title: Psoas major muscle

text: The genitofemoral nerve is formed in the midsection of the psoas muscle by the union of branches from the anterior rami of L1 and L2 nerve roots. The nerve then courses inferiorly within the psoas muscle and finally "pierces" the muscle and emerges on the anterior surface of the psoas distally. The nerve then traverses the retroperitoneum, descending over the anterior surface of the psoas.


title: Tariq Lamptey

text: Tariq Kwame Nii-Lante Lamptey (born 30 September 2000) is a professional footballer who plays as a right wing-back or right-back for club Brighton & Hove Albion and the Ghana national team.


title: Tariq Lamptey

text: Previously a youth international for England, Lamptey switched allegiances to represent Ghana at senior international level and made his debut in 2022.


title: Tariq Lamptey

text: Lamptey was born in Hillingdon, Greater London. He was playing grassroots football for his local team, Larkspur Rovers, before joining the Chelsea academy at the age of eight.


title: Tariq Lamptey

text: On 29 December 2019, Lamptey made his first-team debut away against Arsenal in the Premier League, replacing Fikayo Tomori in the 59th minute where he was a lively presence helping Chelsea come back from 1–0 down to win 2–1. Speaking to Chelsea TV after the game, Lamptey described how nervous he was making his debut: "My heart was racing, this is the moment me and my family have been waiting for." Lamptey became the seventh academy graduate to make a first-team appearance during Frank Lampard's managerial tenure at Chelsea, following in the footsteps of Mason Mount, Billy Gilmour, Reece James, Marc Guéhi, Tino Anjorin and Ian Maatsen. Lamptey made two more appearances for Chelsea, both coming in the FA Cup wins over Nottingham Forest at home and Hull City away before leaving the club.


title: Tariq Lamptey

text: On 31 January 2020, Lamptey signed for Premier League club Brighton & Hove Albion on a three-and-a-half-year contract. He made an impressive debut for Brighton in his first Premier League start, a 0–0 away draw against Leicester City on 23 June – Brighton's second match back from the Premier League's temporary break due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Tariq Lamptey

text: Lamptey started in Brighton's opening match of the 2020–21 season against his former club Chelsea in which he set up Leandro Trossard's goal in a 3–1 home defeat. He scored his first goal on 1 November in a 2–1 Premier League defeat away to Tottenham Hotspur. Lamptey was sent off for the first time in his career on 21 November after receiving two yellow cards in the 2–1 away victory against Aston Villa. On 17 January 2021, Lamptey signed a new three-and-a-half-year contract with Brighton. On 12 March, after being sidelined since picking up a hamstring injury in a 0–0 away draw against Fulham on 16 December 2020, it was announced that Lamptey would miss the remainder of the season due to the injury.


title: Tariq Lamptey

text: Lamptey made his return to a matchday squad for the first time in nine months on 19 September 2021, remaining as an unused substitute in Brighton's 2–1 home win over Leicester. Three days later, he made his first competitive appearance since December 2020, starting and playing the first half of the 2–0 victory at home to Swansea City in the EFL Cup third round. Lamptey made his first league appearance in 10 months on 16 October 2021, when he came on as a 59th-minute substitute in a 0–0 draw away to Norwich City. He made his first Premier League start since returning from injury in a 1–1 home draw against Newcastle United on 6 November, playing 75 minutes. On 7 May, he came on as a 76th-minute substitute in Brighton's biggest top flight victory, a 4–0 home win over Manchester United.


title: Tariq Lamptey

text: Lamptey scored his second goal for Brighton with the team's third in a 3–1 victory away to Arsenal on 9 November in the EFL Cup third round.


title: Tariq Lamptey

text: Lamptey was born in England to Ghanaian parents. He has been a youth international for England, having represented the Young Lions from under-18 to under-21 level.


title: Tariq Lamptey

text: In July 2020, he was contacted by the Ghana Football Association about potentially switching allegiances to represent Ghana. However, on 8 September, Lamptey made his England under-21 debut, starting in a 2–1 away victory over Austria in a 2021 UEFA European Under-21 Championship qualifier. After 18 months out of the under-21 team due to injury, he then made his return to the side in March 2022, taking part in the 2023 European Under-21 Championship qualification matches against Andorra and Albania.


title: Tariq Lamptey

text: In May 2022, it was announced that Lamptey was considering switching allegiances to Ghana, with England under-21 manager Lee Carsley saying that Lamptey had "asked to be left out of the squad for a bit of head space." After months of further speculation, in July the president of the Ghana FA, Kurt Okraku, announced that Lamptey was one of the few players that were officially made eligible to represent Ghana. Lamptey made his debut on 23 September, coming on as a 72nd-minute substitute, replacing Denis Odoi in a 3–0 friendly loss against Brazil at the Stade Océane in Le Havre.


title: SCOBY

text: Symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY) is a culinary symbiotic fermentation culture (starter) consisting of lactic acid bacteria (LAB), acetic acid bacteria (AAB), and yeast which arises in the preparation of sour foods and beverages such as kombucha. Beer and wine also undergo fermentation with yeast, but the lactic acid bacteria and acetic acid bacteria components unique to SCOBY are usually viewed as a source of spoilage rather than a desired addition. Both LAB and AAB enter on the surface of barley and malt in beer fermentation and grapes in wine fermentation; LAB lower the pH of the beer while AAB take the ethanol produced from the yeast and oxidize it further into vinegar, resulting in a sour taste and smell. AAB are also responsible for the formation of the cellulose SCOBY.


title: SCOBY

text: In its most common form, SCOBY is a gelatinous, cellulose-based biofilm or microbial mat found floating at the container's air-liquid interface. This bacterial cellulose mat is sometimes called a pellicle. SCOBY pellicles, like sourdough starters, can serve the purpose of continuing the fermentation process into a new vessel and reproducing the desired product. This can be attributed to SCOBYs ability to not only house the symbiotic growth, but a small amount of the previous media and product due to its ability to absorb water. SCOBYs can vary greatly in cell density within the biofilm due to fermentation conditions, leading to possible variations in the end product; numerous studies are currently taking place to determine the optimal ratio of SCOBY, if any, to liquid culture to ensure highest product consistency, as there are no standard operating procedures in place. Further information such as the organisms and culture conditions necessary to ferment and form a SCOBY, biofilm characteristics, and applications in foods and beverages with specific emphasis in kombucha can be found below.


title: SCOBY

text: Based on the desired product of the SCOBY, different species of bacteria and yeast are used. Such cultures generally include aerobic, gram negative AAB species such as "Acetobacter", "Gluconobacter" and "Komagataeibacter", aerobic, gram positive LAB such as "Lactobacillus", as well as various yeasts such as "Saccharomyces" and "Zygosaccharomyces". Strains are pre-screened for viability under compatible conditions, increased yield of desired product, and indisposition to compete; once chosen, various culture conditions are modified for optimal growth and productivity.


title: SCOBY

text: For kombucha SCOBYs, the first step is yeast fermentation of sugars such as glucose from black or green tea into ethanol and carbon dioxide. "Zygosaccharomyces" is reported to be involved in 84.1% of all kombucha SCOBY fermentation processes due to its improved stability in high sugar and halophilic conditions, while "Saccharomyces" is predominantly used for its efficient fermentation rates and resistance to high temperature and alcohol content. Different variations of yeast can also be added as either a supplemental means to introduce different flavors and aromas or ensure reaction completion by utilizing different niches. While these niches vary yeast to yeast, certain fermentation conditions remain consistent. Such conditions include but are not limited to high substrate concentration, sufficient oxygen levels, temperatures between 20 °C and 30 °C, and a pH between 4-4.5.


title: SCOBY

text: The second step in the formation of SCOBY is the introduction of different bacteria into the liquid culture to convert the ethanol product of fermentation into organic acids such as lactic acid or acetic acid. These processes are known as lactic acid fermentation and ethanol metabolism respectively. A possible byproduct of this reaction is cellulose, which serves as the foundation for the SCOBY biofilm. Like yeasts, the species of bacteria chosen as well as culture conditions directly affect both the characteristics of the liquid kombucha product as well as the composition and morphology of the SCOBY pellicle. While there are many species that have the mechanisms necessary to form cellulose such as "Acetobacter" and "Komagataeibacter", "Gluconaceobacter" are one of the most populous used, residing in between 86-99% of both liquid and biofilm cultures. The necessary culturing conditions of these bacteria are similar to that of yeasts, but require more oxygen due to their aerobic nature in oxidizing ethanol to form organic acids.


title: SCOBY

text: Once the internal conditions of the co-culture are in place, the symbiotic mixture is left to ferment. Certain studies have claimed optimal fermentation time to be 10 days, but the duration can be modified to change the contents of the yield; greater fermentation times correlate with higher levels of organic acids and other amino acids, which can attribute to the sour undertones of some Kombucha. Despite controls in place, the species comprising the mixed cultures can still initiate metabolic change preparation to preparation with the slightest change in co-culture conditions and alter product qualities such as sugar concentration, so adequate monitoring is necessary when running in a continuous mode or reusing a starter culture.


title: SCOBY

text: The formation of the cellulose pellicle at the surface of the broth yields a product with unique characteristics that both bacteria and consumers find advantageous. Upon inoculation into the culture, bacteria such as "Acetobacter" immediately begin pulling glucose molecules together outside of the cell and joining them via β(1-4) linkages to form long, slender structures extending from their cell membranes called fibrils. The nanocellulose composing these fibrils demonstrates great strength and stability while still allowing hydrophilic interactions and biocompatibility, making it a great resource for the culture to use. A variety of inter and intramolecular bonding events join numerous fibrils together into the final, much larger structures known as microfibrils; because of the integrity of the microfibrils and the organized, linear nature of cellulose bonds, the resulting biofilm can also be referred to as a matrix or mat. This biofilm is a natural defense mechanism for the co-culture, and can withstand extreme conditions such as temperature and UV radiation. Two additional characteristics of the nanofibril cellulose SCOBY—its high purity and crystallinity—are currently a target in biomedical research in the formation of biocompatible tissue scaffolds, cardiovascular components such as blood vessels, bone grafts, and connective tissue replacements. The nanocellulose fibrils can also be extracted via acid hydrolysis and used in the food packaging, clothing, and wastewater treatment industries.


title: SCOBY

text: The thickness of a kombucha SCOBY is contingent on all brewing conditions, but one study reported an average a thickness of two to five millimeters. SCOBYs can be divided to start multiple cultures or dehydrated for storage and later use. Once removed, the culture will begin to regenerate a new pellicle known informally as a "baby SCOBY." This process can be repeated multiple times for months at a time.


title: SCOBY

text: In addition to kombucha, there are a variety of other foods and beverages which require a similar "symbiotic culture" in their production such as:


title: SCOBY

text: Queensland University of Technology and the State Library of Queensland have been using kombucha scoby to produce a workable bio-textile, called a "vegan leather".


