are using nudges in various forms to increase productivity and happiness of employees. Recently, more companies are gaining interest in using what is called "nudge management" to improve the productivity of their white-collar workers.


title: Nudge theory

text: Lately, nudge theory has also been used in different ways to help healthcare professionals make more deliberate decisions in numerous areas. For example, nudging has been used as a way to improve hand hygiene among healthcare workers to decrease the number of healthcare-associated infections. It has also been used as a way to make fluid administration a more thought-out decision in intensive care units, with the intention of reducing well known complications of fluid overload.


title: Nudge theory

text: Nudge theory can also be applied to fundraising, helping to increase donor contributions and increase continuous donations from the same individual, as well as to entice new donors to give.


title: Nudge theory

text: There are some simple strategies used when applying nudge theory to this area. The first strategy is to make donating "easy": creating default settings that automatically enroll a donor for continuous giving or prompts them to give every so often encourages individuals to continue giving. The second strategy to increase donors is to make giving more "enticing", which can include increasing a person's motivation to give through rewards, personalized messages, or focusing on their interests. Personalized messages, small thank-you gifts, and demonstrating the impact one's donation can have on others, have been shown to be more effective when increasing donations. Another strategy helpful to increasing donors is using social influence, as people are very influenced by group norms. By allowing donors to become visible to the public and increasing their identifiability, other individuals will be more inclined to give as they conform to the social norms around them. Using peer effects has been shown to increase donations. Finally, timing is important: many studies have demonstrated that there are specific times when individuals are more likely to give, for example during holidays.


title: Nudge theory

text: Although many nudging theories have been useful to increase donations and donors, many scholars question the ethics of using such techniques on the population. Ruehle et al. (2020), state that one has to always consider an individual's autonomy when designing nudges for a fundraising campaign. They state that the power of others behind messaging and potentially intrusive prompting can cause concern and may be seen as manipulative of donor's autonomy.


title: Nudge theory

text: Nudges are used at many levels in AI algorithms, for example recommender systems, and their consequences are still being investigated. Two articles appeared in Minds & Machines in 2018 addressed the relation between nudges and Artificial Intelligence, explaining how persuasion and psychometrics can be used by personalised targeting algorithms to influence individual and collective behaviour, sometimes also in unintended ways.


title: Nudge theory

text: A piece in the Harvard Business Review published in 2021 was one of the first articles to coin the term "Algorithmic Nudging" (see also Algorithmic Management). The author stresses "Companies are increasingly using algorithms to manage and control individuals not by force, but rather by nudging them into desirable behavior — in other words, learning from their personalized data and altering their choices in some subtle way."


title: Nudge theory

text: While the concept builds on the work by University of Chicago economist Richard Thaler and Harvard Law School professor Cass Sunstein, "due to recent advances in AI and machine learning, algorithmic nudging is much more powerful than its non-algorithmic counterpart. With so much data about workers’ behavioral patterns at their fingertips, companies can now develop personalized strategies for changing individuals’ decisions and behaviors at large scale. These algorithms can be adjusted in real-time, making the approach even more effective."


title: Nudge theory

text: One concern researchers in enjoyment-focused contexts, such as tourism, raised is a gap between attitude, intention and behaviour because tourists seek pleasure. However, several empirical pieces of evidence in the tourism show the nudge theory's high effectiveness in reducing the burden of tourists' activities on the environment. For instance, tourists consumed more ethical foods, selected more sustainable hotels, reused towels and bed linen during hotel stays, increased their intentions to reduce their energy consumption, increased the adoption of tourists' voluntary carbon offsetting and many other examples.


title: Nudge theory

text: The evidence on nudging having any effect has been critized as "limited", so Mertens et al. produced a comprehensive meta-analysis. They found that nudging is effective but there is a moderate publication bias. Later Maier et al. computed that, after correcting for this publication bias appropriately, there is no evidence that nudging would have any effect.


