title: Lady and the Tramp (2019 film)

text: On Christmas Day, "Jim Dear" gives his wife, "Darling", an American Cocker Spaniel puppy, whom she names Lady. Lady grows up and befriends the neighbors' dogs: elderly Bloodhound Trusty and feisty Scottish Terrier Jacqueline, AKA "Jock". Meanwhile, Tramp, a Schnauzer-mix, spends his days wandering the streets, stealing food and causing trouble for local dogcatcher Elliot, who has labeled Tramp "vicious" and become obsessed with catching him. After reluctantly freeing his friends Peg, a lhasa apso and Bull, a bulldog from Elliot's cart, Tramp hides from Elliot in Lady's neighborhood. Lady, having been shooed away from Darling's baby shower by Darling's aunt Sarah, and not realizing why her owners are neglecting her, mistakes Tramp's voice for Trusty's and confides in him. Tramp deduces that Darling is pregnant, and warns Lady that "when a baby moves in, a dog moves out". Upon discovering Tramp's identity, Lady sends him away and dismisses his claims. After the baby girl, Lulu, is born, the couple becomes busier than ever, and Lady begins to wonder if Tramp was right.


title: Lady and the Tramp (2019 film)

text: Later, Jim Dear and Darling leave for an extended visit to Jim Dear's sister, and ask Aunt Sarah to dog-sit. While Aunt Sarah is upstairs, her two Devon Rex cats demolish the living room and pin the deed on Lady. Aunt Sarah immediately takes Lady to a pet store in order to buy a muzzle. Lady escapes into an alley, is confronted by vicious street dog Isaac, and is saved by Tramp. The two dogs spend the rest of the day around the city, and have spaghetti and meatballs for dinner at Tony's Restaurant. Lady confesses she is doubtful whether her owners still want her, and Tramp reveals he once had owners, but was dumped after they had a child. Their conversation is interrupted by Elliot, who accidentally captures Lady instead of Tramp, and brings her to the dog pound. Peg and Bull, once again captured, discuss Tramp's self-serving nature with Lady, causing her to question why he did not save her from Elliot. Fortunately, Jim Dear and Darling track Lady down at the pound and bring her home, where they resolutely kick Aunt Sarah and her cats out, and allow Lady to bond with Lulu.


title: Lady and the Tramp (2019 film)

text: Learning that his friends have been adopted from the pound, and regretful that he could not do more to save Lady from Elliot, Tramp returns to Lady's house. Lady decides her place is with her owners, and Tramp leaves. A rat suddenly enters Lulu's nursery, and Lady starts barking frantically, just as Elliot arrives to warn Jim Dear that he has tracked Tramp to their house. Jim Dear locks Lady in a room, and Lady calls for Tramp, who returns and sneaks inside to the nursery. In the ensuing battle, Tramp is injured, but manages to kill the rat. Lulu, whose crib was knocked over in the struggle, starts to cry loudly. Jim Dear and Darling rush to the nursery and knows that Tramp has protect the nursery from the rat. Realizing that Tramp is not vicious, As Elliot take Tramp to be euthanized.


title: Lady and the Tramp (2019 film)

text: After Elliot leaves with Tramp, Jim Dear lets Lady out. As soon as she is released, Lady leads Jim Dear and Darling to the dead rat, then sets out with Jock and Trusty to rescue Tramp. Already realizing the truth, Jim Dear and Darling follow in their motorcar. Elliot's horses get scared and crash his cart when the dogs attack, and Tramp is injured in the wreck. Jim Dear and Darling catch up and adopt kindly to Tramp as their own, saving him from Elliot. The family celebrates Christmas together, and Tramp receives his new collar and license. Outside in the yard, Trusty entertains Dodge and Ollie (two puppies adopted by Jock’s owner) with the story of how he helped save “a poor stray with a heart of gold”.


title: Lady and the Tramp (2019 film)

text: On February 8, 2018, it was announced that Walt Disney Pictures was developing a live-action adaptation of the 1955 animated film "Lady and the Tramp". The film was expected to premiere on Disney+, Disney's streaming service that launched in late 2019. On March 19, 2018, it was announced that film was set to be directed by Charlie Bean from a screenplay by Andrew Bujalski with Brigham Taylor serving as a producer.


title: Lady and the Tramp (2019 film)

text: In July 2018, it was announced that Ashley Jensen, Justin Theroux, and Sam Elliott had been cast in the voice roles of Jock, Tramp, and Trusty, respectively. Additionally, it was reported that Kiersey Clemons was in talks for the live-action role of Darling, Lady's human owner. In August 2018, it was reported that Tessa Thompson and Benedict Wong had been cast in the voice roles of Lady and Bull, respectively, and that Thomas Mann had been cast in the live-action role of Jim Dear. In September 2018, it was announced that Yvette Nicole Brown and Adrian Martinez had been cast in the live-action roles of Aunt Sarah and the dog-catcher Elliot, respectively. In October 2018, it was announced Arturo Castro had been cast in the live-action role of Marco and that Janelle Monáe had been cast in the voice role of Peg.


title: Lady and the Tramp (2019 film)

text: The production utilized real dogs to portray the film's titular characters with a dog named Rose portraying Lady in the film. About three months prior to the start of filming, the animals started their training for the film. Tramp is physically portrayed by Monte, a rescue dog, while Jackie was renamed Jock shortly before filming began.


title: Lady and the Tramp (2019 film)

text: Voice work for the film begin in July 2018 with principal photography of the film's live-action externally filmed portions last from September 10, 2018 to November 18, 2018 in Savannah, Georgia. Locations were set to include Johnson Square, Wright Square and The Cathedral of St. John the Baptist. Filming on an indoor soundstage took place through December 2018.


title: Lady and the Tramp (2019 film)

text: The film was going to feature a new version of "The Siamese Cat Song", performed by Janelle Monáe. The song was to be re-written by Nate "Rocket" Wonder, Roman GianArthur, and Monáe due to both its modern-day perceived racist connotations and to fit the characters' depictions in the film. The song was ultimately reworked as a blues song titled "What a Shame". Monáe also performed two new songs for the film. On August 23, 2019, Joseph Trapanese was revealed to be composing the film's score. The soundtrack, featuring Trapanse's score, as well as songs from the original film performed by the remake's cast, was released on November 12, 2019.


title: Lady and the Tramp (2019 film)

text: On August 23, 2019, a first trailer was released. On October 14, 2019, a second trailer featuring new footage as well as the song "He's a Tramp" was released. On November 6, 2019, a featurette which presented each of the dogs chosen to portray the main characters and how they were all rescued from animal shelters and foster homes was released.


title: Lady and the Tramp (2019 film)

text: Unlike Ward Greene, a tie-in novelization of the film written by Elizabeth Rudnick was published by Disney Publishing Worldwide on January 28, 2020.


title: Lady and the Tramp (2019 film)

text: "Lady and the Tramp" was released on November 12, 2019 exclusively as part of the launch content library for Disney's streaming service, Disney+.


title: Lady and the Tramp (2019 film)

text: On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, and an average rating of . The site's critics consensus reads: ""Lady and the Tramp"s cute dogs and likable cast work well enough, but the live-action update lacks some of the magic that made the original 1955 film such a delight." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 48 out of 100 based on reviews from 13 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews."


title: Lady and the Tramp (2019 film)

text: In a mixed review, Michael Phillips of the "Chicago Tribune" wrote, "The worst of this new Lady and the Tramp comes when the script piles on the strenuous comic action, followed by ill-advised dark shadows."


title: Big Hero 6: The Series

text: Big Hero 6: The Series is an American superhero animated television series that aired between November 20, 2017, and February 15, 2021. The series was produced by Disney Television Animation and was created by Mark McCorkle and Bob Schooley, also known for co-creating "Buzz Lightyear of Star Command" and "Kim Possible". The show is based on Disney's 2014 film "Big Hero 6", which itself is loosely based on the comic book series of the same name published by Marvel Comics. The series is a sequel as it takes place after the events of the film and uses traditional hand-drawn animation.


title: Big Hero 6: The Series

text: It premiered with a 43-minute episode titled "Baymax Returns" on Disney XD on November 20, 2017. In 2018, the series was moved from Disney XD to Disney Channel before the series premiere. The series formally premiered with two new episodes on Disney Channel on June 9, 2018.


title: Big Hero 6: The Series

text: The third season premiered on September 21, 2020, on Disney XD. The third season features predominantly 11-minute episodes, as opposed to the 22-minute episodes of the first two seasons. Cast members stated on January 28, 2021, that the series would not return for a fourth season and the series finale aired on February 15, 2021.


title: Big Hero 6: The Series

text: In December 2020, Disney announced a spinoff series titled "Baymax!" and produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios. The series was released on Disney+ on June 29, 2022.


title: Big Hero 6: The Series

text: The series is set after the events of the feature film "Big Hero 6" and continues the adventures of 14-year-old tech genius Hiro Hamada and the compassionate, cutting-edge robot Baymax created by his late brother Tadashi. Along with his friends Wasabi, Honey Lemon, Go Go and Fred, they form the superhero team Big Hero 6 and embark on high-tech adventures as they protect their city from an array of scientifically enhanced villains. Hiro also faces academic challenges and social trials as the new prodigy at San Fransokyo Institute of Technology (SFIT).


title: Big Hero 6: The Series

text: The show slightly contradicts the ending of the movie. Among the differences are Aunt Cass knowing about Baymax, and Hiro attending SFIT as if everything is back to normal (and though a building is erected after Tadashi, Hiro does not receive a grant from the institute). Hiro also does not come up with the name "Big Hero 6" like it is implied at the end of the movie. Instead, Fred comes up with the name after having "brainstormed an epic list of team names" and testing them with himself.


title: Big Hero 6: The Series

text: In March 2016, Disney announced that a "Big Hero 6" television series was in development and premiered on Disney Channel in 2017. The series takes place immediately after the events of the film and is created by "Kim Possible"'s Mark McCorkle and Bob Schooley, and executive produced by McCorkle, Schooley and Nick Filippi. The show was reportedly pitched by McCorkle and Schooley shortly following the film's release. Talking to Leonard Maltin for the podcast "Maltin on Movies", Scott Adsit suggested an early 2018 release date.


