title: Citizens band radio

text: During the 1960s, the service was used by small businesses (e.g., electricians, plumbers, carpenters), truck drivers and radio hobbyists. By the late 1960s, advances in solid-state electronics allowed the weight, size, and cost of the radios to fall, giving the public access to a communications medium previously only available to specialists. CB clubs were formed; a CB slang language evolved alongside ten-code, similar to those used in emergency services.


title: Citizens band radio

text: After the 1973 oil crisis, the U.S. government imposed a nationwide 55 mph speed limit, and fuel shortages and rationing were widespread. Drivers (especially commercial truckers) used CB radios to locate service stations with better supplies of fuel, to notify other drivers of speed traps, and to organize blockades and convoys in a 1974 strike protesting the new speed limit and other trucking regulations. The radios were crucial for independent truckers; many were paid by the mile, and the 55 mph speed limit lowered their productivity.


title: Citizens band radio

text: Their use spread further into the general population in the US in the middle of the 1970s. Originally, CB (named Citizens Radio by the Federal Communications Commission as of 1972) required the use of a callsign in addition to a purchased license ($20 in the early 1970s, reduced to $4 on March 1, 1975); however, when the CB craze was at its peak many people ignored the requirement and invented their own nicknames (known as "handles"). Lax enforcement of the rules on authorized use of CB radio led to widespread further disregard of the regulations (such as for antenna height, distance communications, licensing, call signs, and transmitter power). Individual licensing came to an end on April 28, 1983.


title: Citizens band radio

text: The increased use of CB radios in 1970s had made its way into films, television, and music by the late 1970s. Films such as "Smokey and the Bandit" (1977), "Breaker! Breaker!" (1977), "Citizens Band" (a.k.a. "Handle with Care") (1977), and "Convoy" (1978), made heavy reference to the phenomenon, as did television series such as "Movin' On" (debuted in 1974), "The Dukes of Hazzard" (debuted in 1979) and the animated series "CB Bears" (debuted in 1977) helped cement CB radio's status as a nationwide craze in the United States over the mid- to late-1970s. The phenomenon also inspired several popular and country music songs in 1975 and 1976:


title: Citizens band radio

text: Voice actor Mel Blanc was also an active CB operator, often using "Bugs" or "Daffy" as his handle and talking on the air in the Los Angeles area in one of his many voice characters. He appeared in an interview (with clips having fun talking to children on his home CB radio station) in the "NBC Knowledge" television episode about CB radio in 1978. Similar to Internet chat rooms a quarter-century later, CB allowed people to get to know one another in a quasi-anonymous manner.


title: Citizens band radio

text: Originally, the U.S. had 23 CB channels; the 40 channel band plan was implemented in 1977. Two more channels between 22 & 23, commonly referred to as 22A & 22B, were available. Several people had 22A, but few had 22B. In the early 1970s Radio Shack sold a "base station" CB radio that contained a crystal for each of the 23 channels, two extra slots existed, and one could order the 22A & 22B crystals for an easy plug-in. Channel 9 was officially reserved for emergency use by the FCC in 1969. Channel 10 was originally often used for highway travel communications east of the Mississippi River, and channel 19 west of the Mississippi; channel 19 then became the preferred highway channel in most areas, as it did not have adjacent-channel interference problems with channel 9. Many CBers called channel 19 "the trucker's channel". The FCC originally restricted channel 11 for use as the calling channel.


title: Citizens band radio

text: The original FCC output power limitation for CB radios was "5 watts DC input to the final amplifier stage", which was a reference to the earlier radios equipped with tubes. With solid state radios becoming more common in the 1970s, the FCC revised this specification at the same time the authorized channels were increased to 40. The current specification is simply "4 watts output (AM) or 12 watts output (SSB)" as measured at the antenna connector on the back of the radio. The old specification was often used in false advertising by some manufacturers who would claim their CB radios had "5 watts" long after the specification had changed to 4 watts output. The older 23 channel radios built under the old specifications typically had an output of around 3.5 to 3.8 watts output when measured at the antenna connector. The FCC simply rounded up the old "5 watts DC input to the final amplifier stage" specification to the new "4 watts output as measured at the antenna connector on the back of the radio", resulting in a far simpler and easier specification.


title: Citizens band radio

text: Initially, the FCC intended for CB to be the "poor man's business-band radio", and CB regulations were structured similarly to those regulating the business band radio service. Until 1975, only channels 9–14 and 23 could be used for "interstation" calls (to other licensees). Channels 1–8 and 15–22 were reserved for "intrastation" communications (among units with the same license). After the inter-station/intra-station rule was dropped, channel 11 was reserved as a calling frequency (for the purpose of establishing communications); however, this was withdrawn in 1977. During this early period, many CB radios had "inter-station" channels colored on their dials, while the other channels were clear or normally colored. It was common for a town to adopt an inter-station channel as its "home" channel. This helped prevent overcrowding on channel 11, enabling a CBer to monitor a town's home channel to contact another CBer from that town instead of a making a general call on channel 11.


title: Citizens band radio

text: Since the price of CB was dropping and VHF Marine Band was still expensive, many boaters installed CB radios. Business caught on to this market, and introduced marine CBs containing a weather band (WX). There was much controversy over whether the Coast Guard should monitor CB radio, but for safety they did so, using Motorola base stations at their search and rescue stations. The Coast Guard stopped this practice in the late 1980s and recommends VHF Marine Band radios for boaters.


title: Citizens band radio

text: CB has lost much of its original appeal due to development of mobile phones, the internet and the Family Radio Service. Changing radio propagation for long-distance communications due to the 11–year sunspot cycle is a factor at these frequencies. In addition, CB may have become a victim of its own popularity; with millions of users on a finite number of frequencies during the mid-to-late 1970s and early 1980s, channels often were noisy and communication difficult, which reduced interest among hobbyists. Business users (such as tow-truck operators, plumbers, and electricians) moved to the VHF and UHF business band frequencies. The business band requires an FCC license, and usually results in an assignment to a single frequency. The advantages of fewer users sharing a frequency, greater authorized output power, clarity of FM transmission, lack of interference by distant stations due to skip propagation, and consistent communications made the VHF (Very High Frequency) radio an attractive alternative to the overcrowded CB channels.


title: Citizens band radio

text: The FCC restricts channel 9 to emergency communications and roadside assistance. Most highway travelers monitor channel 19. Truck drivers still use CB, which is an effective means of obtaining information about road construction, accidents and police speed traps.


title: Citizens band radio

text: Before CB was authorized in Australia, hand-held 27-MHz "walkie-talkies" were available, which used several frequencies between the present CB channels, such as 27.240 MHz. By the mid-1970s, hobbyists were experimenting with handheld radios and unauthorized 23 channel American CB radios. At that time in Australia, licensed ham operators and Emergency Services still used the 11 meter band which was not yet available for CB use. Multiple CB clubs had formed by this time, which assigned call signs to members, exchanged QSL cards, and lobbied for the legalisation of CB. In late 1977, having legalised Australian CB and allowed the import / sale of American and Japanese 23 channel sets, the Federal Government drafted new interim regulations for Australian 18 channel transceivers. The new RB249 regulations came into effect on January 1, 1978, and the last official registration date for 23 channel sets was January 31, 1978. After this date, use of unregistered 23 channel CB sets was deemed illegal and unlicensed sets were no longer eligible to be licensed. The 18 channel band plan used 16 channels of the 23 channel CB radios plus 2 extra channels at 27.095 and 27.195 MHz, to make up the 18 channels. The original channels 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 21 and 23 were deleted from the 18 channel band plan. So channel 1 on an 18 channel was actually channel 5 on a 23 channel radio. These roughly corresponded to the present channels 5–22, except for the two unique frequencies that are known as 11A (Channel 7 on an 18 channel Australian CB) and 19A (Channel 16 on an 18 channel Australian CB) or remote control frequencies but are no longer part of the Australian 27 MHz CB band since 40 Channels were introduced. On January 1, 1982, the American 40 channel band plan was adopted.


title: Citizens band radio

text: From the outset, the government attempted to regulate CB radio with license fees and call signs, but eventually they abandoned this approach. Enthusiasts rushed for licences when the doors opened at post offices around Australia in mid-1977 and by the end of the first quarter of 1978 an estimated 200,000 licences were issued (Australia's Population in 1978 was 14.36 million). The regulations called for one licence per CB radio. The price for a licence in 1977 was AU$25 per year (In mid 1977 the Australian Dollar exchange rate was AU$0.90 to US$1.00), a not insubstantial amount for the average Australian wage-earner. Australian CB radio uses AM, USB, and LSB modes (no FM) on 27 MHz, allowed output power being 4 Watts AM and 12 Watts SSB. When UHF CB was first legalised the 27 MHz CB Band was intended to be closed to Australian CBers in 1982 and only the 477 MHz UHF band was to continue, however this did not eventuate. The first 477 MHz CB radio in 1977 was designed and made in Australia by Philips TMC and was a 40 channel CB called the FM320.


title: Citizens band radio

text: The first CB club in Australia was the "Charlie Brown Touring Car Club" (CBTCC), which formed in Morwell, Victoria in 1967 and consisted mainly of four-wheel drive enthusiasts. The club used the prefix "GL" (for Gippsland), since "CB" could not be used. After July 1, 1977, the club changed its name to Citizens Band Two Way Communication Club (CBTCC). Other early clubs were "LV" (Latrobe Valley) and "WB" (named after Wayne Britain). Members of these clubs are still active, and have also become amateur radio operators. Other Australian cities which became CB radio "hotspots" were Seymour, Benalla, Holbrook and Gundagai, all located on the busy Hume Highway between Melbourne and Sydney. Other regional cities such as Bendigo, Mildura, Mount Gambier and Port Augusta, developed lively, colourful CB radio communities.


title: Citizens band radio

text: With the introduction of UHF CB radios in 1977, many operators used both UHF and HF radios and formed groups to own and operate local FM repeaters. Members of the CBTCC formed what became known as Australian Citizens Radio Movement (ACRM) in the early 1970s; this organization became the voice for legalization of CB radio throughout Australia. After peaking in the 1970s and early 1980s, the use of 27 MHz CB in Australia has fallen dramatically due to the introduction of 477 MHz UHF CB (with FM and repeaters) and the proliferation of cheap, compact handheld UHF transceivers. Technology such as mobile telephones and the internet have provided people with other choices for communications. The Australian government has changed the allocation of channels available for UHF CB Radio from 40 to 80, and doubled the number of repeater channels from 8 to 16.