title: Nudge theory

text: Tammy Boyce, from the public health foundation The King's Fund, has said: "We need to move away from short-term, politically motivated initiatives such as the 'nudging people' idea, which are not based on any good evidence and don't help people make long-term behaviour changes." Likewise, Mols et al. (2015), acknowledge nudges may at times be useful, but argue that covert nudges offer limited scope for securing "lasting" behavior change.


title: Nudge theory

text: Cass Sunstein has responded to criticism at length in his 2016 book, "The Ethics of Influence: Government in the Age of Behavioral Science", making the case in favor of nudging, against charges that nudges diminish autonomy, threaten dignity, violate liberties, or reduce welfare. He previously defended nudge theory in his 2014 book "Why Nudge?: The Politics of Libertarian Paternalism" by arguing that choice architecture is inevitable and that some form of paternalism cannot be avoided.


title: Nudge theory

text: Ethicists have debated nudge theory rigorously. These charges have been made by various participants in the debate from Bovens (2009) to Goodwin (2012). Wilkinson, for example, charges nudges for being manipulative, while others such as Yeung (2012) question their scientific credibility.


title: Nudge theory

text: Public opinion on the ethicality of nudges has also been shown to be susceptible to “partisan nudge bias.” Research from David Tannenbaum, Craig R. Fox, and Todd Rogers (2017) found that adults and policymakers in the United States believed behavioral policies to be more ethical when they aligned with their own political leanings. Conversely, people took these same mechanisms to be more "un"ethical when they differed from their politics. The researchers also found that nudges are not inherently partisan: when evaluating behavioral policies absent of political cues, people across the political spectrum were alike in their assessments.


title: Nudge theory

text: Some, such as Hausman and Welch (2010) as well as Roberts (2018) have inquired whether nudging should be permissible on grounds of distributive justice. Though Roberts (2018) argued that nudges do not benefit vulnerable, low-income individuals as much as individuals who are less vulnerable, some empirical research suggests that nudges benefit low-income and low-SES people most, if anything increasing distributive justice. Lepenies and Malecka (2015) have questioned whether nudges are compatible with the rule of law. Similarly, legal scholars have discussed the role of nudges and the law.


title: Nudge theory

text: Behavioral economists such as Bob Sugden have pointed out that the underlying normative benchmark of nudging is still homo economicus, despite the proponents' claim to the contrary.


title: Nudge theory

text: It has been remarked that nudging is also a euphemism for psychological manipulation as practiced in social engineering.


title: Nudge theory

text: There exists an anticipation and, simultaneously, implicit criticism of the nudge theory in works of Hungarian social psychologists Ferenc Mérei and László Garai, who emphasize the active participation in the nudge of its target.


title: Nudge theory

text: The authors of a book titled "Neuroliberalism: Behavioural Government in the Twenty-First Century" (2017), argue that, while there is much value and diversity in behavioural approaches to government, there are significant ethical issues, including the danger of the neurological sciences being co-opted to the needs of neo-liberal economics.


title: William Wyler

text: William Wyler (; born Willi Wyler (); July 1, 1902 – July 27, 1981) was a Swiss-German-American film director and producer who won the Academy Award for Best Director three times, those being for "Mrs. Miniver" (1942), "The Best Years of Our Lives" (1946), and "Ben-Hur" (1959), all of which also won for Best Picture. In total, he holds a record twelve nominations for the Academy Award for Best Director.


title: William Wyler

text: Born in Alsace, then in Germany, but later part of France, Wyler was a troublemaker in the schools of his youth. He immigrated to United States in 1921, working first for Universal Studios in New York before moving to Los Angeles. By 1925, he was the youngest director at Universal, and in 1929 he directed "Hell's Heroes", Universal's first sound production filmed entirely on location. In 1936, he earned his first nomination for the Academy Award for Best Director for "Dodsworth", starring Walter Huston, Ruth Chatterton and Mary Astor, "sparking a 20-year run of almost unbroken greatness."


