title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: If there are multiple side-branches of the same size alkyl group, their positions are separated by commas and the group prefixed with di-, tri-, tetra-, etc., depending on the number of branches. For example, (neopentane) is named 2,2-dimethylpropane. If there are different groups, they are added in alphabetical order, separated by commas or hyphens. The longest possible main alkane chain is used; therefore 3-ethyl-4-methylhexane instead of 2,3-diethylpentane, even though these describe equivalent structures. The di-, tri- etc. prefixes are ignored for the purpose of alphabetical ordering of side chains (e.g. 3-ethyl-2,4-dimethylpentane, not 2,4-dimethyl-3-ethylpentane).


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: Alkenes are named for their parent alkane chain with the suffix "-ene" and an infixed number indicating the position of the carbon with the lower number for each double bond in the chain: is but-1-ene.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: Multiple double bonds take the form -diene, -triene, etc., with the size prefix of the chain taking an extra "a": is buta-1,3-diene. Simple cis and trans isomers may be indicated with a prefixed "cis-" or "trans-": "cis"-but-2-ene, "trans"-but-2-ene. However, "cis-" and "trans-" are "relative" descriptors. It is IUPAC convention to describe all alkenes using "absolute" descriptors of "Z-" (same side) and "E-" (opposite) with the Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: Alkynes are named using the same system, with the suffix "-yne" indicating a triple bond: ethyne (acetylene), propyne (methylacetylene).


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: In Haloalkanes and Haloarenes (R-X), Halogen functional groups are prefixed with the bonding position and take the form of fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-, iodo-, etc., depending on the halogen. Multiple groups are dichloro-, trichloro-, etc., and dissimilar groups are ordered alphabetically as before. For example, (chloroform) is trichloromethane. The anesthetic halothane () is 2-bromo-2-chloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: Alcohols (R-OH) take the suffix "-ol" with an infix numerical bonding position: is propan-1-ol. The suffixes , , , etc., are used for multiple -OH groups: Ethylene glycol is ethane-1,2-diol.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: If higher precedence functional groups are present (see "order of precedence", below), the prefix "hydroxy" is used with the bonding position: is 2-hydroxypropanoic acid.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: Ethers (R-O-R) consist of an oxygen atom between the two attached carbon chains. The shorter of the two chains becomes the first part of the name with the -ane suffix changed to -oxy, and the longer alkane chain becomes the suffix of the name of the ether. Thus, is methoxymethane, and is methoxyethane ("not" ethoxymethane). If the oxygen is not attached to the end of the main alkane chain, then the whole shorter alkyl-plus-ether group is treated as a side-chain and prefixed with its bonding position on the main chain. Thus is 2-methoxypropane.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: Alternatively, an ether chain can be named as an alkane in which one carbon is replaced by an oxygen, a replacement denoted by the prefix "oxa". For example, could also be called 2-oxabutane, and an epoxide could be called oxacyclopropane. This method is especially useful when both groups attached to the oxygen atom are complex.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: Aldehydes (R-CHO) take the suffix "-al". If other functional groups are present, the chain is numbered such that the aldehyde carbon is in the "1" position, unless functional groups of higher precedence are present.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: If a prefix form is required, "oxo-" is used (as for ketones), with the position number indicating the end of a chain: is 3-oxopropanoic acid. If the carbon in the carbonyl group cannot be included in the attached chain (for instance in the case of cyclic aldehydes), the prefix "formyl-" or the suffix "-carbaldehyde" is used: is cyclohexanecarbaldehyde. If an aldehyde is attached to a benzene and is the main functional group, the suffix becomes benzaldehyde.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: In general ketones (R-CO-R) take the suffix "-one" (pronounced "own", not "won") with an infix position number: is pentan-2-one. If a higher precedence suffix is in use, the prefix "oxo-" is used: is 3-oxohexanal.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: In general, carboxylic acids are named with the suffix "-oic acid" (etymologically a back-formation from benzoic acid). As with aldehydes, the carboxyl functional group must take the "1" position on the main chain and so the locant need not be stated. For example, (lactic acid) is named 2-hydroxypropanoic acid with no "1" stated. Some traditional names for common carboxylic acids (such as acetic acid) are in such widespread use that they are retained in IUPAC nomenclature, though systematic names like ethanoic acid are also used. Carboxylic acids attached to a benzene ring are structural analogs of benzoic acid (Ph-COOH) and are named as one of its derivatives.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: If there are multiple carboxyl groups on the same parent chain, multiplying prefixes are used: Malonic acid, , is systematically named propanedioic acid. Alternatively, the suffix can be used, combined with a multiplying prefix if necessary – mellitic acid is benzenehexacarboxylic acid, for example. In the latter case, the carbon atoms in the carboxyl groups do "not" count as being part of the main chain, a rule that also applies to the prefix form "carboxy-". Citric acid serves as an example: it is formally named rather than .


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: Salts of carboxylic acids are named following the usual cation-then-anion conventions used for ionic compounds in both IUPAC and common nomenclature systems. The name of the carboxylate anion is derived from that of the parent acid by replacing the "–oic acid" ending with "–oate." For example, , the sodium salt of benzoic acid (), is called sodium benzoate. Where an acid has both a systematic and a common name (like , for example, which is known as both acetic acid and as ethanoic acid), its salts can be named from either parent name. Thus, can be named as potassium acetate or as potassium ethanoate.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: Esters (R-CO-O-R') are named as alkyl derivatives of carboxylic acids. The alkyl (R') group is named first. The R-CO-O part is then named as a separate word based on the carboxylic acid name, with the ending changed from "-oic acid" to "-oate". For example, is "methyl pentanoate", and is "ethyl 4-methylpentanoate". For esters such as ethyl acetate (), ethyl formate () or dimethyl phthalate that are based on common acids, IUPAC recommends use of these established names, called retained names. The "-oate" changes to "-ate". Some simple examples, named both ways, are shown in the figure above.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: If the alkyl group is not attached at the end of the chain, the bond position to the ester group is infixed before "-yl": may be called butan-2-yl propanoate or butan-2-yl propionate.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: Acyl groups are named by stripping the -ic acid of the corresponding carboxylic acid and replacing it with -yl. For Example, CHCO-R is called Ethanoyl-R.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: Simply add the name of the attached halide to the end of the acyl group. For example, CHCOCl is ethanoyl chloride.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: Acid anhydrides (R-CO-O-OC-R) have two acyl groups linked by an oxygen atom. If both acyl groups are the same, then the name of the carboxylic acid with the word acid is replaced with the word "anhydride" and the IUPAC name consists of two words. If the acyl groups are different, then they are named in alphabetical order in the same way, with "anhydride" replacing "acid" and IUPAC name consists of three words. For example, is called "ethanoic anhydride" and is called "ethanoic propanoic anhydride".


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: Amines () are named for the attached alkane chain with the suffix "-amine" (e.g., methanamine). If necessary, the bonding position is infixed: propan-1-amine, propan-2-amine. The prefix form is "amino-".


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: For secondary amines (of the form R-NH-R), the longest carbon chain attached to the nitrogen atom becomes the primary name of the amine; the other chain is prefixed as an alkyl group with location prefix given as an italic "N": is "N"-methylethanamine. Tertiary amines () are treated similarly: is "N"-ethyl-"N"-methylpropanamine. Again, the substituent groups are ordered alphabetically.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: Amides () take the suffix "-amide", or "-carboxamide" if the carbon in the amide group cannot be included in the main chain. The prefix form is both "carbamoyl-" and "amido-", e.g., methanamide, ethanamide.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: Amides that have additional substituents on the nitrogen are treated similarly to the case of amines: they are ordered alphabetically with the location prefix "N": is "N","N"-dimethylmethanamide, is "N","N"-dimethylethanamide.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: Nitriles (RCN) are named by adding the suffix -nitrile to the longest hydrocarbon chain (including the carbon of the cyano group). It can also be named by replacing the -oic acid of their corresponding carboxylic acids with -onitrile. Functional class IUPAC nomenclature may also be used in the form of alkyl cyanides. For example, <chem>CH3CH2CH2CH2C#N</chem> is called pentanenitrile or butyl cyanide.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: Cycloalkanes and aromatic compounds can be treated as the main parent chain of the compound, in which case the positions of substituents are numbered around the ring structure. For example, the three isomers of xylene , commonly the "ortho-", "meta-", and "para-" forms, are 1,2-dimethylbenzene, 1,3-dimethylbenzene, and 1,4-dimethylbenzene. The cyclic structures can also be treated as functional groups themselves, in which case they take the prefix "cyclo"alkyl"-" (e.g. "cyclohexyl-") or for benzene, "phenyl-".


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: The IUPAC nomenclature scheme becomes rapidly more elaborate for more complex cyclic structures, with notation for compounds containing conjoined rings, and many common names such as phenol being accepted as base names for compounds derived from them.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: When compounds contain more than one functional group, the order of precedence determines which groups are named with prefix or suffix forms. The table below shows common groups in decreasing order of precedence. The highest-precedence group takes the suffix, with all others taking the prefix form. However, double and triple bonds only take suffix form (-en and -yn) and are used with other suffixes.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: Prefixed substituents are ordered alphabetically (excluding any modifiers such as di-, tri-, etc.), e.g. chlorofluoromethane, "not" fluorochloromethane. If there are multiple functional groups of the same type, either prefixed or suffixed, the position numbers are ordered numerically (thus ethane-1,2-diol, "not" ethane-2,1-diol.) The "N" position indicator for amines and amides comes before "1", e.g., is "N",2-dimethylpropanamine.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: The order of remaining functional groups is only needed for substituted benzene and hence is not mentioned here.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: Common nomenclature uses the older names for some organic compounds instead of using the prefixes for the carbon skeleton above. The pattern can be seen below.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: Common names for ketones can be derived by naming the two alkyl or aryl groups bonded to the carbonyl group as separate words followed by the word "ketone".