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: Ramsay Bolton, previously known as Ramsay Snow, is a fictional character in the "A Song of Ice and Fire" series of fantasy novels by American author George R. R. Martin, and its television adaptation "Game of Thrones".


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: Introduced in 1998's "A Clash of Kings", Ramsay is the bastard son of Roose Bolton, the lord of the Dreadfort, an ancient fortress in the North of the kingdom of Westeros. He is subsequently mentioned in "A Storm of Swords" (2000) and "A Feast for Crows" (2005). He later appears in Martin's "A Dance with Dragons" (2011). Ramsay is an amoral and vicious sadist who strives to be legitimized as a true Bolton by his father. He is directly responsible for several atrocities in both the novels and television show, including the brutal torture of Theon Greyjoy and the Sack of Winterfell; however, his role as a primary antagonist is greatly expanded in the television adaptation.


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: Ramsay is portrayed by Welsh actor Iwan Rheon in the HBO television adaptation. Rheon has received critical acclaim for his performance, although his character's reception has been more polarized; he is widely considered to be one of the show's most brutal and hated villains.


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: Ramsay Bolton is not a point of view character in the novels, and remains mostly in the background. His actions are witnessed and interpreted directly through the eyes of Theon Greyjoy, and indirectly from stories heard by Bran Stark and Davos Seaworth.


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: Ramsay is the product of rape. While hunting along the Weeping Water, Roose Bolton saw a miller's wife and decided to illicitly practice the banned tradition of 'the first night', wherein a lord had the right to bed a commoner's bride. He hanged the miller under a tree for not informing his lord of his marriage to the woman and raped her beneath his swaying body. A year later the woman arrived at the Dreadfort with the newborn Ramsay. Roose nearly killed her and the baby, but when he saw the child had his signature pale, cold eyes, the taboo of kinslaying stayed his hand. The woman claimed her husband's brother had stolen the mill and cast her out. Angered by this, Roose had the man's tongue removed so he would not tell the truth to Roose's liege lord, Rickard Stark. Roose then gave the woman the mill along with a pig, several chicks and a bag of coin every year on the condition that she never reveal to Ramsay the truth about who his father was.


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: Ramsay's mother arrived at the castle years later claiming she needed help in raising Ramsay, who had grown up wild and unruly. Roose sent Ramsay a servant known as Reek. Reek, despite taking constant washes, always smelled bad due to some "unknown birth condition" that caused his skin to reek, thus his nickname. Giving him to Ramsay and his mother was actually a cruel jest by Roose, but Ramsay and Reek soon grew inseparable. Roose would later reflect on whether Ramsay had corrupted Reek or whether Reek had corrupted Ramsay, even though Reek would follow Ramsay's orders quite faithfully; Ramsay mentioned once that Reek knew better than to deny him. Despite Roose's instruction to Ramsay's mother, either she or Reek eventually informed him of his true parentage. Roose believes that both Reek and Ramsay's mother were urging Ramsay on, and constantly reminding the increasingly violent bastard of his "rights".


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: Roose's elder, trueborn son Domeric attempted to forge a sibling connection with his half-brother. Domeric would soon die of a mysterious sickness, and Roose believed that Ramsay poisoned him in order to rob his father of his trueborn heir. Ramsay earned the enmity of House Dustin in the process, as Lady Barbrey Dustin was fond of her nephew, Domeric. Two years prior to the beginning of the War of the Five Kings, Roose brought Ramsay to the Dreadfort as he had no other sons, trueborn or otherwise. It is there Ramsay learned to read and write.


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: Ramsay is accompanied by Dreadfort men called the Bastard's Boys, who are just as cruel and depraved as he is but who ultimately serve his father.


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: Ramsay is described as ugly and fleshy, with the sloping and big-boned body of someone who will be fat later in life. His skin is blotchy and pink, with long, brittle black hair. His two most distinctive features are his eyes — small and close-set, pale and icy like his father Roose — and his mouth, consisting of two fleshy, wide lips that form a "wormy" smile. The armor he wears in battle is red and black, resembling a flayed man opening his mouth to scream. He carries a flaying knife wrought of yellow bone.


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: Ramsay is a vicious, savage and thoroughly unpredictable psychopath who enjoys rape, necrophilia and torture. He practises the sadistic Bolton custom of flaying his captives alive and keeps a pack of female hunting dogs that he uses to hunt down stripped-naked young women before raping and killing them; he names his dogs after women he has killed and brings back their flayed skin as a gruesome trophy. Despite this brutality, Ramsay is not unintelligent; he is a cunning and brutal tactician who is good at thinking on his feet, and a capable manipulator who pretends to be charming when he needs. He is nonetheless described by his father as at times rash and foolish, whose violent "amusements" would make him a poor ruler in the North. Ramsay is a capable fighter but was never properly trained, and thus uses a wild and aggressive fighting style, wielding his sword "as if it were a butcher's cleaver".


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: While his father is at war in "A Clash of Kings", Ramsay is named castellan of the Dreadfort. After Lord Hornwood and his heir are killed fighting for Robb Stark, Ramsay forcibly marries Lady Hornwood to claim her lands, before starving her to death. He escapes justice by switching places with his servant Reek, who is killed instead; Rodrik Cassel brings Ramsay, in the guise of Reek, back to Winterfell, intending to have him testify to Ramsay's crimes before being executed. However, Theon Greyjoy and the Ironborn capture Winterfell and release Ramsay in exchange for a vow of service to Theon. When Theon's hostages escape, Ramsay murders two peasant boys and convinces Theon to present the corpses as those of Bran and Rickon Stark. As the Northerners move to take back Winterfell, Ramsay persuades Theon to let him ride to the Dreadfort to gather reinforcements. He returns with an army of Bolton soldiers and massacres the Northern relief force, but then proceeds to kill the Ironborn, burn Winterfell, and take Theon prisoner.


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: Prior to the Red Wedding, Roose Bolton presents Robb Stark with a piece of Theon's skin, revealing that Ramsay has been flaying him; though disgusted, Robb acquiesces to Theon's further captivity, as Theon's father Balon has recently died and Theon's absence presents a succession crisis for the Ironborn. Following Robb Stark's death, King Tommen Baratheon legitimizes Ramsay as a Bolton. The Lannisters pass off Jeyne Poole as Arya Stark and send her north to be betrothed to Ramsay, with only the Lannisters and Boltons aware she is not the real Arya Stark.


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: In the dungeons of the Dreadfort, Ramsay has savagely tortured and mutilated Theon until he is so broken and in fear of Ramsay that he has adopted the identity of Reek. Ramsay coerces him to assist in lifting the Ironborn siege of Moat Cailin, subsequently reneging on his promise of safe passage to the Ironborn by having the garrison flayed. After Stannis Baratheon's capture of Deepwood Motte, Ramsay's wedding to "Arya" is moved from Barrowton to a rebuilt Winterfell. Following the wedding, Ramsay repeatedly abuses Jeyne. Shortly after the wedding, Jeyne and Theon escape with the help of Mance Rayder. Jon Snow later receives a letter from Ramsay claiming that he has captured Mance and killed Stannis Baratheon (who was besieging Winterfell), threatening to destroy the Night's Watch if Jon does not deliver Theon, Jeyne, and several other members of Stannis' court to Ramsay as captives. Finally pushed to his breaking point, Jon instead decides that he will seek out and kill Ramsay himself, though he is stabbed by his own men before he can leave Castle Black.


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: In a released sample chapter, Stannis is revealed to be alive and preparing for battle against Roose and Ramsay, though it is not confirmed if the chapter takes place before or after Ramsay sends his letter. Theon, who is now Stannis' prisoner, warns Stannis not to underestimate Ramsay or even call him "Ramsay Snow", but Stannis, who does not fear Ramsay, brushes Theon's warnings aside.


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: Ramsay Bolton was played by Welsh actor Iwan Rheon in the HBO television adaption of the series of books, who received critical acclaim for his performance. Rheon had previously auditioned for the role of Jon Snow, which he lost to Kit Harington. Ramsay is first mentioned in the show's second season and first appears onscreen in the third, though Rheon is credited as "Boy" until his true identity is revealed in the third-season finale "Mhysa".


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: The circumstances of Ramsay's conception and acknowledgement do not change in the show, although in the show Ramsay's childhood is never examined. His mother died when he was young, but she did raise him initially, just like in the books. When he is torturing Theon Greyjoy, Ramsay recounts "My mother taught me not to throw stones at cripples. But my father taught me to aim for their head!" He also recounts how at the age of eleven, he first encountered the Dreadfort kennelmaster's daughter, Myranda, and is drawn to her fearlessness, eventually taking her as his mistress. He tells her that he plans on wedding her but after his legitimization, he dismisses such promises. Ramsay's dog appears to be a Cane Corso.


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: After Theon Greyjoy and his forces capture Winterfell, Roose Bolton offers to Robb Stark to have Ramsay and the men left at the Dreadfort lift the occupation. Robb agrees, with orders to spare the Ironborn if they surrender, but to bring Theon to Robb alive. The Ironborn subdue Theon and present him to Ramsay, who takes Theon prisoner, but Ramsay then proceeds to sack Winterfell and flay the Ironborn garrison for his own amusement.


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: Ramsay sends word to the Stark forces at Harrenhal claiming that the Ironborn sacked Winterfell and fled before the Bolton forces arrived. In the Dreadfort dungeons, Ramsay's men torture Theon while Ramsay watches on in the guise of a cleaning boy. Claiming to be a servant of Theon's sister Yara, he sets Theon free before sending his men after Theon, only to follow and kill them when they recapture Theon. Theon confesses that during his conquest of Winterfell he used two farmer's boys to fake the murders of Bran and Rickon Stark, as Ramsay pretends to lead Theon to Deepwood Motte, the castle Yara holds. In reality, Ramsay leads Theon in a circle back to the dungeon and reimprisons him, tormenting Theon with the revelation that he was the architect of his suffering all along.


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: After severing Theon's pinky, he has Myranda and another servant seduce him; however, this is only intended to taunt Theon before Ramsay severs his genitals. He sends Theon's penis to his father Balon, threatening to further mutilate him and to flay the other Ironborn invaders unless they flee the North; Balon refuses, as he now has no use for Theon. Theon begs Ramsay to kill him, but Ramsay states that Theon is more useful alive. Noting Theon's stench, he dubs him "Reek" and beats him until he responds to his new name.