title: Big Hero 6: The Series

text: In March 2016, it was revealed that Jamie Chung would reprise her role as Go Go, and that following November, it was revealed that most of the cast members from the film would reprise their roles, including Ryan Potter, Genesis Rodriguez, Scott Adsit, Alan Tudyk, and Maya Rudolph. Additionally, Khary Payton replaced Damon Wayans Jr. as Wasabi and Brooks Wheelan replaced T. J. Miller as Fred. On January 6, 2017, Disney Channel released an official teaser trailer for the series.


title: Big Hero 6: The Series

text: On March 14, 2017, it was renewed for a second season, ahead of the series premiere. On April 16, 2019, the series was renewed for a third season. On January 28, 2021, members of the cast stated that the show would not be picked up for a fourth season and would air its final episode on February 15, 2021.


title: Big Hero 6: The Series

text: "Baymax Returns" premiered on Disney Channel channels in Canada on November 20, 2017, and in the UK and Ireland on November 30, 2017.


title: Big Hero 6: The Series

text: The series formally premiered with two new episodes on Disney Channel on June 9, 2018, followed by two more new episodes on June 10, 2018, with weekly premieres every Saturday through September starting on June 16, 2018, with episodes airing at 7 a.m. starting on September 8.


title: Big Hero 6: The Series

text: Starting on May 6, episodes of the second season aired on weekdays at 3:30 p.m. Starting on September 3, 2019, first-run premieres aired on Disney XD weekdays at 7:30 a.m. Premieres on Disney Channel aired second-run weekdays at 3:30 p.m. Eventually, the series officially moved premieres back to Disney XD starting on January 4, 2020, until the series finale.


title: Big Hero 6: The Series

text: A comic book series based on "Big Hero 6: The Series" was announced to be published by IDW Publishing, making it one of the few times Marvel Comics has allowed another comic book company use their characters. The comic book series was initially titled after the film and set to be released in July 2018 from Hannah Blumenreich (writer) and Nicoletta Baldari (artist). However, the release kept getting pushed back. Since then, the comic has been retitled after the show and was released on November 13, 2019 with Blumenreich and Baldari still attached. Its follow up issues would not get released until close to a year later.


title: Big Hero 6: The Series

text: A manga series by Yen Press was released in August 2021 and is written and illustrated by Hong Gyun An. The first volume adapts the episodes "Issue 188", "Failure Mode" and "Baymax Returns Part 1", but has it feel more connected and linear.


title: The Linda Lindas

text: The Linda Lindas are a rock band from Los Angeles. The all-girl group comprises Bela Salazar, Eloise Wong, Lucia de la Garza, and Mila de la Garza.


title: The Linda Lindas

text: In January 2018, Eloise Wong's father Martin Wong was contacted by an acquaintance, asking if she would be interested in playing alongside Kristin Kontrol and a bunch of "inexperienced kids" for a performance at a music festival called Girlschool LA, after seeing pictures and videos of her singing at Save Music in Chinatown. Martin then suggested Lucia and Mila de la Garza, daughters of his sister Angelyn Wong and brother-in-law Carlos de la Garza, since the three of them often sang, danced and performed together since they were toddlers; Carlos, who owned a backyard studio, took up the position of a second coach. After Kontrol recruited more children through social media and the first round of rehearsals were held, Angelyn and Martin's wife Wendy Lau reached out to the girls' family friend Bela Salazar, who was taking guitar lessons, to join in, thinking that they needed someone who could play an instrument. Originally, it was intended to be a one-off project, but a few months later, Salazar was invited to open a show for Frieda's Roses, and engaged Eloise, Lucia and Mila to be her backing band.


title: The Linda Lindas

text: Feeling that the band needed a name, Martin, who had bought a DVD of 2005 Japanese film "Linda Linda Linda", (in turn named after the Blue Hearts song "Linda Linda"), suggested The Linda Lindas, feeling that it "sounded like a band from the '50s but could also refer to the Japanese punk song or art movie, or simply mean 'really pretty' in Spanish", to which the girls agreed. By fall, they were playing Save Music in Chinatown matinee gigs alongside artists such as Phranc, the Dils, the Gears, and the Alley Cats, and other shows with bands such as Best Coast, Alice Bag, and Bleached.


title: The Linda Lindas

text: After Amy Poehler watched the Linda Lindas open for Bikini Kill on April 26, 2019, at the Hollywood Palladium, she had them record songs for her film "Moxie". In 2020, the Linda Lindas wrote a song for Netflix documentary "The Claudia Kishi Club", titled "Claudia Kishi", after the Japanese-American character in Ann M. Martin's novel series "The Baby-Sitters Club".


title: The Linda Lindas

text: In May 2021, the Los Angeles Public Library posted a video of the band playing "Racist, Sexist Boy" at a "TEENtastic Tuesdays" event. The song was about an experience Mila, the band's drummer, had when a schoolmate made a racist comment before the COVID-19 pandemic. The video became a viral social media hit, earning praise from Rage Against the Machine's Tom Morello, Red Hot Chili Peppers's Flea, Thurston Moore, Bikini Kill's Kathleen Hanna, Kid Cudi,and author Viet Thanh Nguyen, who said, "'Racist, Sexist Boy' is the song we need now".


title: The Linda Lindas

text: On July 21, 2021, the band released the single "Oh!" with an accompanying music video. The song also was featured in the trailer released for the Netflix series "The Chair", which was released that same day. The song was also played for the outro of series 1 edpisode 5 of The Imperfects.


title: The Linda Lindas

text: On February 1, 2022, the band announced their release date of their debut album, "Growing Up", alongside the release of the single of the same name. "Growing Up" was released on April 8, 2022 to generally positive reviews. The track 'Racist, Sexist Boy' was nominated for Best Song at the 2022 Kerrang! Awards.


title: The Linda Lindas

text: The band consists of Eloise (bass, guitars, vocals), Bela (guitars, vocals), Lucia (guitar, vocals), and Mila (drums, vocals). Bela is the oldest member at 18 , and Mila the youngest, at 12. Lucia and Mila are daughters of music engineer and producer Carlos de la Garza, and Eloise's father is Martin Wong, co-founder of "Giant Robot". The band members' stage names, birth dates, and roles are as follows:


title: Haumea

text: Haumea (minor-planet designation 136108 Haumea) is a dwarf planet located beyond Neptune's orbit. It was discovered in 2004 by a team headed by Mike Brown of Caltech at the Palomar Observatory in the United States and disputably also in 2005 by a team headed by José Luis Ortiz Moreno at the Sierra Nevada Observatory in Spain, though the latter claim has been contested. On September 17, 2008, it was named after Haumea, the Hawaiian goddess of childbirth, under the expectation by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) that it would prove to be a dwarf planet. Nominal estimates make it the third-largest known trans-Neptunian object, after Eris and Pluto, though the uncertainty in best-fit modeling slightly overlaps with the larger size estimates for Makemake.


title: Haumea

text: Haumea's mass is about one-third that of Pluto, and 1/1400 that of Earth. Although its shape has not been directly observed, calculations from its light curve are consistent with it being a Jacobi ellipsoid (the shape it would be if it were a dwarf planet), with its major axis twice as long as its minor. In October 2017, astronomers announced the discovery of a ring system around Haumea, representing the first ring system discovered for a trans-Neptunian object. Haumea's gravity was until recently thought to be sufficient for it to have relaxed into hydrostatic equilibrium, though that is now unclear. Haumea's elongated shape together with its rapid rotation, rings, and high albedo (from a surface of crystalline water ice), are thought to be the consequences of a giant collision, which left Haumea the largest member of a collisional family that includes several large trans-Neptunian objects and Haumea's two known moons, Hiʻiaka and Namaka.


title: Haumea

text: Two teams claim credit for the discovery of Haumea. A team consisting of Mike Brown of Caltech, David Rabinowitz of Yale University, and Chad Trujillo of Gemini Observatory in Hawaii discovered Haumea on December 28, 2004, on images they had taken on May 6, 2004. On July 20, 2005, they published an online abstract of a report intended to announce the discovery at a conference in September 2005. At around this time, José Luis Ortiz Moreno and his team at the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía at Sierra Nevada Observatory in Spain found Haumea on images taken on March 7–10, 2003. Ortiz emailed the Minor Planet Center with their discovery on the night of July 27, 2005.


title: Haumea

text: Brown initially conceded discovery credit to Ortiz, but came to suspect the Spanish team of fraud upon learning that the Spanish observatory had accessed Brown's observation logs the day before the discovery announcement.


title: Haumea

text: These logs included enough information to allow the Ortiz team to precover Haumea in their 2003 images, and they were accessed again just before Ortiz scheduled telescope time to obtain confirmation images for a second announcement to the MPC on July 29. Ortiz later admitted he had accessed the Caltech observation logs but denied any wrongdoing, stating he was merely verifying whether they had discovered a new object. Precovery images of Haumea have been identified back to March 22, 1955.


title: Haumea

text: IAU protocol is that discovery credit for a minor planet goes to whoever first submits a report to the MPC (Minor Planet Center) with enough positional data for a decent determination of its orbit, and that the credited discoverer has priority in choosing a name. However, the IAU announcement on September 17, 2008, that Haumea had been named by dual committee established for bodies expected to be dwarf planets, did not mention a discoverer. The location of discovery was listed as the Sierra Nevada Observatory of the Spanish team, but the chosen name, Haumea, was the Caltech proposal; Ortiz's team had proposed "Ataecina", the ancient Iberian goddess of spring, which as a chthonic deity would have been appropriate for a plutino.


title: Haumea

text: Until it was given a permanent name, the Caltech discovery team used the nickname "Santa" among themselves, because they had discovered Haumea on December 28, 2004, just after Christmas. The Spanish team were the first to file a claim for discovery to the Minor Planet Center, in July 2005. On July 29, 2005, Haumea was given the provisional designation 2003 EL, based on the date of the Spanish discovery image. On September 7, 2006, it was numbered and admitted into the official minor planet catalog as (136108) 2003 EL.