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: The common name for an aldehyde is derived from the common name of the corresponding carboxylic acid by dropping the word "acid" and changing the suffix from -ic or -oic to -aldehyde.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: Simple cations formed by adding a hydron to a hydride of a halogen, chalcogen or pnictogen are named by adding the suffix "-onium" to the element's root: HN is ammonium, HO is oxonium, and HF is fluoronium. Ammonium was adopted instead of nitronium, which commonly refers to NO.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: If the cationic center of the hydride is not a halogen, chalcogen or pnictogen then the suffix "-ium" is added to the name of the neutral hydride after dropping any final 'e'. HC is methanium, HO-(O)-H is dioxidanium (HO-OH is dioxidane), and HN-(N)-H is diazanium (HN-NH is diazane).


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: The above cations except for methanium are not, strictly speaking, organic, since they do not contain carbon. However, many organic cations are obtained by substituting another element or some functional group for a hydrogen.


title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

text: The name of each substitution is prefixed to the hydride cation name. If many substitutions by the same functional group occur, then the number is indicated by prefixing with "di-", "tri-" as with halogenation. (CH)O is trimethyloxonium. CHFN is trifluoromethylammonium.


title: Computer worm

text: A computer worm is a standalone malware computer program that replicates itself in order to spread to other computers. It often uses a computer network to spread itself, relying on security failures on the target computer to access it. It will use this machine as a host to scan and infect other computers. When these new worm-invaded computers are controlled, the worm will continue to scan and infect other computers using these computers as hosts, and this behaviour will continue. Computer worms use recursive methods to copy themselves without host programs and distribute themselves based on the law of exponential growth, thus controlling and infecting more and more computers in a short time. Worms almost always cause at least some harm to the network, even if only by consuming bandwidth, whereas viruses almost always corrupt or modify files on a targeted computer.


title: Computer worm

text: Many worms are designed only to spread, and do not attempt to change the systems they pass through. However, as the Morris worm and Mydoom showed, even these "payload-free" worms can cause major disruption by increasing network traffic and other unintended effects.


title: Computer worm

text: The actual term "worm" was first used in John Brunner's 1975 novel, "The Shockwave Rider". In the novel, Nichlas Haflinger designs and sets off a data-gathering worm in an act of revenge against the powerful men who run a national electronic information web that induces mass conformity. "You have the biggest-ever worm loose in the net, and it automatically sabotages any attempt to monitor it. There's never been a worm with that tough a head or that long a tail!"


title: Computer worm

text: The second ever computer worm was devised to be an anti-virus software. Named Reaper, it was created by Ray Tomlinson to replicate itself across the ARPANET and delete the experimental Creeper program (the first computer worm, 1971).


title: Computer worm

text: On November 2, 1988, Robert Tappan Morris, a Cornell University computer science graduate student, unleashed what became known as the Morris worm, disrupting many computers then on the Internet, guessed at the time to be one tenth of all those connected. During the Morris appeal process, the U.S. Court of Appeals estimated the cost of removing the worm from each installation at between $200 and $53,000; this work prompted the formation of the CERT Coordination Center and Phage mailing list. Morris himself became the first person tried and convicted under the 1986 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act.


title: Computer worm

text: Computer viruses generally require a host program. The virus writes its own code into the host program. When the program runs, the written virus program is executed first, causing infection and damage. A worm does not need a host program, as it is an independent program or code chunk. Therefore, it is not restricted by the host program, but can run independently and actively carry out attacks.


title: Computer worm

text: Because a worm is not limited by the host program, worms can take advantage of various operating system vulnerabilities to carry out active attacks. For example, the "Nimda" virus exploits vulnerabilities to attack.


title: Computer worm

text: Some worms are combined with web page scripts, and are hidden in HTML pages using VBScript, ActiveX and other technologies. When a user accesses a webpage containing a virus, the virus automatically resides in memory and waits to be triggered. There are also some worms that are combined with backdoor programs or Trojan horses, such as "Code Red".


title: Computer worm

text: Worms are more infectious than traditional viruses. They not only infect local computers, but also all servers and clients on the network based on the local computer. Worms can easily spread through shared folders, e-mails, malicious web pages, and servers with a large number of vulnerabilities in the network.


title: Computer worm

text: Any code designed to do more than spread the worm is typically referred to as the "payload". Typical malicious payloads might delete files on a host system (e.g., the ExploreZip worm), encrypt files in a ransomware attack, or exfiltrate data such as confidential documents or passwords.


title: Computer worm

text: Some worms may install a backdoor. This allows the computer to be remotely controlled by the worm author as a "zombie". Networks of such machines are often referred to as botnets and are very commonly used for a range of malicious purposes, including sending spam or performing DoS attacks.


title: Computer worm

text: Some special worms attack industrial systems in a targeted manner. Stuxnet was primarily transmitted through LANs and infected thumb-drives, as its targets were never connected to untrusted networks, like the internet. This virus can destroy the core production control computer software used by chemical, power generation and power transmission companies in various countries around the world - in Stuxnet's case, Iran, Indonesia and India were hardest hit - it was used to "issue orders" to other equipment in the factory, and to hide those commands from being detected. Stuxnet used multiple vulnerabilities and four different zero-day exploits (eg: ) in Windows systems and Siemens SIMATICWinCC systems to attack the embedded programmable logic controllers of industrial machines. Although these systems operate independently from the network, if the operator inserts a virus-infected drive into the system's USB interface, the virus will be able to gain control of the system without any other operational requirements or prompts.


title: Computer worm

text: Vendors with security problems supply regular security updates (see "Patch Tuesday"), and if these are installed to a machine, then the majority of worms are unable to spread to it. If a vulnerability is disclosed before the security patch released by the vendor, a zero-day attack is possible.


title: Computer worm

text: Users need to be wary of opening unexpected email, and should not run attached files or programs, or visit web sites that are linked to such emails. However, as with the ILOVEYOU worm, and with the increased growth and efficiency of phishing attacks, it remains possible to trick the end-user into running malicious code.


title: Computer worm

text: Anti-virus and anti-spyware software are helpful, but must be kept up-to-date with new pattern files at least every few days. The use of a firewall is also recommended.


title: Computer worm

text: Users can minimize the threat posed by worms by keeping their computers' operating system and other software up to date, avoiding opening unrecognized or unexpected emails and running firewall and antivirus software.


title: Computer worm

text: Infections can sometimes be detected by their behavior - typically scanning the Internet randomly, looking for vulnerable hosts to infect. In addition, machine learning techniques can be used to detect new worms, by analyzing the behavior of the suspected computer.


title: Computer worm

text: A helpful worm or anti-worm is a worm designed to do something that its author feels is helpful, though not necessarily with the permission of the executing computer's owner. Beginning with the first research into worms at Xerox PARC, there have been attempts to create useful worms. Those worms allowed John Shoch and Jon Hupp to test the Ethernet principles on their network of Xerox Alto computers. Similarly, the Nachi family of worms tried to download and install patches from Microsoft's website to fix vulnerabilities in the host system by exploiting those same vulnerabilities. In practice, although this may have made these systems more secure, it generated considerable network traffic, rebooted the machine in the course of patching it, and did its work without the consent of the computer's owner or user. Regardless of their payload or their writers' intentions, security experts regard all worms as malware.


title: Computer worm

text: One study proposed the first computer worm that operates on the second layer of the OSI model (Data link Layer), utilizing topology information such as Content-addressable memory (CAM) tables and Spanning Tree information stored in switches to propagate and probe for vulnerable nodes until the enterprise network is covered.


title: Computer worm

text: Anti-worms have been used to combat the effects of the Code Red, Blaster, and Santy worms. Welchia is an example of a helpful worm. Utilizing the same deficiencies exploited by the Blaster worm, Welchia infected computers and automatically began downloading Microsoft security updates for Windows without the users' consent. Welchia automatically reboots the computers it infects after installing the updates. One of these updates was the patch that fixed the exploit.


title: Computer worm

text: Art worms support artists in the performance of massive scale ephemeral artworks. It turns the infected computers into nodes that contribute to the artwork.


title: If a tree falls in a forest

text: "If a tree falls in a forest and no one is around to hear it, does it make a sound?" is a philosophical thought experiment that raises questions regarding observation and perception.


title: If a tree falls in a forest

text: While the origin of the phrase is sometimes mistakenly attributed to George Berkeley, there are no extant writings in which he discussed this question. The closest are the following two passages from Berkeley's "A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge", published in 1710:


title: If a tree falls in a forest

text: But, say you, surely there is nothing easier than for me to imagine trees, for instance, in a park, or books existing in a closet, and nobody by to perceive them.


title: If a tree falls in a forest

text: The objects of sense exist only when they are perceived; the trees therefore are in the garden... no longer than while there is somebody by to perceive them. Despite these passages bearing a distant resemblance to the question, Berkeley never actually proposed the question itself. However, his work did deal extensively with the question of whether objects could continue to exist without being perceived.


title: If a tree falls in a forest

text: In June 1883, in the magazine "The Chautauquan", the question was asked, "If a tree were to fall on an island where there were no human beings would there be any sound?" They then went on to answer the query with, "No. Sound is the sensation excited in the ear when the air or other medium is set in motion." The magazine "Scientific American" corroborated the technical aspect of this question, while leaving out the philosophic side, a year later when they asked the question slightly reworded, "If a tree were to fall on an uninhabited island, would there be any sound?" And gave a more technical answer, "Sound is vibration, transmitted to our senses through the mechanism of the ear, and recognized as sound only at our nerve centers. The falling of the tree or any other disturbance will produce vibration of the air. If there be no ears to hear, there will be no sound."