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: When Roose Bolton returns to the Dreadfort, he reprimands Ramsay for having overstepped his boundaries as castellan by mutilating a valuable hostage and sending terms of surrender to the Greyjoys. Infuriated, Ramsay demonstrates his brainwashing of Reek by having him reveal that Bran and Rickon Stark are still alive, and having Reek shave him without harming him, even after revealing Roose's murder of Robb Stark. Impressed, Roose orders Ramsay and Reek to lift the Ironborn occupation of Moat Cailin. Yara and her men infiltrate the Dreadfort and try to rescue Theon, but he refuses to go with her, fearing another of Ramsay's tricks, and Ramsay chases the Greyjoy soldiers away with his hounds. Pleased with Reek's loyalty, Ramsay has him pose as Theon to convince the Ironborn holding Moat Cailin to surrender, with promise of safe passage, though Ramsay reneges on his word and flays the entire garrison. As reward for his success, Ramsay is legitimised as a Bolton. He then accompanies the rest of House Bolton in moving to Winterfell.


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: Ramsay draws the ire of Roose after flaying the family of a Northern lord who refuses to pledge fealty. In order to placate the other Northern houses and to solidify the Boltons' hold on the North, Ramsay is betrothed to Sansa Stark, publicly believed to be the last living Stark. Though he initially feigns kindness to Sansa, after Myranda shows her Reek in the kennels, Ramsay uses Sansa's contempt for Reek as psychological torment, by having him apologise for "killing" Bran and Rickon, having him give Sansa away at the wedding, and ultimately forcing Reek to watch as he rapes Sansa on their wedding night. When Sansa begs Reek to signal for help, Reek instead warns Ramsay, who flays a maid who had tried to help Sansa.


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: With Stannis Baratheon's forces camped and ready to march on Winterfell, Ramsay persuades Roose to let him and twenty men infiltrate his camp and destroy his supplies. The plan succeeds, ultimately causing most of Stannis' army to desert him. The remnants of the Baratheon army march on Winterfell, but the Bolton cavalry, led by Ramsay, defeat them with ease and Stannis is slain. In the chaos of the battle, however, Theon kills Myranda and flees with Sansa.


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: After mourning Myranda, Ramsay is warned by Roose that he faces being disinherited if Sansa is not recovered and Roose's unborn child is a son. Ramsay's best hunters locate Sansa and Theon, but are intercepted and killed by Brienne of Tarth. After Roose's wife Walda gives birth to a boy, Ramsay promptly murders his father and has his hounds maul Walda and his newborn half-brother to death, securing his position as Lord of Winterfell and Warden of the North.


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: Ramsay is approached by Smalljon Umber, who asks for his help in defending the North against the wildlings Jon Snow has offered refuge to at the Wall. To secure their alliance, Smalljon presents Ramsay with Osha and Rickon Stark, who were previously under the protection of Smalljon's now-deceased father, the Greatjon. Ramsay kills Osha when she tries to assassinate him, and throws Rickon in Winterfell's dungeons. He then sends a letter to Jon Snow at Castle Black, threatening to exterminate the wildlings and have Rickon and Jon killed if Sansa is not returned to him.


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: Jon Snow responds by leading an army of Wildlings and assorted Stark loyalists on a march towards Winterfell. As the Stark and Bolton armies prepare for battle, Jon and Ramsay parley, during which Jon offers to settle their differences with one-on-one combat and Ramsay offers Jon surrender terms, but both refuse. On the day of the battle, Ramsay releases Rickon and tells him to run to his half-brother before killing him with an arrow. With Jon having charged out in a futile attempt to save Rickon, his forces follow behind and are drawn out of their position. The Bolton phalanx quickly surrounds the Starks, but the Knights of the Vale arrive and overwhelm the Boltons. Ramsay flees to Winterfell, and kills the giant Wun Wun when he breaches Winterfell's gate. With his men slain, Ramsay finally accepts Jon's offer of one-on-one combat, but is quickly overpowered by Jon, who brutally beats him and orders him locked in the kennels as a prisoner. That night, Ramsay is visited by Sansa, who watches as his hungry hounds eat Ramsay alive. Ramsay's death marks the end of House Bolton and its rule in the North.


title: Ramsay Bolton

text: In 2016, "The New York Times" referred to the character as "arguably the most hated man on television" and "the signature "Game of Thrones" villain", replacing Joffrey Baratheon.


title: Toilet paper

text: Toilet paper (sometimes called toilet tissue or bathroom tissue) is a tissue paper product primarily used to clean the anus and surrounding anal region of feces after defecation, and to clean the perineal area and external genitalia of urine after urination or other bodily fluid releases. It also acts as a layer of protection for the hands during these processes. It is usually supplied as a long strip of perforated paper wrapped around a paperboard core for storage in a dispenser near a toilet. The bundle is known as a toilet roll, or loo roll or bog roll in Britain.


title: Toilet paper

text: There are other uses for toilet paper, as it is a readily available household product. It can be used like facial tissue for blowing the nose or wiping the eyes. Some women may use the paper to absorb the bloody discharge that comes out of the vagina during menstruation. It can be used to wipe off sweat or absorb it. Toilet paper can be used in cleaning like a less abrasive paper towel. As a prank, toilet papering is a form of temporary vandalism by adolescents and often directed at someone who has to clean up the mess.


title: Toilet paper

text: Most modern toilet paper in the developed world is designed to decompose in septic tanks, whereas some other bathroom and facial tissues are not. Wet toilet paper rapidly decomposes in the environment. Toilet paper comes in various numbers of plies (layers of thickness), from one- to six-ply, with more back-to-back plies providing greater strength and absorbency. Some people have a preference for whether the orientation of the roll on a dispenser should be "over" or "under".


title: Toilet paper

text: The use of paper for hygiene has been recorded in China in the 6th century AD, with specifically manufactured toilet paper being mass-produced in the 14th century. Modern commercial toilet paper originated in the 19th century, with a patent for roll-based dispensers being made in 1883.


title: Toilet paper

text: Although paper had been known as a wrapping and padding material in China since the 2nd century BC, a reference to the use of toilet paper dates back as early as circa 589 when the scholar-official Yan Zhitui (531–591) wrote:


title: Toilet paper

text: During the early 14th century, it was recorded that in what is now Zhejiang alone, ten million packages of 1,000 to 10,000 sheets of toilet paper were manufactured annually. During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 AD), it was recorded in 1393 that an annual supply of 720,000 sheets of toilet paper (approximately ) were produced for the general use of the imperial court at the capital of Nanjing. From the records of the Imperial Bureau of Supplies of that same year, it was also recorded that for the Hongwu Emperor's imperial family alone, there were 15,000 sheets of special soft-fabric toilet paper made, and each sheet of toilet paper was perfumed.


title: Toilet paper

text: Elsewhere, wealthy people wiped themselves with wool, lace or hemp, while less wealthy people used their hand when defecating into rivers, or cleaned themselves with various materials such as rags, wood shavings, leaves, grass, hay, stones, sand, moss, water, snow, ferns, plant husks, fruit skins, seashells, or corncobs, depending upon the country and weather conditions or social customs. In Ancient Rome, a sponge on a stick was commonly used, and, after use, placed back in a pail of vinegar. Several talmudic sources indicating ancient Jewish practice refer to the use of small pebbles, often carried in a special bag, and also to the use of dry grass and of the smooth edges of broken pottery jugs (e.g., Shabbat 81a, 82a, Yevamot 59b). These are all cited in the classic "Biblical and Talmudic Medicine" by the German physician Julius Preuss (Eng. trans. Sanhedrin Press, 1978).


title: Toilet paper

text: The 16th-century French satirical writer François Rabelais, in Chapter XIII of Book 1 of his novel sequence "Gargantua and Pantagruel", has his character Gargantua investigate a great number of ways of cleansing oneself after defecating. Gargantua dismisses the use of paper as ineffective, rhyming that: "Who his foul tail with paper wipes, Shall at his ballocks leave some chips." (Sir Thomas Urquhart's 1653 English translation). He concludes that "the neck of a goose, that is well downed" provides an optimum cleansing medium.


title: Toilet paper

text: The rise of publishing by the eighteenth century led to the use of newspapers and cheap editions of popular books for cleansing. Lord Chesterfield, in a letter to his son in 1747, told of a man who purchased


title: Toilet paper

text: In many parts of the world, especially where toilet paper or the necessary plumbing for disposal may be unavailable or unaffordable, toilet paper is not used. Also, in many parts of the world people consider using water a much cleaner and more sanitary practice than using paper. Cleansing is then performed with other methods or materials, such as water, for example using a bidet, a lota, rags, sand, leaves (including seaweed), corn cobs, animal furs, sticks or hands; afterwards, hands are washed with water and possibly soap.


title: Toilet paper

text: Joseph Gayetty is widely credited with being the inventor of modern commercially available toilet paper in the United States. Gayetty's paper, first introduced in 1857, was available as late as the 1920s. Gayetty's Medicated Paper was sold in packages of flat sheets, watermarked with the inventor's name. Original advertisements for the product used the tagline "The greatest necessity of the age! Gayetty's medicated paper for the water-closet."


title: Toilet paper

text: Seth Wheeler of Albany, New York, obtained the earliest United States patents for toilet paper and dispensers, the types of which eventually were in common use in that country, in 1883. Toilet paper dispensed from rolls was popularized when the Scott Paper Company began marketing it in 1890.


title: Toilet paper

text: The manufacturing of this product had a long period of refinement, considering that as late as the 1930s, a selling point of the Northern Tissue company was that their toilet paper was "splinter free". The widespread adoption of the flush toilet increased the use of toilet paper, as heavier paper was more prone to clogging the trap that prevents sewer gases from escaping through the toilet.


title: Toilet paper

text: Softer, two ply toilet roll was introduced in Britain in 1942, by St Andrew Mills in Walthamstow; this became the famous Andrex.


title: Toilet paper

text: Moist toilet paper, called wet wipes, was first introduced in the United Kingdom by Andrex in the 1990s. It has been promoted as being a better method of cleaning than dry toilet paper after defecation, and may be useful for women during menstruation. It was promoted as a flushable product but it has been implicated in the creation of fatbergs; by 2016 some municipalities had begun education campaigns advising people not to flush used wet wipes.


title: Toilet paper

text: More than seven billion rolls of toilet paper are sold yearly in the United States. Americans use an average of 23.6 rolls per capita per year.


title: Toilet paper

text: In 1973, Johnny Carson joked in his "Tonight Show" monologue about comments made by Wisconsin congressman Harold V. Froehlich about the possibility of a toilet paper shortage. Subsequently, consumers purchased abnormal amounts, causing an actual shortage in the United States for several months.