title: William Wyler

text: He helped propel a number of actors to stardom, including finding and directing Audrey Hepburn in her debut starring role, "Roman Holiday" (1953), and directing Barbra Streisand in her debut film, "Funny Girl" (1968), both winning Academy Awards. Olivia de Havilland and Bette Davis both won their second Oscar in Wyler films, de Havilland for "The Heiress" (1949) and Davis for "Jezebel" (1938). Davis said Wyler made her a "far, far better actress" than she had ever been, while Laurence Olivier, who received his first Oscar nomination for Wyler's "Wuthering Heights" (1939), credited Wyler with teaching him how to act for the screen. Wyler's three Best Picture-winning films each featured a Best Actress or Actor Oscar winner - Greer Garson in "Mrs Miniver", Frederic March in "The Best Years of Our Lives", and Charlton Heston in "Ben-Hur". Other popular Wyler films include: "The Westerner" (1940) with Gary Cooper, "The Letter" (1940) again with Davis, "Detective Story" (1951) with Kirk Douglas, "Friendly Persuasion" (1956) with Cooper and Dorothy McGuire, "The Big Country" (1958) with Gregory Peck and Heston, "The Children's Hour" (1961) with Hepburn, Shirley MacLaine and James Garner, and "How to Steal a Million" (1966) with Hepburn and Peter O'Toole.


title: William Wyler

text: Film historian Ian Freer calls Wyler a "bona fide perfectionist", whose penchant for retakes and an attempt to hone every last nuance, "became the stuff of legend." His ability to direct a string of classic literary adaptations into huge box-office and critical successes made him one of "Hollywood's most bankable moviemakers" from the 1930s to 1960s. Through his talent for staging, editing, and camera movement, he turned dynamic theatrical spaces into cinematic ones. For his work Wyler was awarded the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award for career achievement, the Directors Guild of America Lifetime Achievement Award, and the American Film Institute Life Achievement Award.


title: William Wyler

text: Wyler was born to a Jewish family in Mulhouse, Alsace (then part of the German Empire). His Swiss-born father, Leopold, started as a traveling salesman but later became a thriving haberdasher in Mulhouse. His mother, Melanie (née Auerbach; died February 13, 1955, Los Angeles, aged 77), was German-born, and a cousin of Carl Laemmle, founder of Universal Pictures. During Wyler's childhood, he attended a number of schools and developed a reputation as "something of a hellraiser", being expelled more than once for misbehavior. His mother often took him and his older brother Robert to concerts, opera, and the theatre, as well as the early cinema. Sometimes at home his family and their friends would stage amateur theatricals for personal enjoyment.


title: William Wyler

text: Wyler was supposed to inherit the family haberdashery business in Mulhouse, France. After World War I, he spent a dismal year working in Paris at "100.000 Chemises" selling shirts and ties. He was so poor that he often spent his time wandering around the Pigalle district. After realizing that Willy was not interested in the haberdashery business, his mother, Melanie, contacted her distant cousin, Carl Laemmle, who owned Universal Studios, about opportunities for him.


title: William Wyler

text: Laemmle was in the habit of coming to Europe each year, searching for promising young men who would work in America. In 1921, Wyler, while traveling as a Swiss citizen (his father's status automatically conferred Swiss citizenship on his sons), met Laemmle who hired him to work at Universal Studios in New York. As Wyler said: "America seemed as far away as the moon." Booked onto a ship to New York with Laemmle for his return voyage, Wyler met a young Czech man, Paul Kohner (later the famous independent agent), aboard the same ship. Their enjoyment of the first class trip was short-lived, however, as they found they had to repay the cost of the passage out of their $25 weekly income as messengers to Universal Pictures. After working in New York for several years, and even serving in the New York Army National Guard for a year, Wyler moved to Hollywood to become a director.