title: If a tree falls in a forest

text: The current phrasing appears to have originated in the 1910 book "Physics" by Charles Riborg Mann and George Ransom Twiss. The question "When a tree falls in a lonely forest, and no animal is near by to hear it, does it make a sound? Why?" is posed along with many other questions to quiz readers on the contents of the chapter, and as such, is posed from a purely physical point of view.


title: If a tree falls in a forest

text: While physicists and good friends Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr were equally instrumental in founding quantum mechanics, the two had very different views on what quantum mechanics said about reality. On one of many daily lunchtime walks with fellow physicist Abraham Pais, who like Einstein was a close friend and associate of Bohr, Einstein suddenly stopped, turned to Pais, and asked: 'Do you really believe that the moon only exists if you look at it?" As recorded on the first page of "Subtle Is the Lord", Pais' biography of Einstein, Pais responded to the effect of: 'The twentieth century physicist does not, of course, claim to have the definitive answer to this question.' Pais' answer was representative not just of himself and of Bohr, but of the majority of quantum physicists of that time, a situation that over time led to Einstein's effective exclusion from the very group he helped found. As Pais indicated, the majority view of the quantum mechanics community then and arguably to this day is that existence in the absence of an observer is at best a conjecture, a conclusion that can neither be proven nor disproven.


title: If a tree falls in a forest

text: Can something exist without being perceived by consciousness? – e.g. ""is sound only sound if a person hears it?"" The most immediate philosophical topic that the riddle introduces involves the existence of the tree (and the sound it produces) outside of human perception. If no one is around to see, hear, touch or smell the tree, how could it be said to exist? What is it to say that it exists when such an existence is unknown? Of course, from a scientific viewpoint, it exists. It is human beings that are able to perceive it. George Berkeley in the 18th century developed subjective idealism, a metaphysical theory to respond to these questions, coined famously as "to be is to be perceived". Today, meta-physicists are split. According to substance theory, a substance is distinct from its properties, while according to bundle theory, an object is merely its sense data. The definition of sound, simplified, is a hearable noise. The tree will make a sound, even if nobody heard it, simply because it could have been heard.


title: If a tree falls in a forest

text: The answer to this question depends on the definition of sound. We can define sound as our perception of air vibrations. Therefore, sound does not exist if we do not hear it. When a tree falls, the motion disturbs the air and sends off air waves. This physical phenomenon, which can be measured by instruments other than our ears, exists regardless of human perception (seeing or hearing) of it. Putting together, although the tree falling on the island sends off air waves, it does not produce sound if no human is within the distance where the air waves are strong enough for a human to perceive them. However, if we define sound as the waves themselves, then sound would be produced.


title: If a tree falls in a forest

text: We shall not use one word to define two different things. If we define sound as waves, what word shall we use to describe the "sound" we hear? Here, we are talking about two different things. For a stone, a stone only senses air waves. Sound is meaningless to stone. Because stones cannot convert air waves into sound. Of course we shall use sound as the thing we hear. Then the waves between the vibration source and our ears, we shall not also use the same word “sound”. It is just air waves. This is a physics argument, not philosophy argument.


title: If a tree falls in a forest

text: Can we assume the unobserved world functions the same as the observed world? – e.g., ""does observation affect outcome?""<br>


title: If a tree falls in a forest

text: A similar question does not involve whether or not an unobserved event occurs "predictably", like it occurs when it is observed. The anthropic principle suggests that the observer, just in its existence, may impose on the reality observed.


title: If a tree falls in a forest

text: However, most people, as well as scientists, assume that the observer doesn't change whether the tree-fall causes a sound or not, but this is an impossible claim to prove. However, many scientists would argue that a truly unobserved event is one which realises no effect (imparts no information) on any other (where 'other' might be e.g., human, sound-recorder or rock), it therefore can have no legacy in the present (or ongoing) wider physical universe. It may then be recognized that the unobserved event was absolutely identical to an event which did not occur at all. Of course, the fact that the tree is known to have changed state from 'upright' to 'fallen' implies that the event must be observed to ask the question at all – even if only by the supposed deaf onlooker.


title: If a tree falls in a forest

text: The British philosopher of science Roy Bhaskar, credited with developing critical realism has argued, in apparent reference to this riddle, that:


title: If a tree falls in a forest

text: If men ceased to exist sound would continue to travel and heavy bodies to fall to the earth in exactly the same way, though ex hypothesi there would be no-one to know it


title: If a tree falls in a forest

text: This existence of an unobserved real is integral to Bhaskar's ontology, which contends (in opposition to the various strains of positivism which have dominated both natural and social science in the twentieth century) that 'real structures exist independently of and are often out of phase with the actual patterns of events'. In social science, this has made his approach popular amongst contemporary Marxists — notably Alex Callinicos – who postulate the existence of real social forces and structures which might not always be observable.


title: If a tree falls in a forest

text: What is the difference between what something is, and how it "appears"? – e.g., ""sound is the variation of pressure that propagates through matter as a wave""<br>


title: If a tree falls in a forest

text: Perhaps the most important topic the riddle offers is the division between perception of an object and how an object really is. If a tree exists outside of perception, then there is no way for us to know that the tree exists. So then, what do we mean by 'existence'; what is the difference between perception and reality? Also, people may also say, if the tree exists outside of perception (as common sense would dictate), then it will produce sound waves. However, these sound waves will not actually "sound" like anything. Sound as it is mechanically understood will occur, but sound as it is understood by sensation will not occur. So then, how is it known that 'sound as it is mechanically understood' will occur if that sound is not perceived?


title: If a tree falls in a forest

text: Canadian singer-songwriter, social activist and environmentalist Bruce Cockburn poses the question in the chorus of his song "If a Tree Falls," on his 1988 album "Big Circumstance". Cockburn's lyrics frame it a pressing question regarding the cause and effect of deforestation.


title: If a tree falls in a forest

text: Washington-state-based wilderness conservatory Northwest Trek used a shortened form of the quote in its mid-1970s television advertisement, as such: "There is no sound unless someone is there to see it or hear it. Experience it at Northwest Trek."


title: If a tree falls in a forest

text: A paraphrase of the quote ("When you're falling in a forest and there's nobody around / Do you ever really crash, or even make a sound?") forms the bridge of the protagonist's solo number "Waving Through A Window" in the musical "Dear Evan Hansen", in line with the tree motif essential to the plot. The song itself discusses a feeling of isolation through fear of failing in social interactions, as a part of the main character's social anxiety disorder.


title: If a tree falls in a forest

text: In LucasArts adventure game , Guybrush Threepwood meets Herman Thootrot on Dinky Island. In their dialogue the young pirate asks Herman to teach him philosophy. His lesson - humorously - focuses on solving this Zen puzzle: "If a tree falls in the forest, and no one is around to hear it ... what color is the tree?"


title: Bailey Zappe

text: Bailey Michael Zappe (, ) (born April 29, 1999) is an American football quarterback for the New England Patriots of the National Football League (NFL). He played his first three seasons of college football at Houston Baptist and used his last year of eligibility at Western Kentucky, where he set the FBS season records for passing yards and passing touchdowns. Zappe was selected by the Patriots in the fourth round of the 2022 NFL Draft.


title: Bailey Zappe

text: Zappe grew up in Victoria, Texas and attended Victoria East High School. As a senior, he passed for 3,770 yards and 37 touchdowns, while rushing for 633 yards and scoring 15 touchdowns. Zappe was not heavily recruited and committed to play college football at Houston Baptist University, which was his only scholarship offer.


title: Bailey Zappe

text: Zappe started nine games in his first year for the Huskies at Houston Baptist, passing for 1,548 yards with five touchdowns and 10 interceptions while rushing for two more touchdowns. As a redshirt sophomore, he completed 357-of-560 passes for 3,811 yards with 35 touchdowns and 15 interceptions. As a redshirt junior, he passed for 1,833 yards and 15 touchdowns against one interception in four games in a shortened season after the Southland Conference fall football season was canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Zappe entered the transfer portal after the season.


title: Bailey Zappe

text: Zappe committed to transfer to Western Kentucky University, following former Houston Baptist offensive coordinator Zach Kittley. Zappe's top wide receiver at Houston Baptist, Jerreth Sterns, also transferred to Western Kentucky. Zappe was named the Hilltoppers' starting quarterback going into the 2021 season. In his first start for Western Kentucky, he passed for 424 yards and seven touchdowns in a 59–21 win over Tennessee-Martin.


title: Bailey Zappe

text: During the 2021 regular season, Zappe led the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) passing for 5,545 yards and throwing for 56 touchdowns. Before the 2021 Boca Raton Bowl, he had thrown for nearly 1,100 yards more than the second-ranked FBS quarterback (Will Rogers of Mississippi State), and was within striking distance of the FBS records for passing yardage and touchdowns, set by B. J. Symons of Texas Tech in 2003 and Joe Burrow of LSU in 2019, respectively. In the 2021 Boca Raton Bowl against the Appalachian State Mountaineers, he broke both records, finishing the season with 5,967 passing yards and 62 touchdowns.


title: Bailey Zappe

text: The New England Patriots selected Zappe in the fourth round of the 2022 NFL Draft with the 137th overall pick. He was named the third-string quarterback for the 2022 season behind starter Mac Jones and second-string backup Brian Hoyer.