title: Toilet paper

text: Toilet paper has been one of the commodities subject to shortages in Venezuela starting in the 2010s; the government seized one toilet paper factory in a failed effort to resolve the problem.


title: Toilet paper

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, toilet paper shortages were reported in March 2020 in multiple countries due to hoarding and panic buying. At first, few believed the pandemic would be serious. Later, people realized they might need to stock up on certain items in case of a shelter-in-place order, or in case they did not know how long such an order would last; suppliers could not assure that they could keep up with demand. However, manufacturers continued to produce even more than they had before. Demand was higher for the types of toilet paper used at home because so many people were at home who would have used toilet paper away from home. In countries other than the United States, the bidet was already seen as a solution, and a survey before the pandemic had indicated an increasing number of Americans would be interested.


title: Toilet paper

text: Toilet paper is available in several types of paper, a variety of patterns, decorations, and textures, and it may be moistened or perfumed, although fragrances sometimes cause problems for users who are allergic to perfumes. The average measures of a modern roll of toilet paper is c. 10 cm (3 in.) wide, and 12 cm (4 in.) in diameter, and weighs about 227 grams (8 oz.). An alternative method of packing the sheets uses interleaved sheets in boxes, or in bulk for use in dispensers. "Hard" single-ply paper has been used as well as soft multi-ply.


title: Toilet paper

text: Manufactured toilet paper sheet in the United States was sized × . Since 1999 the size of a sheet has been shrinking; Kimberly-Clark reduced the length of a sheet to . Scott, in 2006, reduced the length of their product to . The width of sheets was later reduced giving a general sheet size of long and wide. Larger sizes remain available.


title: Toilet paper

text: The ply of a toilet paper refers to the number of layers per sheet. Rolls are typically available in single-ply, 2-ply, 3-ply, and 4-ply.


title: Toilet paper

text: Phrases like "single roll", "double roll", "triple roll", "jumbo roll", and "mega roll" commonly used in retail advertising refer to the number of sheets per roll (though the actual number of sheets is also usually disclosed on packaging). A longer roll needs to be replaced less often, but the very largest sizes do not fit all toilet paper dispensers, especially in older homes.


title: Toilet paper

text: Toilet paper is usually manufactured from pulpwood trees, but is also sometimes made from sugar cane byproducts or bamboo.


title: Toilet paper

text: Toilet paper products vary greatly in the distinguishing technical factors, such as size, weight, roughness, softness, chemical residues, "finger-breakthrough" resistance, water-absorption, etc. The larger companies have very detailed, scientific market surveys to determine which marketing sectors require or demand which of the many technical qualities. Modern toilet paper may have a light coating of aloe or lotion or wax worked into the paper to reduce roughness.


title: Toilet paper

text: Quality is usually determined by the number of plies (stacked sheets), coarseness, and durability. Low grade institutional toilet paper is typically of the lowest grade of paper, has only one or two plies, is very coarse and sometimes contains small amounts of embedded unbleached/unpulped paper; it was typically called "hard" toilet paper. A brand disinfected with carbolic acid was manufactured in Sheffield, United Kingdom under the Izal brand name by Newton Chambers until 1981. Mid-grade two ply is somewhat textured to provide some softness and is somewhat stronger. Premium toilet paper may have lotion and wax and has two to four plies of very finely pulped paper. If it is marketed as "luxury", it may be quilted or rippled (embossed), perfumed, colored or patterned, medicated (with anti-bacterial chemicals), or treated with aloe or other perfumes.


title: Toilet paper

text: To advance decomposition of the paper in septic tanks or drainage, the paper used has shorter fibres than facial tissue or writing paper. The manufacturer tries to reach an optimal balance between rapid decomposition (which requires shorter fibres) and sturdiness (which requires longer fibres). Compaction of toilet paper in drain lines, such as in a clog, prevents fibre dispersion and largely halts the breakdown process.


title: Toilet paper

text: A German quip says that the toilet paper of Nazi Germany was so rough and scratchy that it was almost unusable, so many people used old issues of the "Völkischer Beobachter" instead, because the paper was softer.


title: Toilet paper

text: Colored toilet paper in colors such as pink, lavender, light blue, light green, purple, green, and light yellow (so that one could choose a color of toilet paper that matched or complemented the color of one's bathroom) was commonly sold in the United States from the 1960s. Up until 2004, Scott was one of the last remaining U.S. manufacturers to still produce toilet paper in beige, blue, and pink. However, the company has since cut production of colored paper altogether.


title: Toilet paper

text: Today, in the United States, plain unpatterned colored toilet paper has been mostly replaced by patterned toilet paper, normally white, with embossed decorative patterns or designs in various colors and different sizes depending on the brand. Colored toilet paper remains commonly available in some European countries.


title: Toilet paper

text: A toilet roll holder, also known as a toilet paper dispenser, is an item that holds a roll of toilet paper. There are at least seven types of holders:


title: Toilet paper

text: Some commercial or institutional toilet paper is wrapped around a cylinder to many times the thickness of a standard toilet paper roll.


title: Toilet paper

text: There are two choices of orientation when using a holder with a horizontal axle parallel to the wall: the toilet paper may hang "over" or "under" the roll. The choice is largely a matter of personal preference, dictated by habit. In surveys of American consumers and of bath and kitchen specialists, 60–70% of respondents prefer "over". This is said to exhibit Endianness, which applies not only to eggs, but to toilet paper. Most Americans think it should go over the top, like a waterfall.


title: Toilet paper

text: "Toilegami" refers to toilet paper origami. Like table napkins, some fancy Japanese hotels fold the first squares of toilet paper on its dispenser to be presented in a fashionable way.


title: Toilet paper

text: In the United States, toilet paper has been the primary tool in a prank known as "TP-ing" (pronounced "teepeeing"). TP-ing, or "toilet papering", is often favored by adolescents and is the act of throwing rolls of toilet paper over cars, trees, houses and gardens, causing the toilet paper to unfurl and cover the property, creating an inconvenient mess.


title: Toilet paper

text: Children and cats may unroll an entire roll of toilet paper by spinning it until it completely unravels on the floor, or as a game by children wadding up one end, putting it in the toilet bowl without tearing it and then using the flushing of the toilet to pull new paper into the toilet, with the objective of flushing the entire roll down the toilet section at a time without the toilet paper breaking. Special toilet paper insert holders with an oblong shape were invented to prevent continuous unrolling without tearing to discourage this practice.


title: Toilet paper

text: Toilet paper pranks include musical toilet paper holders and inserts that are activated by the unrolling of the toilet paper and will loudly play an embarrassing song calling attention to the person defecating.


title: Toilet paper

text: Alexander Balankin and coauthors have studied the behavior of toilet paper under tensile stress and during wetting and burning.


title: Toilet paper

text: Toilet paper has been used in physics education to demonstrate the concepts of torque, moment of inertia, and angular momentum; and the conservation of momentum and energy.


title: Toilet paper

text: One tree produces about 800 rolls () of toilet paper and about 83 million rolls are produced per day. Global toilet paper production consumes 27,000 trees daily.


title: Toilet paper

text: More than seven billion rolls of toilet paper are sold yearly in the United States alone. Americans use an average of 141 rolls per capita a year which is equivalent to of tissue paper per year. This figure is about 50% more than the average of other Western countries or Japan. The higher use in the United States may be explained by the fact that other countries people use bidets or spray hoses to clean themselves. Millions of trees are harvested in North and South America leaving ecological footprint concerns.


title: Toilet paper

text: , between 22% and 48% of the toilet paper used in the United States comes from tree farms in the U.S. and South America, with the rest mostly coming from old, second growth forests, and, some from virgin forests.


title: Toilet paper

text: Toilet paper made from recycled paper avoids the direct environmental impact of cutting down trees, and is commercially available. Recycled newspaper can contain BPA, an endocrine disruptor.


title: Toilet paper

text: Toilet paper produced from bamboo is commercially available, and is in some ways more environmentally friendly than virgin pulpwood, because bamboo grows faster, taking less land and less water. For North American consumers, the Natural Resources Defense Council recommends recycled tree pulp over bamboo toilet paper, because tree forests promote more biodiversity and bamboo products must be shipped from Asia.


title: Toilet paper

text: Toilet paper produced from bagasse, a byproduct of sugarcane, is commercially available, and avoids cutting down any plants because sugarcane is already grown for sugar production.


title: Toilet paper

text: The most environmentally friendly alternatives are to rely solely on soap and water for anal hygiene.


title: Toilet paper

text: The company called Cloud Paper has developed an alternative to tree-based toilet paper that is made out of bamboo.


title: Kae Tempest

text: Kae Tempest (formerly Kate Tempest; born 22 December 1985) is an English spoken word performer, poet, recording artist, novelist and playwright.


title: Kae Tempest

text: At the age of 16, Tempest was accepted into the BRIT School for Performing Arts and Technology in Croydon. In 2013, they won the Ted Hughes Award for their work "Brand New Ancients". They were named a Next Generation Poet by the Poetry Book Society, a once-a-decade accolade. Tempest's albums "Everybody Down" and "Let Them Eat Chaos" have been nominated for the Mercury Music Prize. The latter's accompanying poetry book (also titled "Let Them Eat Chaos") was nominated for the Costa Book of the Year in the Poetry Category. Their debut novel "The Bricks That Built the Houses" was a "Sunday Times" best-seller and won the 2017 Books Are My Bag Readers Award for Breakthrough Author. They were nominated as Best Female Solo Performer at the 2018 Brit Awards. Tempest came out as non-binary in 2020, using pronouns they/them.


title: Kae Tempest

text: Tempest grew up in Brockley, South East London, one of five children whose father was a corporate media lawyer, and their mother a teacher. Tempest worked in a record shop from age 14 to 18. They went to Thomas Tallis School, leaving at 16 to study at the BRIT School for Performing Arts and Technology in Croydon, going on to graduate in English Literature from Goldsmiths, University of London. Tempest first performed at 16, at open mic nights at Deal Real, a small hip-hop store in Carnaby Street in London's West End. They went on to support acts such as John Cooper Clarke, Billy Bragg and Benjamin Zephaniah. Tempest toured internationally with their band Sound of Rum until the band disbanded in 2012 before being commissioned to write their first play, "Wasted".


title: Kae Tempest

text: In August 2020, Tempest came out as non-binary, began using "they/them" pronouns, and changed their name to Kae.