title: Citizens band radio

text: Several channels are allocated for maritime use in Australia. Australia also permits the use of marine VHF radio. 27 MHz radios have the advantage of not requiring a certificate of proficiency to use, however they may not be monitored by rescue organisations or larger vessels. VHF radios are recommended by state agencies, such as Marine Safety Victoria and Marine Rescue NSW.


title: Citizens band radio

text: In Canada, the General Radio Service uses the identical frequencies and modes as the United States citizens band, and no special provisions are required for either Canadians or Americans using CB gear while traveling across the border. The General Radio Service was authorized in 1962. Initially, CB channels 1–3 remained allocated to amateur radio and channel 23 was used by paging services. American CB licensees were initially required to apply for a temporary license to operate in Canada. In April 1977, the service was expanded to the same 40 channels as the American service.


title: Citizens band radio

text: In Indonesia, CB radios were first introduced about 1977 when some transceivers were imported illegally from Australia, Japan and the United States. The dates are hard to confirm accurately, but early use was known around large cities such as Jakarta, Bandung, Yogyakarta, Surabaya and Medan. The Indonesian government legalized CB on 6 October 1980 with a decision by the Minister of Communications, the "Ministerial Decree on the Licensing for the Operation of Inter-Citizens Radio Communication". Because many people were already using 40 channel radios prior to legalization, the American band plan (with AM and SSB) was adopted; a VHF band was added in 1994, along with allowing use of the Australian UHF CB channel plan at 476-477 MHz On 10 November 1980, the Indonesian Directorate General of Posts and Telecommunications issued another decree establishing RAPI ("Radio Antar Penduduk Indonesia") as the official citizens band radio organization in Indonesia.


title: Citizens band radio

text: In Malaysia, citizens band radios became legal when the "Notification of Issuance Of Class Assignments" by Communication and Multimedia Malaysia was published on 1 April 2000. Under this class assignment, a CB radio is classified as a "Personal Radio Service device". The frequency band is HF, 26.9650 MHz to 27.4050 MHz (40 channels), power output is 4 watts for AM and FM and 12 watts PEP for SSB. Channel 9 is reserved for emergencies, and channel 11 is a calling channel. On UHF 477 MHz, citizens band PRS radio devices are allowed 5 watts power output on FM on 39 assigned channels spaced at 12.5 kHz intervals from 477.0125 to 477.4875 MHz. Channel 9 is reserved for emergencies, and channel 11 for calling. A short-range simplex radio communications service for recreational use is from 477.5250 to 477.9875 MHz FM mode with 38 channels and a power output of 500 mW. A CB radio or Personal Radio Service Device under Class Assignment does not need an individual license to operate in Malaysia if it adheres to the rules of the "Warta Kerajaan Malaysia"


title: Citizens band radio

text: On 1 April 2010 the MCMC (Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission) released a new regulation and later on 2017. This includes a new UHF PMR 446 MHz allocation: an eight-channel analog Personal Mobile Radio 446 MHz (Analog PMR446) with frequencies from 446.00625 to 446.09375 MHz (12.5 kHz spacing) FM with 0.5 watt power output, and 16 channels for Digital Personal Mobile Radio 446 MHz (Digital PMR 446). Frequencies for Digital PMR 446 are from 446.103125 to 446.196875 MHz with 6.25 kHz channel spacing in 4FSK mode and a power output of 0.5 watt. An unofficial citizens band radio club in Malaysia is the "Malaysia Boleh Citizen Radio Group", known as "Mike Bravo" ("Malaysia Boleh").


title: Citizens band radio

text: In the UK, a small but growing number of people were illegally using American CB radios during the late 1970s and early 1980s. The prominence of CB radio grew in Britain partly due to the success of novelty songs like C.W. McCall's "Convoy" and "Laurie Lingo & The Dipsticks’" "Convoy GB" in 1976 (both of which were Top 5 hits). By 1980, CB radio was becoming a popular pastime in Britain; as late as the summer of 1981 the British government was still saying that CB would never be legalized on 27 MHz, proposing a UHF service around 860 MHz called "Open Channel" instead. However, in November 1981 (after high-profile public demonstrations) 40 frequencies unique to the UK, known as the 27/81 Bandplan using FM were allocated at 27 MHz plus 20 channels on 934 MHz (934.0125–934.9625 MHz with 50 kHz spacing). CB's inventor, Al Gross, made the ceremonial first legal British CB call from Trafalgar Square in London.


title: Citizens band radio

text: The maximum power allowable on the MPT 1320 27/81 system was 4 watts (in common with the American system), although initially radios were equipped to reduce output power by 10 dB (to 0.4 watts) if the antenna was mounted more than 7 meters (23') above ground level. The power-reduction switch is also useful in reducing TV interference. MPT 1320 also restricted antennas to a maximum length of 1.5 meters (5'), with base loading being the only type permitted for 27 MHz operation. Over the next several years antenna regulations were relaxed, with antenna length increasing to 1.65 meters (5'5") and centre- or top-loading of the main radiating element permitted. On 1 September 1987 the UK added the usual 40 frequencies (26.965–27.405 MHz) used worldwide, for a total of 80 channels at 27 MHz; antenna regulations were further relaxed, and the 934 MHz band was withdrawn in 1998.


title: Citizens band radio

text: CB radio in the UK was deregulated in December 2006 by the regulatory body Ofcom, and CB radio in the UK is now license-free. The old MPT 1320 27/81 band will continue to be available for the foreseeable future. On 27 June 2014, changes were made by Ofcom to allow the use of AM & SSB modes on CB in the UK legally for the first time. The rules regarding non-approved radios and power levels above 4 Watts on AM/FM and 12 Watts on SSB still apply, despite deregulation. Persons using illegal equipment or accessories still risk prosecution, fines or confiscation of equipment, although this is rarely enforced. AM and SSB on the freeband and amplifier use are common among enthusiasts. Packet radio is legal in the UK, although not widely used. Internet gateway stations are also beginning to appear; although illegal on 27 MHz, these units are connected to other CB stations around the world.


title: Citizens band radio

text: Although the use of CB radios in the UK is limited they are still in use, especially with the farming community, truckers, off-roaders and mini-cab services. The widely used channel for the Young Farmers' Club is channel 11. The normal calling and truckers' channel is channel 19, although many truck organisations and groups use other channels to avoid abuse.


title: Citizens band radio

text: CB radio is not a worldwide, standardized radio service. Each country decides if it wants to authorize such a radio service from its domestic frequency authorizations, and what its standards will be; however, similar radio services exist in many countries. Frequencies, power levels and modes (such as frequency modulation (FM), amplitude modulation (AM), and single-sideband modulation (SSB), often vary from country to country; use of foreign equipment may be illegal. However, many countries have adopted the American channels and their associated frequencies, which is generally in AM mode except some higher channels which are sometimes in SSB mode. In September 2021 the FCC approved the use of FM on CB radio.


title: Citizens band radio

text: When looking at the FCC/CEPT channel list there are some channels with a spacing of 20 kHz instead of the regular 10 kHz step. These intermediate frequencies are reserved for the Radio Control Radio Service (RCRS). The RCRS service is commonly used for remote control of model aircraft and boats. It is an unofficial practice to name these channels by their next lower standard channel number along with a suffix "A" ("after"). For example, channel "11A" is 27.095 MHz, spaced 10 kHz after standard channel 11 (at 27.085 MHz) is used to provide for part of European railroad's Eurobalise radio communication with trains.


title: Citizens band radio

text: Single-sideband (SSB) operation involves the selection of either the Lower Side Band (LSB) or the Upper Side Band (USB) mode for transmit and receive. SSB radios also have the standard AM mode for communicating with standard CB radio models. With the original 23 CB channels SSB stations commonly used channel 16, to avoid interference to those using AM (SSB stations are authorized to use 12 watts, as opposed to 4 watts for AM stations) and to more easily locate other SSB stations. With the FCC authorization of 40 channels, SSB operation shifted to channels 36–40. Channel 36 (or 38 for LSB) became the unofficial SSB "calling channels" for stations seeking contacts, with the subsequent conversation moving to channels 37–40. CBers with AM-only radios are asked to not use channels 36 through 40. In return, SSB stations stay off the remaining 35 channels so they could be used by AM stations. This agreement provides interference-free operation for all operators by separating the far more powerful SSB stations from the AM stations. This solution also resolves the confusion created by the false advertising that SSB radios have 120 channels compared to only 40 for AM radios.


title: Citizens band radio

text: While a SSB radio has three possible "modes" (AM, LSB, USB) it can operate in, operation is still limited to the same 40 channels. Some manufacturers tried to sell more radios by claiming that with three different modes possible for each channel, it was the equivalent to 120 channels. Reality is far different: Attempting an SSB conversation while an AM conversation is in progress results in jammed communications for everyone. In general, each channel can only support one AM conversation and no others; if no AM conversation is in progress, two SSB conversations can share one channel without interference if one is in LSB and the other in USB mode. For a particular conversation, everyone must be tuned to the same channel and same mode in order to talk with each other.


title: Citizens band radio

text: The European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT) adopted the North American channel assignments, except channel 23, frequency 27.235 MHz; channel 24, frequency 27.245 MHz; and channel 25, frequency 27.255 MHz. However, legal CB equipment sold in Europe does follow the North American channel designation. Some member countries permit additional modes and frequencies; for example, Germany has 40 additional channels at 26 MHz for a total of 80. The United Kingdom has an additional 40 channels between 27.60125 and 27.99125 MHz, also making 80 channels in total. Before CEPT, most member countries used a subset of the 40 U.S. channels.


title: Citizens band radio

text: In Russia and Poland, the channels are shifted 5 kHz down; for example, channel 30 is 27.300 MHz. Many operators add a switch to change between the "zeroes" (the Russian/Polish channel assignment) and the "fives" (the international/European assignment). Most contemporary radios built for those markets can do "fives" as well as "zeroes" out of the box. Since roughly 2005–2006, Russia and Poland have adopted use of the standard US channel offset as well as the older channel plan, for two overlapping "grids" of channels.


title: Citizens band radio

text: Russia uses an alphanumeric designation for their CB channel plans, because several "grids" or "bands" of 40 channels each are used, along with both AM and FM mode. Russian CB allocations follow the CB band 26.965–27.405 MHz (designated as band C), as well as 26.515–26.955 MHz (designated as band B) and 27.415–27.855 MHz (designated as band D). Some radios refer to the "mid band" (standard CB band) as "band D" which shifts the letters up one (making 26.515–26.955 MHz "band C" and 27.415–27.855 MHz "band E".