title: Bailey Zappe

text: When an injury rendered Jones inactive for Week 4 against the Green Bay Packers, Zappe was promoted to the second option behind Hoyer, but made his NFL debut the same game after Hoyer was injured during the first quarter. He completed 10 of 15 passes for 99 yards and a touchdown in the 27–24 loss. Zappe was also the first rookie to throw a touchdown pass during the season. He made his starting debut the following week against the Detroit Lions, completing 17 of 21 passes for 188 yards, a touchdown, and an interception in the 29–0 shutout victory. After a Week 6 victory over the Cleveland Browns, during which he threw for 309 yards and two touchdowns, Zappe became the Super Bowl era's first rookie quarterback to win his first two starts and have a passer rating of at least 100 in each.


title: Bailey Zappe

text: Zappe was named the backup in the Week 7 "Monday Night Football" matchup with the Chicago Bears due to Jones' return, but relieved a struggling Jones during the second quarter. He threw a touchdown pass on his first drive and led the Patriots to a touchdown on his second, but did not score again and threw two interceptions in the 33–14 defeat. For the following week's game against the New York Jets, Zappe was retained as the team's backup behind Jones.


title: School uniforms in Japan

text: The Japanese school uniform is modeled in appearance similar to that of the European-style naval uniforms. It was first used in Japan in the late 19th century, replacing the traditional kimono. Today, school uniforms are common in many of the Japanese public and private school systems. The Japanese word for this type of uniform is .


title: School uniforms in Japan

text: The majority of Japan's junior high and high schools require students to wear uniforms. The Japanese school uniform is not only a symbol of youth but also plays an important role in the country's culture, as they are felt to help instill a sense of discipline and community among youth. There are many types of uniforms that range from standard to unique ones varying in the ensembles used.


title: School uniforms in Japan

text: Originally students just wore standard everyday clothes to school; kimono for female students, with for male students. During the Meiji period, students began to wear uniforms modelled after Western dress.


title: School uniforms in Japan

text: Initially, in the 1880s, female students wore Western dress, but this was rather impractical. Utako Shimoda (1854-1936), a women's activist, educator and dress reformer, found traditional kimono to be too restrictive, preventing women and girls from moving and taking part in physical activities, harming their health. While western dress was being adopted at the time, she also believed corsets to be restrictive and harmful to women's health. Utako Shimoda had worked as lady-in-waiting to Empress Shōken from 1871-1879. She adapted the clothing worn by ladies-in-waiting at the Japanese imperial court, which included , to make a uniform for her Jissen Women's School. During the Meiji period (1868–1912) and the following Taishō period (1912–1926), other women's schools also adopted the . It became standard wear for high schools in Japan, and is still worn to graduations.


title: School uniforms in Japan

text: During the Taishō period, male students began to wear (matching black trousers and a tunic with a standing collar and five gold buttons, and geta). These are still worn today.


title: School uniforms in Japan

text: There was then a fashion for European-style naval uniforms, called in Japanese, and first used in the 19th century. The idea was taken from scaled-down sailor suits worn by children coming from royal European families. It was relatively easy to sew and thus was easily adopted in the country. Talking about junior and senior high school uniforms, the traditional attire was taken from the Meiji period consisting of military-style uniform for boys and sailor outfit for girls. After which, many schools adopted a more Western-pattern Catholic uniform style. Girls started wearing white blouses with ties, blazers with their school crests, and skirts. Boys also wore white shirts with ties, blazers, and tailored trousers. Schools in Japan do not have gender-exclusive locker rooms; thus, it is quite difficult to change from classroom uniforms into sports uniforms. As a result, most students wear their sports uniforms under their classroom uniforms. Some schools are very particular with the hairstyles as well as the footwear, too. Traditionally, school uniforms were worn outside of school.


title: School uniforms in Japan

text: The and sailor-style dress have always been a part of Japan's "growing modern" culture due to its formal appearance and its existence as a concept. Old-fashioned textbooks state that the uniforms were based on the Imperial Japanese Army uniform rather than the European uniforms. The sides of the uniform are similar to existing styles of Japanese dressmaking and the collar had straight lines. Many home economics classes in Japan up until the 1950s gave sewing sailor outfits as assignments. Girls sewed sailor outfits for younger children in their communities. In the 1980s, gangs began modifying uniforms by making skirts longer and shortening the tops, and so schools began switching to blazer or sweater vest style uniforms to try to combat the effect. , 50% of Japanese junior high schools and 20% of senior high schools use sailor suit uniforms. The stated in 2012 that, "The sailor suit is changing from adorable and cute, a look that 'appeals to the boys,' to a uniform that 'girls like to wear for themselves.'" As of that year, contemporary sailor suits have front closures with zippers or snaps and more constructed bodices. The stated that "the form is snug to enhance the figure—the small collar helps the head look smaller, for better balance."


title: School uniforms in Japan

text: The Japanese junior and senior-high-school uniform traditionally consists of a military-styled uniform for boys and a sailor outfit for girls. These uniforms are based on Meiji-period formal military dress, themselves modeled on European-style naval uniforms. The sailor outfits replace the undivided (known as ) designed by Utako Shimoda between 1920 and 1930. While this style of uniform is still in use, many schools have moved to more Western-pattern Catholic school uniform styles. These uniforms consist of a white shirt, tie, blazer with school crest, and tailored trousers (often not of the same color as the blazer) for boys and a white blouse, tie, blazer with school crest, and tartan culottes or skirt for girls.


title: School uniforms in Japan

text: Regardless of what type of uniform any particular school assigns its students, all schools have a summer version of the uniform (usually consisting of just a white dress shirt and the uniform slacks for boys and a reduced-weight traditional uniform or blouse and tartan skirt with tie for girls) and a sports-activity uniform (a polyester track suit for year-round use and a T-shirt and short pants for summer activities). Depending on the discipline level of any particular school, students may often wear different seasonal and activity uniforms within the same classroom during the day. Individual students may attempt to subvert the system of uniforms by wearing their uniforms incorrectly or by adding prohibited elements such as large loose socks or badges. Girls may shorten their skirts, permanently or by wrapping up the top to decrease length; boys may wear trousers about the hips, omit ties, or keep their shirts unbuttoned.


title: School uniforms in Japan

text: Since some schools do not have sex-segregated changing- or locker-rooms, students may change for sporting activities in their classrooms. As a result, such students may wear their sports uniforms under their classroom uniforms. Certain schools also regulate student hairstyles, footwear, and book bags; but these particular rules are usually adhered to only on special occasions, such as trimester opening and closing ceremonies and school photo days.


title: School uniforms in Japan

text: It is normal for uniforms to be worn outside of school areas, but this is going out of fashion and many students wear casual dress outside of school. While not many public elementary schools in Japan require uniforms, many private schools and public schools run by the central government still do so.


title: School uniforms in Japan

text: The and the are the uniforms for many middle-school and high-school boys in Japan. The color is normally black, but some schools use navy blue.


title: School uniforms in Japan

text: The top has a standing collar buttoning down from top-to-bottom. Buttons are usually decorated with the school emblem to show respect to the school. Pants are straight leg and a black or dark-colored belt is worn with them. Boys usually wear penny loafers or sneakers with this uniform. Some schools may require the students to wear collar-pins representing the school and/or class rank.


title: School uniforms in Japan

text: Traditionally, the is also worn along with a matching (usually black) student cap, although this custom is less common in modern times.


title: School uniforms in Japan

text: The is derived from the Prussian Waffenrock or the Christian clergy cassock. The term is a combination of meaning "study" or "student", and meaning the Netherlands or, historically in Japan, the West in general; thus, translates as "Western style clothes for student (uniform)".


title: School uniforms in Japan

text: The original model of the present day was first established in 1886 for the students of Tokyo University. During the Japanese occupation, such clothing was also brought to school in South Korea and pre-1949 China. Nowadays, the is still worn in some South Korean high schools.


title: School uniforms in Japan

text: While the is associated solely as the boys' uniform of most junior high schools and few high schools nowadays, blazers began to be adopted in most number of high schools in Japan (both public and private).


title: School uniforms in Japan

text: The () is a common style of uniform worn by female middle school students, traditionally by high school students, and occasionally, elementary school students. It was introduced as a school uniform in 1920 in and 1921 by the principal of , Elizabeth Lee. It was modeled after the uniform used by the British Royal Navy at the time, which Lee had experienced as an exchange student in the United Kingdom.


title: School uniforms in Japan

text: Much like the male uniform, the , the sailor outfits bears a similarity to various military styled naval uniforms. The uniform generally consists of a blouse attached with a sailor-style collar and a pleated skirt. There are seasonal variations for summer and winter; sleeve length and fabric are adjusted accordingly. A ribbon is tied in the front and laced through a loop attached to the blouse. Several variations on the ribbon include neckties, bolo ties, neckerchiefs, and bows. Common colors include navy blue, white, gray, light green, and black.


title: School uniforms in Japan

text: Shoes, socks, and other accessories are sometimes included as part of the uniform. These socks are typically navy or white. The shoes are typically brown or black penny loafers. Although not part of the prescribed uniform, alternate forms of legwear (such as loose socks, knee-length stockings, or similar) are also commonly matched by more fashionable girls with their sailor outfits.


title: School uniforms in Japan

text: The sailor uniform today is generally associated solely with junior high schools, since a majority of high schools have changed to more Western-style plaid skirts or blazers.