title: William Wyler

text: Around 1923, Wyler arrived in Los Angeles and began work on the Universal Studios lot in the swing gang, cleaning the stages and moving the sets. His break came when he was hired as a second assistant editor. But his work ethic was uneven, and he would often sneak off and play billiards in a pool hall across the street from the studio, or organize card games during working hours. After some ups and downs (including getting fired), Wyler focused on becoming a director and put all his effort into it. He started as a third assistant director and by 1925 he became the youngest director on the Universal lot directing the westerns that Universal was famed for turning out. Wyler was so focused on his work that he would dream about "different ways (for an actor) to get on a horse". In several of the one-reelers, he would join the posse in the inevitable chase of the 'bad man'.


title: William Wyler

text: He directed his first non-Western, the lost "Anybody Here Seen Kelly?", in 1928. This was followed by his first part-talkie films, "The Shakedown" and "The Love Trap". He proved himself an able craftsman. In 1928 he became a naturalized United States citizen. His first all-talking film, and Universal's first sound production to be filmed entirely on location, was "Hell's Heroes", filmed in the Mojave Desert in 1929.


title: William Wyler

text: In the early 1930s Wyler directed a wide variety of films at Universal, ranging from high-profile dramas such as "The Storm" with Bebe Daniels, "A House Divided" with Walter Huston, and "Counsellor at Law" with John Barrymore, to comedies like "Her First Mate" with Zasu Pitts and "The Good Fairy" with Margaret Sullavan. He became well known for his insistence on multiple retakes, resulting in often award-winning and critically acclaimed performances from his actors. After leaving Universal he began a long collaboration with Samuel Goldwyn for whom he directed such classics as "Dodsworth" (1936) with Walter Huston, "These Three" (1936) with Miriam Hopkins and Merle Oberon, "Dead End" (1937) with Humphrey Bogart, "Wuthering Heights" (1939) with Laurence Olivier and Merle Oberon, "The Westerner" (1940) with Gary Cooper and Walter Brennan, "The Little Foxes" (1941) with Bette Davis, and "The Best Years of Our Lives" (1946) with Myrna Loy and Fredric March. It was during this time that Wyler began his famous collaboration with cinematographer Gregg Toland. Toland and Wyler virtually created the "deep focus" style of filmmaking wherein multiple layers of action or characters could be seen in one scene, most famous being the bar scene in "The Best Years of Our Lives". Toland went on to use the deep focus he mastered with Wyler when he shot Orson Welles' "Citizen Kane".


title: William Wyler

text: Bette Davis received three Oscar nominations for her screen work under Wyler, and won her second Oscar for her performance in Wyler's 1938 film "Jezebel". She told Merv Griffin in 1972 that Wyler trained her with that film to be a "far, far better actress" than she had been. She recalled a scene that was only a bare paragraph in the script, but "without a word of dialog, Willy created a scene of power and tension. This was moviemaking on the highest plane," she said. "A scene of such suspense that I never have not marveled at the direction of it." During her acceptance speech when she received the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1977, she thanked him.


title: William Wyler

text: Laurence Olivier, whom Wyler directed in "Wuthering Heights" (1939) for his first Oscar nomination, credited Wyler with teaching him how to act for the screen, despite clashing with Wyler on multiple occasions. Olivier would go on to hold the record for the most nominations in the Best Actor category at nine, tied with Spencer Tracy. Critic Frank S. Nugent wrote in the "New York Times", "William Wyler has directed it magnificently. It is, unquestionably, one of the most distinguished pictures of the year." "Variety" described Olivier's performance as "fantastic... he not only brings conviction to his portrayal but translates intelligently its mystical quality."


title: William Wyler

text: Five years later, in 1944, while visiting London, Wyler met with Olivier and his actress wife, Vivien Leigh. She invited him to see her performance in "The Doctor's Dilemma", and Olivier asked him to direct him in his planned film, "Henry V". But Wyler said he was "not a Shakespearian" and turned down the offer.