title: Citizens band radio

text: For the convenience of users of the grid were marked by letters. Classic is considered the marking when the main range is designated letter "C". The most common description of the channel is considered to be similar to the following: (C9FM or C9EFM or C9EF or 9EF).


title: Citizens band radio

text: The 25–30 MHz band (including the CB allocations and frequencies above and below the 26.5–27.860 MHz band) is heavily used for taxi cab and other mobile two-way communications systems in Russia, Ukraine and other former USSR country states.


title: Citizens band radio

text: New Zealand and Japan have unique allocations compared to any other country. New Zealand authorizes use of their New Zealand specific 40 channel 26.330–26.770 MHz frequency plan in addition to the "standard" 40 channel 26.965–27.405 MHz frequency plan for a total of 80 HF CB channels. New Zealand has adopted the Australian UHF CB System as well.


title: Citizens band radio

text: Japan's CB allocation consists of 8 voice and 2 radio control channels with a maximum power output of 500 mW. AM mode is the only mode permitted and antennas must be non-removable and less than 199 cm (78 inches) long. In Japan, the 26–28 MHz range is allocated to fishery radio services and these frequencies are heavily used for marine communications. Japan's "double side band fishery radio" or "DSB Fishery Radio Service" covers 26.760 MHz-26.944 MHz, 27.016 MHz, and 27.524-27.988 MHz. However, frequencies such as 27.005 MHz AM are widely pirated in Japan with very high power transmitters. This causes interference to the authorized low-power 1 Watt DSB (1 Watt AM) fishery radio service. Instead of 26–27 MHz, Japan has authorized several UHF FM CB-type personal radio services in the 348 MHz, 420–422 MHz and 903–904 MHz bands.


title: Citizens band radio

text: Indonesia has the usual 40 channels at 27 MHz, plus a unique 60-channel allocation from 142.050 to 143.525 MHz.


title: Citizens band radio

text: In Brazil, CB channels were upgraded from 23 to 60 channels starting in 1979 and again in 1980 to (from 26.965 MHz to 27.855 MHz).


title: Citizens band radio

text: South Africa, like New Zealand and the UK, permits the use of two HF CB bands. South Africa has a 23 channel AM / SSB 29 MHz CB allocation (called "29 Megs" or "29 MHz CB") from 29.710 to 29.985 MHz in 12.5 kHz steps. South Africa also permits use of standard CB channels 19–27 (27.185–27.275 MHz) with AM / SSB permitted. Many radios sold in South Africa feature both the 27 MHz and 29 MHz bands. A license from ICASA is required to purchase or use a CB radio in South Africa.


title: Citizens band radio

text: Germany authorizes a similar allocation, with 40 channels from 26.965 to 27.405 MHz and another 40 channels from 26.565 to 26.955 MHz in regular 10-kHz steps.


title: Citizens band radio

text: The Czech Republic authorizes 80 channels as well (same as the German 80-channel plan). As in Germany, digital modes are allowed on certain frequencies. Internet gateways and radio repeaters are allowed on channels 18 [27.175 MHz] and 23 [27.255 MHz]. Paging is permitted on channel 1 (26.965 MHz) and channel 80 (26.955 MHz) is the recommended call channel for Czech CB radio operators.


title: Citizens band radio

text: Using radios outside their intended market can be dangerous, as well as illegal, as frequencies used by Citizen's Band radios from other countries may operate on frequencies close to, or be used by, emergency services (for example, the Indonesian service around 142 MHz operates on frequencies allocated to a public safety network shared with police, fire and EMS services in Ontario, Canada).


title: Citizens band radio

text: In the Philippines, up to present time, the use of 27 MHz CB is still banned since the Marcos regime banned it in 1980s. A few operators still illegally utilize the 40 CB channels. There are active CB groups that are now asking Senator Bongbong Marcos, the son of the late president Ferdinand Marcos, to lift the ban and make the use of CB radios legal again.


title: Citizens band radio

text: CB was the only practical two‑way radio system for the individual consumer, and served several subsets of users such as truck drivers, radio hobbyists, and those in need of short‑range radio communications, such as electricians, plumbers, and carpenters, who needed to communicate between job site and main office. While some users have moved on to other radio services, CB is still a popular hobby in many countries. The 27 MHz frequencies used by CB, which require a relatively long aerial and tend to propagate poorly indoors, discourage the use of handheld radios. Many users of handheld radios (families, hunters and hikers) have moved on to 49 MHz and the UHF Family Radio Service; those needing a simple radio for professional use (e.g., tradesmen) have moved on to "dot-color" Business Band radios and the VHF Multi-Use Radio Service.


title: Citizens band radio

text: CB is still commonly used by long-haul truck drivers to communicate directions, traffic problems and other relevant matters. The unofficial "travelers channel" in most of the world is channel 19; in Australia it is channel 8 (27.055 MHz) and UHF channel 40 (477.400 MHz). In Russia, it is channel 15 (in addition to traditional emergency channel 9 and truckers' channel 19) and in Greece it is channel 13, all AM. These frequencies may have evolved because tuned circuits (particularly antennas) work best in the middle of the band; the frequency for channel 19 (not channel 20) is the center of the 40 channel US band and other things being equal, signals will be transmitted and heard the farthest. Since less standardization exists in Europe, CB there is more associated with hobbyists than with truckers.


title: Citizens band radio

text: Legal (short‑range) use of CB radio is sometimes impeded by users of illegal high‑power transmitters, which can be heard hundreds of miles away. The other problem with short‑range CB use is propagation; during long‑range "skip" conditions local signals are inaudible due to reception of multiple distant signals.


title: Citizens band radio

text: In the United States, the number of users and law enforcement financing by the Federal Communications Commission mean that only the worst offenders are sanctioned, which makes legitimate operation on the citizens band unreliable. Most offenders are not caught for interfering with other CB users; often, their self‑modified equipment generates harmonics and spurs which cause interference to services outside the citizens band and to consumer equipment.


title: Citizens band radio

text: The maximum legal CB power output level in the U.S. is 4 watts for AM (un-modulated carrier; modulation can be four times the carrier power, or 16 watts PEP) and 12 watts for SSB, as measured at the transmitter antenna connection. However, external linear amplifiers are often used illegally.


title: Citizens band radio

text: During the 1970s, the FCC banned the sale of linear amplifiers capable of operation from 24 to 35 MHz to discourage their use on the CB band, although the use of high‑power amplifiers continued. Late in 2006, the FCC amended the regulation to exclude only 26–28 MHz to facilitate amateur 10 meter operation. Lax enforcement enables manufacturers of illegal linear amplifiers to openly advertise their products; many CB dealers include these amplifiers in their catalogs. Due to their rampant, unchecked use of linear amplifiers, American CB Radio operators are often referred to as "Alligators", by operators in other countries (suggesting American operators are "All Mouth and No Ears"). Attempts by law-abiding CB users to increase regulatory oversight have been ineffective.


title: Citizens band radio

text: At the beginning of the CB radio service, transmitters and receivers used vacuum tubes; solid-state transmitters were not widely available until 1965, after the introduction of RF power-transistors. Walkie-talkie hand-held units became affordable with the use of transistors. Early receivers did not cover all the channels of the service; channels were controlled by plug-in quartz crystals, with one of several operating frequencies selected by a panel control in more expensive units. Superheterodyne receivers (using one or two conversion stages) were the norm in good-quality equipment, although low-cost toy-type units used super-regenerative receivers. With the earliest sets two quartz crystals were needed for transmitting and receiving on each channel, which was costly. By the mid-1960s "mixer" circuits made frequency-synthesized radios possible, which reduced cost and allowed full coverage of all 23 channels with a smaller number of crystals (typically 14). The next improvement came during the mid-1970s; crystal synthesis was replaced by PLL technology using ICs, enabling 40 channel sets with only one crystal (10.240 MHz). Almost all were AM-only, although there were a few single sideband sets.


title: Citizens band radio

text: 27 MHz is a relatively long wavelength for mobile communications, and the choice of antenna has a considerable impact on the performance of a CB radio. A common mobile antenna is a quarter-wave vertical whip. This is roughly 9 feet (2.7 m) tall; it is mounted low on the vehicle body, and often has a spring-and-ball mount to enhance its flexibility when scraping or striking overhead objects. Where a nine-foot whip is undesirable, shorter antennas include loading coils to make the antenna impedance the same as a physically longer antenna. The loading coil may be on the bottom, middle, or top of the antenna, while some antennas are wound in a continuously-loaded helix.


title: Citizens band radio

text: Many truckers use two co-phased antennas, mounted on their outside mirrors. Such an array is intended to enhance performance to the front and back, while reducing it to the sides (a desirable pattern for long-haul truckers). To achieve this effect, the antennas must be separated by about eight feet, only practical on large trucks. Two antennas may be installed for symmetrical appearance, with only one connected.


title: Citizens band radio

text: Another mobile antenna is the continuously-loaded half-wave version. They do not require a ground plane to present a near-50 ohm load to the radio, and are often used on fiberglass vehicles such as snowmobiles or boats. They are also useful in base stations where circumstances preclude the use of a ground-plane antenna. Handheld CBs may use either a telescoping center-loaded whip or a continuously-loaded "rubber ducky" antenna.


title: Citizens band radio

text: Base CB antennas may be vertical for omnidirectional coverage, or directional "beam" antennas may be used to direct communications to a particular region. Ground-plane kits exist as mounting bases for mobile whips, and have several wire terminals or hardwired ground radials attached. These kits are designed to have a mobile whip screwed on top (a full-length, quarter-wave steel whip is preferred) and mounted on a mast. The ground radials replace the vehicle body (which is the counterpoise for a mobile whip in a typical vehicle installation).


title: Citizens band radio

text: All frequencies in the HF spectrum (3–30 MHz) can be refracted by charged ions in the ionosphere. Refracting signals off the ionosphere is called skywave propagation, and the operator is said to be "shooting skip". CB operators have communicated across thousands of miles and sometimes around the world. Even low-power 27 MHz signals can sometimes propagate over long distances.