title: Haumea

text: Following guidelines established at the time by the IAU that classical Kuiper belt objects be given names of mythological beings associated with creation, in September 2006 the Caltech team submitted formal names from Hawaiian mythology to the IAU for both (136108) 2003 EL and its moons, in order "to pay homage to the place where the satellites were discovered". The names were proposed by David Rabinowitz of the Caltech team. "Haumea" is the matron goddess of the island of Hawaiʻi, where the Mauna Kea Observatory is located. In addition, she is identified with Papa, the goddess of the earth and wife of Wākea (space), which, at the time, seemed appropriate because Haumea was thought to be composed almost entirely of solid rock, without the thick ice mantle over a small rocky core typical of other known Kuiper belt objects. Lastly, Haumea is the goddess of fertility and childbirth, with many children who sprang from different parts of her body; this corresponds to the swarm of icy bodies thought to have broken off the main body during an ancient collision. The two known moons, also believed to have formed in this manner, are thus named after two of Haumea's daughters, Hiʻiaka and Nāmaka.


title: Haumea

text: The proposal by the Ortiz team, Ataecina, did not meet IAU naming requirements, because the names of chthonic deities were reserved for stably resonant trans-Neptunian objects such as plutinos that resonate 3:2 with Neptune, whereas Haumea was in an intermittent 7:12 resonance and so by some definitions was not a resonant body. The naming criteria would be clarified in late 2019, when the IAU decided that chthonic figures were to be used specifically for plutinos. "(See Ataecina § Dwarf planet.)"


title: Haumea

text: Planetary symbols are no longer much used in astronomy. A Haumea symbol () is included in Unicode as U+1F77B: it is mostly used by astrologers, but has also been used by NASA. The symbol was designed by Denis Moskowitz, a software engineer in Massachusetts; it combines and simplifies Hawaiian petroglyphs meaning 'woman' and 'childbirth'.


title: Haumea

text: Haumea has an orbital period of 284 Earth years, a perihelion of 35 AU, and an orbital inclination of 28°. It passed aphelion in early 1992, and is currently more than 50 AU from the Sun. It will come to perihelion in 2133. Haumea's orbit has a slightly greater eccentricity than that of the other members of its collisional family. This is thought to be due to Haumea's weak 7:12 orbital resonance with Neptune gradually modifying its initial orbit over the course of a billion years, through the Kozai effect, which allows the exchange of an orbit's inclination for increased eccentricity.


title: Haumea

text: With a visual magnitude of 17.3, Haumea is the third-brightest object in the Kuiper belt after Pluto and , and easily observable with a large amateur telescope. However, because the planets and most small Solar System bodies share a common orbital alignment from their formation in the primordial disk of the Solar System, most early surveys for distant objects focused on the projection on the sky of this common plane, called the ecliptic. As the region of sky close to the ecliptic became well explored, later sky surveys began looking for objects that had been dynamically excited into orbits with higher inclinations, as well as more distant objects, with slower mean motions across the sky. These surveys eventually covered the location of Haumea, with its high orbital inclination and current position far from the ecliptic.


title: Haumea

text: Haumea is thought to be in an intermittent 7:12 orbital resonance with Neptune. Its ascending node formula_1 precesses with a period of about 4.6 million years, and the resonance is broken twice per precession cycle, or every 2.3 million years, only to return a hundred thousand years or so later. As this is not a simple resonance, Marc Buie qualifies it as non-resonant.


title: Haumea

text: Haumea displays large fluctuations in brightness over a period of 3.9 hours, which can only be explained by a rotational period of this length. This is faster than any other known equilibrium body in the Solar System, and indeed faster than any other known body larger than 100 km in diameter. While most rotating bodies in equilibrium are flattened into oblate spheroids, Haumea rotates so quickly that it is distorted into a triaxial ellipsoid. If Haumea were to rotate much more rapidly, it would distort itself into a dumbbell shape and split in two. This rapid rotation is thought to have been caused by the impact that created its satellites and collisional family.


title: Haumea

text: The plane of Haumea's equator is oriented nearly edge-on from Earth at present and is also slightly offset to the orbital planes of its ring and its outermost moon Hiʻiaka. Although initially assumed to be coplanar to Hiʻiaka's orbital plane by Ragozzine and Brown in 2009, their models of the collisional formation of Haumea's satellites consistently suggested Haumea's equatorial plane to be at least aligned with Hiʻiaka's orbital plane by approximately 1°. This was supported with observations of a stellar occultation by Haumea in 2017, which revealed the presence of a ring approximately coincident with the plane of Hiʻiaka's orbit and Haumea's equator. A mathematical analysis of the occultation data by Kondratyev and Kornoukhov in 2018 placed constraints on the relative inclination angles of Haumea's equator to the orbital planes of its ring and Hiʻiaka, which were found to be inclined and relative to Haumea's equator, respectively.


title: Haumea

text: The size of a Solar System object can be deduced from its optical magnitude, its distance, and its albedo. Objects appear bright to Earth observers either because they are large or because they are highly reflective. If their reflectivity (albedo) can be ascertained, then a rough estimate can be made of their size. For most distant objects, the albedo is unknown, but Haumea is large and bright enough for its thermal emission to be measured, which has given an approximate value for its albedo and thus its size. However, the calculation of its dimensions is complicated by its rapid rotation. The rotational physics of deformable bodies predicts that over as little as a hundred days, a body rotating as rapidly as Haumea will have been distorted into the equilibrium form of a triaxial ellipsoid. It is thought that most of the fluctuation in Haumea's brightness is caused not by local differences in albedo but by the alternation of the side view and ends view as seen from Earth.


title: Haumea

text: The rotation and amplitude of Haumea's light curve were argued to place strong constraints on its composition. If Haumea were in hydrostatic equilibrium and had a low density like Pluto, with a thick mantle of ice over a small rocky core, its rapid rotation would have elongated it to a greater extent than the fluctuations in its brightness allow. Such considerations constrained its density to a range of 2.6–3.3 g/cm. By comparison, the Moon, which is rocky, has a density of 3.3 g/cm, whereas Pluto, which is typical of icy objects in the Kuiper belt, has a density of 1.86 g/cm. Haumea's possible high density covered the values for silicate minerals such as olivine and pyroxene, which make up many of the rocky objects in the Solar System. This also suggested that the bulk of Haumea was rock covered with a relatively thin layer of ice. A thick ice mantle more typical of Kuiper belt objects may have been blasted off during the impact that formed the Haumean collisional family.


title: Haumea

text: Because Haumea has moons, the mass of the system can be calculated from their orbits using Kepler's third law. The result is , 28% the mass of the Plutonian system and 6% that of the Moon. Nearly all of this mass is in Haumea.


title: Haumea

text: Several ellipsoid-model calculations of Haumea's dimensions have been made. The first model produced after Haumea's discovery was calculated from ground-based observations of Haumea's light curve at optical wavelengths: it provided a total length of 1,960 to 2,500 km and a visual albedo (p) greater than 0.6. The most likely shape is a triaxial ellipsoid with approximate dimensions of 2,000 × 1,500 × 1,000 km, with an albedo of 0.71. Observations by the Spitzer Space Telescope give a diameter of and an albedo of , from photometry at infrared wavelengths of 70 μm. Subsequent light-curve analyses have suggested an equivalent circular diameter of 1,450 km. In 2010 an analysis of measurements taken by Herschel Space Telescope together with the older Spitzer Telescope measurements yielded a new estimate of the equivalent diameter of Haumea—about 1300 km. These independent size estimates overlap at an average geometric mean diameter of roughly 1,400 km. In 2013 the Herschel Space Telescope measured Haumea's equivalent circular diameter to be roughly .


title: Haumea

text: However the observations of a stellar occultation in January 2017 cast a doubt on all those conclusions. The measured shape of Haumea, while elongated as presumed before, appeared to have significantly larger dimensions according to the data obtained from the occultation Haumea is approximately the diameter of Pluto along its longest axis and about half that at its poles. The resulting density calculated from the observed shape of Haumea was about more in line with densities of other large TNOs. This resulting shape appeared to be inconsistent with a homogenous body in hydrostatic equilibrium, though Haumea appears to be one of the largest trans-Neptunian objects discovered nonetheless, smaller than , , similar to , and possibly , and larger than , , and .


title: Haumea

text: A 2019 study attempted to resolve the conflicting measurements of Haumea's shape and density using numerical modeling of Haumea as a differentiated body. It found that dimensions of ≈ 2,100 × 1,680 × 1,074 km (modeling the long axis at intervals of 25 km) were a best-fit match to the observed shape of Haumea during the 2017 occultation, while also being consistent with both surface and core scalene ellipsoid shapes in hydrostatic equilibrium. The revised solution for Haumea's shape implies that it has a core of approximately 1,626 × 1,446 × 940 km, with a relatively high density of ≈ , indicative of a composition largely of hydrated silicates such as kaolinite. The core is surrounded by an icy mantle that ranges in thickness from about 70 km at the poles to 170 km along its longest axis, comprising up to 17% of Haumea's mass. Haumea's mean density is estimated at ≈ , with an albedo of ≈ 0.66.


title: Haumea

text: In 2005, the Gemini and Keck telescopes obtained spectra of Haumea which showed strong crystalline water ice features similar to the surface of Pluto's moon Charon. This is peculiar, because crystalline ice forms at temperatures above 110 K, whereas Haumea's surface temperature is below 50 K, a temperature at which amorphous ice is formed. In addition, the structure of crystalline ice is unstable under the constant rain of cosmic rays and energetic particles from the Sun that strike trans-Neptunian objects. The timescale for the crystalline ice to revert to amorphous ice under this bombardment is on the order of ten million years, yet trans-Neptunian objects have been in their present cold-temperature locations for timescales of billions of years. Radiation damage should also redden and darken the surface of trans-Neptunian objects where the common surface materials of organic ices and tholin-like compounds are present, as is the case with Pluto. Therefore, the spectra and colour suggest Haumea and its family members have undergone recent resurfacing that produced fresh ice. However, no plausible resurfacing mechanism has been suggested.


title: Haumea

text: Haumea is as bright as snow, with an albedo in the range of 0.6–0.8, consistent with crystalline ice. Other large TNOs such as appear to have albedos as high or higher. Best-fit modeling of the surface spectra suggested that 66% to 80% of the Haumean surface appears to be pure crystalline water ice, with one contributor to the high albedo possibly hydrogen cyanide or phyllosilicate clays. Inorganic cyanide salts such as copper potassium cyanide may also be present.