title: William Wyler

text: In 1950, Wyler and Olivier made a second film together, "Carrie", which was not a commercial success. However, some critics state that it nonetheless contains Olivier's finest film performance, but because of its old-fashioned story, the film was very under-appreciated: In critic Michael Billington's opinion:


title: William Wyler

text: Director and screenwriter John Huston had been a close friend of Wyler during his career. When he was twenty-eight and penniless, sleeping in parks in London, Huston returned to Hollywood to see if he could find work. Wyler, four years his senior, had met Huston when he was directing his father, Walter Huston, in "A House Divided" in 1931, and they got along well. Wyler read dialogue suggestions that Huston had given to his father Walter and hired John to work on the dialogue for the script. He later inspired Huston to become a director and became his "early mentor." When America entered World War II in 1941, Wyler, Huston, Anatole Litvak and Frank Capra, by then all directors, enlisted at the same time. Later in his career, Huston recalled his friendship with Wyler during an interview:


title: William Wyler

text: In 1941, Wyler directed "Mrs. Miniver", based on the 1940 novel; it was the story of a middle-class English family adjusting to the war in Europe and the bombing blitz in London. It starred Greer Garson and Walter Pidgeon. Pidgeon originally had doubts about taking on the role, until fellow actor Paul Lukas told him, "You will find working with Wyler to be the most delightful experience you ever had, and that's the way it turned out." Pidgeon recalls: "One thing that would have been a terrific regret in my life is if I had succeeded in getting out of doing "Mrs. Miniver"" He received his first Oscar nomination for his role, while his co-star, Greer Garson, won her first and only Academy Award for her performance.


title: William Wyler

text: The idea for the film was controversial since it was intended to make the U.S. less isolationist. By portraying the real-life suffering of British citizens in a fictional story, Americans might be more willing to aid Britain during their war effort. The film succeeded in its propaganda elements, showing Britain during its darkest days of the war. Years later, after having been in the war himself, Wyler said that the film "only scratched the surface of war... It was incomplete."


title: William Wyler

text: However, before the U.S. entered the war in December 1941, all films that could be considered anti-Nazi were banned by the Hays Office.


title: William Wyler

text: U.S. ambassador to the United Kingdom, Joseph Kennedy, told the studios to stop making pro-British and anti-German films, because he believed that British defeat was imminent. But MGM producer Eddie Mannix disagreed, saying that "someone should salute England. And even if we lose $100,000, that'll be okay." "Mrs. Miniver" went on to win six Academy Awards, becoming the top box office hit of 1942. It was Wyler's first Academy Award for Best Director.


title: William Wyler

text: President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill both loved the film, said historian Emily Yellin, and Roosevelt wanted prints rushed to theaters nationwide. The Voice of America radio network broadcast the minister's speech from the film, magazines reprinted it, and it was copied onto leaflets and dropped over German-occupied countries. Churchill sent MGM chief Louis B. Mayer a telegram claiming that ""Mrs. Miniver" is propaganda worth 100 battleships." Bosley Crowther wrote in his "New York Times" review that "Mrs. Miniver" was the finest film yet made about the war, "and a most exalting tribute to the British."


title: William Wyler

text: Between 1942 and 1945, Wyler volunteered to serve as a major in the United States Army Air Forces and directed a pair of documentaries: "" (1944), about a Boeing B-17 and its U.S. Army Air Force crew; and "Thunderbolt!" (1947), highlighting a P-47 fighter-bomber squadron in the Mediterranean. Wyler filmed "The Memphis Belle" at great personal risk, flying over enemy territory on actual bombing missions in 1943; on one flight, Wyler lost consciousness from lack of oxygen. Wyler's associate, cinematographer Harold J. Tannenbaum, a First Lieutenant, was shot down and perished during the filming. Director Steven Spielberg describes Wyler's filming of "Memphis Belle" in the 2017 Netflix series, "Five Came Back". Before being assigned to the Air Force, Wyler was hired to direct the documentary "The Negro Soldier" on African-Americans in the United States Armed Forces.