title: School uniforms in Japan

text: School uniform varies throughout different schools in Japan, with some schools known for their particular uniforms. School uniform can have a nostalgic characteristic for former students, and are often associated with relatively carefree youth. Uniforms are sometimes modified by students as a means of exhibiting individualism. This is done in ways such as lengthening or shortening the skirt, removing the ribbon, hiding patches or badges under the collar, etc. In past decades, brightly-colored variants of the sailor outfits were also adopted by Japanese , and biker gangs.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The Democratic Alliance (, DA) is a South African political party and the official opposition to the ruling African National Congress (ANC). The party is broadly centrist, and has been attributed both centre-left and centre-right policies. It is a member of Liberal International and the Africa Liberal Network. The DA traces its roots to the founding of the anti-apartheid Progressive Party in 1959, with many mergers and name changes between that time and the present. The DA ideologically shows a variety of liberal tendencies, including social liberalism, classical liberalism, and conservative liberalism.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The current leader of the party is John Steenhuisen, who was announced as the new leader on 1 November 2020 after the party's Federal Congress. He had previously acted as the interim leader of the party from November 2019 to November 2020. Helen Zille is chairperson of both the Federal Council and the Federal Executive, the highest decision-making structures of the party. In addition to governing several major metropolitan municipalities, the DA has been governing the Western Cape, one of South Africa's nine provinces, since the 2009 general election, having won a bigger majority at the election in 2014, but slightly losing support in the 2019 election. As of 2014, the party draws its support predominantly from Afrikaans- and English-speaking people (>80% of its voters), people aged over 35 (>65%), and white people (>50%), as well as the Indian and Coloured communities.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: Although the Democratic Alliance in its present form is fairly new, its roots can be traced far back in South African political history, through a complex sequence of splits and mergers. The modern day DA is in large part a product of the white parliamentary opposition to the ruling National Party. The origin of the party can be traced to the mid 1950s when some younger members of the United Party felt that they were not providing strong enough opposition to the National Party and its policy of Apartheid, causing them to break away and form the Progressive Party in 1959. In the 1970s, as it rose to become the official opposition, the party would merge with more splinters from the disintegrating United Party and become known first as the Progressive Reform Party and then as the Progressive Federal Party. The Progressives sought to change the system from within, but in doing so chose to comply with Apartheid legislation outlawing multi-racial membership. During this time, the party was led by liberal-minded opponents of apartheid, such as Jan Steytler, Helen Suzman, Zach de Beer, Colin Eglin, Frederik van Zyl Slabbert and Harry Schwarz. In 1989, it would merge with two smaller reformist organisations to become the Democratic Party, a name that was retained into the 1990s when freedom was achieved. It was marginalised by the National Party's shift towards the center after 1990, and fared relatively poorly in the first democratic election in 1994, won by the African National Congress.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The DP would establish itself as a more effective party of opposition, however, and eventually rose from relative obscurity and ascended to the status of official opposition in 1999 under the leadership of Tony Leon, mainly by taking votes from the New National Party, the renamed version of the NP. The party also became kingmakers in the Western Cape province, where it formed a coalition government with the NNP. With a fractured national opposition standing against an increasingly dominant governing party, there was a perceived need to better challenge the ANC. To this end, the DP reached a merger agreement with the NNP and the much smaller Federal Alliance (FA) in 2000. Together, they formed the Democratic Alliance. The merger was ultimately aborted, with both the NNP and FA leaving the DA. Many former NNP members remained, and the new name was kept.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The DP was disbanded after the 2003 floor crossing period, establishing the DA at all levels of government.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The party consolidated its status as the official opposition in the 2004 general election, while the NNP collapsed. Having gone into opposition in the Western Cape in 2001 when the NNP formed a new coalition with the ANC, the demise of the NNP made the province a natural target for the party. In the 2006 municipal elections, the DA narrowly gained control of its largest city, Cape Town, in a multi-party coalition. Helen Zille, the executive mayor of Cape Town, then succeeded Leon as DA Party Leader in May 2007. In 2008, she re-launched the party as one that no longer acts solely as an opposition but also as an alternative choice for government. The party also introduced a new logo and a new slogan. Zille said the new DA would be "more reflective of our rich racial, linguistic and cultural heritage", and emphasized that she wanted it to be a "party for all the people" and not decline into a "shrinking, irrelevant minority". The Western Cape was won by DA with an outright majority in the 2009 general election, and Zille became the new provincial premier. In her newsletter, she wrote that "winning power in the Western Cape will allow us to show what co-operative governance between local authorities and a province can achieve". In the 2011 local government elections, the party won control of most of the municipalities in the Western Cape.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: In 2013, the DA launched the "Know Your DA" campaign, in an attempt to try to show that the DA (via its proxy predecessor organisations) was involved in the struggle against apartheid. This campaign focused mainly on the role played by a few key individuals in opposing apartheid — particularly Helen Suzman and Helen Zille. The campaign received a certain amount of media attention, much of it somewhat sceptical. The ANC issued a detailed critique of the campaign, focusing especially on Suzman's role in the apartheid parliament. Partially on the basis of this campaign the DA contested the 2014 general election, where it once again grew its support base but failed in its stated goal of winning Gauteng province.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: In the municipal elections of 2016, the DA made significant gains along with other opposition parties in some of the country's most important metropolitan areas. The DA currently governs Tshwane (including Pretoria, the administrative capital), Cape Town (South Africa's second-largest city and legislative capital) and various other municipalities.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: In the general elections of 2019, the DA's national support declined for the first time in its history. The party retained control of the Western Cape but with a reduced majority and failed to win Gauteng once again. The conservative Freedom Front Plus made significant gains on the DA in the Afrikaner community. Since the election, the FF Plus has continued to make inroads in former DA strongholds.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The DA sums up its political philosophy as the belief in an "Open Opportunity Society for All". Former party leader Helen Zille has argued that this stands in direct contrast to the ruling ANC's approach to governance, which she maintains has led to a "closed, crony society for some". This formed the basis of the philosophy underlying the party's 2009 Election Manifesto, which seeks to build a society by linking outcomes to "opportunity, effort and ability".


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The DA's historical roots are broadly liberal-democratic. During the 1990s, the party remained associated with liberal values, though party leader Tony Leon's support for the reintroduction of the death penalty, the party's controversial 1999 campaign slogan "Fight Back", and the short-lived alliance with the centre-right New National Party fuelled criticisms of the party from the left. After Helen Zille's election as party leader, the DA has attempted to reposition itself as a mainstream alternative to the ANC. The party's economic policy is also broadly centrist, and supports a mix of high spending on crucial social services such as education and health care, a basic income grant, and a strong regulatory framework, with more "moderate" policies such as a lower budget deficit and a deregulated labour market. At her 2009 State of the Province speech, party leader Zille described her party's economic policy as pragmatic: "We believe the state has a crucial role to play in socio-economic development. We are not free market fundamentalists. By the same token we do not believe that a state, with limited capacity, should over-reach itself."


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: In the DA's crime plan, "Conquering Fear, Commanding Hope", the DA committed itself to increasing the number of police officers to 250,000. This is 60,000 more than the government's own target. The party also announced plans to employ 30,000 additional detectives and forensics experts and 500 more prosecutors, in order to reduce court backlogs, and establish a Directorate for Victims of Crime, which would provide funding and support for crime victims.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: In addition, the party announced its support for a prison labour programme, which would put prisoners to work in various community upliftment programmes. The proposal was criticised by labour unions, who believed it was unethical and would result in labour job losses.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: In late 2008–2009, the DA took a stand against the South African Police Service's VIP Protection Unit, after several officers in the unit were charged with serious criminal offences. The party later released documentation of the unit's poor disciplinary record, and claimed its divisional commander had himself dodged serious criminal charges.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The DA strongly opposed the disbandment of the Scorpions crime investigation unit, and similar efforts to centralise the police service such as the nationwide disbandment of specialised Family Violence, Child Protection and Sexual Offences (FCS) units.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The party adopted a resolution declaring farm attacks and murders as hate crimes at its 2020 Federal Congress.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: Central to the DA's social development policy, "Breaking the Cycle of Poverty", is a Basic Income Grant, which would provide a monthly transfer of R110 to all adults earning less than R46,000 per year. The party also supports legislation that would require the legal guardians of children living in poverty to ensure that their child attends 85 per cent of school classes, and undergoes routine health check-ups.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: In addition, to aid with youth development skills, the party proposed a R6000 opportunity voucher or twelve month community service programme to all high school matriculants. The party also supports a universal old age pension, and the abolishment of pension means tests.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The DA's education programme, "Preparing for Success", focuses on providing adequate physical and human resources to underperforming schools. The DA supports guaranteed access to a core minimum of resources for each school, proper state school nutrition schemes for grade 1–12 learners, and measures to train 30,000 additional teachers per year. The DA continues to support the introduction of new performance targets for teachers and schools, and also advocates a per-child wage subsidy, and a national network of community-based early childhood education centres.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The DA's "Quality Care for All" programme is focused on tackling the country's high HIV/AIDS infection rate. Included in these plans is an increase in the number of clinics offering HIV testing and measures to provide all HIV-positive women with Nevirapine. The party's health policy also plans to devote more resources to vaccinations against common childhood illnesses.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The party also advocates creating a transparent and competitive health sector, to boost service delivery and encourage health care practitioners to remain in the country.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The DA's economic policy aims to create a society in which all South Africans enjoy both the fundamental freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution, and the opportunities to take advantage of those freedoms. In its 2010 Federal Congress booklet, "The Open Opportunity Society for All", the party describes this society in the following terms: "Opportunity is the vehicle with which people are empowered to live their lives, pursue their dreams and develop their full potential. And the DA believes that the role of the government is to provide every citizen with a minimum basic standard of quality services and resources with which to be able to do so – a framework for choice."