title: Kae Tempest

text: In 2013, Tempest released their first poetry book "Everything Speaks in its Own Way", a limited edition run on their own imprint, Zingaro. At 26, they launched the theatrical spoken word piece "Brand New Ancients" at the Battersea Arts Centre (2012), to great critical acclaim. The piece also won Tempest the Herald Angel and The Ted Hughes Prize. Some of Tempest's influences include Samuel Beckett, James Joyce, W B Yeats, William Blake, W H Auden and Wu-Tang Clan.


title: Kae Tempest

text: In September 2013, their play "Hopelessly Devoted" was produced by Paines Plough and premiered at Birmingham Rep Theatre.


title: Kae Tempest

text: In 2014, they released the album "Everybody Down" (Big Dada, Ninja Tune), which was produced by Dan Carey and was nominated for the 2014 Mercury Prize.


title: Kae Tempest

text: Since the release of "Everybody Down", Tempest has increased touring as a musician, playing at festivals and headlining shows with their live band which consists of Kwake Bass on drums, Dan Carey on synths and Clare Uchima on keyboards.


title: Kae Tempest

text: In October 2014, their first poetry collection for Picador, "Hold Your Own", was published. The collection was a commercial and critical success and its release coincided with Tempest being named a Next Generation Poet.


title: Kae Tempest

text: In April 2016, their debut novel "The Bricks That Built The Houses" was published by Bloomsbury and was a Sunday Times Bestseller. It won the Books Are My Bag Best Breakthrough Author Award.


title: Kae Tempest

text: In September 2016, it was announced that Tempest would curate the 2017 Brighton Festival. They released the album "Let Them Eat Chaos" on 7 October 2016. It debuted at no. 28 on the UK Albums Chart, and was also released in book format (Picador). The album was also nominated for the Mercury Prize, this time in 2017. They were nominated for Best British Female Solo Performer at the 2018 Brit Awards.


title: Kae Tempest

text: Tempest's song "People's Faces" was used for the Facebook commercial "We're Never Lost If We Can Find Each Other", created by the agency Droga5, and released on 9 April 2020.


title: Kae Tempest

text: "Paradise," Tempest's modern adaptation of Sophocles' Greek Classic, "Philoctetes", premiered at the National Theatre from 4 August - 11 September 2021. The all-female cast, featuring Lesley Sharp, was directed by Ian Rickson and performed in the Olivier Theatre.


title: Kae Tempest

text: In November 2019, along with other public figures, Tempest signed a letter supporting Labour Party leader Jeremy Corbyn describing him as "a beacon of hope in the struggle against emergent far-right nationalism, xenophobia and racism in much of the democratic world" and endorsed him in the 2019 UK general election. In December 2019, along with 42 other leading cultural figures, they signed a letter endorsing the Labour Party under Corbyn's leadership in the 2019 general election. The letter stated that "Labour's election manifesto under Jeremy Corbyn's leadership offers a transformative plan that prioritises the needs of people and the planet over private profit and the vested interests of a few."


title: Kae Tempest

text: "The Economist" said of Tempest's commission from the Royal Shakespeare Company: "A stunning piece by [Kae] Tempest, a London-born performance poet, comes bursting off the screen. Rarely has the relevance of Shakespeare to our language, to the very fabric of our feelings, been expressed with quite such youthful passion. (It should be mandatory viewing for all teenagers.)" The "Huffington Post" describes them as "Britain's leading young poet, playwright and rapper...one of the most widely respected performers in the country – the complete package of lyrics and delivery. [They are] also one of the most exciting young writers working in Britain today" (2012). "The Guardian" commented of "Brand New Ancients", "Suddenly it feels as if we are not in a theatre but a church... gathered around a hearth, hearing the age-old stories that help us make sense of our lives. We're given the sense that what we are watching is something sacred." In 2013, the newspaper noted:


title: Kae Tempest

text: [They are] one of the brightest talents around. [Their] spoken-word performances have the metre and craft of traditional poetry, the kinetic agitation of hip-hop and the intimacy of a whispered heart-to-heart... Tempest deals bravely with poverty, class and consumerism. [They do] so in a way that not only avoids the pitfalls of sounding trite, but manages to be beautiful too, drawing on ancient mythology and sermonic cadence to tell stories of the everyday.


title: Kae Tempest

text: In 2013, aged 28, they won the Ted Hughes Award for their work "Brand New Ancients", the first person under the age of 40 to win the award, and was selected as one of the 2014 Next Generation Poets by the Poetry Society.


title: Kae Tempest

text: Tempest has received wide critical acclaim for their written and live work. A performance of "Brand New Ancients" prompted the New York Times to say "As gorgeous streams of words flow out, [they conjure] a story so vivid it’s as if you had a state-of-the-art Blu-ray player stuffed into your brain, projecting image after image that sears itself into your consciousness" while a review by Michiko Kakutani of their poetry collections in the same paper explored their written style: “While [their] intense performances on stage add a fierce urgency to the words, these text versions of [their] work stand powerfully on their own on the page...using [their] pictorial imagination to sear specific images into the reader's mind".


title: Kae Tempest

text: "Everybody Down" was nominated for the 2015 Mercury Music Prize and "Let Them Eat Chaos" have been nominated for the 2017 Mercury Music Prize. Their accompanying poetry book "Let Them Eat Chaos" was nominated for the Costa Book of the Year in the Poetry Category in 2016. They were nominated as Best Female Solo Performer at the 2018 Brit Awards.


title: Hwang Jung-eum

text: Hwang Jung-eum is a South Korean actress. She rose to stardom through the sitcom "High Kick Through the Roof" and received her first leading role with television series "Listen to My Heart".


title: Hwang Jung-eum

text: Hwang Jung-eum debuted with K-pop girl group Sugar in 2002 as a lead vocalist, but left the group in 2004 to pursue a solo career. Hwang appeared as one of the recurring guests of the variety show "Love Letter" from 2004 to 2006, in which her onscreen pairing with Kim Jong-min became popular. She officially made her acting debut in the television drama "The Person I Love" in 2007.


title: Hwang Jung-eum

text: In 2009, she and real-life boyfriend Kim Yong-jun (of boy band SG Wannabe) joined the second season of reality dating show "We Got Married" as the first real-life couple to be featured on the show. Later that year, Hwang rose to mainstream stardom when she appeared in the daily sitcom "High Kick Through the Roof". Her character in the sitcom as a college student who was full of energetic vibes but sometimes clumsy, confident despite lacking money and opportunities, representing today's college students well, therefore stirred sentiments among many young adults. Regarding this breakout in her acting career, Hwang said:


title: Hwang Jung-eum

text: After her turn on "High Kick", Hwang signed numerous advertising contracts, and in interviews she often tells the story of how she had just () in her bank account when she started the show but walked away with when it ended. She was later ranked 18th on "Forbes Korea"'s Top 40 Celebrities in 2011, and among the Top 7 Female Commercial Stars in Korea as compiled by "Ilgan Sports".


title: Hwang Jung-eum

text: In February 2010, Hwang hosted MBC's "Star Dance Battle" together with Kim Shin-young, Oh Sang-jin, and Shin Bong-sun. Later in December, she was also one of the co-hosts of the annual music program "SBS Gayo Daejeon" along with Super Junior's Kim Hee-chul, CNBLUE's Jung Yong-hwa, and 2AM's Jo Kwon.


title: Hwang Jung-eum

text: Hwang then began to regularly acts in television series. In 2010-2012, she starred in the 1970s historical epic "Giant", melodrama romance "Listen to My Heart" (2011) in which Hwang received a leading role for the first time, and medical drama "Golden Time" (2012).


title: Hwang Jung-eum

text: In 2013 Hwang was cast in crime comedy "Incarnation of Money". In the same year she acted in TV ratings-hit melodrama crime "Secret Love", which resulted in multiple awards-winning for Hwang at the 2013 KBS Drama Awards. The next year, she led the 1980-1990s set period drama, "Endless Love".


title: Hwang Jung-eum

text: In 2015, Hwang reunited with some of her former costars, namely Ji Sung from "Secret Love" for the romantic comedy series "Kill Me, Heal Me"; then with Park Seo-joon from "Kill Me, Heal Me" and Go Joon-hee from "Listen to My Heart" for another romantic comedy, "She Was Pretty", which also further solidifies her popularity in China. "Ize" magazine named her as one of the 10 Persons of the Year and Hwang was selected as Gallup Korea's Television Actor of the Year in 2015. The two MBC's series also brought multiple awards for Hwang at the 2015 MBC Drama Awards.


title: Hwang Jung-eum

text: Hwang was cast in her first big screen leading role in the 2015 romantic comedy film "My Sister, the Pig Lady", which was screened at the 39th Montreal World Film Festival as part of their "World Greats" selection. The film also won Grand Prize at the 2016 Osaka Asian Film Festival.


title: Hwang Jung-eum

text: Less than a month after her marriage, Hwang has been cast in the 2016 romantic comedy series, "Lucky Romance". She was then reunited with Namkoong Min, whom she had starred alongside seven years ago in "Listen to My Heart", in 2018 rom-com "The Undateables".


title: Hwang Jung-eum

text: In 2020, Hwang has been cast in two drama series, a fantasy mystery "Mystic Pop-up Bar" and romantic comedy "Men Are Men".


title: Hwang Jung-eum

text: Hwang accepts the offer to star in the new work of well-known screenwriter Kim Soon-ok with 2023 SBS mystery crime "The Escape of the Seven".


title: Hwang Jung-eum

text: Hwang dated Kim Yong-jun for nine years. They first met in 2005, when Hwang starred in the SG Wannabe music video for "My Heart's Treasure Box". The couple then publicly confirmed their relationship in January 2008. "Yonhap News Agency" broke the news on May 15, 2015, that the couple had ended their relationship after she wrapped up the filming of "Kill Me, Heal Me". Hwang later confirmed it in her interview with KBS2's "Entertainment Relay".


title: Hwang Jung-eum

text: On December 8, 2015, Hwang's agency, C-JeS Entertainment, confirmed that she had been dating Lee Young-don, a professional golfer and businessman, for the past four months. On January 7, 2016, Hwang announced her planned marriage to Lee Young-don, with the ceremony to be held in February. On February 26, 2016, the wedding reception was held at Hotel Shilla, Seoul.


title: Hwang Jung-eum

text: Hwang was confirmed to be four months pregnant in February 2017 and gave birth to their first child, a son, on August 15, 2017.


title: Hwang Jung-eum

text: On September 3, 2020, after four years of marriage, Hwang's agency C-JeS Entertainment announced that Hwang had submitted an application for divorce and would start the divorce mediation process.