title: William Wyler

text: Working on "Thunderbolt!" Wyler was exposed to such loud noise that he passed out. When he awoke, he found he was deaf in one ear. Partial hearing with the aid of a hearing aid eventually came back years later. Wyler returned from the War a lieutenant colonel and a disabled veteran.


title: William Wyler

text: Returning from the War and unsure whether he could work again, Wyler turned to a subject that he knew well and directed a film which captured the mood of the nation as it turned to peace after the war, "The Best Years of Our Lives" (1946). This story of the homecoming of three veterans from World War II dramatized the problems of returning veterans in their adjustment back to civilian life. Arguably his most personal film, "Best Years" drew on Wyler's own experience returning home to his family after three years at the front. "The Best Years of Our Lives" won the Academy Award for Best Director (Wyler's second) and Academy Award for Best Picture, as well as seven other Academy Awards.


title: William Wyler

text: In 1949 Wyler directed "The Heiress", which earned Olivia de Havilland her second Oscar and garnered additional Oscars for Best Art Direction, Best Costume Design, and Best Music. The film is considered by some to be a highlight in her career, "that could strike envy even in the most versatile and successful actress," according to one critic.


title: William Wyler

text: De Havilland had seen the play in New York and felt she could play the lead perfectly. She then called Wyler to convince him to have Paramount buy the film rights. He flew to New York to see the play and moved by the story, convinced the studio to buy it. Along with de Havilland, he managed to get Montgomery Clift and Ralph Richardson to co-star.


title: William Wyler

text: In 1951, Wyler produced and directed Kirk Douglas and Eleanor Parker in "Detective Story", portraying a day in the lives of the various people in a detective squad. Lee Grant and Joseph Wiseman made their screen debuts in the film, which was nominated for four Academy Awards, including one for Grant. Critic Bosley Crowther lauded the film, describing it as "a brisk, absorbing film by producer-director William Wyler, with the help of a fine, responsive cast."


title: William Wyler

text: "Carrie" was released in 1952 starring Jennifer Jones in the title role and Laurence Olivier as Hurstwood. Eddie Albert played Charles Drouet. Carrie received two Academy Award nominations: Costume Design (Edith Head), and Best Art Direction (Hal Pereira, Roland Anderson, Emile Kuri). Wyler was reluctant to cast Jennifer Jones, and the filming was subsequently plagued by a variety of troubles. Jones had not revealed that she was pregnant; Wyler was mourning the death of his year-old son; Olivier had a painful leg ailment, and he developed a dislike for Jones. Hollywood was reeling under the effects of McCarthyism, and the studio was afraid to distribute a film that could be attacked as immoral. Ultimately, the ending was changed and the film was cut to make it more positive in tone.


title: William Wyler

text: During the immediate postwar period, Wyler directed a handful of critically acclaimed and influential films. "Roman Holiday" (1953) introduced Audrey Hepburn to U.S. audiences in her first starring role, winning her an Academy Award for Best Actress. Wyler said of Hepburn years later, when describing truly great actresses, "In that league there's only ever been Garbo, and the other Hepburn, and maybe Bergman. It's a rare quality, but boy, do you know when you've found it." The film was an instant hit, also winning for Best Costume Design (Edith Head), and Best Writing (Dalton Trumbo). Hepburn would eventually do three movies with Wyler, who her son said was one of the most important directors in her career.


title: William Wyler

text: "Friendly Persuasion" (1956) was awarded the Palme d'Or (Golden Palm) at the Cannes Film Festival. And in 1959, Wyler directed "Ben-Hur", which won 11 Oscars, a feat unequaled until "Titanic" in 1997 and "" in 2003. He had also assisted in the production of the .


title: William Wyler

text: Wyler and its star, Charlton Heston, both knew what the film meant for MGM, which had massive investments in its outcome, with the film's budget having gone from $7 million to $15 million, and the fact that MGM was already in dire financial straits. They were aware that if it failed at the box office, MGM might go bankrupt.