title: Citizens band radio

text: In times of high sunspot activity, the band can remain open to much of the world for long periods of time. During low sunspot activity it may be impossible to use skywave at all, except during periods of Sporadic-E propagation (from late spring through mid-summer). Skip contributes to noise on CB frequencies. In the United States, it is no longer illegal to engage in (or attempt to engage in) CB communications with any station more than from an operator's location. This restriction used to exist to keep CB as a local (line-of-sight) radio service; however, in the United States the restriction has been dropped. The legality of shooting skip is not an issue in most other countries. A recent FCC decision now allows the shooting of skip in the United States.


title: Citizens band radio

text: Operation on frequencies above or below the citizens band (on the "uppers" or "lowers") is called "freebanding" or "outbanding". While frequencies just below the CB segment (or between the CB segment and the amateur radio 10-meter band) seem quiet and under-utilized, they are allocated to other radio services (including government agencies) and unauthorized operation on them is illegal. Furthermore, illegal transmitters and amplifiers may not meet good engineering practice for harmonic distortion or "splatter", which may disrupt other communications and make the unapproved equipment obvious to regulators. Freebanding is done with modified CB or amateur equipment, foreign CB radios which may offer different channels, or with radios intended for export. Legal operation in one country may be illegal in another; for example, in the UK until June 2014 only 80 FM channels were legal.


title: Citizens band radio

text: Unlike amateur radios with continuous frequency tuning, CBs manufactured for export are channelized. Frequency selection resembles that of modified American CBs more than any foreign frequency plan. They typically have a knob and display that reads up to channel 40, but include an extra band selector that shifts all 40 channels above or below the band and a "+10 kHz" button to reach the model control "A" channels. These radios may have 6 or even 12 bands, establishing a set of quasi-CB channels on many unauthorized frequencies. The bands are typically lettered A through F, with the normal citizens band as D.


title: Citizens band radio

text: For example, a freebander with an export radio who wants to use 27.635 MHz would choose channel 19 (27.185 MHz) and then shift the radio up one band (+450 kHz). It requires arithmetic on the part of the operator to determine the actual frequency, although more expensive radios include a frequency counter or a frequency display — two different components, providing an identical result. Illegal operations may unintentionally end up on frequencies very much in use. For instance, channel 19 shifted two bands up is 28.085 MHz, which is in a Morse code / data-only part of the 10 meter ham band. Voice transmissions in a Morse code-only segment are easily detectable by authorities. Amateur Radio Service operators record, locate, and report to the FCC frequency trespassing and intrusions of their frequency allocations by pirate transmissions or illegal operators for enforcement action.


title: Citizens band radio

text: Many freeband operators use amateur radios modified to transmit out of band, which is illegal in some countries. Older amateur radios may require component changes; for instance, the 1970s Yaesu FT-101 was modified for CB by replacing a set of crystals used to tune portions of the 10 meter band, although some variants of the FT-101 were sold with the US FCC channels standard and were capable of transmitting above and below the legal 40 channels by another 10 or more channels. On some newer radios, the modification may be as simple as disconnecting a jumper wire or a diode. Many types of amateur transceivers may be found on CB and freeband, ranging from full-coverage HF transceivers to simpler 10 meter mobile radios. In the United States, the FCC bans the importation and marketing of radios it deems easily modifiable for CB; it is illegal to transmit on CB frequencies with a ham radio except in emergencies where no other method of communication is available.


title: Citizens band radio

text: A gray market trade in imported CB gear exists in many countries. In some instances, the sale or ownership of foreign-specification CB gear is not illegal but its use is. With the FCC's minimal enforcement of its CB rules, enthusiasts in the US use "export radios" or European frequency modulation (FM) CB gear to escape the crowded AM channels. American AM gear has also been exported to Europe.


title: Citizens band radio

text: "Export radios" are sold in the United States as 10 meter Amateur Radio transceivers. Marketing, import and sale of such radios is illegal if they are distributed as anything "other" than Amateur Radio transceivers. It is also illegal to use these radios outside of the Amateur Radio bands by anyone in the US, since they are not type-certified for other radio services and usually exceed authorized power limits. The use of these radios within the Amateur Radio Service by a licensed Amateur Radio operator within his / her license privileges is legal, as long as all FCC regulations for Amateur Radio are followed.


title: Citizens band radio

text: A callbook is a directory of radio station call signs. Originally a bound book that resembled a telephone directory, it contains the name and addresses of radio stations in a given jurisdiction (country). "Modern Electrics" published the first callbook in the United States in 1909. Today, the primary purpose of a callbook is to allow radio operators to send a confirmation post card, called a QSL card to an operator with whom they have communicated via radio. Callbooks have evolved to include online databases that are accessible via the Internet to instantly obtain the address of another amateur radio operator and their QSL managers. The most well known and used on-line QSL database for the 11 meter / freebander community is QRZ11.COM, designed after its "big brother" QRZ.com for amateur radio.


title: Citizens band radio

text: During the 1970s and 1980s peak years of CB radio, many citizens band-themed magazines appeared on newsstands. Two magazines that dominated the time period were "S9 CB Radio" and "CB Radio Magazine". "S9’"s successor was "Popular Communications", which had the same editor under a different publisher beginning in 1982. It covered hobby radio as well as CB. The same publisher produced a magazine called "RADIO!" for RadioShack stores in the mid-1990s. In Australia, "CB Action Magazine" was produced monthly from mid-1977 and continuing publication through until the early 1990s. "CB Action" spawned several other popular publications, including a communications and scanning magazine and "Amateur Radio Action" magazine, produced over several decades and running to some 18 volumes.


title: Citizens band radio

text: In the early 2000s, "National Communications Magazine" added CB radio coverage to its coverage of scanner radios and still remains the only magazine in North America covering CB radio.


title: Calendula

text: Calendula () is a genus of about 15–20 species of annual and perennial herbaceous plants in the daisy family Asteraceae that are often known as marigolds. They are native to southwestern Asia, western Europe, Macaronesia, and the Mediterranean. (Other plants also known as marigolds, are corn marigold, desert marigold, marsh marigold, and plants of the genus "Tagetes").


title: Calendula

text: The genus name "Calendula" is a modern Latin diminutive of "calendae", meaning "little calendar", "little clock" or possibly "little weather-glass". The common name "marigold" refers to the Virgin Mary.


title: Calendula

text: The most commonly cultivated and used member of the genus is "Calendula officinalis", the pot marigold. Popular herbal and cosmetic products named "Calendula" invariably derive from "C.officinalis".


title: Calendula

text: "Calendula" was not a major medicinal herb but it was used in historic times for headaches, red eye, fever and toothaches. As late as the 17th century Nicholas Culpeper claimed "Calendula" benefited the heart, but it was not considered an especially efficacious medicine.


title: Calendula

text: In historic times "Calendula" was more often used for magical purposes than medicinal ones. One 16th-century potion containing "Calendula" claimed to reveal fairies. An unmarried woman with two suitors would take a blend of powdered "Calendula", marjoram, wormwood and thyme simmered in honey and white wine used as an ointment in a ritual to reveal her true match.


title: Calendula

text: Ancient Romans and Greeks used the golden "Calendula" in many rituals and ceremonies, sometimes wearing crowns or garlands made from the flowers. One of its nicknames is "Mary's Gold", referring to the flowers' use in early Christian events in some countries. "Calendula" flowers are sacred flowers in India and have been used to decorate the statues of Hindu deities since early times.


title: Calendula

text: However, the most common use in historic times was culinary, and the plant was used for both its color and its flavor. They were used for dumplings, wine, oatmeal and puddings. In English cuisine "Calendula" were often cooked in the same pot with spinach, or used to flavor stewed birds. According to sixteenth-century Englishman John Gerard, every proper soup of Dutch cuisine in his era would include "Calendula" petals.


title: Calendula

text: Also known as "poor man's saffron," the petals are edible and can be used fresh in salads or dried and used to color cheese or as a substitute for saffron. Calendulas have a mildly sweet taste that is slightly bitter, and as it dries these flavors become more intense. It can be used to add color to soups, stews, poultry dishes, custards and liquors.


title: Calendula

text: The common name for "Calendula officinalis" in Britain is 'pot-marigold,' named so because of its use in broths and soups.


title: Calendula

text: Dye can be extracted from the flower and produce shades of honey, gold oranges, light browns, and vibrant yellows.


title: Calendula

text: The flowers of "C. officinalis" contain flavonol glycosides, triterpene oligoglycosides, oleanane-type triterpene glycosides, saponins, and a sesquiterpene glucoside.


title: Calendula

text: "Calendula officinalis" oil is still used medicinally as an anti-inflammatory and a remedy for healing wounds. "Calendula" ointments are skin products available for use on minor cuts, burns, and skin irritation; however, evidence of their effectiveness is weak.


title: Calendula

text: Plant pharmacological studies have suggested that "Calendula" extracts have antiviral, antigenotoxic, and anti-inflammatory properties "in vitro". In herbalism, "Calendula" in suspension or in tincture is used topically for treating acne, reducing inflammation, controlling bleeding, and soothing irritated tissue.


title: Calendula

text: Limited evidence indicates "Calendula" cream or ointment is effective in treating radiation dermatitis. Topical application of "C. officinalis" ointment has helped to prevent dermatitis and pain; thus reducing the incidence rate of skipped radiation treatments in randomized trials.


title: Calendula

text: "Calendula" has been used traditionally for abdominal cramps and constipation. In experiments with rabbit jejunum, the aqueous-ethanol extract of "C. officinalis" flowers was shown to have both spasmolytic and spasmogenic effects, thus providing a scientific rationale for this traditional use. An aqueous extract of "C. officinalis" obtained by a novel extraction method has demonstrated antitumor (cytotoxic) activity and immunomodulatory properties (lymphocyte activation) "in vitro", as well as antitumor activity in mice.


title: FC Groningen

text: Football Club Groningen () is a Dutch professional association football club based in Groningen, province of Groningen. Founded on 16 June 1971 as the successor of GVAV, the team compete in the Eredivisie, the highest tier of Dutch football. Groningen played their inaugural season in the Eredivisie, before the side were relegated to the Eerste Divisie in 1973–74 as they got into financial difficulties. Groningen were promoted back to the Eredivisie as champions in 1979–80 and remained in the top flight for almost 20 seasons before they dropped to the second tier in 1997–98. The team won promotion to the Eredivisie in 1999–2000, where they have remained since.