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The DA therefore advocates a mixed-economy approach, where the state is involved in the economy only to the extent that it can expand opportunity and choice.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The manifesto includes various proposals detailing how a DA government would manage the economy and facilitate growth. The majority of the interventions suggested by the party are aimed at creating an atmosphere conducive to job creation and greater foreign direct investment.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The DA has suggested measures to make South Africa's labour market more amenable to job creation. The party has also suggested several targeted interventions to allow for higher employment, especially amongst the youth. These interventions include a wage subsidy programme to reduce the cost of hiring first-time workers.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The DA has committed itself to a counter-cyclical fiscal policy approach. This is evident in the party's previous alternative budget frameworks, with both alternative budgets posting deficits. The party defended this stance by arguing that increased spending was necessary to help the economy out of recession. Other fiscal interventions have included a proposed scrapping of value added tax (VAT) on books and tax rebates for crime prevention expenditure by businesses.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The DA supports an inflation-targeting monetary policy regime similar to that of the ANC government. It has also repeatedly reaffirmed its support and commitment for reserve bank instrument independence. The DA proposes to incentivise savings by reducing taxes on income earned from fixed deposits that are held for longer than twelve months. The party states that this would help South Africa to boost its domestic savings rate to enable the country to invest in projects that will provide additional job opportunities.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The party has rejected the ANC's approach to Black Economic Empowerment, with former party leader Helen Zille arguing that the current policies have only served to enrich a small elite of politically connected businessmen. The party proposed an alternative it calls broad-based economic empowerment, which would provide for targeted interventions focusing on skills training and socio-economic investment instead of ownership targets. The party believes that this approach will give a broader group of black South Africans an opportunity to compete and partake in the economy.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The party advocates an active industrial policy that allows the Industrial Development Corporation (IDC) to co-ordinate industrial policy. Additionally it would also set up a sovereign venture capital fund to help support innovation in key industries. The DA also supports the creation of Industrial Development Zones and Export Processing Zones. The party suggests that by relaxing certain regulations in these zones, manufacturers and exporters would be able to grow faster and employ more people. This fits into the party's broader vision of growing the economy by cutting red tape and regulations it claims is holding back South Africa's economic growth.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The DA has been against the introduction of a national minimum wage, arguing that workers should be allowed to accept a wage of less than R3500 on their own terms. On the other hand, The Presidency stated that the R3500 per month (R20 an hour) minimum wage was still not a living wage, and would only "advance the struggle for a living wage".


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The DA is resolutely against land expropriation without compensation. This is in response to the ANC and the EFF's recent attempts to change section 25 of the Constitution which deals with land reform. The DA says that changing the Constitution will open the floodgates and undermine property rights, allowing government to own all land and forcing all South Africans to be only permanent tenants of the land. The party says that it is committed to ensuring that those entitled to land receive it in the form of direct ownership, and not as lifelong tenants.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The DA's "Land of Opportunity" programme supports the "willing buyer, willing seller" principle, though it also allows for expropriation for reform purposes in certain limited circumstances. The party has been critical of the resources that government has allocated to land reform, claiming that government has not been sufficiently active in buying up land that comes onto the market. Though the DA believes this could speed up the pace of land reform, their policies have been vocally criticised by members of the Tripartite Alliance. Land Affairs Minister Thoko Didiza accused the DA of attempting to "stifle" land reform, while the South African Communist Party contended that the DA's policies overly favoured big business. In a speech at the DA's national congress in April 2018, DA Leader, Mmusi Maimane, praised DA Western Cape Provincial Leader, Bonginkosi Madikizela, for overseeing the delivery of 91 000 title deeds in the province and allowing residents to have full title deeds to their homes.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: In the build up to the 2009 elections, the DA announced it would create a new Ministry of Energy and Climate Change, to ensure improved integrated energy planning in order to deal with South Africa's growing carbon dioxide emissions. The DA's 2009 environment and energy plan, "In Trust for the Nation" proposed new measures to increase energy efficiency, and the introduction of sectoral carbon emission targets.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The DA broadly supports reforms recommended by Frederik van Zyl Slabbert's electoral reform task-team, that would see the current party list voting system replaced by a 75% constituency-based/25% proportional representation-based electoral system that would apply at the national and provincial level. The DA's governance policy Promoting Open Opportunity Governance also makes provision for the direct election of the president, which would give voters a more direct link to the executive branch.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The DA believe voting rights should be extended to include all South African citizens who are living and working abroad, many of whom intend returning. Since 2013, South Africans living abroad can now register and vote in national elections.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: These charts show the electoral performance for the Democratic Alliance, and its predecessor the Democratic Party, since the advent of democracy in 1994:


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The Democratic Alliance Youth (DA Youth), which came officially into being in late 2008, was first led by Makashule Gana until 2013, Mbali Ntuli led between 2013 and 2014, Yusuf Cassim led from 2014 to 2018 and Luyolo Mphithi led from 2018 to 2022. The current Interim Federal Leader, Nicholas Nyati, was elected at the Interim Democratic Alliance Youth Federal Congress in 2022. Robin Atson, Kamogelo Makola, Chadwin Petersen and Lindokuhle Sixabayi are the Interim DA Youth Federal Deputy Chaipersons in Administration, Recruitment, Training and Development, and Media and Publicity, respectively.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: In the Gauteng Province, the first dually elected Democratic Alliance Youth Provincial Executive Committee took office in November 2017 after they were elected at the Gauteng Provincial Congress the same year. It consists of Pogiso Mthimunye (Chairperson), Patrick Oberholster (Deputy Chairperson), Khathutshelo Rasilingwane (Recruitment and Campaigns) and Prudence Mollo (Training and Development).


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: In the North West Province of South Africa, Emi Koekemoer is the elected Provincial Chairperson while Henning Lubbe takes the role as Provincial Deputy Chairperson of Administration, Quinton Booysen fills the role of Provincial Deputy Chairperson of Recruitment and Campaigns, Percilla Mompe is the Provincial Deputy Chairperson of Media and Publicity and Neo Mabote is the Provincial Deputy Chairperson of Training and Development.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: Until 28 April 2021, the Democratic Alliance Women's Network (DAWN) federal leader was Nomafrench Mbombo, who is also the current Western Cape Minister of Health. The deputy federal leader is Safiyia Stanfley.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The DA Abroad is the Democratic Alliance's supporters network for South Africans who live outside the South African border. The DA Abroad aims to grow the DA's overseas voter base, actively lobby for international awareness and influence for the furtherance of policies and action programmes of the DA and develop a global interconnected community that supports an open opportunity society for all.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The Democratic Alliance Abroad (DA Abroad) was officially launched in November 2009. Previously the DA Abroad was led by Ludre Stevens between 2009–2015 and then by Francine Higham between 2015–2019 with Morné Van der Waltsleben as Global Operations Chair from 2013–2017. Between 2019 and 2021 it was led by Rory Jubber with Nigel Bruce acting as Chairperson. On 27 August 2021, Ludre Stevens was elected unopposed as DA Abroad Leader.


title: Democratic Alliance (South Africa)

text: The DA's Young Leaders Programme (YLP) is a political leadership development programme for South Africans between the ages of 18 and 35.


title: Saturn Awards

text: The Saturn Awards are American awards presented annually by the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy and Horror Films. The awards were created to honor science fiction, fantasy, and horror in film, but have since grown to reward other films belonging to genre fiction, as well as television and home media releases. The Saturn Awards were created in 1973 and were originally referred to as Golden Scrolls.


title: Saturn Awards

text: The Saturn Awards were devised by Donald A. Reed in 1973, who felt that work in films in the genre of science fiction at that time lacked recognition within the established Hollywood film industry's award system. Initially, the award given was a Golden Scroll certificate. In the late 1970s, the award was changed to be a representation of the planet Saturn, with its ring(s) composed of film.


title: Saturn Awards

text: The Saturn Awards are voted upon by members of the presenting Academy. The Academy is a non-profit organization with membership open to the public. Its president and executive producer is Robert Holguin, and producer/writers Bradley Marcus and Kevin Marcus. Its members include filmmakers J. J. Abrams, Bryan Singer, Steven Spielberg, Bryan Fuller, Mark A. Altman, Vince Gilligan and James Cameron, among others.


title: Saturn Awards

text: Although the Awards still primarily focus on films and television in the science fiction, fantasy and horror categories, the Saturns have also recognized productions in other dramatic genres. There are also special awards for lifetime achievement in film production.


title: The Mist (TV series)

text: The Mist is an American science fiction-horror thriller television series developed by Christian Torpe. It is based on the 1980 horror novella of the same name by author Stephen King. The series aired for one 10-episode season on Spike from June 22 to August 24, 2017. Spike later cancelled the series on September 27 the same year.


title: The Mist (TV series)

text: An unexplained mist slowly envelops the town of Bridgeville, Maine, creating an almost impenetrable barrier to visibility. The residents of the town soon learn the situation is even more precarious as unexplained anomalies and phenomena in the mist attack and kill most who enter it, trapping several groups of people in a shopping mall, a church, and a hospital. Eventually, people begin to see apparitions in the mist from their past, fears, or guilt that help or kill them depending on how they react.


title: The Mist (TV series)

text: Following the release of Frank Darabont's film adaptation of "The Mist" in 2007, executive producers Bob Weinstein and Harvey Weinstein announced plans to develop a miniseries based on the film. In November 2013, Bob Weinstein announced that a 10-part miniseries would begin production under their Dimension Television banner. It was unclear if film director Darabont would be involved in the series and the development remained stagnant for a period of time.


title: The Mist (TV series)

text: In September 2015, nearly two years after the project was announced, Dimension Television announced they had signed screenwriter Christian Torpe to pen the entire series. In February 2016, Spike picked up the pilot. In April 2016, it was announced a deal had been reached with Spike to air the entire series. In July 2016, the production company announced the series had been cast and gone into production in Halifax, Nova Scotia.


title: The Mist (TV series)

text: The ten episodes of the first season were reportedly produced on a budget of approximately . The government of Nova Scotia announced in July 2016 that it would contribute for the series. The production marks the biggest entertainment production ever to shoot in the province.