title: William Wyler

text: The film, like many epics, was difficult to make. When Heston was asked which scene he enjoyed doing most, he said "I didn't enjoy any of it. It was hard work." Part of the reason for that was the financial stress placed on making the film a success. With a cast of fifteen thousand extras, a leading star, and shot on 70mm film with stereophonic tracks, it was the most expensive film ever made at that time. The nine-minute chariot race, for example, took six months to film.


title: William Wyler

text: "Ben-Hur" became a great box office success. Wyler won his third Academy Award for Best Director and Charlton Heston his first and only Academy Award as its star. Heston recalled in his autobiography that at first he had doubts about playing the role. But his agent advised him otherwise: "Don't you know that actors take parts with Wyler without even reading the damn script? I'm telling you, you "have" to do this picture!"


title: William Wyler

text: Kirk Douglas had lobbied Wyler, who directed him in "Detective Story" in 1951, for the title role, but only after Wyler had already decided on Heston. He offered him instead the role of Messala, which Douglas rejected. Douglas then went on to star in "Spartacus" (1960).


title: William Wyler

text: "Ben-Hur" cost $15 million to produce but earned $47 million by the end of 1961 and $90 million worldwide. Audiences mobbed movie theaters in the months after it opened. Critic Pauline Kael praised Wyler's achievement:


title: William Wyler

text: In 1961 he became a director for 20th Century Fox and also cast James Garner in "The Children's Hour" with Audrey Hepburn and Shirley MacLaine. Garner had beaten Warner Bros. in a lawsuit, enabling him to leave the television series "Maverick", and had been briefly graylisted as a result but Wyler broke the graylist by casting him; the following year, Garner played a leading role in four major motion pictures.


title: William Wyler

text: In 1968 he directed Barbra Streisand in her debut film, "Funny Girl", costarring Omar Sharif, which became a huge financial success. It was nominated for eight Academy Awards, and like Audrey Hepburn in her first starring role, Streisand won as Best Actress, becoming the thirteenth actor to win an Oscar under his direction.


title: William Wyler

text: Streisand had already starred in the Broadway musical of "Funny Girl", with seven hundred performances. And although she knew the part well, Wyler still had to mold her stage role for the screen. She naturally wanted to be involved in the film's production, often asking Wyler questions, but they got along well. "Things were ironed out when she discovered some of us knew what we were doing," kidded Wyler.


title: William Wyler

text: What originally attracted him to direct Streisand was similar to what attracted him to Audrey Hepburn, who had also been new to film audiences. He met with Streisand during her musical run and became excited at the prospect of guiding another new star into an award-winning performance. He sensed and admired that Streisand had the same kind of dedication to being an actress as did Bette Davis, early in her career. "It just needed to be controlled and toned down for the movie camera." Wyler said afterwards:


title: William Wyler

text: Wyler was hired to direct "Patton" (1970), but quit before the beginning of production in 1969. The last film Wyler directed was "The Liberation of L.B. Jones", released in 1970.


title: William Wyler

text: Wyler had worked with cinematographer Gregg Toland for six of his films, mostly in the 1930s. Toland used deep focus photographic technique for most of them, whereby he could keep all objects on the screen, whether foreground or background, in sharp focus at the same time. The technique gives the illusion of depth and therefore makes the scene more true to life.


title: William Wyler

text: A perfectionist, Wyler earned the nickname "40-take Wyler". On the set of "Jezebel", Wyler forced Henry Fonda through 40 takes of one particular scene, his only guidance being "Again!" after each take. When Fonda asked for more direction, Wyler responded, "It stinks." Similarly, when Charlton Heston quizzed the director about the supposed shortcomings of his performance in "Ben-Hur", Wyler simply told Heston "Be better!" However, Heston notes that by the time a scene is done, regardless of how hard it was to do, it always came off well:


title: William Wyler

text: Fourteen actors won Oscars under Wyler's direction, including Bette Davis in "Jezebel" (1938) and her nomination for "The Letter" (1940). Davis summed up their work together: "It was "he" who helped me to realize my full potential as an actress. I met my match in this exceptionally creative and talented director."