title: FC Groningen

text: Groningen have won the KNVB Cup once—in 2014–15—and were runners-up in 1988–89. Groningen achieved their highest-ever league position in 1990–91 when they finished third in the Eredivisie. The side's first participation in European competition came in the 1983–84 UEFA Cup; Groningen defeated Atlético Madrid on aggregate in the first round, but were eliminated by Inter Milan in the following round. Notable players who have played for the club include Ronald Koeman, Arjen Robben, Luis Suárez and Virgil van Dijk.


title: FC Groningen

text: The team's first home stadium was Oosterparkstadion; since 2006, they have played their home games at Euroborg. Groningen's home kit colours are based on the city's coat of arms: green and white. The club is nicknamed "Trots van het Noorden" (English: "Pride of the North"), and has a rivalry with Frisian side sc Heerenveen, with whom it contests the Derby of the North.


title: FC Groningen

text: In 1954, professional football started in the Netherlands. The clubs from Groningen who turned professional were Be Quick, , GVAV and . In 1956, GVAV became founder members of the first tier Eredivisie, while Be Quick, Velocitas and Oosterparkers were founder members of the Tweede Divisie, the third tier. Oosterparkers quickly returned to amateurism, Velocitas played professional football until 1960 and Be Quick remained professional until 1964; this left GVAV as the city's only professional team.


title: FC Groningen

text: Although GVAV averaged home attendances of 10,000 or more during the early 1960s, the club had become mired in financial difficulties. This instigated the establishment of "Stichting Betaald Voetbal GVAV" (English: "Professional Football Foundation GVAV") in 1963, a triumvirate of GVAV, the Groningen municipality government and an organization representing local businesses. The three parties paid 300,000 guilders each to be the foundation's shareholders; GVAV's finances remained in a weak position and their future as a professional side was uncertain. The team remained in the Eredivisie throughout the 1960s, however, but were relegated to the Eerste Divisie in 1969–70.


title: FC Groningen

text: In February 1970, Harm Brink, the chairman of amateur club , suggested that all Groningen amateur sides should put their best players to the disposal of the local professional team. However, he recognised that the name "GVAV" might be an obstacle in such a cooperation and proposed the foundation of a new club. The amateur clubs supported Brink's idea, and the local businesses and the Groningen municipality government were willing to remit the debt of Stichting Betaald Voetbal GVAV. In September 1970, the GVAV members accepted the plans. The team won promotion to the Eredivisie after a one-year absence, and "Football Club Groningen" were founded on 16 June 1971 as the successor of GVAV, who returned to amateur football. During the 1970–71 season, GVAV goalkeeper and Dutch international Tonny van Leeuwen conceded only seven goals; no goalkeeper conceded fewer during the year and Van Leeuwen was honoured by the Royal Dutch Football Association in Rotterdam. On his way home, he died in a car accident, one day before the club's foundation. Groningen played their first match on 17 July and defeated German Regionalliga side TSR Olympia Wilhelmshaven 6–0. The team played in a green and white kit, the colours of Groningen's coat of arms.


title: FC Groningen

text: Groningen lost their first league game 1–0 at home against Utrecht in front of an attendance of 13,000 spectators. The team recorded their first league victory on the 10th matchday—a 2–1 win at Vitesse—and finished the 1971–72 Eredivisie season 12th out of 18 sides. The club was still mired in financial difficulties; to cut transfer expenses, Groningen established a scouting system. In 1973, Piet Fransen retired after playing 484 matches for GVAV and Groningen, and gaining 6 caps for the Dutch national team. The following year, Groningen ranked bottom and were relegated to the Eerste Divisie; during the season, the team lost 9–0 to Ajax, Groningen's record defeat. The club came very close to bankruptcy but was saved by the Groningen municipality government. In 1974–75, the side finished finished runners-up to NEC Nijmegen because of a worse goal difference. Groningen qualified for the play-offs which determined the second and final team to gain promotion to the Eredivisie; the side finished second behind FC Eindhoven and remained in the second tier.


title: FC Groningen

text: In 1975, Groningen established a youth boarding school, and the club tried to rebuild the squad with youth players. The side placed 8th in the 1976–77 Eerste Divisie—Groningen's lowest league finish—before they missed promotion to the Eredivisie on goal difference in the promotion play-offs in 1977–78, despite the 31 goals of Peter Houtman during the season. Groningen finished runners-up to Excelsior in 1978–79, but returned to the Eredivisie as champions in 1979–80 under coach , losing only 4 times in 36 matches. Most of the squad came from Groningen's youth academy.


title: FC Groningen

text: In 1982–83, Groningen qualified for European competition for the first time following a 5th-place position. Ronald Koeman left the club in 1983 and joined Ajax, while his brother Erwin remained at Groningen; both players had made their professional debut at Groningen. The team debuted in the 1983–84 UEFA Cup first round with an away match against Atlético Madrid—former European Cup finalists—and lost 2–1. Groningen recorded a 3–0 victory in the return game and won 4–2 on aggregate. Inter Milan were the opponents in the second round; Groningen won 2–0 at their Oosterparkstadion but lost 5–1 in Italy and were eliminated from the competition. Groningen competed in European competition again on five occasions from 1986 until 1992, with a place in the third round in the 1986–87 UEFA Cup (eliminated by Vitória de Guimarães) and the 1988–89 UEFA Cup (eliminated by VfB Stuttgart) as the best results.


title: FC Groningen

text: As a result of the successful spell, Groningen became almost fully professional during the mid-1980s—only Jan van Dijk and Adri van Tiggelen remained semi-professional—and the club recorded the fourth highest average home attendances in Dutch football during this period—behind Ajax, PSV and Feyenoord—as it attracted at least 10,000 fans for each match. In 1989, Groningen reached their first KNVB Cup final but lost 4–1 against PSV. During the same year, Groningen chairman was found guilty by the Fiscal Information and Investigation Service (FIOD) of embezzlement and using dirty money to lure players into signing for the club. De Vries, Groningen's chairman since 1980, stepped down and later spent several days in prison. Although several other clubs were also investigated and punished by the FIOD during this period, Groningen received an additional assessment of 700,000 guilders from the Tax and Customs Administration. The club was saddled with millions of debt and came close to bankruptcy.


title: FC Groningen

text: Despite the financial situation, Groningen recorded their highest-ever league finish in 1990–91—third place. Managed by Hans Westerhof, Groningen competed for the league title with Ajax and PSV until the last part of the season, when suspensions and injuries to first team players saw them drop points. Groningen's forward duo, Hennie Meijer and Milko Djurovski, had 27 goals between them; Meijer was named Dutch Footballer of the Year after the season ended.


title: FC Groningen

text: Although Groningen recorded a 5th-place finish in 1991–92 and qualified for the 1992–93 UEFA Cup, the team began to slide down the league table; they were eventually relegated to the Eerste Divisie in 1997–98. During this period, Groningen had little financial resources left and made many managerial changes in a search for success. The side returned to the Eredivisie in 1999–2000 following a first-place finish in the promotion play-offs group. During the season, Groningen set several club records: they scored 81 goals, won 10 matches in a row and recorded their largest victory—10–1 against DVS '33 in the KNVB Cup. In December 2000, 16-year-old Arjen Robben made his professional debut under coach Jan van Dijk; Robben was soon sold to PSV for a fee of 3.9 million euros. Groningen avoided relegation in their first seasons back in the Eredivisie; under coach Ron Jans, appointed in 2002, Groningen began to return into the top half of the Eredivisie.


title: FC Groningen

text: In January 2006, Groningen moved from the outdated Oosterparkstadion—the club's first home stadium—to the newly built Euroborg. The club's average home attendance increased from about 12,000 in the Oosterparkstadion to around 20,000 in its new stadium. The team went the first 15 league games unbeaten at Euroborg, and the stadium was soon nicknamed "De Groene Hel" ("The Green Hell"). At the end of the 2005–06 season, Groningen finished in fifth place and qualified for the play-offs which determined a place in the preliminary round of the UEFA Champions League. Groningen reached the final but lost against Ajax on aggregate in the last minutes of the second leg; the team qualified instead for the 2006–07 UEFA Cup in which they were eliminated by Partizan Belgrade in the preliminary round. Groningen again qualified for the UEFA Cup preliminary round the following season but were eliminated by Italian side Fiorentina after a penalty shootout. In 2009, Groningen sold the Swedish striker Marcus Berg—having scored 44 goals in 69 matches—to Hamburger SV for a then-club record fee of 10.5 million euros. The following year, Jans left the club and went to local rivals Heerenveen; his successor was former Groningen player Pieter Huistra.


title: FC Groningen

text: Under Huistra, the team finished 5th in 2010–11 and reached the European competition play-off final; Groningen turned around a 5–1 deficit against ADO Den Haag but lost after a penalty shootout. In 2013–14, Groningen won the European competition play-off final under coach Erwin van de Looi and qualified for the 2014–15 UEFA Europa League, but lost against Aberdeen in the second qualifying round. Groningen claimed their first major honour during the season, however, defeating PEC Zwolle 2–0 in the 2015 KNVB Cup Final. The side became the third Groningen-based team to win a major honour, after Be Quick won the 1919–20 Dutch League Championship and Velocitas claimed the 1933–34 KNVB Cup. By winning the cup, Groningen qualified for the 2015–16 UEFA Europa League group stage, but gained only two points from six matches and finished the group in bottom place. In 2019, —Groningen's CEO since 1996 and the longest-serving director in Dutch professional football—stepped down and was replaced by Excelsior's Wouter Gudde. In 2020, Arjen Robben came out of retirement and returned to Groningen as a player; Robben made seven appearances for the club before retiring again in 2021.


title: FC Groningen

text: Shortly after Groningen were founded in June 1971, "Nieuwsblad van het Noorden" organised a competition to design a crest for the club. The draft of 21-year-old Reint Rozema, a designer at a local printing house, was chosen: an abstract letter "G", referring to "Groningen". In 1993, board member Jos Smulders proposed the addition of a Pegasus to the badge in order to give the Groningen team "more dynamism and aggression"; in 1996, the Pegasus was removed and the original crest was restored.


title: FC Groningen

text: Groningen's colours have been green and white since the club's foundation, derived from the city's coat of arms. During their first seasons, the team also played several matches in a purple kit. Groningen's jerseys were manufactured by local companies until 1975, when Adidas became the first to have its logo on the club's shirt. The team's first kit sponsor was AGO in 1982. Since then, the club has had a variety of kit manufacturers and shirt sponsors. Until the early 1990s, Groningen used various permutations of green and white on their home kits, when the club adopted a white shirt with two vertical green stripes.