title: Haumea

text: However, further studies of the visible and near infrared spectra suggest a homogeneous surface covered by an intimate 1:1 mixture of amorphous and crystalline ice, together with no more than 8% organics. The absence of ammonia hydrate excludes cryovolcanism and the observations confirm that the collisional event must have happened more than 100 million years ago, in agreement with the dynamic studies.


title: Haumea

text: The absence of measurable methane in the spectra of Haumea is consistent with a warm collisional history that would have removed such volatiles, in contrast to .


title: Haumea

text: In addition to the large fluctuations in Haumea's light curve due to the body's shape, which affect all colours equally, smaller independent colour variations seen in both visible and near-infrared wavelengths show a region on the surface that differs both in colour and in albedo. More specifically, a large dark red area on Haumea's bright white surface was seen in September 2009, possibly an impact feature, which indicates an area rich in minerals and organic (carbon-rich) compounds, or possibly a higher proportion of crystalline ice. Thus Haumea may have a mottled surface reminiscent of Pluto, if not as extreme.


title: Haumea

text: A stellar occultation observed on January 21, 2017 and described in an October 2017 "Nature" article indicated the presence of a ring around Haumea. This represents the first ring system discovered for a TNO. The ring has a radius of about 2,287 km, a width of ~70 km and an opacity of 0.5. It is well within Haumea's Roche limit, which would be at a radius of about 4,400 km if it were spherical (being nonspherical pushes the limit out farther). The ring plane is inclined with respect to Haumea's equatorial plane and approximately coincides with the orbital plane of its larger, outer moon Hiʻiaka. The ring is also close to the 1:3 orbit-spin resonance with Haumea's rotation (which is at a radius of 2,285 ± 8 km from Haumea's center). The ring is estimated to contribute 5% to the total brightness of Haumea.


title: Haumea

text: In a study about the dynamics of ring particles published in 2019, Othon Cabo Winter and colleagues have shown that the 1:3 resonance with Haumea's rotation is dynamically unstable, but that there is a stable region in the phase space consistent with the location of Haumea's ring. This indicates that the ring particles originate on circular, periodic orbits that are close to, but not inside, the resonance.


title: Haumea

text: Two small satellites have been discovered orbiting Haumea, (136108) Haumea I Hiʻiaka and (136108) Haumea II Namaka. Darin Ragozzine and Michael Brown discovered both in 2005, through observations of Haumea using the W. M. Keck Observatory.


title: Haumea

text: Hiʻiaka, at first nicknamed "Rudolph" by the Caltech team, was discovered January 26, 2005. It is the outer and, at roughly 310 km in diameter, the larger and brighter of the two, and orbits Haumea in a nearly circular path every 49 days. Strong absorption features at 1.5 and 2 micrometres in the infrared spectrum are consistent with nearly pure crystalline water ice covering much of the surface. The unusual spectrum, along with similar absorption lines on Haumea, led Brown and colleagues to conclude that capture was an unlikely model for the system's formation, and that the Haumean moons must be fragments of Haumea itself.


title: Haumea

text: Namaka, the smaller, inner satellite of Haumea, was discovered on June 30, 2005, and nicknamed "Blitzen". It is a tenth the mass of Hiʻiaka, orbits Haumea in 18 days in a highly elliptical, non-Keplerian orbit, and is inclined 13° from the larger moon, which perturbs its orbit.


title: Haumea

text: The relatively large eccentricities together with the mutual inclination of the orbits of the satellites are unexpected as they should have been damped by the tidal effects. A relatively recent passage by a 3:1 resonance with Hiʻiaka might explain the current excited orbits of the Haumean moons.


title: Haumea

text: At present, the orbits of the Haumean moons appear almost exactly edge-on from Earth, with Namaka periodically occulting Haumea. Observation of such transits would provide precise information on the size and shape of Haumea and its moons, as happened in the late 1980s with Pluto and Charon. The tiny change in brightness of the system during these occultations will require at least a medium-aperture professional telescope for detection. Hiʻiaka last occulted Haumea in 1999, a few years before discovery, and will not do so again for some 130 years. However, in a situation unique among regular satellites, Namaka's orbit is being greatly torqued by Hiʻiaka, which preserved the viewing angle of Namaka–Haumea transits for several more years.


title: Haumea

text: Haumea is the largest member of its collisional family, a group of astronomical objects with similar physical and orbital characteristics thought to have formed when a larger progenitor was shattered by an impact. This family is the first to be identified among TNOs and includes—beside Haumea and its moons— (≈364 km), (≈174 km), (≈200 km), (≈230 km), and (≈252 km). Brown and colleagues proposed that the family were a direct product of the impact that removed Haumea's ice mantle, but a second proposal suggests a more complicated origin: that the material ejected in the initial collision instead coalesced into a large moon of Haumea, which was later shattered in a second collision, dispersing its shards outwards. This second scenario appears to produce a dispersion of velocities for the fragments that is more closely matched to the measured velocity dispersion of the family members.


title: Haumea

text: The presence of the collisional family could imply that Haumea and its "offspring" might have originated in the scattered disc. In today's sparsely populated Kuiper belt, the chance of such a collision occurring over the age of the Solar System is less than 0.1 percent. The family could not have formed in the denser primordial Kuiper belt because such a close-knit group would have been disrupted by Neptune's migration into the belt—the believed cause of the belt's current low density. Therefore, it appears likely that the dynamic scattered disc region, in which the possibility of such a collision is far higher, is the place of origin for the object that generated Haumea and its kin.


title: Haumea

text: Because it would have taken at least a billion years for the group to have diffused as far as it has, the collision which created the Haumea family is believed to have occurred very early in the Solar System's history.


title: Haumea

text: Haumea was observed from afar by the "New Horizons" spacecraft in October 2007, January 2017, and May 2020, from distances of 49 AU, 59 AU, and 63 AU, respectively. The spacecraft's outbound trajectory permitted observations of Haumea at high phase angles that are otherwise unobtainable from Earth, enabling the determination of the light scattering properties and phase curve behavior of Haumea's surface.


title: Haumea

text: Joel Poncy and colleagues calculated that a flyby mission to Haumea could take 14.25 years using a gravity assist at Jupiter, based on a launch date of 25 September 2025. Haumea would be 48.18 AU from the Sun when the spacecraft arrives. A flight time of 16.45 years can be achieved with launch dates on 1 November 2026, 23 September 2037 and 29 October 2038.


title: Haumea

text: Haumea could become a target for an exploration mission, and an example of this work is a preliminary study on a probe to Haumea and its moons (at 35–51 AU). Probe mass, power source, and propulsion systems are key technology areas for this type of mission.


title: Oreimo

text: ASCII Media Works has published 17 volumes in the series under its Dengeki Bunko imprint from August 2008 to September 2021. A manga adaptation drawn by Sakura Ikeda was serialized in ASCII Media Works' "Dengeki G's Magazine" between 2009 and 2011. AIC produced a 12-episode anime adaptation in 2010, with four additional episodes streamed online in 2011. A-1 Pictures produced a 13-episode second anime season in 2013 with 3 more episodes streamed online later that year. Bandai Namco Games developed three visual novel video games from 2011 to 2013 for the PlayStation Portable and PlayStation 3 consoles.


title: Oreimo

text: Kyosuke Kosaka, a normal 17-year-old high school student living in Chiba, has not gotten along with his younger sister Kirino in years. For longer than he can remember, Kirino has ignored his comings and goings and looked at him with spurning eyes. It seems as if the relationship between Kyosuke and his sister, now 14, will continue this way forever. One day, however, Kyosuke finds a DVD case of a magical girl anime which had fallen in his house's entranceway. To Kyosuke's surprise, he finds a hidden eroge inside the case and he soon learns that both the DVD and the game belong to Kirino. That night, Kirino brings Kyosuke to her room and reveals herself to be an otaku with an extensive collection of moe anime and younger-sister-themed eroge she has been collecting in secret. Kyosuke quickly becomes Kirino's confidant for her secret hobby. The series then follows Kyosuke's efforts to help his sister to reconcile her personal life with her secret hobbies, while restoring their broken relationship and coming to terms with their true feelings for each other.


title: Oreimo

text: "Oreimo" began as a light novel series written by Tsukasa Fushimi, with illustrations provided by Hiro Kanzaki. ASCII Media Works published 12 novels under their Dengeki Bunko imprint between August 10, 2008 and June 7, 2013. The first volume of a two-part alternative ending of the series subtitled "Ayase if" was released on August 10, 2019, and the second volume was released on June 10, 2020. The first volume of a two-part alternative ending of the series subtitled "Kuroneko if" was released on September 10, 2020, and the second volume was released on March 10, 2021. One volume of an alternative ending of the series subtitled "Kanako if" was released on September 10, 2021.


title: Oreimo

text: A manga adaptation based on the light novels drawn by Sakura Ikeda was serialized in ASCII Media Works' "Dengeki G's Magazine" between the March 2009 and May 2011 issues. Four "tankōbon" volumes were released under ASCII Media Works' Dengeki Comics imprint between October 27, 2009 and April 27, 2011. The third volume was released in regular and special editions; the special edition came bundled with an Ayase Aragaki figurine. The manga has been licensed in North America by Dark Horse Comics. A follow-up manga, began serialization in the July 2011 issue of "Dengeki G's Magazine" and features Ruri Goko as the main heroine. The manga ended serialization in the magazine's May 2014 issue and continued serialization in "Dengeki G's Comic" between the June 2014 and July 2015 issues. Six "tankōbon" volumes were released under ASCII Media Works' Dengeki Comics imprint between May 26, 2012 and July 27, 2015, with the first volume special edition coming bundled with a Kuroneko figurine.


title: Oreimo

text: A spin-off manga series by Airi Mori, titled "Ore no Imōto ga Konnani Kawaii Wake ga Nai Kuroneko If" began serialization in Kadokawa Shoten's "Monthly Shōnen Ace" magazine on July 26, 2021.


title: Oreimo

text: A drama CD, based on events from the first and third volumes of the novels as well as a newly written scenario by Tsukasa Fushimi, was released by ASCII Media Works on March 31, 2010. The CD stars Ayana Taketatsu as Kirino and Yūichi Nakamura as Kyōsuke.