title: William Wyler

text: Other Oscar winners were Olivia de Havilland in "The Heiress" (1949), Audrey Hepburn in her debut film, "Roman Holiday" (1953), Charlton Heston in "Ben-Hur" (1959), and Barbra Streisand in her debut film, "Funny Girl" (1968).


title: William Wyler

text: Wyler's films garnered more awards for participating artists and actors than any other director in the history of Hollywood. He received 12 Oscar nominations for Best Director, while dozens of his collaborators and actors won Oscars or were nominated. In 1965, Wyler won the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award for career achievement. Eleven years later, he received the American Film Institute Life Achievement Award. In addition to his Best Picture and Best Director Oscar wins, 13 of Wyler's films earned Best Picture nominations. Other late Wyler films include "The Children's Hour" (1961), which was nominated for five Academy Awards. Later films included "The Collector" (1963), "Funny Girl" (1968), and his final film, "The Liberation of L.B. Jones" (1970).


title: William Wyler

text: Many of Wyler's home movies are held by the Academy Film Archive; the archive preserved a number of them in 2017.


title: William Wyler

text: Wyler was briefly married to actress Margaret Sullavan (from November 25, 1934 – March 13, 1936) and married actress Margaret "Talli" Tallichet on October 23, 1938. The couple remained together until his death; they had five children: Catherine, Judith, William Jr., Melanie and David. Catherine said during an interview that her mother played an important part in his career, often being his "gatekeeper" and his reader of scripts presented to him.


title: William Wyler

text: On July 24, 1981, Wyler gave an interview with his daughter, Catherine, for "Directed by William Wyler", a PBS documentary about his life and career. Three days later, he died from a heart attack. He is interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery.


title: William Wyler

text: Wyler is the most nominated director in Academy Awards history with twelve nominations. He won the Academy Award for Best Director on three occasions, for his direction of "Mrs. Miniver" (1942), "The Best Years of Our Lives" (1946), and "Ben-Hur" (1959). He is tied with Frank Capra and behind John Ford, who won four Oscars in this category. He is also the only director in Academy history to direct three Best Picture-winning films (the three for which he won Best Director), and directed more Best Picture nominees than anyone else (thirteen).


title: William Wyler

text: He has the distinction of having directed more actors to Oscar-nominated performances than any other director in history: thirty-six. Out of these nominees, fourteen went on to win Oscars, also a record. He received the fourth AFI Life Achievement Award in 1976. Among those who thanked him for directing her in her debut film, was Barbra Streisand.


title: William Wyler

text: For his contributions to the motion picture industry, on February 8, 1960, Wyler has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1731 Vine Street.


title: William Wyler

text: In 1961, Wyler was chosen as one of 50 outstanding Americans of meritorious performance in the fields of endeavor, to be honored as a Guest of Honor to the first annual Banquet of the Golden Plate in Monterey, California. Honor was awarded by vote of the National Panel of Distinguished Americans of the Academy of Achievement.


title: Highland Clearances

text: The Highland Clearances ( , the "eviction of the Gaels") were the evictions of a significant number of tenants in the Scottish Highlands and Islands, mostly in two phases from 1750 to 1860.


title: Highland Clearances

text: The first phase resulted from agricultural improvement, driven by the need for landlords to increase their income – many had substantial debts, with actual or potential bankruptcy being a large part of the story of the clearances. This involved the enclosure of the open fields managed on the run rig system and shared grazing. These were usually replaced with large-scale pastoral farms on which much higher rents were paid. The displaced tenants were expected to be employed in industries such as fishing, quarrying or the kelp industry. Their reduction in status from farmer to crofter was one of the causes of resentment.