title: FC Groningen

text: The side have played their home matches at Euroborg since January 2006, which replaced Oosterparkstadion, the home of GVAV and Groningen since the 1930s. The Dutch national team played two international matches at Oosterparkstadion: against Cyprus in 1981 and in 1983 against Iceland. In 1985, Groningen recorded their largest attendance at the stadium in a 1–1 draw against Feyenoord, when 21,500 spectators attended. The club first expressed an interest in building a new stadium away from Oosterparkstadion in 1996 as it had become outdated and had only a capacity of around 12,500. In 2003, Groningen started with the building of Euroborg; Wiel Arets was the architect. The stadium was opened on 13 January 2006 with a match against Heerenveen, which Groningen won 2–0. It hosted the 2007 UEFA European Under-21 Championship final, in which the Netherlands defeated Serbia 4–1. In 2014, Groningen became the first Dutch club to have its own solar power plant; more than 1,000 solar panels were placed on the roof of Euroborg to make Groningen "more eco-friendly".


title: FC Groningen

text: Euroborg's current capacity is 22,525, and is nicknamed "De Groene Hel" ("The Green Hell") and "De Groene Kathedraal" ("The Green Cathedral"). The stadium consists of four stands: the Tonny van Leeuwen Tribune, the Piet Fransen Tribune, the Koeman Familie Tribune and a stand containing skyboxes.


title: FC Groningen

text: Groningen's supporters are mainly drawn from the provinces of Groningen and Drenthe. During their early years, Groningen also had a decent following in Friesland as they were the only Northern team in the Eredivisie, which earned them the nickname "Trots van het Noorden" ("Pride of the North"). During 1979–80, when the team won the Eerste Divisie title, a ultras group known as the Z-side emerged from within Groningen's fanbase. The Z-side and other Groningen ultras groups have had long-standing friendships with the ultras and hooligans of A.S. Roma, Beerschot and Rot-Weiß Erfurt. In 1984, a Groningen supporters' association was formed.


title: FC Groningen

text: As Groningen are one of the few professional sides in the Northern Netherlands and the only team from the province of Groningen, the team lack rivalries. Until SC Veendam was dissolved in 2013, Groningen contested the with the club. The sides met only four times in the Eredivisie—in 1986–87 and 1988–89, with both teams winning once—as Veendam spent most of their existence in the lower divisions. During the 1990s, Groningen contested heated matches with Twente as hooligans of both clubs often clashed.


title: FC Groningen

text: Since the 1990s, a local rivalry between Groningen and Frisian club Heerenveen developed—known as the Derby van het Noorden (Derby of the North)—following Heerenveen's first ever promotion to the Eredivisie in 1989–90. Groningen went down to the Eerste Divisie in 1998, and by 2000, the club was surpassed in results by Heerenveen. During the 2000s, the rivalry reached its peak and fans of both clubs pulled pranks, such as Groningen fans painting the statue of Heerenveen's Abe Lenstra in green-white colours. The rivalry faded during the mid-2010s as another Frisian club, Cambuur, won promotion to the Eredivisie; Heerenveen regard Cambuur as their main rivals.


title: FC Groningen

text: Ron Groenewoud was the club's first coach; he was relegated with Groningen to the Eerste Divisie in 1974 and remained in charge until 1975. Groningen won the Eerste Divisie title in 1979–80 under coach Theo Verlangen, who also led the team to qualification for their first ever European campaign in 1983. Hans Westerhof led Groningen to their best ever league finish: third in the 1990–91 Eredivisie. After relegation in 1998, the team won promotion back to the top flight under Jan van Dijk in 1999–2000. Erwin van de Looi led Groningen to their first major honour: the 2014–15 KNVB Cup. The German Frank Wormuth became the club's first foreign coach when he took the post in 2022.


title: FC Groningen

text: The record for the most first team appearances in all competitions for Groningen is held by Jan van Dijk, who played 537 games between 1975 and 1992. The club's top goal scorer is Peter Houtman, who scored 128 goals in three spells for Groningen. He also holds the club record for the most goals scored in a season, when he netted 31 times in 1977–78. The youngest player to play for Groningen is Richairo Živković, who was aged 16 years and 88 days on his debut against Heracles Almelo in 2012. The club's oldest player is goalkeeper Peter van der Vlag, who played his last match aged 37 years and 163 days against NAC Breda in 2015. In 1991, Hennie Meijer won the Dutch Footballer of the Year award, the first and to date only time a Groningen player achieved this.


title: FC Groningen

text: Groningen's largest ever victory has been a 10–1 win against DVS '33 in the 1999–2000 KNVB Cup. The club's largest win in league football has been a 7–1 home victory against Willem II in the 2010–11 Eredivisie. The largest defeat is an 9–0 loss to Ajax in the 1973–74 Eredivisie.


title: FC Groningen

text: The highest transfer fee received is €11 million from Celta de Vigo for Norwegian striker Jørgen Strand Larsen in 2022, while the highest transfer fee paid by the club was for Nigerian midfielder Oluwafemi Ajilore from Midtjylland in 2008; he was bought for a fee of €3.3 million.


title: Jorge Salcedo Cabrera

text: Jorge Salcedo Cabrera (born November 25, 1947) is a Colombian civil engineer, countersurveillance specialist, and former head of security for Miguel Rodríguez Orejuela and the Cali Cartel who turned confidential informant for the Drug Enforcement Administration. His information on the cartel—Operation Cornerstone—led to its eventual disbandment, as a result of which Salcedo and his family have entered the United States Federal Witness Protection Program.


title: Jorge Salcedo Cabrera

text: Salcedo was born on November 25, 1947, in Bogotá, Colombia. His father was a member of the Colombian military. Salcedo lived in Kansas for two years while his father attended the United States Army Command and General Staff College, after which the family moved back to Colombia. He attended the University of Los Andes, from which he earned a degree in industrial economics. He joined the Army Reserve division in Cali.


title: Jorge Salcedo Cabrera

text: Salcedo was invited to join the Cali Cartel in 1989, after Mario del Basto, a member of Salcedo's reserve unit, made first introductions. Salcedo had previously worked on behalf of British commandos, who worked with the Colombian government to counter the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia. At this initial meeting, the Cali godfathers asked Jorge to coordinate an attack on Pablo Escobar, a rival drug cartel leader.


title: Jorge Salcedo Cabrera

text: The two factions agreed, and Jorge worked with the commandos to develop a plan of attack. In May 1989, the attack was set to occur, but heavy cloud cover resulted in a helicopter crash, with most of the commandos failing to make it to Escobar's hideout, Hacienda Nápoles. The attack was subsequently called off.


title: Jorge Salcedo Cabrera

text: After the failed raid Salcedo continued monitoring the communications of national police and rival cartel. In 1992, Salcedo coordinated the purchase and retrieval of several Salvadorian bombs in another plot to kill Escobar. After the transaction was discovered by national police, Salcedo was outed as a member of the Cali Cartel. He was removed from his post in the reserve. After going into hiding, Salcedo focused his efforts on monitoring his electronic communication network, extracting intelligence on both national police and the Medellín Cartel.


title: Jorge Salcedo Cabrera

text: After Escobar was killed by national police in 1993, Salcedo considered his duty with the Cali Cartel completed, and attempted to resign. His resignation was denied by Miguel Rodríguez Orejuela, and he was forced to continue his relationship with the cartel. Whereas his previous role involved avoiding detection from Escobar's network, Salcedo now assisted Cali's men with avoiding detection by the National Police of Colombia. During this time, the Search Bloc—originally formed to hunt Escobar—focused its attention on the Cali Cartel.


title: Jorge Salcedo Cabrera

text: In 1995, Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela was captured by a joint task-force in Cali. The raid operated off of documents seized from an inspection of an office owned and operated by Guillermo Pallomari, the cartel's chief accountant. After being ordered to kill Pallomari, Salcedo began to believe that he had no choice for leaving the operation other than its dismantling. Salcedo did not comply with his orders and pretended to not know where Pallomari was, believing Pallomari to be his bargaining chip for his freedom.


title: Jorge Salcedo Cabrera

text: Mario del Basto's arrest in 1995 promoted Salcedo to the cartel's chief of security. In that same year, Joel Rosenthal, an American lawyer who had helped the Cali Cartel with previous cases, was arrested for his connections to the cartel. Salcedo viewed this as an opportunity to begin his relationship with United States law enforcement. Rosenthal's arrest led to Salcedo being introduced to Chris Feistl and David Mitchell, two Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) agents operating in Cali.


title: Jorge Salcedo Cabrera

text: In July 1995, Salcedo met with Feistl and Mitchell to devise a plan to capture Miguel Rodríguez Orejuela. After Jorge determined Miguel's location, the DEA agents planned a raid of the apartment complex. While the scheme was initially designed to be a surprise, bureaucracy led to a prolonged siege of the apartment which ended without an arrest. In the aftermath, Salcedo was demoted. On August 6, Salcedo and the DEA collaborated on another assault on Miguel, this time on the Hacienda Buenos Aires. This raid was successful, and the DEA arrested Miguel.


title: Jorge Salcedo Cabrera

text: Before being extradited by the DEA, Salcedo argued that Guillermo Pallomari must be extracted. Working under the pretense of casing Pallomari for assassination, Salcedo forwarded his location to the DEA. Pallomari was hesitant to respond to the DEA's offer, fearing it to be a ploy. Only through the recruitment of his wife did Guillermo agree to leave. William Rodríguez Orejuela, Miguel's son, suspected Salcedo to be the leak, and reassigned Jorge's responsibilities. On August 12, the DEA successfully collected Pallomari and his family.


title: Jorge Salcedo Cabrera

text: Salcedo stayed in Colombia, awaiting diplomatic permission from the Colombia government to leave. On August 26, 1995, after six-and-a-half years with the cartel, he was extradited to the United States. He entered the Federal Witness Protection Program, where he remains to this day.


title: Jorge Salcedo Cabrera

text: Salcedo was portrayed by Matias Varela in the third season of the Netflix-produced television series "Narcos". Salcedo was consulted on the show, and provided feedback on the role he played in the prosecution and arrest of the Rodríguez Orejuela brothers.


title: Jorge Salcedo Cabrera

text: The Colombian television series "En la boca del lobo" focuses on the years Salcedo worked for the Cali Cartel. Salcedo appears under the name of Ricardo Salgado and is portrayed by "Luis Fernando Hoyos".