title: The Mist (TV series)

text: In July 2016, Dimension Television announced Morgan Spector would play the lead character of Kevin Copeland. Other cast members announced included Frances Conroy, Alyssa Sutherland, Zenna Davis-Jones, Gus Birney, Dan Butler, Luke Cosgrove, Danica Curcic, Okezie Morro, Darren Pettie, Russell Posner and Isiah Whitlock, Jr.


title: The Mist (TV series)

text: After the pilot episode received strong ratings, viewer numbers rapidly declined. The series averaged a rating of 0.14 in adults aged 18–49, and 462,000 viewers per episode in Nielsen's Live+Same Day ratings. The series was canceled in September 2017.


title: The Mist (TV series)

text: The series received mixed reviews from critics, who praised its atmosphere and special effects, but criticized its story, performances, underdeveloped characters and unfaithfulness to the source material. On Rotten Tomatoes, the series has an approval rating of 60% based on 47 reviews, with an average rating of 5.7/10. The site's critical consensus reads, ""The Mist" absorbing atmosphere and solid special effects struggle to overcome a generally uninspired story and performances." On Metacritic, the series has a weighted average score of 54 out of 100 based on 25 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: The Mist (TV series)

text: Chris Scott of "The New York Observer" described it as "relentlessly bleak, mean, and downright sadistic at nearly every turn", linking this with the falling ratings over the series' course. "Indiewire" reviewer Ben Travers described the plot as predictable and characters as "pretty awful", leaving viewers "rooting for the mist instead of those running from it".


title: The Mist (TV series)

text: Ed Power of "The Daily Telegraph" felt that it was a middling effort for King's works, and that it benefited from sticking to familiar horror themes and tropes.


title: Tetsuo: The Iron Man

text: A metal fetishist enters his Tokyo hideout, which is full of metal parts and photos of famous athletes. He cuts open his thigh and thrusts a large metal rod into the wound. Later, he unwraps the wound to discover it rotting and covered with maggots. Horrified, he runs outside into the street and gets hit by a car.


title: Tetsuo: The Iron Man

text: A salaryman is tormented by visions of metal and industrial machinery. While shaving in his apartment, he notices a metal spike protruding from his cheek that spurts blood when he touches it. He speaks to his girlfriend on the phone, who says she cannot stop thinking about an unknown "incident".


title: Tetsuo: The Iron Man

text: The salaryman is on his way to work. He goes to a train platform and sits next to a woman wearing glasses. She notices a mound of flesh and metal on the ground. She pokes it with a pen and is quickly overcome by it, turning her into a monster controlled by the fetishist. The salaryman flees in terror, briefly able to escape by stabbing the woman with a pen. She soon finds him but he is able to defeat her. After the fight, he realizes the flesh on his arm has turned into metal.


title: Tetsuo: The Iron Man

text: The salaryman dreams of his girlfriend dancing erotically with a phallic hose before sodomizing him with it. When he wakes, the salaryman is horrified to see his metal transformation is accelerating. He and his girlfriend have sex. Afterwards, his girlfriend eats suggestively, each interaction with the food accompanied by metallic screeching sounds. Suddenly the salaryman's penis is transformed into a large metal drill. He loses control and attacks his girlfriend. After she briefly incapacitates him with a blow to the head from a frying pan, he regains his strength through electrocution by sticking a knife and fork into an electrical socket. Finally, she stabs him in the neck with a kitchen knife. Believing that she has killed him, she kills herself by impaling herself on his drill. The salaryman awakens and realizes what has happened, while elsewhere the fetishist laughs maniacally.


title: Tetsuo: The Iron Man

text: A flashback shows a doctor talking to a younger version of the fetishist, who came to him with a piece of metal in his head. The doctor says that he's amazed he's still alive and that it's impossible for him to remove the metal from his head, ultimately advising him to think of it as jewelry.


title: Tetsuo: The Iron Man

text: The salaryman's transformation into "the Iron Man" is complete. He receives a phone call from the fetishist, who tells the Iron Man that he is coming for him. It is revealed that the salaryman and his girlfriend are the ones that struck the fetishist with their car, disposing of the body in the woods and then having sex up against a nearby tree. Upon realizing this, the Iron Man electrocutes himself again.


title: Tetsuo: The Iron Man

text: The fetishist makes his way to the Iron Man's apartment, destroying all metal in his wake and turning his cats into metal. He possesses the body of the dead girlfriend and attacks the Iron Man, eventually emerging in his true form. The fetishist easily overpowers the Iron Man and shows him a post-apocalyptic vision of the "New World" - the Earth consumed by metal. A fight ensues and the fetishist chases the Iron Man across the city, before being briefly incapacitated by a vision from childhood where he is repeatedly beaten by a man with the metal rod that became embedded in his head.


title: Tetsuo: The Iron Man

text: The Iron Man escapes to an old factory, but the fetishist appears and attacks him. The Iron Man uses his powers to manipulate the metal around him and overpower the fetishist. This results in the two men merging into a single phallic mass of metal. They then vow to turn the Earth into a planet made entirely out of metal as they rocket around the city.


title: Tetsuo: The Iron Man

text: Tsukamoto had previously made two short films of similar subject matter, "The Phantom of Regular Size" (1986) and "The Adventure of Denchu Kozo" (1987), and their critical successes gave him the confidence to produce "Tetsuo: The Iron Man", all with money saved from his day job.


title: Tetsuo: The Iron Man

text: The film was Tsukamoto's first movie shot on 16mm, all of his previous work having been done with Super 8 cameras. The camera work was split between Tsukamoto and Kei Fujiwara, both of whom also play the roles of major characters. It was shot in black and white with expressionistic lighting, as well as some stop motion animation shots to accomplish the special effects. Parts from discarded TVs were taped onto the actors' skin to create the effect of the body transforming. Tsukamoto chose these handmade methods because he couldn't afford to do it any other way.


title: Tetsuo: The Iron Man

text: "Tetsuo: The Iron Man" was filmed over 18 months, primarily in Fujiwara's apartment. By the end of the production, most of the crew had abandoned Tsukamoto because the filming conditions were so difficult. In Tom Mes's 2005 book "Iron Man: The Cinema of Shinya Tsukamoto", he interviewed Tomorowo Taguchi (the only member of cast/crew who didn't live on set). He noted, "It was very tough so I quickly sensed that if you would stay with them all the time, you would inevitably get the urge to escape. So I figured that if I could keep some distance, I would be able to last much longer and keep a good relationship with them. It's true that almost every day I went there another crew member would have left. One day I arrived at the house and the lighting crew had gone, so I had to do the lighting for Tsukamoto's scenes myself. Toward the end, only the actors were still around. Nearly the entire crew had given up and left by then." Tsukamoto later admitted he had considered burning the film's negatives because the whole production had been such a bad experience.


title: Tetsuo: The Iron Man

text: "Tetsuo: The Iron Man" struggled to find an audience until it was shown at the 1989 Fantafestival in Rome where it received the award for best film. It was screened without subtitles because the filmmakers couldn't afford to add them. The domestic film rights belong to Japan Home Video, and the film was given a limited theatrical release in Japan at the Nakano Musashino Hall in 1989. It showed mostly in late-night screenings, but had packed audiences after the success at Fantafestival.


title: Tetsuo: The Iron Man

text: After this success in Japan, it was given a limited release in the United States by Original Cinema in 1992. It was subsequently released on VHS by Fox Lorber. The film was released twice on DVD in the United States; by Image Entertainment in 1998 and by Tartan Video in 2005. The film was also released on laserdisc in the United States by Image Entertainment in 1993. All releases are currently out of print.


title: Tetsuo: The Iron Man

text: In 2020, Arrow Video announced the release of their "Solid Metal Nightmares" set, a collection of Shinya Tsukamoto's films on Blu-ray, including "Tetsuo: The Iron Man". The set was released on May 26, 2020.


title: Tetsuo: The Iron Man

text: "Tetsuo: The Iron Man" received mostly positive reviews from critics. It currently has a 79% rating on film review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 7.10/10 based on 14 reviews.


title: Tetsuo: The Iron Man

text: Stephen Holden of "The New York Times" described the film as having "hyperkinetic pacing and wildly contorted acting" as well as "a perverse sense of humor", and concluded that "the appeal...should be limited to aficionados of weird genre films." Richard Harrington of "The Washington Post" wrote that the film is "as surreally weird as "Eraserhead" and as intense as a Novocainless tooth extraction", and that it has "a nightmarish hyper-reality about it, feeling like a cartoon, but more disturbing for not being one." "Slant Magazine"s Ed Gonzalez rated the film three and a half out of four stars, comparing the film to the works of David Cronenberg. Marc Savlov of "The Austin Chronicle" praised the film's cinematography, pacing, and themes; calling the film "a ferociously original 16mm nightmare".


title: Tetsuo: The Iron Man

text: Prior to the release of "Tetsuo: The Iron Man", Japanese films had largely been ignored by international film festivals. The film's success attracted international attention to Japanese cinema and prompted a revival of Japanese independent film in the 1990s.


title: Vermont Republic

text: The Vermont Republic (French: "République du Vermont"), officially known at the time as the State of Vermont (French: "État du Vermont"), was an independent state in New England that existed from January 15, 1777, to March 4, 1791. The state was founded in January 1777, when delegates from 28 towns met and declared independence from the jurisdictions and land claims of the British colonies of Quebec, New Hampshire, and New York. The republic remained in existence for the next fourteen years, albeit without diplomatic recognition from any foreign power. On March 4, 1791, it was admitted into the United States as the State of Vermont, with the constitution and laws of the independent state continuing in effect after admission.