title: Oreimo

text: An Internet radio show, titled to promote the anime adaptation streamed 24 episodes between August 13, 2010 and July 22, 2011 via the official website of the anime. The show was hosted by Taketatsu, who plays Kirino in the anime, and Kana Hanazawa, who plays Kuroneko. A second Internet radio show to promote the second season of the anime started on April 11, 2013. The show was again hosted by Taketatsu and Hanazawa. Even though the show was limited to the Japanese speaking audience, the e-mails and comments from fans outside Japan were also accepted and sometimes read during the show, and the official website of the show has been translated into English.


title: Oreimo

text: A 12-episode anime adaptation produced by AIC, directed by Hiroyuki Kanbe, and with screenplay by Hideyuki Kurata aired in Japan between October 3 and December 19, 2010. The series was released over eight BD/DVD compilation volumes, each holding two episodes, between December 22, 2010 and July 27, 2011. Four original net animation episodes were streamed through the official website, as well as several other websites such as Nico Nico Douga, Showtime Japan, and MovieGate, which began on February 22, 2011. The first two were released on June 27, 2011, together with the seventh BD/DVD volume and the last two were released on July 27, 2011, together with the eighth. These episodes feature a break in the original story arc starting at episode 12 and offer an alternate ending from the TV broadcast. The anime retains the voice cast from the drama CD. The opening theme for the anime is "Irony" by ClariS and is composed by Kz of Livetune, while each episode features a different ending theme sung by one of the voice actors. The music of the anime is composed by Satoru Kōsaki and a soundtrack was released on January 12, 2011. Aniplex of America began streaming and simulcasting the series in North America through Anime News Network (ANN), but security issues involving the illegal leaking of episode two online resulted in the stream being placed on hold. The stream of "Oreimo" returned to ANN with the first four episodes on November 8, 2010. Aniplex of America released the series on an English-subtitled DVD box set in October 2011. The anime is licensed by MVM Films in the United Kingdom.


title: Oreimo

text: A second 13-episode anime season, titled and produced by A-1 Pictures, aired between April 7 and June 30, 2013 and was simulcast by Crunchyroll. An additional three episodes were screened at Otakon 2013 on August 9, 2013, and then streamed worldwide on August 18. The episodes were simulcast by Crunchyroll at the same time as the Japanese broadcast and were available until August 31, 2013. Despite the change in animation studio from the first season, the second season has the same staff as the first. The opening theme is "Reunion" by ClariS, while a contest was held for the second season's ending themes. This series has also been licensed by Aniplex of America. A-1 Pictures collaborated with Chiba Urban Monorail to promote the second season by making an "Oreimo"-themed monorail train, which remained in operation until September 30, 2013. In addition to decorating the exterior of the train, the anime characters were featured in in-train advertising to provide passengers with helpful tips about local sightseeing facilities and shops.


title: Oreimo

text: In addition to their own series, the characters from "Oreimo" also make cameo appearances in the episodes of the anime adaptation of "Eromanga Sensei", another light novel series written by Fushimi and illustrated by Kanzaki.


title: Oreimo

text: A PlayStation Portable visual novel titled "Ore no Imōto ga Konna ni Kawaii Wake ga Nai Portable" was developed by Bandai Namco Games and released on January 27, 2011. The limited edition bundle included an OAD, a sister-talk bonus CD, and an additional game for the PSP. A fighting game titled based on the fictional game in the series, was released by Kadokawa Contents Gate on the Yahoo! MobaGe Service on January 20, 2011. A second PSP title, was released on May 17, 2012. The opening theme of the second PSP game is "Nexus" by ClariS. A PlayStation 3 game, was released on September 26, 2013 in Japan.


title: Oreimo

text: Kirino also makes a cameo appearance in the "A Certain Magical Index" PSP game, being another game based on a light novel series published by ASCII Media Works. Kirino also appears as a playable character in "", with Kuroneko as a supporting character.


title: Oreimo

text: The "Mainichi Shimbun" reported that the fourth volume sold the most copies of any light novel in August 2009. Anime News Network (ANN) reported in April 2012 that the first nine light novels had collectively sold 3.7 million copies in Japan.


title: Oreimo

text: ANN writer Kim Morrissy cited "Oreimo" as the series that revived the little sister boom, and made comparisons to Tsukasa Fushimi's later series "Eromanga Sensei". Morrissy stated that the key difference between the two, despite sharing a little sister "moe" theme, is that "Oreimo" has committed the ultimate incest taboo due to Kyosuke and Kirino being related by blood, whereas the siblings in "Eromanga Sensei" lack a blood relation, hence "allowing the romance to play out with a less direct connection to real-life incest".


title: Soho House (club)

text: Soho House is a group of private members' clubs originally aimed at those in the arts, politics, and media. The original location is at 40 Greek Street, Soho, London. The company now operates clubs, hotels and venues around the world, and in 2015 changed from SOHO House Group to Soho House & Co. Membership is selective and members are drawn mainly from the media, arts and fashion industries.


title: Soho House (club)

text: The company filed for an initial public offering in 2021, and went public in July 2021, trading under the name Membership Collective Group. The organisation will use the money raised to pay down debt and finance further expansion.


title: Soho House (club)

text: Nick Jones (Soho House founder and previous managing director) sold 80% of the club to British high-street tycoon Richard Caring in 2008. On 13 January 2012, the "Financial Times" announced that 60% of Soho House Group had been acquired by the US billionaire Ron Burkle, through his investment fund Yucaipa for approx. £250m, with founder Nick Jones retaining 10% and Richard Caring (Caprice Holdings) 30%. In September 2015, the company’s high leverage and limited free cash flow was under scrutiny by fixed income investors. However, company profit potential has been affected by growth in new clubs.


title: Soho House (club)

text: In November 2022, Nick Jones stepped down from day-to-day running of the business, citing a recent cancer diagnosis and recovery, and appointed Andrew Carnie as CEO.


title: Soho House (club)

text: As of 2021, Soho House operates 28 clubs worldwide. Soho House announced that they will be launching 6 new houses in 2021, including locations in Rome, Paris, Austin, London, Tel Aviv and Canouan. A house in Mexico City will open in 2023, the company's first Latin American location.


title: Soho House (club)

text: Soho House membership policies focus on creativity "above net worth and job titles" with "studied resistance to ostentation...[and] cultivated status signifiers," and favour moral values over financial success ("several execs were banned because they were thought to be abusive to their assistants"). In June 2015, Soho House had over 50,000 members and a global waiting list of over 30,000. In July 2021, Soho House had 119,000 members across 27 houses in 10 countries.


title: Soho House (club)

text: On 13 August 2017, the film "Tulip Fever" (starring Alicia Vikander) was first screened at London's Soho House.


title: Soho House (club)

text: In 2002, the London branch of the club made headlines as Iris Law, the two-year-old toddler daughter of actor Jude Law and his then wife, actress and designer Sadie Frost, was briefly hospitalised after accidentally consuming a part of an ecstasy tablet she found on the floor of Soho House while attending a child's birthday party. The child was ultimately unharmed.


title: Soho House (club)

text: In 2009, more than 80 residents signed an appeal by a neighbourhood association against allowing Soho House to move into the top two floors of Luckman Plaza in West Hollywood, near Los Angeles. The opening of the West Hollywood location also drew opposition from Beverly Hills Mayor Nancy Krasne.


title: Soho House (club)

text: On 9 December 2010, American swimsuit designer Sylvie Cachay was found murdered in room 20 of the Manhattan's branch. Nicholas Brooks, her boyfriend of six months, was convicted of her second degree murder and sentenced to 25 years to life.


title: Soho House (club)

text: In Amsterdam, the Netherlands, an attempt to open a new club also met protest. An Amsterdam House nonetheless opened in August 2018, as well as a second house in Barcelona.


title: Soho House (club)

text: In April 2021, a third wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Berlin led to rising infection numbers, critically overburdened intensive care units in local hospitals, and closure of cultural venues for a citywide lockdown. Bottega Veneta received criticism for holding maskless indoor dance parties at Berlin's Soho House for artists and celebrities flown in from around the world. Though Soho House staff complained about the lack of safety measures and regulatory guidelines, management has remained silent and implied that staff was not telling the truth. Berlin's Soho House staff have stood up to the company's efforts to reframe what happened as "spontaneous", clarifying that the party spaces were booked in advance. Additionally, club members have made their dissatisfaction and disappointment known with some considering ending their membership; police investigated the matter.


title: Soho House (club)

text: Soho House New York was featured in season 6 of the TV series "Sex and the City" in an episode titled "Boy Interrupted". In this episode, Samantha Jones (Kim Cattrall) pretends to be a member by using a stolen membership card.


title: Soho House (club)

text: In 2022, Soho House was mentioned in the Netflix drama "Inventing Anna", where the main character, con artist Anna Delvey, when asked if she was rejected by Soho House in episode two, she replied: "I’d rather hang out at a McDonald's or start my own club and reject their members."


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Human sacrifice was common in many parts of Mesoamerica, so the rite was nothing new to the Aztecs when they arrived at the Valley of Mexico, nor was it something unique to pre-Columbian Mexico. Other Mesoamerican cultures, such as the Purépechas and Toltecs, and the Maya performed sacrifices as well and from archaeological evidence, it probably existed since the time of the Olmecs (1200–400 BC), and perhaps even throughout the early farming cultures of the region. However, the extent of human sacrifice is unknown among several Mesoamerican civilizations. What distinguished Aztec practice from Maya human sacrifice was the way in which it was embedded in everyday life. These cultures also notably sacrificed elements of their own population to the gods.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: In 1519, explorers such as Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan and made observations of and wrote reports about the practice of human sacrifice. Bernal Díaz del Castillo, who participated in the Cortés expedition, made frequent mention of human sacrifice in his memoir "True History of the Conquest of New Spain". There are a number of second-hand accounts of human sacrifices written by Spanish friars, that relate to the testimonies of native eyewitnesses. The literary accounts have been supported by archeological research.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Since the late 1970s, excavations of the offerings in the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan, and other archaeological sites, have provided physical evidence, of human sacrifice among the Mesoamerican peoples. As of 2020, archaeologists have found 603 human skulls at the Hueyi Tzompantli in the archeological zone of the Templo Mayor.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: A wide variety of interpretations of the Aztec practice of human sacrifice have been proposed by modern scholars. Many scholars now believe that Aztec human sacrifice, especially during troubled times like pandemic or other crises, was performed in honor of the gods. Most scholars of Pre-Columbian civilization see human sacrifice among the Aztecs as a part of the long cultural tradition of human sacrifice in Mesoamerica.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Sacrifice was a common theme in the Aztec culture. In the Aztec "Legend of the Five Suns", all the gods sacrificed themselves so that mankind could live. Some years after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, a body of the Franciscans confronted the remaining Aztec priesthood and demanded, under threat of death, that they desist from this traditional practice. The Aztec priests defended themselves as follows:


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: What the Aztec priests were referring to was a cardinal Mesoamerican belief: that a great and continuing sacrifice by the gods sustains the Universe. A strong sense of indebtedness was connected with this worldview. Indeed, "nextlahualli" (debt-payment) was a commonly used metaphor for human sacrifice, and, as Bernardino de Sahagún reported, it was said that the victim was someone who "gave his service".