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: Fahrenheit 9/11 is a 2004 American documentary film directed, written by, and starring filmmaker, director, political commentator and activist Michael Moore. The film takes a liberal, critical look at the presidency of George W. Bush, the war in Iraq, and its coverage in the media. In the film, Moore contends that American corporate media were "cheerleaders" for the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and did not provide an accurate or objective analysis of the rationale for the war and the resulting casualties there.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: The title of the film alludes to Ray Bradbury's 1953 novel "Fahrenheit 451", a dystopian view of the future United States, drawing an analogy between the autoignition temperature of paper and the date of the September 11 attacks; one of the film's taglines was "The Temperature at Which Freedom Burns".


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: The film debuted at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival, where it was awarded the Palme d'Or, the festival's highest award. It received generally positive reviews from critics, but it also generated intense controversy, particularly including disputes over its accuracy. The film became the highest-grossing documentary of all time (later surpassed by "Michael Jackson's This Is It"), grossing over $220 million. A follow-up, titled "Fahrenheit 11/9", about the presidency of Donald Trump, was released in September 2018.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: The documentary begins by suggesting that friends and political allies of George W. Bush at Fox News Channel tilted the election of 2000 by prematurely declaring Bush the winner. It then suggests that the handling of the voting controversy in Florida constituted election fraud.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: The documentary then segues into the September 11 attacks of 2001. Moore says Bush was informed of the first plane hitting the World Trade Center on his way to an elementary school in Florida. Bush is then shown sitting in an Emma E. Booker Elementary School classroom with children. When told that a second plane has crashed into the World Trade Center and that the nation is "under attack", Bush allows the students to finish their book reading, and Moore notes that he continued reading The Pet Goat for nearly seven minutes.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: Moore then discusses the complex relationships between the U.S. government and the Bush family; and between the bin Laden family, the Saudi Arabian government, and the Taliban, which span over three decades. Moore then states that the United States government evacuated 24 members of the bin Laden family on a secret flight shortly after the attacks, without subjecting them to any form of interrogation.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: Moore moves on to examine George W. Bush's Texas Air National Guard service record. Moore contends that Bush's dry-hole oil well attempts were partially funded by the Saudis and by the bin Laden family through the intermediary of James R. Bath, whose name is shown to have been blacked out from Bush's records. Moore alleges that these conflicts of interest suggest that the Bush administration does not serve the interests of Americans. The movie continues by suggesting ulterior motives for the War in Afghanistan, including a natural gas pipeline through Afghanistan to the Indian Ocean.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: Moore alleges that the Bush administration induced a climate of fear among the American population through the mass media. Moore then describes purported anti-terror efforts, including government infiltration of pacifist groups and other events, and the signing of the USA PATRIOT Act.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: The documentary then turns to the subject of the Iraq War, comparing the lives of the Iraqis before and after the invasion. The citizens of Iraq are portrayed as living relatively happy lives prior to the country's invasion by the U.S. Armed Forces. The film also takes pains to demonstrate war cheerleading in the U.S. media and general bias of journalists, with quotes from news organizations and embedded journalists. Moore suggests that atrocities will occur in Iraq and shows footage depicting U.S. abuse of prisoners.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: Later in the film, Lila Lipscomb appears with her family after hearing of the death of her son, Sgt. Michael Pedersen, who was killed on April 2, 2003, in Karbala. Anguished and tearful, she begins to question the purpose of the war.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: Tying together several themes and points, Moore compliments those serving in the U.S. military. He claims that the working class of America are always the first to join the Army, so that the people better off do not have to join. He states that those valuable troops should not be sent to risk their lives unless it is necessary to defend America. The credits roll while Neil Young's "Rockin' in the Free World" plays. (Moore had originally intended to use the Who's "Won't Get Fooled Again" but was denied permission by Pete Townshend).


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: Moore dedicated the film to his friend who was killed in the World Trade Center attacks and to those servicemen and women from Flint, Michigan that have been killed in Iraq: "Michael Pedersen, Brett Petriken and all the soldiers from the Flint area who have died in the Iraq War ... Bill Weems and the 2973 who died on 9/11/01 ... and the countless thousands who have died in Afghanistan and Iraq as a result of our actions."


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: Originally planned to be financed by Mel Gibson's Icon Productions (which planned to give Michael Moore eight figures in upfront cash and potential backend),


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: "Fahrenheit 9/11" was later picked up by Miramax Films and Wild Bunch in May 2003 after Icon Productions had abruptly dropped the financing deal it made. Miramax had earlier distributed another film for Moore, "The Big One", in 1997.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: At that time, Disney was the parent company of Miramax. According to the book "DisneyWar", Disney executives did not know that Miramax agreed to finance the film until they saw a posting on the "Drudge Report". Michael Eisner (the CEO of Disney at that time) called Harvey Weinstein (co-chairman of Miramax at that time) and ordered him to drop the film. In addition, Disney sent two letters to Weinstein demanding Miramax drop the film. Weinstein felt Disney had no right to block the releasing of "Fahrenheit 9/11" since the film's $6 million budget was well below the level at which Miramax needed to seek Disney's approval, and it would not be rated NC-17. But Weinstein was in contract negotiations with Disney, so he offered a compromise that he would drop the film if Disney did not like it. Disney responded by having Peter Murphy send Weinstein a letter stating that the film's $6 million budget was only a bridge financing and Miramax would sell off its interest in the movie to get those $6 million back; according to the same letter, Miramax was also expected to publicly state that it would not release the film.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: After "Fahrenheit 9/11" was nearly finished, Miramax held several preview screenings; they were "testing through the roof". Weinstein informed Eisner that "Fahrenheit 9/11" was finished, and Eisner was surprised by the fact that Miramax had continued making the film. Weinstein asked several Disney executives (including Eisner) to watch the film, but all declined; Disney stated again that Miramax would not release the film, and Disney also accused Weinstein of hiding "Fahrenheit 9/11" by keeping it off production reports. Disney sent production vice President Brad Epstein to watch "Fahrenheit 9/11" on April 24, 2004. According to Weinstein, Epstein said he liked the film; but according to the report Epstein sent to the Walt Disney Company board of directors, Epstein clearly criticized it. Eisner told Weinstein that Disney's board decided not to allow Miramax to release the film. Weinstein was furious and he asked George J. Mitchell (chairman of Disney at that time) to see the film, but Mitchell declined. Weinstein asked lawyer David Boies to help find a solution; the Weinsteins and Moore had also hired Chris Lehane to consult on the film's release strategies. Lehane suggested to reveal Disney's decision to "The New York Times".


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: "The New York Times" reported about Disney's decision on May 5, 2004. Disney stated that both Moore's agent (Ari Emanuel) and Miramax were advised in May 2003 that Miramax would not be permitted to distribute the film. Disney representatives said Disney had the right to veto any Miramax film if it appeared that its distribution would be counterproductive to the interests of the company; indeed, Disney had blocked Miramax from releasing two films before: "Kids" and "Dogma".


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: Because of these difficulties, distribution was first secured in numerous countries outside the U.S. On May 28, 2004, after more than a week of talks, Disney announced that Miramax film studio founders Harvey and Bob Weinstein had personally acquired the rights to the documentary after Disney declined to distribute it. The Weinsteins agreed to repay Disney for all costs to that point, estimated at around $6 million. They also agreed to be responsible for all costs to finish the film and all marketing costs not paid by any third-party film distributors. A settlement between the Weinsteins and Disney was also reached so that 60% of the film's profit would be donated to charity.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: The Weinsteins established Fellowship Adventure Group to handle the distribution of this film. Fellowship Adventure Group joined forces with Lions Gate Entertainment (which had released two other Miramax-financed films "O" and "Dogma") and IFC Films to release it in the United States theatrically. (Fellowship Adventure Group also handled the film's U.S. home video distribution through Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment). Moore stated that he was "grateful to them now that everyone who wants to see it will now have the chance to do so.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: After being informed that the film had been given an R rating by the Motion Picture Association of America, Moore appealed the decision, hoping to obtain a PG-13 rating instead. Moore's lawyer, former Governor of New York, Mario Cuomo, was not allowed to attend the hearing. The appeal was denied on June 22, 2004, and Cuomo contended that it was because he had been banned from the hearing. Some theaters chose to defy the MPAA and allow unchaperoned teenagers to attend screenings.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: The film was released theatrically by The Fellowship Adventure Group through a distribution arrangement with Lions Gate Entertainment. On its opening weekend of June 25–27, 2004, the film generated box-office revenues of $23.9 million in the United States and Canada, making it the weekend's top-grossing film. Its opening weekend earned more than the entire U.S. theatrical run of any other feature-length documentary (including Moore's previous film, "Bowling for Columbine"). The film was released in the United Kingdom on July 2, 2004 and in France on July 7, 2004.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: Moore credited part of the theatrical success to the efforts of conservative groups to pressure theaters not to run the film, conjecturing that these efforts backfired by creating publicity. There were also efforts by liberal groups such as MoveOn.org (who helped promote the film) to encourage attendance in order to defy their political opponents' contrary efforts.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: "Fahrenheit 9/11" was screened in a number of Middle Eastern countries, including the United Arab Emirates, Lebanon, and Egypt, but was immediately banned in Kuwait. "We have a law that prohibits insulting friendly nations", said Abdul-Aziz Bou Dastour of the Kuwaiti Information Ministry. The film was not shown in Saudi Arabia as public movie theaters were not permitted from 1983 until 2017. The Saudi ruling elite subsequently launched an advertising campaign spanning nineteen US cities to counter criticism partly raised in the film. Democratic members of the Coalition Provisional Authority in U.S.-occupied Iraq had the film screened at the Republican Palace in Baghdad.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: In Cuba, bootlegged versions of the film were shown in 120 theaters, followed by a prime-time television broadcast by the leading state-run network. It had been widely reported that this might affect its Oscar eligibility, since the film was broadcast on television less than nine months after its theatrical release. However, soon after that story had been published, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences issued a statement denying this, saying, "If it was pirated or stolen or unauthorized we would not blame the producer or distributor for that". In addition, Wild Bunch, the film's overseas distributor for Cuba, issued a statement denying a television deal had been struck with Cuban Television. The issue became moot, however, when Moore decided to forgo Oscar eligibility in favor of a pay-per-view televising of the film on November 1, 2004.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: The film was received positively by critics. Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 82% based on 237 reviews, with an average rating of 7.33/10. The site's critics' consensus reads: "Extremely one-sided in its indictment of the Bush administration, but worth watching for the humor and the debates it'll stir." It also received a score of 67 (generally favorable) on Metacritic, based on 43 reviews.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: Film critic Roger Ebert, who gave the documentary three and a half stars out of four, said that the film "is less an exposé of George W. Bush than a dramatization of what Moore sees as a failed and dangerous presidency", and added: "Moore brings a fresh impact to familiar material by the way he marshals his images".