title: Hwang Jung-eum

text: On July 9, 2021, agency C-JeS Entertainment announced that Hwang and her husband had mediated their divorce and decided to continue their relationship. Both of them decided to live together.


title: Hwang Jung-eum

text: On October 12, 2021, Hwang's agency announced that is pregnant with her second child. and was expected to give birth the next year. On March 16, 2022 she gave birth to a baby boy, her second son.


title: Stereolab

text: Stereolab are an Anglo-French avant-pop band formed in London in 1990. Led by the songwriting team of Tim Gane and Lætitia Sadier, the group's music combines influences from krautrock, lounge and 1960s pop music, often incorporating a repetitive motorik beat with heavy use of vintage electronic keyboards and female vocals sung in English and French. Their lyrics have political and philosophical themes influenced by the Surrealist and Situationist movements. On stage, they play in a more feedback-driven and guitar-oriented style. The band also draw from funk, jazz and Brazilian music, and were one of the first artists to be dubbed "post-rock". They are regarded among the most innovative and influential groups of the 1990s.


title: Stereolab

text: Stereolab were formed by Gane (guitar and keyboards) and Sadier (vocals, keyboards and guitar) after the break-up of McCarthy. The two were romantically involved for fourteen years and are the group's only consistent members. Other longtime members included 1992 addition Mary Hansen (backing vocals, keyboards and guitar), who died in 2002, and 1993 addition Andy Ramsay (drums). The High Llamas' leader Sean O'Hagan (guitar and keyboards) was a member from 1993 to 1994 and continued appearing on later records for occasional guest appearances.


title: Stereolab

text: Throughout their career, Stereolab has had moderate commercial success. The band were released from their recording contract with Elektra Records due to poor record sales, and their self-owned label Duophonic signed a distribution deal with Too Pure and later Warp Records. After a ten-year hiatus, the band reunited for live performances in 2019.


title: Stereolab

text: In 1985, Tim Gane formed McCarthy, a band from Essex, England, known for their left-wing politics. Gane met Lætitia Sadier, born in France, at a 1988 McCarthy concert in Paris and the two quickly fell in love. The musically-inclined Sadier was disillusioned with the rock scene in France and soon moved to London to be with Gane and pursue her career. In 1990, after three albums, McCarthy broke up and Gane immediately formed Stereolab with Sadier (who had also contributed vocals to McCarthy's final album), ex-Chills bassist Martin Kean and Gina Morris on backing vocals. Stereolab's name was taken from a division of Vanguard Records demonstrating hi-fi effects.


title: Stereolab

text: Gane and Sadier, along with future band manager Martin Pike, set up a record label called Duophonic Super 45s which, along with later offshoot Duophonic Ultra High Frequency Disks, would become commonly known as "Duophonic". Gane said that their "original plan" was to distribute multiple 7 and 10-inch records "–to just do one a month and keep doing them in small editions". The 10 inch vinyl EP "Super 45", released in May 1991, was the first release for both Stereolab and the label, and was sold through mail order and through the Rough Trade Shop in London. "Super 45"s band-designed album art and packaging was the first of many customised and limited-edition Duophonic records. In a 1996 interview in "The Wire", Gane calls the "do-it-yourself" aesthetic behind Duophonic "empowering", and said that by releasing one's own music "you learn; it creates more music, more ideas".


title: Stereolab

text: Stereolab released the EP, "Super-Electric" in September 1991, and a single, titled "Stunning Debut Album", followed in November 1991 (which was neither debut nor album). The early material was rock and guitar-oriented; of "Super-Electric", Jason Ankeny wrote in AllMusic that "Droning guitars, skeletal rhythms, and pop hooks—not vintage synths and pointillist melodies—were their calling cards ..." Under the independent label Too Pure, the group's first full-length album, "Peng!" was released in May 1992. A compilation titled, "Switched On", was released in October 1992 and would be part of a series of compilations that anthologise the band's more obscure material.


title: Stereolab

text: Around this time, the line-up consisted of Gane and Sadier plus vocalist and guitarist Mary Hansen, drummer Andy Ramsay, bassist Duncan Brown, and keyboardist Katharine Gifford. Hansen, born in Australia, had been in touch with Gane since his McCarthy days. After joining, she and Sadier developed a style of vocal counterpoint that distinguished Stereolab's sound. Sean O'Hagan of the High Llamas joined as a quick replacement for their touring keyboardist, but was invited for their next record and "was allowed to make suggestions".


title: Stereolab

text: Stereolab introduced easy-listening elements into their sound with the EP "Space Age Bachelor Pad Music", released in March 1993. The work raised the band's profile and landed them a major-label American record deal with Elektra Records. Their first album under Elektra, "Transient Random-Noise Bursts with Announcements" (August 1993), was an underground success in both the US and the UK. Mark Jenkins commented in "Washington Post" that with the album, Stereolab "continues the glorious drones of [their] indie work, giving celestial sweep to [their] garage-rock organ pumping and rhythm-guitar strumming". In the UK, the album was released on Duophonic Ultra High Frequency Disks, which is responsible for domestic releases of Stereolab's major albums.


title: Stereolab

text: In January 1994, Stereolab achieved their first chart entry when the 1993 EP "Jenny Ondioline", entered at number 75 on the UK Singles Chart. (Over the next three years, four more releases by the band would appear on this chart, ending with the EP "Miss Modular" in 1997.) Their third album, "Mars Audiac Quintet", was released in August 1994. The album contains the single "Ping Pong", which gained press coverage for its explicitly Marxist lyrics. The band focused more on pop and less on rock, resulting in what AllMusic described as "what may be the group's most accessible, tightly-written album". It was the last album to feature O'Hagan as a full-time member. He would continue to make guest appearances on later releases. The group issued an EP titled "Music for the Amorphous Body Study Center" in April 1995. The EP was their musical contribution to an interactive art exhibit put on in collaboration with New York City artist Charles Long. Their second compilation of rarities, titled "Refried Ectoplasm (Switched On, Vol. 2)", was released in July 1995.


title: Stereolab

text: The band's fourth album, "Emperor Tomato Ketchup" (March 1996), was a critical success and was played heavily on college radio. A record that "captivated alternative rock", it represented the group's "high-water mark" said music journalists Tom Moon and Joshua Klein, respectively. The album incorporated their early krautrock sound with funk, hip-hop influences and experimental instrumental arrangements. John McEntire of Tortoise also assisted with production and played on the album. Katharine Gifford was replaced by Morgane Lhote before recording, and bassist Duncan Brown by Richard Harrison after. Lhote was required to both learn the keyboards and 30 of the group's songs before joining.


title: Stereolab

text: Released in September 1997, "Dots and Loops" was their first album to enter the "Billboard" 200 charts, peaking at number 111. The album leaned towards jazz with bossa nova and 60's pop influences. Barney Hoskyns wrote in "Rolling Stone" that with it the group moved "ever further away from the one-chord Velvets drone-mesh of its early days" toward easy-listening and Europop. A review in German newspaper "Die Zeit" stated that in "Dots and Loops", Stereolab transformed the harder Velvet Underground-like riffs of previous releases into "softer sounds and noisy playfulness". Contributors to the album included John McEntire and Jan St. Werner of German electropop duo Mouse on Mars. Stereolab toured for seven months and took a break when Gane and Sadier had a child. The group's third compilation of rarities, "Aluminum Tunes", was issued in October 1998.


title: Stereolab

text: Their sixth album, "Cobra and Phases Group Play Voltage in the Milky Night", was released in September 1999. It was co-produced by McEntire and American producer Jim O'Rourke, and was recorded with their new bassist, Simon Johns. The album received middling reviews from critics and peaked at number 154 on the "Billboard" 200. An unsigned "NME" review said that "this record has far more in common with bad jazz and progressive rock than any experimental art-rock tradition." In a 1999 article of "Washington Post", Mark Jenkins asked Gane about the album's apparent lack of guitars; Gane responded, "There's a lot less upfront, distorted guitar ... But it's still quite guitar-based music. Every single track has a guitar on it."


title: Stereolab

text: Stereolab's seventh album, "Sound-Dust" (August 2001), rose to number 178 on the "Billboard" 200. The album also featured producers McEntire and O'Rourke. "Sound-Dust" was more warmly received than "Cobra and Phases Group…". Critic Joshua Klein said that "the emphasis this time sounds less on unfocused experimentation and more on melody ... a breezy and welcome return to form for the British band." Erlewine of Allmusic stated that the album "[finds the group] deliberately recharging their creative juices" but he argued that "Sound-Dust" was "anchored in overly familiar territory."


title: Stereolab

text: In 2002, as they were planning their next album, Stereolab started building a studio north of Bordeaux, France. "ABC Music: The Radio 1 Sessions"; a compilation of BBC Radio 1 sessions was released in October. In the same year, Gane and Sadier's romantic relationship ended.


title: Stereolab

text: On 9 December 2002, Hansen was killed when hit by a truck while riding her bicycle in London. She was 36. Writer Pierre Perrone said that her "playful nature and mischievous sense of humour came through in the way she approached the backing vocals she contributed to Stereolab and the distinctive harmonies she created with Sadier." For the next few months, Stereolab lay dormant as the members grieved. They eventually decided to continue. Future album and concert reviews would mention the effects of Hansen's absence.


title: Stereolab

text: The EP "Instant 0 in the Universe" (October 2003) was recorded in France, and was Stereolab's first release following Hansen's death. Music journalist Jim DeRogatis said that the EP marked a return to their earlier, harder sound—"free from the pseudo-funk moves and avant-garde tinkering that had been inspired by Chicago producer Jim O'Rourke".


title: Stereolab

text: Stereolab's eighth album, "Margerine Eclipse", was released on 27 January 2004 with generally positive reviews, and peaked at number 174 on the US Billboard 200. The track "Feel and Triple" was written in tribute to Hansen; Sadier said, "I was reflecting on my years with her ... reflecting on how we sometimes found it hard to express the love we had for one another." Sadier continued, "Our dedication to her on the album says, 'We will love you till the end', meaning of our lives. I'm not religious, but I feel Mary's energy is still around somewhere. It didn't just disappear." The "Observer"'s Molloy Woodcraft gave the album four out of five stars, and commented that Sadier's vocal performance as "life- and love-affirming", and the record as a whole as "Complex and catchy, bold and beatific." Kelefa Sanneh commented in "Rolling Stone" that "Margerine Eclipse" was "full of familiar noises and aimless melodies". "Margerine Eclipse" was Stereolab's last record to be released on American label Elektra Records, which shut down that same year. Future material would be released on Too Pure, the same label which had released some of the band's earliest material.