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Human sacrifice was in this sense the highest level of an entire panoply of offerings through which the Aztecs sought to repay their debt to the gods. Both Sahagún and Toribio de Benavente (also called "Motolinía") observed that the Aztecs gladly parted with everything. Even the "stage" for human sacrifice, the massive temple-pyramids, was an offering mound: crammed with the land's finest art, treasure and victims; they were then buried underneath for the deities.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Additionally, the sacrifice of animals was a common practice, for which the Aztecs bred dogs, eagles, jaguars and deer. The cult of Quetzalcoatl required the sacrifice of butterflies and hummingbirds.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Self-sacrifice was also quite common; people would offer maguey thorns, tainted with their own blood and would offer blood from their tongues, ear lobes, or genitals. Blood held a central place in Mesoamerican cultures. The 16th-century Florentine Codex by Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún reports that in one of the creation myths, Quetzalcóatl offered blood extracted from a wound in his own penis to give life to humanity. There are several other myths in which Nahua gods offer their blood to help humanity.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Another theory is that human sacrifice was used to supply protein and other vital nutrients in the absence of large game animals, though this argument is controversial.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: It is debated whether these rites functioned as a type of atonement for Aztec believers. Some scholars argue that the role of sacrifice was to assist the gods in maintaining the cosmos, and not as an act of propitiation. Aztec society viewed even the slightest tlatlacolli ('sin' or 'insult') as an extremely malevolent supernatural force. To avoid such calamities befalling their community, those who had erred punished themselves by extreme measures such as slitting their tongues for vices of speech or their ears for vices of listening. Other methods of atoning wrongdoings included hanging themselves, or throwing themselves down precipices.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: What has been gleaned from all of this is that the sacrificial role entailed a great deal of social expectation and a certain degree of acquiescence.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: According to Diego Durán's History of the Indies of New Spain (and a few other sources that are believed to be based on the Crónica X), the Flower wars were a ritual among the cities of Aztec Triple Alliance and Tlaxcala, Huexotzingo and Cholula. This form of ritual was introduced probably after the mid-1450s following droughts, as famine caused many deaths in the Mexican highlands. The droughts and damage to crops were believed to be punishment by gods who felt unappreciated and improperly honored. Therefore, the Flower wars provided victims for human sacrificial offerings in a highly structured and ceremonial manner.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: This type of warfare differed from regular political warfare, as the Flower wars were also an opportunity for combat training and as first exposure to combat for new soldiers. In addition, regular warfare included the use of long range weapons such as atlatl darts, stones, and sling shots to damage the enemy from afar. During the Flower wars, warriors were expected to fight up close and exhibit their combat abilities while aiming to injure the enemy, rather than kill them. The main objective of Aztec Flower warfare was to capture victims alive for later ritual execution, and offerings to the gods. Being killed the Flower wars, considered much more noble than dying in a regular military battle, was religiously more prestigious, as these dead were given the privilege to live in heaven with the war god, Huitzilopochtli.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Human sacrifice rituals were performed at the appropriate times each month or festival with the appropriate number of living bodies, and other goods. These individuals were previously chosen to be sacrificed, as was the case for people embodying the gods themselves, or members of an enemy party which had been captured and prepared to be sacrificed. Even enemies of the Aztecs understood their roles as sacrifices to the gods since many also practiced the same type of religion. For many rites, the victims were expected to bless children, greet and cheer passers-by, hear people's petitions to the gods, visit people in their homes, give discourses and lead sacred songs, processions and dances.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: A great deal of cosmological thought seems to have underlain each of the Aztec sacrificial rites. Most of the sacrificial rituals took more than two people to perform. In the usual procedure of the ritual, the sacrifice would be taken to the top of the temple. The sacrifice would then be laid on a stone slab, a "chacmool", by four priests, and their abdomen would be sliced open by a fifth priest with a ceremonial knife made of flint. The most common form of human sacrifice was heart-extraction. The Aztec believed that the heart ("tona") was both the seat of the individual and a fragment of the Sun's heat ("istli"). The "chacmool" was a very important religious tool used during sacrifices. The cut was made in the abdomen and went through the diaphragm. The priest would grab the heart which would be placed in a bowl held by a statue of the honored god, and the body would then be thrown down the temple's stairs. The body would land on a terrace at the base of the pyramid called an "apetlatl".


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Before and during the killing, priests and audience, gathered in the plaza below, stabbed, pierced and bled themselves as auto-sacrifice. Hymns, whistles, spectacular costumed dances and percussive music marked different phases of the rite.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: The body parts would then be disposed of, the viscera fed to the animals in the zoo, and the bleeding head was placed on display in the "tzompantli" or the skull rack. When the consumption of individuals was involved, the warrior who captured the enemy was given the meaty limbs while the most important flesh, the stomach and chest, were offerings to the gods.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Other types of human sacrifice, which paid tribute to various deities, killed the victims differently. The victim could be shot with arrows, die in gladiatorial style fighting, be sacrificed as a result of the Mesoamerican ballgame, burned, flayed after being sacrificed, or drowned.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Those individuals who were unable to complete their ritual duties were disposed of in a much less honorary matter. This "insult to the gods" needed to be atoned, therefore the sacrifice was slain while being chastised instead of revered. The conquistadors Cortés and Alvarado found that some of the sacrificial victims they freed "indignantly rejected [the] offer of release and demanded to be sacrificed".


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Some post-conquest sources report that at the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, the Aztecs sacrificed about 80,400 prisoners over the course of four days. This number is considered by Ross Hassig, author of "Aztec Warfare", to be an exaggeration. Hassig states "between 10,000 and 80,400 persons" were sacrificed in the ceremony. The higher estimate would average 15 sacrifices per minute during the four-day consecration. Four tables were arranged at the top so that the victims could be jettisoned down the sides of the temple. Additionally, some historians argue that these numbers were inaccurate as most written account of Aztec sacrifices were made by Spanish sources to justify Spain's conquest. Nonetheless, according to Codex Telleriano-Remensis, old Aztecs who talked with the missionaries told about a much lower figure for the reconsecration of the temple, approximately 4,000 victims in total.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Michael Harner, in his 1977 article "The Enigma of Aztec Sacrifice", cited an estimate by Borah of the number of persons sacrificed in central Mexico in the 15th century as high as 250,000 per year which may have been one percent of the population. Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxochitl, a Mexica descendant and the author of Codex Ixtlilxochitl, estimated that one in five children of the Mexica subjects was killed annually. Victor Davis Hanson argues that a claim by Don Carlos Zumárraga of 20,000 per annum is "more plausible". Other scholars believe that, since the Aztecs often tried to intimidate their enemies, it is more likely that they could have inflated the number as a propaganda tool. The same can be said for Bernal Díaz's inflated calculations when, in a state of visual shock, he grossly miscalculated the number of skulls at one of the seven Tenochtitlan tzompantlis. The counter argument is that both the Aztecs and Diaz were very precise in the recording of the many other details of Aztec life, and inflation or propaganda would be unlikely. According to the Florentine Codex, fifty years before the conquest the Aztecs burnt the skulls of the former tzompantli. Archeologist Eduardo Matos Moctezuma has unearthed and studied some tzompantlis. In 2003, archaeologist Elizabeth Graham noted that the largest number of skulls yet found at a single tzompantli was only about a dozen. In 2015, Raùl Barrera Rodríguez, archeologist and director of the Urban Archaeology Program at National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH), discovered a skull rack and skull towers next to the Templo Mayor complex that could have held thousands of skulls. However, as of 2020, only 603 skulls have ever been found associated with human sacrifice.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Every Aztec warrior would have to provide at least one prisoner for sacrifice. All the male population was trained to be warriors, but only the few who succeeded in providing captives could become full-time members of the warrior elite. Accounts also state that several young warriors could unite to capture a single prisoner, which suggests that capturing prisoners for sacrifice was challenging.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: There is still much debate as to what social groups constituted the usual victims of these sacrifices. It is often assumed that all victims were 'disposable' commoners or foreigners. However, slaves – a major source of victims – were not a permanent class but rather persons from any level of Aztec society who had fallen into debt or committed some crime. Likewise, most of the earliest accounts talk of prisoners of war of diverse social status, and concur that virtually all child sacrifices were locals of noble lineage, offered by their own parents. That women and children were not excluded from potential victims is attested by a tzompantli found in 2015 at Templo Mayor in the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: It is doubtful if many victims came from far afield. In 1454, the Aztec government forbade the slaying of captives from distant lands at the capital's temples. Duran's informants told him that sacrifices were consequently 'nearly always ... friends of the [Royal] House' – meaning warriors from allied states.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Huitzilopochtli was the tribal deity of the Mexica and, as such, he represented the character of the Mexican people and was often identified with the sun at the zenith, and with warfare, who burned down towns and carried a fire-breathing serpent, Xiuhcoatl. He was considered the primary god of the south and a manifestation of the sun, and a counterpart of the black Tezcatlipoca, the primary god of the north, "a domain associated with Mictlan, the underworld of the dead".


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Huitzilopochtli was worshipped at the Templo Mayor, which was the primary religious structure of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. The Templo Mayor consisted of twin pyramids, one for Huitzilopochtli and one for the rain god Tlaloc (discussed below).