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: Joe Morgenstern of "The Wall Street Journal" described the film as "rambling, troubling and sometimes rousing", and wrote: "At its best, "Fahrenheit 9/11" is an impressionist burlesque of contemporary American politics that culminates in a somber lament for lives lost in Iraq. But the good stuff—and there's some extremely good stuff—keeps getting tainted by Mr. Moore's poison-camera penchant for drawing dark inferences from dubious evidence."


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: "Entertainment Weekly" put it on its end-of-the-decade, "best-of" list, saying, "Michael Moore's anti-Bush polemic gave millions of frustrated liberals exactly what they needed to hear in 2004—and infuriated just about everyone else. Along the way, it became the highest-grossing documentary of all time."


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: Grossing over $222 million total worldwide, the film is the highest grossing documentary of all time, according to Box Office Mojo. The film had a general release in the United States and Canada on June 23, 2004. It has since been released in 42 more countries. On Al-Jazeera in August 2012, Moore claimed the movie "grossed about half a billion dollars" worldwide. It was the highest-grossing film released by Lionsgate until it was surpassed by "The Hunger Games" in 2012.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: "Fahrenheit 9/11" was released to DVD and VHS on October 5, 2004, an unusually short turnaround time after theatrical release. In the first days of the release, the film broke records for the highest-selling documentary ever. About two million copies were sold on the first day, most of which (1.4 million) were sold as rentals.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: A companion book, "The Official Fahrenheit 9/11 Reader", was released at the same time. It contains the complete screenplay, documentation of Moore's sources, audience e-mails about the film, film reviews, and articles.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: The two-hour film was planned to be shown as part of the three-hour "The Michael Moore Pre-Election Special" on iN DEMAND, but iN DEMAND backed out in mid-October. Moore later arranged for simultaneous broadcasts on November 1, 2004 at 8:00 p.m. (EST) on Dish Network, TVN, and the Cinema Now website and material prepared for "The Michael Moore Pre-Election Special" was incorporated into "Fahrenheit 9/11: A Movement in Time", which aired that same week on The Independent Film Channel.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: The movie was also shown on basic cable television in Germany and Austria on November 1, 2004 and November 2, 2004. In the UK, the film was shown on Channel 4 on January 27, 2005. In Hungary, it was shown on RTL Klub, a commercial channel, on September 10, 2005, on m1, one of the national channels, on August 13, 2006, on m2, the other national channel, on September 1, 2006. In Denmark, it was shown on Danmarks Radio (normally referred to as just DR), which is Denmark's national broadcasting corporation, on April 11, 2006. In Norway, it was shown on NRK, the national broadcasting corporation, on August 27, 2006. The film was screened in New Zealand on September 9, 2006 on TV ONE, a channel of TVNZ. The next day, the Dutch network Nederland 3 aired the film. In Belgium, it was shown on Kanaal 2 on October 12, 2006. In Brazil, it aired on October 10, 2008 on TV Cultura, the São Paulo public broadcasting network.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: In April 2004, the film was selected to compete for the Palme d'Or at the 57th Cannes Film Festival. After its first showing in Cannes in May 2004, the film received a 15–20 minute standing ovation; Harvey Weinstein, whose Miramax Films funded the film, said, "It was the longest standing ovation I've seen in over 25 years".


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: On May 22, 2004, the film was awarded the Palme d'Or. It was the first documentary to win that award since Jacques Cousteau's and Louis Malle's "The Silent World" in 1956. Just as his much publicized Oscar acceptance speech, Moore's speech in Cannes included some political statements:


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: I have a sneaking suspicion that what you have done here and the response from everyone at the festival, you will assure that the American people will see this film. I can't thank you enough for that. You've put a huge light on this and many people want the truth and many want to put it in the closet, just walk away. There was a great Republican president who once said, if you just give the people the truth, the Republicans, the Americans will be saved. […] I dedicate this Palme d'Or to my daughter, to the children of Americans and to Iraq and to all those in the world who suffer from our actions.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: Some conservatives in the United States, such as Jon Alvarez of FireHollywood, commented that such an award could be expected from the French. Moore had remarked only days earlier that: "I fully expect the Fox News Channel and other right-wing media to portray this as an award from the French. […] There was only one French citizen on the jury. Four out of nine were American. […] This is not a French award, it was given by an international jury dominated by Americans." The jury was made up of four North Americans (one of them born in Haiti), four Europeans, and one Asian.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: He also responded to suggestions that the award was political: "Quentin [Tarantino] whispered in my ear, 'We want you to know that it was not the politics of your film that won you this award. We are not here to give a political award. Some of us have no politics. We awarded the art of cinema, that is what won you this award and we wanted you to know that as a fellow filmmaker.'" In comments to the prize-winning jury in 2005, Cannes director Gilles Jacob said that panels should make their decision based on filmmaking rather than politics. He expressed his opinion that though Moore's talent was not in doubt, "it was a question of a satirical tract that was awarded a prize more for political than cinematographic reasons, no matter what the jury said". Interviewed about the decision four years later, Tarantino responded: "As time has gone on, I have put that decision under a microscope and I still think we were right. That was a movie of the moment – "Fahrenheit 9/11" may not play the same way now as it did then, but back then it deserved everything it got."


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: The film won additional awards after its release, such as the People's Choice Award for Favorite Motion Picture, an unprecedented honor for a documentary.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: Nine months after "Fahrenheit 9/11" received the Palme d'Or, George W. Bush, Donald Rumsfeld, and Condoleezza Rice won the Worst Actor, Worst Supporting Actor, and Worst Screen Couple (Bush/Rice) at the 25th Golden Raspberry Awards ("Razzies") because of their mishandling of the 9/11 attacks and the Iraq War. Britney Spears, who appeared in the film in a pre-recorded interview where she expressed her support for Bush, won the Golden Raspberry for Worst Supporting Actress.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: The film generated criticism and controversy after its release shortly before the 2004 United States presidential election. British-American journalist and literary critic Christopher Hitchens contended that "Fahrenheit 9/11" contains distortions and untruths. This drew several rebuttals, including an eFilmCritic article and a Columbus Free Press editorial. Former Democratic mayor of New York City Ed Koch, who had endorsed President Bush for re-election, called the film propaganda.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: The film was released in June 2004, less than five months before the 2004 presidential election. Michael Moore, while not endorsing presidential candidate John Kerry, stated in interviews that he hoped "to see Mr. Bush removed from the White House". He also said that he hoped his film would influence the election: "This may be the first time a film has this kind of impact". However, some political analysts did not expect it to have a significant effect on the election. One Republican strategist stated that Moore "communicates to that far-left sliver that would never vote for Bush", and Jack Pitney, a government professor at Claremont McKenna College, suspected that the main effect of the film would be to "turn Bush-haters into bigger Bush-haters". Regardless of whether the film would change the minds of many voters, Moore stated his intention to use it as an organizing tool, and hoped that it would energize those who wanted to see Bush defeated in 2004, increasing voter turnout. Notwithstanding the film's influence and commercial success, George W. Bush was re-elected in 2004.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: Because Moore had opted to have it played on television prior to the 2004 election, the film was ruled ineligible to compete for the Best Documentary Feature in the Academy Awards.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: In February 2011, Moore sued producers Bob and Harvey Weinstein for US$2.7 million in unpaid profits from the film, stating that they used "Hollywood accounting tricks" to avoid paying him the money. They responded that Moore had received US$20 million for the film and that "his claims are hogwash". Eventually, Bob and Harvey Weinstein reached a settlement with Moore for undisclosed amounts and terms.


title: Fahrenheit 9/11

text: On September 6, 2018, Moore released a film entitled "Fahrenheit 11/9" about the 2016 United States presidential election and the subsequent presidency of Donald Trump. The title is reference to the original film, with the date 9/11 being reversed to 11/9.


title: Georg Cantor

text: Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor ( , ;  – January 6, 1918) was a German mathematician. He played a pivotal role in the creation of set theory, which has become a fundamental theory in mathematics. Cantor established the importance of one-to-one correspondence between the members of two sets, defined infinite and well-ordered sets, and proved that the real numbers are more numerous than the natural numbers. In fact, Cantor's method of proof of this theorem implies the existence of an infinity of infinities. He defined the cardinal and ordinal numbers and their arithmetic. Cantor's work is of great philosophical interest, a fact he was well aware of.


title: Georg Cantor

text: Originally, Cantor's theory of transfinite numbers was regarded as counter-intuitive – even shocking. This caused it to encounter resistance from mathematical contemporaries such as Leopold Kronecker and Henri Poincaré and later from Hermann Weyl and L. E. J. Brouwer, while Ludwig Wittgenstein raised philosophical objections; see Controversy over Cantor's theory. Cantor, a devout Lutheran Christian, believed the theory had been communicated to him by God. Some Christian theologians (particularly neo-Scholastics) saw Cantor's work as a challenge to the uniqueness of the absolute infinity in the nature of God – on one occasion equating the theory of transfinite numbers with pantheism – a proposition that Cantor vigorously rejected. It is important to note that not all theologians were against Cantor's theory; prominent neo-scholastic philosopher Constantin Gutberlet was in favor of it and Cardinal Johann Baptist Franzelin accepted it as a valid theory (after Cantor made some important clarifications).


title: Georg Cantor

text: The objections to Cantor's work were occasionally fierce: Leopold Kronecker's public opposition and personal attacks included describing Cantor as a "scientific charlatan", a "renegade" and a "corrupter of youth". Kronecker objected to Cantor's proofs that the algebraic numbers are countable, and that the transcendental numbers are uncountable, results now included in a standard mathematics curriculum. Writing decades after Cantor's death, Wittgenstein lamented that mathematics is "ridden through and through with the pernicious idioms of set theory", which he dismissed as "utter nonsense" that is "laughable" and "wrong". Cantor's recurring bouts of depression from 1884 to the end of his life have been blamed on the hostile attitude of many of his contemporaries, though some have explained these episodes as probable manifestations of a bipolar disorder.