title: Stereolab

text: The group released six limited-edition singles in 2005 and 2006, which were anthologised in the 2006 compilation "Fab Four Suture", and contained material which Mark Jenkins thought continued the brisker sound of the band's post-Hansen work. By June 2007, Stereolab's line-up comprised Tim Gane, Lætitia Sadier, Andy Ramsay, Simon Johns, Dominic Jeffrey, Joseph Watson, and Joseph Walters. In 2008, the band issued their next album under the label 4AD titled, "Chemical Chords", which "[downplays] their arsenal of analog synths in favor of live instrumentation". The release was followed by an autumn tour in Europe, the United States and Canada.


title: Stereolab

text: In April 2009, Stereolab manager Martin Pike announced a pause in their activities for the time being. He said that it was an opportune time for the members to move on to other projects. "Not Music", a collection of unreleased material recorded at the same time as "Chemical Chords", was released in 2010. In 2013, Gane and Sadier, who both focused on Cavern of Anti-Matter and solo work respectively, performed at the All Tomorrow's Parties festival held at Pontins in Camber Sands.


title: Stereolab

text: In February 2019, the group announced a tour of Europe and the United States to coincide with expanded, remastered reissues of several of the albums released under Warp Records. Stereolab were part of the lineup for 2019's Primavera Sound festival, taking part on the weekend of 30 May in Barcelona, Spain, and the following weekend in Porto, Portugal. It was the group's first live performance since 2009.


title: Stereolab

text: Stereolab's music combines a droning rock sound with lounge instrumentals, overlaid with sing-song female vocals and pop melodies, and has also made use of unorthodox time signatures. It has been generally described as avant-pop, indie pop, art pop, indie electronic, indie rock, post-rock, experimental rock, and experimental pop. Sadier remarked in 2015 that "[the band's] records were written and recorded very quickly… we would write 35 tracks, sometimes more".


title: Stereolab

text: The band have played on vintage electronic keyboards and synthesizers from brands such as Farfisa and Vox and Moog. Gane has praised the instruments for their versatility: "We use the older effects because they're more direct, more extreme, and they're more like plasticine: you can shape them into loads of things." The 1994 album "Mars Audiac Quintet" prominently features Moog synthesizers.


title: Stereolab

text: Lætitia Sadier's English and French vocals have been a part of Stereolab's music since the beginning, and she would occasionally sing wordlessly along with the music. In reference to her laid-back delivery, Peter Shapiro wrote facetiously in "Wire" that Sadier "display[ed] all the emotional histrionics of Nico", while some critics have commented that her vocals were unintelligible. Sadier would often trade vocals with Mary Hansen back-and-forth in a sing-song manner that has been described as "eerie" and "hypnotic", as well as "sweet [and] slightly alien". After Hansen's death in 2002, critic Jim Harrington commented that her absence is noticeable on live performances of Stereolab's older tracks, and that their newer songs could have benefited from Hansen's backing vocals.


title: Stereolab

text: In interviews, Gane and Sadier have discussed their musical philosophy. Gane said that "to be unique was more important than to be good." On the subject of being too obscure, he said in a 1996 interview that "maybe the area where we're on dodgy ground, is this idea that you need great knowledge [of] esoteric music to understand what we're doing." Sadier responded to Gane, saying that she "think[s] we have achieved a music that will make sense to a lot of people whether they know about Steve Reich or not." The duo were up-front about their desire to grow their sound: for Gane, "otherwise it just sounds like what other people are doing", and for Sadier, "you trust that there is more and that it can be done more interesting."


title: Stereolab

text: Their records have been heavily influenced by the "motorik" technique of 1970s krautrock groups such as Neu! and Faust. Tim Gane has supported the comparison: "Neu! did minimalism and drones, but in a very pop way." Dave Heaton of "PopMatters" said that their music also had "echoes of bubblegum, of exotica, of Beach Boys and bossa nova", with their earlier work "bearing strong Velvet Underground overtones". Funk, jazz, and Brazilian music were additional inspirations for the band. Stephan Davet of French newspaper "Le Monde" said that "Emperor Tomato Ketchup" (1996) had musical influences such as Burt Bacharach, and Françoise Hardy. The sounds influenced by minimalist composers Philip Glass and Steve Reich can be found on the 1999 album "Cobra and Phases Group Play Voltage in the Milky Night." Stereolab's style also incorporates easy-listening music of the 1950s and '60s. Joshua Klein in "Washington Post" said that, "Years before everyone else caught on, Stereolab [were] referencing the 1970s German bands Can and Neu!, the Mexican lounge music master Esquivel and the decidedly unhip Burt Bacharach." Regarding their later work such as "Instant 0 in the Universe" (2003) and "Margerine Eclipse" (2004), critics have compared the releases to the band's earlier guitar-driven style.


title: Stereolab

text: Stereolab toured regularly to support their album releases. In a 1996 "Washington Post" gig review, Mark Jenkins wrote that Stereolab started out favouring an "easy-listening syncopation", but eventually reverted to a "messier, more urgent sound" characteristic of their earlier performances. In another review Jenkins said that the band's live songs "frequently veer[ed] into more cacophonous, guitar-dominated territory", in contrast to their albums such as "Cobra and Phases Group…" In the "Minneapolis Star Tribune" Jon Bream compared the band's live sound to feedback-driven rock bands like the Velvet Underground, Sonic Youth and My Bloody Valentine. Jim Harrington of "The Oakland Tribune" argued that "Sadier often sounded like a third percussion instrument more than a lead vocalist", further stating in regard to her switching between singing in English and French that "a Stereolab show is one of the few concerts where it's hard to find even the biggest fans mouthing along with the lyrics." Regarding being onstage, Gane has said that "I don't like to be the center of attention ... I just get into the music and am not really aware of the people there. That's my way of getting through it." Remarking of the band's 2019 reunion tour, he added that "[Stereolab] never were really a festival band"…" We’re not like, 'Hey, how you all doing?' and all that stuff.”


title: Stereolab

text: Stereolab's music is politically and philosophically charged. Dave Heaton of "PopMatters" said that the group "[uses] lyrics to convey ideas while using them for the pleasurable way the words sound." Lætitia Sadier, who writes the group's lyrics, was influenced by both the Situationist philosophy "Society of the Spectacle" by Marxist theorist Guy Debord, and her anger towards the Iraq War. The Surrealist, as well as other Situationist cultural and political movements were also influences, as stated by Sadier and Gane in a 1999 "Salon" interview.


title: Stereolab

text: Critics have seen Marxist allusions in the band's lyrics, and have gone so far as to call the band members themselves Marxist. Music journalist Simon Reynolds commented that Sadier's lyrics tend to lean towards Marxist social commentary rather than "affairs of the heart". The 1994 single "Ping Pong" has been put forward as evidence in regard to these alleged views. In the song, Sadier sings "about capitalism's cruel cycles of slump and recovery" with lyrics that constitute "a plainspoken explanation of one of the central tenets of Marxian economic analysis" (said critics Reynolds and Stewart Mason, respectively).


title: Stereolab

text: Band members have resisted attempts to link the group and its music to Marxism. In a 1999 interview, Gane stated that "none of us are Marxists ... I've never even read Marx." Gane said that although Sadier's lyrics touch on political topics, they do not cross the line into "sloganeering". Sadier also said that she had read very little Marx. In contrast, Cornelius Castoriadis, a radical political philosopher but strong critic of Marxism, has been cited as a marking influence in Sadier's thinking. The name of her side project, Monade, and its debut album title, "Socialisme ou Barbarie", are also references to the work of Castoriadis.


title: Stereolab

text: Stereolab's album and song titles occasionally reference avant-garde groups and artists. Gane said that the title of their 1999 album "Cobra and Phases Group…" contains the names of two Surrealist organisations, "CoBrA" and "Phases Group", The title of the song "Brakhage" from "Dots and Loops" (1997), is a nod to experimental filmmaker Stan Brakhage. Other examples are the 1992 compilation "Switched On", named after Wendy Carlos' 1968 album "Switched-On Bach", and the 1993 song "Jenny Ondioline", a portmanteau of inventor Georges Jenny and his instrument the Ondioline.


title: Stereolab

text: Stereolab have been called one of the most "influential" and "fiercely independent and original groups of the Nineties" by writers Stephen Thomas Erlewine and Pierre Perrone respectively; as well as one of "the decade's most innovative British bands." by Mark Jenkins. Simon Reynolds commented in "Rolling Stone" that the group's earlier records form "an endlessly seductive body of work that sounds always the same, always different." In a review for the 1992 single "John Cage Bubblegum", Jason Ankeny said that "No other artist of its generation fused the high-minded daring of the avant-garde and the lowbrow infectiousness of pop with as much invention, skill, and appeal." In "The Wire", Peter Shapiro compared the band to Britpop bands Oasis and Blur, and defended their music against the charge that it is "nothing but the sum total of its arcane reference points." They were one of the first groups to be termed post-rock—in a 1996 article, journalist Angela Lewis applied the "new term" to Stereolab and three other bands who have connections to the group. Stylistically, music journalist J. D. Considine credits the band for anticipating and driving the late 1990s revival of vintage analogue instruments among indie rock bands. Stephen Christian, a creative director of Warp Records, said that the group "exists in the gap between the experimentation of the underground and the appeal of the wider world of pop music".


title: Stereolab

text: The group have also received negative press. Barney Hoskyns questioned the longevity of their music in a 1996 "Mojo" review, saying that their records "sound more like arid experiments than music born of emotional need." In "Guardian," Dave Simpson stated: "With their borrowings from early, obscure Kraftwerk and hip obtuse sources, [Stereolab] sound like a band of rock critics rather than musicians." Lætitia Sadier's vocals were cited by author Stuart Shea as often being "indecipherable".


title: Stereolab

text: A variety of artists, musical and otherwise, have collaborated with Stereolab. In 1995 the group teamed up with sculptor Charles Long for an interactive art show in New York City, for which Long provided the exhibits and Stereolab the music. They have released tracks by and toured with post-rock band Tortoise, while John McEntire of Tortoise has in turn worked on several Stereolab albums. In the 1990s, the group collaborated with the industrial band Nurse With Wound and released two albums together, "Crumb Duck" (1993) and "Simple Headphone Mind" (1998), and Stereolab also released "Calimero" (1998) with French avant-garde singer and poet Brigitte Fontaine. The band worked with Herbie Mann on the song "One Note Samba/Surfboard" for the 1998 AIDS-Benefit album, "Red Hot + Rio", produced by the Red Hot Organization.