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: When the Aztecs sacrificed people to Huitzilopochtli (the god with warlike aspects) the victim would be placed on a sacrificial stone. The priest would then cut through the abdomen with an obsidian or flint blade. The heart would be torn out still beating and held towards the sky in honor to the Sun-God. The body would then be pushed down the pyramid where the Coyolxauhqui stone could be found. The Coyolxauhqui Stone recreates the story of Coyolxauhqui, Huitzilopochtli's sister who was dismembered at the base of a mountain, just as the sacrificial victims were. The body would be carried away and either cremated or given to the warrior responsible for the capture of the victim. He would either cut the body in pieces and send them to important people as an offering, or use the pieces for ritual cannibalism. The warrior would thus ascend one step in the hierarchy of the Aztec social classes, a system that rewarded successful warriors.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: During the festival of Panquetzaliztli, of which Huitzilopochtli was the patron, sacrificial victims were adorned in the manner of Huitzilopochtli's costume and blue body paint, before their hearts would be sacrificially removed. Representations of Huitzilopochtli called teixiptla were also worshipped, the most significant being the one at the Templo Mayor which was made of dough mixed with sacrificial blood.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Tezcatlipoca was generally considered the most powerful god, the god of night, sorcery and destiny (the name "tezcatlipoca" means "smoking mirror", or "obsidian"), and the god of the north. The Aztecs believed that Tezcatlipoca created war to provide food and drink to the gods. Tezcatlipoca was known by several epithets including "the Enemy" and "the Enemy of Both Sides", which stress his affinity for discord. He was also deemed the enemy of Quetzalcoatl, but an ally of Huitzilopochtli. Tezcatlipoca had the power to forgive sins and to relieve disease, or to release a man from the fate assigned to him by his date of birth; however, nothing in Tezcatlipoca's nature compelled him to do so. He was capricious and often brought about reversals of fortune, such as bringing drought and famine. He turned himself into Mixcoatl, the god of the hunt, to make fire. To the Aztecs, he was an all-knowing, all-seeing nearly all-powerful god. One of his names can be translated as "He Whose Slaves We Are".


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Some captives were sacrificed to Tezcatlipoca in ritual gladiatorial combat. The victim was tethered in place and given a mock weapon. He died fighting against up to four fully armed jaguar knights and eagle warriors.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: During the 20-day month of Toxcatl, a young impersonator of Tezcatlipoca would be sacrificed. Throughout a year, this youth would be dressed as Tezcatlipoca and treated as a living incarnation of the god. The youth would represent Tezcatlipoca on earth; he would get four beautiful women as his companions until he was killed. In the meantime he walked through the streets of Tenochtitlan playing a flute. On the day of the sacrifice, a feast would be held in Tezcatlipoca's honor. The young man would climb the pyramid, break his flute and surrender his body to the priests. Sahagún compared it to the Christian Easter.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Xiuhtecuhtli is the god of fire and heat and in many cases is considered to be an aspect of Huehueteotl, the "Old God" and another fire deity.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Both Xiuhtecuhtli and Huehueteotl were worshipped during the festival of "Izcalli." For ten days preceding the festival various animals would be captured by the Aztecs, to be thrown in the hearth on the night of celebration.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: To appease Huehueteotl, the fire god and a senior deity, the Aztecs had a ceremony where they prepared a large feast, at the end of which they would burn captives; before they died they would be taken from the fire and their hearts would be cut out. Motolinía and Sahagún reported that the Aztecs believed that if they did not placate Huehueteotl, a plague of fire would strike their city. The sacrifice was considered an offering to the deity.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Xiuhtecuhtli was also worshipped during the New Fire Ceremony, which occurred every 52 years, and prevented the ending of the world. During the festival priests would march to the top of the volcano "Huixachtlan" and when the constellation "the fire drill" (Orion's belt) rose over the mountain, a man would be sacrificed. The victim's heart would be ripped from his body and a ceremonial hearth would be lit in the hole in his chest. This flame would then be used to light all of the ceremonial fires in various temples throughout the city of Tenochtitlan.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Tlaloc is the god of rain, water, and earthly fertility. The Aztecs believed that if sacrifices were not supplied for Tlaloc, rain would not come, their crops would not flourish, and leprosy and rheumatism, diseases caused by Tlaloc, would infest the village.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Archaeologists have found the remains of at least 42 children sacrificed to Tlaloc at the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan. Many of the children suffered from serious injuries before their death, they would have to have been in significant pain as Tlaloc required the tears of the young as part of the sacrifice. The priests made the children cry during their way to immolation: a good omen that Tlaloc would wet the earth in the raining season.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Xipe Totec, known as "Our Lord the Flayed One", is the god of rebirth, agriculture, the seasons, and craftsmen.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Xipe Totec was worshipped extensively during the festival of "Tlacaxipehualiztli", in which captured warriors and slaves were sacrificed in the ceremonial center of the city of Tenochtitlan. For forty days prior to their sacrifice one victim would be chosen from each ward of the city to act as "ixiptla," dress and live as Xipe Totec. The victims were then taken to the Xipe Totec's temple where their hearts would be removed, their bodies dismembered, and their body parts divided up to be later eaten. Prior to death and dismemberment the victim's skin would be removed and worn by individuals who traveled throughout the city fighting battles and collecting gifts from the citizens.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: The cycle of fifty-two years was central to Mesoamerican cultures. The Nahua's religious beliefs were based on a great fear that the universe would collapse after each cycle if the gods were not strong enough. Every fifty-two years a special New Fire ceremony was performed. All fires were extinguished and at midnight a human sacrifice was made. The Aztecs then waited for the sunrise. If the Sun appeared it meant that the sacrifices for this cycle had been enough. A fire was ignited on the body of a victim, and this new fire was taken to every house, city and town. Rejoicing was general: a new cycle of fifty-two years was beginning, and the end of the world had been postponed, at least for another 52-year cycle.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Sacrifices were made on specific days. Sahagún, Juan Bautista de Pomar and Motolinía report that the Aztecs had eighteen festivities each year, one for each Aztec month. The table below shows the festivals of the 18-month year of the Aztec calendar and the deities with which the festivals were associated.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Visual accounts of Aztec sacrificial practice are principally found in codices and some Aztec statuary. Many visual renderings were created for Spanish patrons, and thus may reflect European preoccupations and prejudices. Produced during the 16th century, the most prominent codices include the Ríos, Tudela, Telleriano-Remensis, Magliabechiano, and Sahagún's Florentine. A contrast is offered in the few Aztec statues that depict sacrificial victims, which show an Aztec understanding of sacrifice. Rather than showing a preoccupation with debt repayment, they emphasize the mythological narratives that resulted in human sacrifices, and often underscore the political legitimacy of the Aztec state. For instance, the Coyolxauhqui stone found at the foot of the Templo Mayor commemorates the mythic slaying of Huitzilopochli's sister for the matricide of Coatlicue; it also, as Cecelia Kline has pointed out, "served to warn potential enemies of their certain fate should they try to obstruct the state's military ambitions".


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: In addition to the accounts provided by Sahagún and Durán, there are other important texts to be considered. Juan de Grijalva, Hernán Cortés, Juan Díaz, Bernal Díaz, Andrés de Tapia, Francisco de Aguilar, Ruy González and the Anonymous Conqueror detailed their eyewitness accounts of human sacrifice in their writings about the Conquest of the Aztec Empire. However, as the conquerors often used such accounts to portray the Aztecs in a negative light, and thus justifying their colonization, the accuracy of these sources has been called into question. Martyr d'Anghiera, Lopez de Gomara, Oviedo y Valdes and Illescas, while not in Mesoamerica, wrote their accounts based on interviews with the participants. Bartolomé de las Casas and Sahagún arrived later to New Spain but had access to direct testimony, especially of the indigenous people.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Juan de Grijalva was one of the first Spaniards to explore Mexico and traveled on his expedition in 1518 with Juan Díaz. Diaz wrote "Itinerario de Grijalva" before 1520, in which he describes the aftermath of a sacrifice on an island off the coast of Veracruz. He said, When he reached said tower the Captain asked him why such deeds were committed there and the Indian answered that it was done as a kind of sacrifice and gave to understand that the victims were beheaded on the wide stone; that the blood was poured into the vase and that the heart was taken out of the breast and burnt and offered to the said idol. The fleshy parts of the arms and legs were cut off and eaten. This was done to the enemies with whom they were at war.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: In "The Conquest of New Spain" Díaz recounted that, after landing on the coast, they came across a temple dedicated to Tezcatlipoca. "That day they had sacrificed two boys, cutting open their chests and offering their blood and hearts to that accursed idol". Díaz narrates several more sacrificial descriptions on the later Cortés expedition. Arriving at Cholula, they find "cages of stout wooden bars ... full of men and boys who were being fattened for the sacrifice at which their flesh would be eaten". When the conquistadors reached Tenochtitlan, Díaz described the sacrifices at the Great Pyramid:


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: According to Bernal Díaz, the chiefs of the surrounding towns, for example Cempoala, would complain on numerous occasions to Cortés about the perennial need to supply the Aztecs with victims for human sacrifice. It is clear from his description of their fear and resentment toward the Mexicas that, in their opinion, it was no honor to surrender their kinsmen to be sacrificed by them.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: At the town of Cingapacigna Cortez told the chiefs that for them to become friends and brothers of the Spaniards they must end the practice of making sacrifices. According to Bernal Diaz:


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: On meeting a group of inhabitants from Cempoala who gave Cortes and his men food and invited them to their village:


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Cortés was the Spanish conquistador whose expedition to Mexico in 1519 led to the fall of the Aztecs, and led to the conquering of vast sections of Mexico on behalf of the Crown of Castile.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: The Anonymous Conquistador was an unknown travel companion of Cortés who wrote "Narrative of Some Things of New Spain and of the Great City of Temestitan" which details Aztec sacrifices.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: The Anonymous Conquistador wrote, They lead him to the temple, where they dance and carry on joyously, and the man about to be sacrificed dances and carries on like the rest. At length the man who offers the sacrifice strips him naked, and leads him at once to the stairway of the tower where is the stone idol. Here they stretch him on his back, tying the hands to the sides and fastening the legs ... Soon comes the sacrificing priest—and this is no small office among them—armed with a stone knife, which cuts like steel, and is as big as one of our large knives. He plunges the knife into the breast, opens it, and tears out the heart hot and palpitating. And this as quickly as one might cross himself. At this point the chief priest of the temple takes it, and anoints the mouth of the principal idol with the blood; then filling his hand with it he flings it towards the sun, or towards some star, if it be night. Then he anoints the mouths of all the other idols of wood and stone, and sprinkles blood on the cornice of the chapel of the principal idol. Afterwards they burn the heart, preserving the ashes as a great relic, and likewise they burn the body of the sacrifice, but these ashes are kept apart from those of the heart in a different vase.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Modern excavations in Mexico City have found evidence of human sacrifice in the form of hundreds of skulls at the site of old temples.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Other human remains found in the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan contribute to the evidence of human sacrifice through osteologic information. Indentations in the rib cage of a set of remains reveal the act of accessing the heart through the abdominal cavity, which correctly follows images from the codices in the pictorial representation of sacrifice.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Different anthropological or other sources have attempted to explain a possible ecological explanation of the need for human sacrifices to supplement overall Aztec diet. Harner's main argument lies within his claim that cannibalism is needed to assist the diet of the Aztecs. He claimed that very high population pressure and an emphasis on maize agriculture, without domesticated herbivores, led to a deficiency of essential amino acids amongst the Aztecs. As population increased and the amount of available game decreased, the Aztecs had to compete with other carnivorous mammals, such as dogs, to find food. Harner believes that although intensified agricultural practices provided the Aztec society a surplus of carbohydrates, they did not provide sufficient nutritional balance; for this reason, the cannibalistic consumption of sacrificed humans was needed to supply an appropriate amount of protein per individual. Harris, author of "Cannibals and Kings", has propagated the claim originally proposed by Harner, that the flesh of the victims was a part of an aristocratic diet as a reward, since the Aztec diet was lacking in proteins.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: However, Bernard Ortiz Montellano offers a counter argument and points out the faults of Harner's sources. First off, Ortiz challenges Harner's claim of the Aztecs needing to compete with other carnivorous mammals for protein packed food. Many other types of foods were available to the Aztecs, including meat from salamanders, fowls, armadillos, and weasels. These resources were also plenty available due to their need to subsist in Lake Texcoco, the place where the Aztecs had created their home. In addition, even if no herbivores were available to eat, the nutrients needed were found in the leaves and seeds of amaranth which also provided protein. Lastly, the Aztecs had a highly structured system in which "chinampas" and tribute provided a surplus of materials and therefore ensured the Aztec were able to meet their caloric needs.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Ortiz's argument helps to frame and evaluate the gaps within Harner's argument. Part of the issue with Harner's reasoning for Aztec use of cannibalism was the lack of reliability of his sources. Harner recognized the numbers he used may be contradicting or conflicting with other sources, yet he continued to use these sources and claimed them as reliable. Ortiz qualifies Harner's sources as Spanish propaganda, and states the need to critique primary sources of interactions with the Aztecs. By dehumanizing and villainizing Aztec culture, the Spaniards were able to justify their own actions for conquest. Therefore, encounters with sacrificial cannibalism were said to be grossly exaggerated and Harner used the sources to aid his argument. However, it is unlikely that the Spanish conquerors would need to invent additional cannibalism to justify their actions given that human sacrifice already existed, as attested by archeological evidence. Overall, ecological factors alone are not sufficient to account for human sacrifice and, more recently, it is posited that religious beliefs have a significant effect on motivation.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Sacrifices were ritualistic and symbolic acts accompanying huge feasts and festivals, and were a way to properly honor the gods. Victims usually died in the "center stage" amid the splendor of dancing troupes, percussion orchestras, elaborate costumes and decorations, carpets of flowers, crowds of thousands of commoners, and all the assembled elite. Aztec texts frequently refer to human sacrifice as "neteotoquiliztli", "the desire to be regarded as a god". These members of the society became an "ixiptla"—that is, a god's representative, image or idol.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: For each festival, at least one of the victims took on the paraphernalia, habits, and attributes of the god or goddess whom they were dying to honor or appease. Through this performance, it was said that the divinity had been given 'human form'—that the god now had an "ixitli" (face). Duran says such victims were 'worshipped ... as the deity' or 'as though they had been gods'. Even whilst still alive, "ixiptla" victims were honored, hallowed and addressed very highly. Particularly the young man who was indoctrinated for a year to submit himself to Tezcatlipoca's temple was the Aztec equivalent of a celebrity, being greatly revered and adored to the point of people "kissing the ground" when he passed by.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Posthumously, their remains were treated as actual relics of the gods which explains why victims' skulls, bones and skin were often painted, bleached, stored and displayed, or else used as ritual masks and oracles. For example, Diego Duran's informants told him that whoever wore the skin of the victim who had portrayed god Xipe (Our Lord the Flayed One) felt he was wearing a holy relic. He considered himself 'divine'.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Politically, human sacrifice was important in Aztec culture as a way to represent a social hierarchy between their own culture and the enemies surrounding their city. Additionally, it was a way to structure the society of the Aztec culture itself. The hierarchy of cities like Tenochtitlan were tiered with the "Tlatoani" (emperor) on the top, the remaining nobles ("pipiltin") next who managed the land owned by the emperor. Then the warriors, the "pochteca" (merchants), commoners and farmers. Then the lowest level of the hierarchy consisted of slaves and indentured servants. The only way of achieving social mobility was through successful performance as a warrior. This shows how important capturing enemies for sacrifice was as it was the singular way of achieving some type of "nobility".


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Within the system of organization based on hierarchy, there was also a social expectation contributing to the status of an individual at the time of their sacrifice. An individual was punished if unable to confidently address their own sacrifice, i.e. the person acted cowardly beforehand instead of brave. Then, instead of being sacrificed honorably, their lowly death paralleled their new lowly status. Where one's body traveled in the afterlife also depended on the type of death awarded to the individual. Those who died while being sacrificed or while battling in war went to the second-highest heaven, while those who died of illness were the lowest in the hierarchy. Those going through the lowest hierarchy of death were required to undergo numerous torturous trials and journeys, only to culminate in a somber underworld. Additionally, death during Flower Wars was considered much more noble than death during regular military endeavors.


title: Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

text: Ingham, John M. "Human Sacrifice at Tenochtitln." Society for Comparative Studies in Society and History 26 (1984): 379–400.


title: Believer (Imagine Dragons song)

text: "Believer" is a song by American rock band Imagine Dragons. The song was released on February 1, 2017, through Interscope Records and Kidinakorner as the lead single from the band's third studio album, "Evolve" (2017). It was written by Dan Reynolds, Wayne Sermon, Ben McKee, Daniel Platzman, Justin Tranter and its producers Mattman & Robin.


title: Believer (Imagine Dragons song)

text: "Believer" peaked at number four on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming the band's third top ten single after "Radioactive" and "Demons". It also reached the top ten in Austria, Canada, Czech Republic, France, Italy, Poland, Portugal, and Switzerland. The song received a notable boost in popularity after it was used in the season finale for the first season of the CW's Riverdale. The song was played heavily in advertisements, notably for the Nintendo Switch Super Bowl LI advertisement, and several movie and television trailers. It became the fifth best-selling song of 2017 in the United States and one of the best-selling singles of all time. As of November 2022, the song has amassed more than 2.2 billion streams on Spotify. On January 8, 2019, another version of the song was released, featuring American rapper, Lil Wayne. A Halloween mix was released on October 31, 2022, a promo of the song appearing in the October 27, 2022 episode of "The Late Show with Stephen Colbert".


title: Believer (Imagine Dragons song)

text: In March 2017, Dan Reynolds told "People" that the song was inspired by his experiences with ankylosing spondylitis in 2015. He said that, "The meaning of the song is really reflecting on specific things in my life that were painful, whether it was anxiety and dealing with crowds, feeling overwhelmed by that or the success of the band, disease, going through depression—anything that was a source of pain in my life. And just rising above that, finding a place of perspective where I could be appreciative of the pain in my life and make it my greatest strength."


title: Believer (Imagine Dragons song)

text: According to sheet music published at Sheetmusicdirect.com, "Believer" is an allegro tempo of 125 beats per minute. Written in the time signature of 12/8, the song is in the key of B♭ minor. Dan Reynolds' vocal range spans from A to D during the song.


title: Believer (Imagine Dragons song)

text: The official music video for the song was released on March 7, 2017, on the Imagine Dragons Vevo account, and was directed by Matt Eastin. It features a boxing match between Reynolds and Dolph Lundgren, with some scenes showing what seems to be a young Dan drawing on his notepad in scenes. Dan is losing, and he says that he wants to stop, but Dolph replies "We can't." It ends with Reynolds barely conscious, while Young Dan is revealed to have sketched a symbol identical to the one on Reynolds' chest, the "Evolve" symbol. As of 2022, the video has over 2 billion views and over 20 million likes. It is currently the most-viewed and most-liked video on the band's YouTube channel. It is also the 21st most-liked video on the platform.


title: Believer (Imagine Dragons song)

text: "Believer" reached number four on the "Billboard" Hot 100, and topped the "Billboard" Hot Rock Songs (29 weeks), Alternative Songs (13 weeks), and Adult Pop Songs (6 weeks). Among component charts, it also topped Rock Airplay, Rock Streaming Songs, Rock Digital Sale Songs, and Top TV Commercials Charts. It also topped the Canada Alternative Rock Chart. "Believer" broke the 14-year-old record for the most spins on the Mediabase Alternative chart. "Believer" has reached the top ten in Austria, Canada, Czech Republic, France, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Switzerland, and the United States.


title: Believer (Imagine Dragons song)

text: "Believer" was the number one song on several "Billboard" year-end charts, including the Hot Rock Songs chart, the Rock Airplay chart, and the Alternative Songs chart. The song was the fifth best-selling song of 2017 in the United States, selling 1,598,000 copies in the year.


title: Believer (Imagine Dragons song)

text: The first televised performance of "Believer" was during the March 22, 2017 episode of ABC late-night talk show "Jimmy Kimmel Live!". They then performed the song at BBC Radio 1's Big Weekend. "Believer" was performed again during the 2019 College Football Playoff National Championship halftime show.


title: Believer (Imagine Dragons song)

text: Grammy Award-winning singer Michelle Williams performed the song on the second US series of "The Masked Singer".


title: Garbage Pail Kids

text: Garbage Pail Kids is a series of sticker trading cards produced by the Topps Company, originally released in 1985 and designed to parody the "Cabbage Patch Kids" dolls, which were popular at the time.