title: Vermont Republic

text: The delegates forbade slavery within their republic. Many Vermonters took part in the American Revolution, but the Continental Congress did not recognize the jurisdiction's independence. Because of objections from New York, which had conflicting property claims, the Continental Congress declined to recognize Vermont (then also known as the New Hampshire Grants). Vermont's overtures to join the Province of Quebec were accepted by the British, offering generous terms for the Republic's reunion. When the British surrendered at the Siege of Yorktown in 1781, however, American independence became apparent. Vermont, now bordered on three sides by American territory, ended negotiations with the British and instead negotiated terms to become part of the United States.


title: Vermont Republic

text: Many of its citizens favored political union with the United States rather than full independence. While the Continental Congress did not allow a seat for Vermont, Vermont engaged William Samuel Johnson, representing Connecticut, to promote its interests. In 1785 the Vermont General Assembly granted Johnson title to the former King's College Tract as a form of compensation for representing Vermont.


title: Vermont Republic

text: The constitution and other official documents referred to the country as the "State of Vermont". The 1777 constitution refers to Vermont variously: the third paragraph of the preamble, for example, mentions "the State of Vermont", and in the preamble's last paragraph, the constitution refers to itself as "the Constitution of the Commonwealth". The currency used by the country, the Vermont copper, had the legend at its coins that read , which in Latin means: .


title: Vermont Republic

text: Prior to June 2, 1777, it was also known as the Republic of New Connecticut (French: ), and the Republic of the Green Mountains (French: ).


title: Vermont Republic

text: After 1724, the Province of Massachusetts Bay built Fort Dummer near Brattleboro, as well as three other forts along the northern portion of the Connecticut River to protect against raids by Native Americans farther south into Western Massachusetts. After 1749, Benning Wentworth, the Royal Governor of New Hampshire, granted land to anyone in a land granting scheme designed to enrich himself and his family. After 1763, settlement increased due to easing security concerns after the end of the French and Indian Wars. The Province of New York had made grants of land, often in areas overlapping similar grants made by the Province of New Hampshire; this issue had to be resolved by the King in 1764, who granted the land to New York, but the area was popularly known as the New Hampshire Grants. The "Green Mountain Boys", led by Ethan Allen, was a militia force from Vermont that supported the New Hampshire claims and fought against the British during the American Revolution.


title: Vermont Republic

text: Following controversy between the holders of the New York grants and the New Hampshire grants, Ethan Allen and his militia of "Green Mountain Boys" suppressed Loyalists. On January 15, 1777, a convention of representatives from towns in the territory declared the region independent, choosing the name the Republic of New Connecticut (although it was sometimes known colloquially as the Republic of the Green Mountains). On June 2 of that year, the name was officially changed to "Vermont" (from the French, , meaning the Green Mountains) upon the suggestion of Dr. Thomas Young, a member of the Sons of Liberty and a Boston Tea Party leader and mentor to Ethan Allen.


title: Vermont Republic

text: John Greenleaf Whittier's poem "The Song of the Vermonters, 1779" describes the period in ballad form. First published anonymously, the poem had characteristics in the last stanza that were similar to Ethan Allen's prose and caused it to be attributed to Allen for nearly 60 years. The last stanza reads:


title: Vermont Republic

text: On August 20, 1781, the Confederation Congress of the United States passed resolutions saying it would not consider admitting that state to the Union unless Vermont would renounce its claims to territory east of the Connecticut River and west of Lake Champlain.


title: Vermont Republic

text: The Constitution of Vermont was drafted and ratified at Elijah West's Windsor Tavern in 1777. The settlers in Vermont, who sought independence from New York, justified their constitution on the same basis as the first state constitutions of the former colonies: authority is derived from the people. As historian Christian Fritz notes in "American Sovereigns: The People and America's Constitutional Tradition before the Civil War":


title: Vermont Republic

text: The Vermont constitution was modeled after the radically democratic constitution of Pennsylvania on the suggestion of Dr. Young, who worked with Thomas Paine and others on that 1776 document in Philadelphia.


title: Vermont Republic

text: During its time as an independent state, the government issued its own coinage and currency and operated postal service. The currency was known as the Vermont copper, and its mint was operated by Reuben Harmon in East Rupert from 1785 to 1788. The chief executive of the state was referred to as the governor.


title: Vermont Republic

text: The governor of Vermont, Thomas Chittenden, with consent of his council and the General Assembly, appointed commissioners to the American government seated in Philadelphia. Vermont engaged in diplomatic negotiations with the United States, the Netherlands, and France.


title: Vermont Republic

text: After a combined British-Mohawk force raided several Vermont settlements in the 1780 Royalton Raid, Ethan Allen led a group of Vermont politicians in secret discussions with Frederick Haldimand, the Governor General of the Province of Quebec, about returning Vermont to British rule.


title: Vermont Republic

text: Much of the symbolism associated with Vermont in this period expressed a desire for political union with the United States. Vermont's coins minted in 1785 and 1786 bore the Latin inscription """" (meaning "the fourteenth star"). The Great Seal of Vermont, designed by Ira Allen, centrally features a 14-branched pine tree.


title: Vermont Republic

text: On March 6, 1790, the legislature of New York consented to Vermont statehood, provided that a group of commissioners representing New York and a similar group representing Vermont could agree on the boundary. Vermont's negotiators insisted on also settling the real-estate disputes rather than leaving those to be decided later by a federal court. On October 7, the commissioners proclaimed the negotiations successfully concluded, with an agreement that Vermont would pay $30,000 to New York to be distributed among New Yorkers who claimed land in Vermont under New York land patents. The Vermont General Assembly then authorized a convention to consider an application for admittance to the "Union of the United States of America". The convention met at Bennington, on January 6, 1791. On January 10, 1791, the convention approved a resolution to make an application to join the United States by a vote of 105 to 2. Vermont was admitted to the Union by 1 Stat. 191 on March 4, 1791. Vermont's admission act is the shortest of all state admissions, and Vermont is "the only state admitted without conditions of any kind, either those prescribed by the Congress or the state from which it was carved". March 4 is celebrated in Vermont as Vermont Day.


title: Vermont Republic

text: The North, the smaller states, and states concerned about the impact of the sea-to-sea grants held by other states, all supported Vermont's admission. Thomas Chittenden served as governor for Vermont for most of this period and became its first governor as a member state of the United States.


title: Vermont Republic

text: The 1793 Vermont state constitution made relatively few changes to the 1786 Vermont state constitution, which had, in turn, succeeded the 1777 constitution. It retained many of its original ideas, as noted above, and kept the separation of powers. It remains in force with several amendments.


title: Psoas major muscle

text: The psoas major ( or ; from ) is a long fusiform muscle located in the lateral lumbar region between the vertebral column and the brim of the lesser pelvis. It joins the iliacus muscle to form the iliopsoas. In animals, this muscle is equivalent to the tenderloin.


title: Psoas major muscle

text: The psoas major is divided into a superficial and a deep part. The deep part originates from the transverse processes of lumbar vertebrae L1–L5. The superficial part originates from the lateral surfaces of the last thoracic vertebra, lumbar vertebrae L1–L4, and the neighboring intervertebral discs. The lumbar plexus lies between the two layers.


title: Psoas major muscle

text: Together, the iliacus muscle and the psoas major form the iliopsoas, which is surrounded by the iliac fascia. The iliopsoas runs across the iliopubic eminence through the muscular lacuna to its insertion on the lesser trochanter of the femur. The iliopectineal bursa separates the tendon of the iliopsoas muscle from the external surface of the hip-joint capsule at the level of the iliopubic eminence. The iliac subtendinous bursa lies between the lesser trochanter and the attachment of the iliopsoas.


title: Psoas major muscle

text: In fewer than 50 percent of human subjects, the psoas major is accompanied by the psoas minor muscle.


title: Psoas major muscle

text: One study using autopsy data found that the psoas major muscle is substantially thicker in men of African descent than in Caucasian men, and that the occurrence of the psoas minor is also ethnically variant, being present in most of the white subjects and absent in most of the black subjects.


title: Psoas major muscle

text: In mice, it is mostly a fast-twitching, type II muscle, while in humans it combines slow- and fast-twitching fibers.


title: Psoas major muscle

text: The psoas major joins the upper body and the lower body, the axial to the appendicular skeleton, the inside to the outside, and the back to the front. As part of the iliopsoas, psoas major contributes to flexion in the hip joint. On the lumbar spine, unilateral contraction bends the trunk laterally, while bilateral contraction raises the trunk from its supine position. In addition, attachment to the lesser trochanter, located on the aspect of the femur, causes lateral rotation and weak adduction of the hip.


title: Psoas major muscle

text: It forms part of a group of muscles called the hip flexors, whose action is primarily to lift the upper leg towards the body when the body is fixed or to pull the body towards the leg when the leg is fixed.


title: Psoas major muscle

text: For example, when one performs a sit-up that brings the torso (including the lower back) away from the ground and towards the front of the leg, the hip flexors (including the iliopsoas) will flex the spine upon the pelvis.


title: Psoas major muscle

text: Tightness of the psoas can result in spasms or lower-back pain by compressing the lumbar discs. A hypertonic and inflamed psoas can lead to irritation and entrapment of the ilioinguinal and the iliohypogastric nerves, resulting in a sensation of heat or water running down the front of the thigh.


title: Psoas major muscle

text: Psoas can be palpated with active flexion of the hip. A positive psoas contracture test and pain with palpation reported by the patient indicate clinical significance. Care should be taken around the abdominal organs, especially the colon when palpating deeply.


title: Psoas major muscle

text: The appearance of a protruding belly can visually indicate a hypertonic psoas, which pulls the spine forward while pushing the abdominal contents outward.


title: Psoas major muscle

text: The psoas lies posterolateral to the lumbar sympathetic ganglia, and the needle tip will often pass through the psoas major during a lumbar sympathetic block.