title: Stereolab

text: Stereolab alumni have also founded bands of their own. Guitarist Tim Gane founded the side project Cavern of Anti-Matter and also formed Turn on alongside band member Sean O'Hagan, who formed his own band the High Llamas. Katharine Gifford formed Snowpony with former My Bloody Valentine bassist Debbie Googe. Sadier has released three albums with her four-piece side-project Monade, whose sound Mark Jenkins called a "little more Parisian" than Stereolab's. Backing vocalist Mary Hansen formed a band named Schema with members of Hovercraft and released their eponymous EP in 2000.


title: Stereolab

text: As of August 1999, US album sales stood at 300,000 copies sold. Despite receiving critical acclaim and a sizeable fanbase, commercial success eluded the group. Early in their career, their 1993 EP "Jenny Ondioline" entered the UK Singles Chart, but financial issues prevented the band from printing enough records to satisfy demand. According to Sadier, however, the band "[avoided] going overground" like PJ Harvey, Pulp and the Cranberries, all of whom quickly rose from obscurity to fame, adding: "This kind of notoriety is not a particularly good thing, [and] you don't enjoy it anymore." When Elektra Records was closed down by Warner Bros. Records in 2004, Stereolab was dropped along with many other artists, reportedly because of poor sales. Tim Gane said in retrospect that the group "signed to Elektra because we thought we would be on there for an album or two and then we'd get ejected. We were surprised when we got to our first album!" Since then, Stereolab's self-owned label Duophonic has inked a worldwide distribution deal with independent label Too Pure. Through Duophonic, the band both licenses their music and releases it directly (depending on geographic market). Gane said, "... we license our recordings and just give them to people, then we don't have to ask for permission if we want to use it. We just want to be in control of our own music."


title: Convection

text: Convection is single or multiphase fluid flow that occurs spontaneously due to the combined effects of material property heterogeneity and body forces on a fluid, most commonly density and gravity (see buoyancy). When the cause of the convection is unspecified, convection due to the effects of thermal expansion and buoyancy can be assumed. Convection may also take place in soft solids or mixtures where particles can flow.


title: Convection

text: Convective flow may be transient (such as when a multiphase mixture of oil and water separates) or steady state (see Convection cell). The convection may be due to gravitational, electromagnetic or fictitious body forces. Heat transfer by natural convection plays a role in the structure of Earth's atmosphere, its oceans, and its mantle. Discrete convective cells in the atmosphere can be identified by clouds, with stronger convection resulting in thunderstorms. Natural convection also plays a role in stellar physics. Convection is often categorised or described by the main effect causing the convective flow, e.g. Thermal convection.


title: Convection

text: Convection cannot take place in most solids because neither bulk current flows nor significant diffusion of matter can take place.


title: Convection

text: In the 1830s, in "The Bridgewater Treatises", the term "convection" is attested in a scientific sense. In treatise VIII by William Prout, in the book on chemistry, it says:


title: Convection

text: [...] This motion of heat takes place in three ways, which a common fire-place very well illustrates. If, for instance, we place a thermometer directly before a fire, it soon begins to rise, indicating an increase of temperature. In this case the heat has made its way through the space between the fire and the thermometer, by the process termed "radiation". If we place a second thermometer in contact with any part of the grate, and away from the direct influence of the fire, we shall find that this thermometer also denotes an increase of temperature; but here the heat must have travelled through the metal of the grate, by what is termed "conduction". Lastly, a third thermometer placed in the chimney, away from the direct influence of the fire, will also indicate a considerable increase of temperature; in this case a portion of the air, passing through and near the fire, has become heated, and has "carried" up the chimney the temperature acquired from the fire. There is at present no single term in our language employed to denote this third mode of the propagation of heat; but we venture to propose for that purpose, the term "convection", [in footnote: [Latin] "Convectio", a carrying or conveying] which not only expresses the leading fact, but also accords very well with the two other terms.


title: Convection

text: Later, in the same treatise VIII, in the book on meteorology, the concept of convection is also applied to "the process by which heat is communicated through water".


title: Convection

text: Today, the word "convection" has different but related usages in different scientific or engineering contexts or applications.


title: Convection

text: In fluid mechanics, "convection" has a broader sense: it refers to the motion of fluid driven by density (or other property) difference.


title: Convection

text: In thermodynamics, "convection" often refers to heat transfer by convection, where the prefixed variant Natural Convection is used to distinguish the fluid mechanics concept of Convection (covered in this article) from convective heat transfer.


title: Convection

text: Some phenomena which result in an effect superficially similar to that of a convective cell may also be (inaccurately) referred to as a form of convection, e.g. thermo-capilliary convection and Granular convection.


title: Convection

text: Convection may happen in fluids at all scales larger than a few atoms. There are a variety of circumstances in which the forces required for convection arise, leading to different types of convection, described below. In broad terms, convection arises because of body forces acting within the fluid, such as gravity.


title: Convection

text: Natural convection is a type of flow, of motion of a liquid such as water or a gas such as air, in which the fluid motion is not generated by any external source (like a pump, fan, suction device, etc.) but by some parts of the fluid being heavier than other parts. In most cases this leads to natural circulation, the ability of a fluid in a system to circulate continuously, with gravity and possible changes in heat energy. The driving force for natural convection is gravity. For example if there is a layer of cold dense air on top of hotter less dense air, gravity pulls more strongly on the denser layer on top, so it falls while the hotter less dense air rises to take its place. This creates circulating flow: convection. As it relies on gravity, there is no convection in free-fall (inertial) environments, such as that of the orbiting International Space Station. Natural convection can occur when there are hot and cold regions of either air or water, because both water and air become less dense as they are heated. But, for example, in the world's oceans it also occurs due to salt water being heavier than fresh water, so a layer of salt water on top of a layer of fresher water will also cause convection.


title: Convection

text: Natural convection has attracted a great deal of attention from researchers because of its presence both in nature and engineering applications. In nature, convection cells formed from air raising above sunlight-warmed land or water are a major feature of all weather systems. Convection is also seen in the rising plume of hot air from fire, plate tectonics, oceanic currents (thermohaline circulation) and sea-wind formation (where upward convection is also modified by Coriolis forces). In engineering applications, convection is commonly visualized in the formation of microstructures during the cooling of molten metals, and fluid flows around shrouded heat-dissipation fins, and solar ponds. A very common industrial application of natural convection is free air cooling without the aid of fans: this can happen on small scales (computer chips) to large scale process equipment.


title: Convection

text: Natural convection will be more likely and more rapid with a greater variation in density between the two fluids, a larger acceleration due to gravity that drives the convection or a larger distance through the convecting medium. Natural convection will be less likely and less rapid with more rapid diffusion (thereby diffusing away the thermal gradient that is causing the convection) or a more viscous (sticky) fluid.


title: Convection

text: Note that differences in buoyancy within a fluid can arise for reasons other than temperature variations, in which case the fluid motion is called gravitational convection (see below). However, all types of buoyant convection, including natural convection, do not occur in microgravity environments. All require the presence of an environment which experiences g-force (proper acceleration).


title: Convection

text: The difference of density in the fluid is the key driving mechanism. If the differences of density are caused by heat, this force is called as "thermal head" or "thermal driving head." A fluid system designed for natural circulation will have a heat source and a heat sink. Each of these is in contact with some of the fluid in the system, but not all of it. The heat source is positioned lower than the heat sink.


title: Convection

text: Most materials that are fluid at common temperatures expand when they are heated, becoming less dense. Correspondingly, they become denser when they are cooled. At the heat source of a system of natural circulation, the heated fluid becomes lighter than the fluid surrounding it, and thus rises. At the heat sink, the nearby fluid becomes denser as it cools, and is drawn downward by gravity. Together, these effects create a flow of fluid from the heat source to the heat sink and back again.


title: Convection

text: Gravitational convection is a type of natural convection induced by buoyancy variations resulting from material properties other than temperature. Typically this is caused by a variable composition of the fluid. If the varying property is a concentration gradient, it is known as solutal convection. For example, gravitational convection can be seen in the diffusion of a source of dry salt downward into wet soil due to the buoyancy of fresh water in saline.


title: Convection

text: Variable salinity in water and variable water content in air masses are frequent causes of convection in the oceans and atmosphere which do not involve heat, or else involve additional compositional density factors other than the density changes from thermal expansion (see "thermohaline circulation"). Similarly, variable composition within the Earth's interior which has not yet achieved maximal stability and minimal energy (in other words, with densest parts deepest) continues to cause a fraction of the convection of fluid rock and molten metal within the Earth's interior (see below).


title: Convection

text: Gravitational convection, like natural thermal convection, also requires a g-force environment in order to occur.


title: Convection

text: Ice convection on Pluto is believed to occur in a soft mixture of nitrogen ice and carbon monoxide ice. It has also been proposed for Europa, and other bodies in the outer solar system.


title: Convection

text: Thermomagnetic convection can occur when an external magnetic field is imposed on a ferrofluid with varying magnetic susceptibility. In the presence of a temperature gradient this results in a nonuniform magnetic body force, which leads to fluid movement. A ferrofluid is a liquid which becomes strongly magnetized in the presence of a magnetic field.


title: Convection

text: In a zero-gravity environment, there can be no buoyancy forces, and thus no convection possible, so flames in many circumstances without gravity smother in their own waste gases. Thermal expansion and chemical reactions resulting in expansion and contraction gases allows for ventilation of the flame, as waste gases are displaced by cool, fresh, oxygen-rich gas. moves in to take up the low pressure zones created when flame-exhaust water condenses.


title: Convection

text: Systems of natural circulation include tornadoes and other weather systems, ocean currents, and household ventilation. Some solar water heaters use natural circulation. The Gulf Stream circulates as a result of the evaporation of water. In this process, the water increases in salinity and density. In the North Atlantic Ocean, the water becomes so dense that it begins to sink down.


title: Convection

text: Convection occurs on a large scale in atmospheres, oceans, planetary mantles, and it provides the mechanism of heat transfer for a large fraction of the outermost interiors of our sun and all stars. Fluid movement during convection may be invisibly slow, or it may be obvious and rapid, as in a hurricane. On astronomical scales, convection of gas and dust is thought to occur in the accretion disks of black holes, at speeds which may closely approach that of light.


title: Convection

text: Thermal convection in liquids can be demonstrated by placing a heat source (e.g. a Bunsen burner) at the side of a container with a liquid. Adding a dye to the water (such as food colouring) will enable visualisation of the flow.


title: Convection

text: Another common experiment to demonstrate thermal convection in liquids involves submerging open containers of hot and cold liquid coloured with dye into a large container of the same liquid without dye at an intermediate temperature (eg. a jar of hot tap water coloured red, a jar of water chilled in a fridge coloured blue, lowered into a clear tank of water at room temperature).