title: Action potential

text: The second problem was addressed with the crucial development of the voltage clamp, which permitted experimenters to study the ionic currents underlying an action potential in isolation, and eliminated a key source of electronic noise, the current "I" associated with the capacitance "C" of the membrane. Since the current equals "C" times the rate of change of the transmembrane voltage "V", the solution was to design a circuit that kept "V" fixed (zero rate of change) regardless of the currents flowing across the membrane. Thus, the current required to keep "V" at a fixed value is a direct reflection of the current flowing through the membrane. Other electronic advances included the use of Faraday cages and electronics with high input impedance, so that the measurement itself did not affect the voltage being measured.


title: Action potential

text: The third problem, that of obtaining electrodes small enough to record voltages within a single axon without perturbing it, was solved in 1949 with the invention of the glass micropipette electrode, which was quickly adopted by other researchers. Refinements of this method are able to produce electrode tips that are as fine as 100 Å (10 nm), which also confers high input impedance. Action potentials may also be recorded with small metal electrodes placed just next to a neuron, with neurochips containing EOSFETs, or optically with dyes that are sensitive to Ca or to voltage.


title: Action potential

text: While glass micropipette electrodes measure the sum of the currents passing through many ion channels, studying the electrical properties of a single ion channel became possible in the 1970s with the development of the patch clamp by Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann. For this discovery, they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1991. Patch-clamping verified that ionic channels have discrete states of conductance, such as open, closed and inactivated.


title: Action potential

text: Optical imaging technologies have been developed in recent years to measure action potentials, either via simultaneous multisite recordings or with ultra-spatial resolution. Using voltage-sensitive dyes, action potentials have been optically recorded from a tiny patch of cardiomyocyte membrane.


title: Action potential

text: Several neurotoxins, both natural and synthetic, are designed to block the action potential. Tetrodotoxin from the pufferfish and saxitoxin from the "Gonyaulax" (the dinoflagellate genus responsible for "red tides") block action potentials by inhibiting the voltage-sensitive sodium channel; similarly, dendrotoxin from the black mamba snake inhibits the voltage-sensitive potassium channel. Such inhibitors of ion channels serve an important research purpose, by allowing scientists to "turn off" specific channels at will, thus isolating the other channels' contributions; they can also be useful in purifying ion channels by affinity chromatography or in assaying their concentration. However, such inhibitors also make effective neurotoxins, and have been considered for use as chemical weapons. Neurotoxins aimed at the ion channels of insects have been effective insecticides; one example is the synthetic permethrin, which prolongs the activation of the sodium channels involved in action potentials. The ion channels of insects are sufficiently different from their human counterparts that there are few side effects in humans.


title: Action potential

text: The role of electricity in the nervous systems of animals was first observed in dissected frogs by Luigi Galvani, who studied it from 1791 to 1797. Galvani's results stimulated Alessandro Volta to develop the Voltaic pile—the earliest-known electric battery—with which he studied animal electricity (such as electric eels) and the physiological responses to applied direct-current voltages.


title: Action potential

text: Scientists of the 19th century studied the propagation of electrical signals in whole nerves (i.e., bundles of neurons) and demonstrated that nervous tissue was made up of cells, instead of an interconnected network of tubes (a "reticulum"). Carlo Matteucci followed up Galvani's studies and demonstrated that cell membranes had a voltage across them and could produce direct current. Matteucci's work inspired the German physiologist, Emil du Bois-Reymond, who discovered the action potential in 1843. The conduction velocity of action potentials was first measured in 1850 by du Bois-Reymond's friend, Hermann von Helmholtz. To establish that nervous tissue is made up of discrete cells, the Spanish physician Santiago Ramón y Cajal and his students used a stain developed by Camillo Golgi to reveal the myriad shapes of neurons, which they rendered painstakingly. For their discoveries, Golgi and Ramón y Cajal were awarded the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physiology. Their work resolved a long-standing controversy in the neuroanatomy of the 19th century; Golgi himself had argued for the network model of the nervous system.


title: Action potential

text: The 20th century was a significant era for electrophysiology. In 1902 and again in 1912, Julius Bernstein advanced the hypothesis that the action potential resulted from a change in the permeability of the axonal membrane to ions. Bernstein's hypothesis was confirmed by Ken Cole and Howard Curtis, who showed that membrane conductance increases during an action potential. In 1907, Louis Lapicque suggested that the action potential was generated as a threshold was crossed, what would be later shown as a product of the dynamical systems of ionic conductances. In 1949, Alan Hodgkin and Bernard Katz refined Bernstein's hypothesis by considering that the axonal membrane might have different permeabilities to different ions; in particular, they demonstrated the crucial role of the sodium permeability for the action potential. They made the first actual recording of the electrical changes across the neuronal membrane that mediate the action potential. This line of research culminated in the five 1952 papers of Hodgkin, Katz and Andrew Huxley, in which they applied the voltage clamp technique to determine the dependence of the axonal membrane's permeabilities to sodium and potassium ions on voltage and time, from which they were able to reconstruct the action potential quantitatively. Hodgkin and Huxley correlated the properties of their mathematical model with discrete ion channels that could exist in several different states, including "open", "closed", and "inactivated". Their hypotheses were confirmed in the mid-1970s and 1980s by Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann, who developed the technique of patch clamping to examine the conductance states of individual ion channels. In the 21st century, researchers are beginning to understand the structural basis for these conductance states and for the selectivity of channels for their species of ion, through the atomic-resolution crystal structures, fluorescence distance measurements and cryo-electron microscopy studies.


title: Action potential

text: Julius Bernstein was also the first to introduce the Nernst equation for resting potential across the membrane; this was generalized by David E. Goldman to the eponymous Goldman equation in 1943. The sodium–potassium pump was identified in 1957 and its properties gradually elucidated, culminating in the determination of its atomic-resolution structure by X-ray crystallography. The crystal structures of related ionic pumps have also been solved, giving a broader view of how these molecular machines work.


title: Action potential

text: Mathematical and computational models are essential for understanding the action potential, and offer predictions that may be tested against experimental data, providing a stringent test of a theory. The most important and accurate of the early neural models is the Hodgkin–Huxley model, which describes the action potential by a coupled set of four ordinary differential equations (ODEs). Although the Hodgkin–Huxley model may be a simplification with few limitations compared to the realistic nervous membrane as it exists in nature, its complexity has inspired several even-more-simplified models, such as the Morris–Lecar model and the FitzHugh–Nagumo model, both of which have only two coupled ODEs. The properties of the Hodgkin–Huxley and FitzHugh–Nagumo models and their relatives, such as the Bonhoeffer–Van der Pol model, have been well-studied within mathematics, computation and electronics. However the simple models of generator potential and action potential fail to accurately reproduce the near threshold neural spike rate and spike shape, specifically for the mechanoreceptors like the Pacinian corpuscle. More modern research has focused on larger and more integrated systems; by joining action-potential models with models of other parts of the nervous system (such as dendrites and synapses), researchers can study neural computation and simple reflexes, such as escape reflexes and others controlled by central pattern generators.


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: Bernard Joseph Cribbins (29 December 1928 – 27 July 2022) was an English actor and singer whose career spanned over seven decades.


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: During the 1960s, Cribbins became known in the UK for his successful novelty records "The Hole in the Ground" and "Right Said Fred" and for his appearances in comedy films including "Two-Way Stretch" (1960) and the "Carry On" series. His other screen roles include the astronaut Vincent Mountjoy in "The Mouse on the Moon" (1963), Albert Perks in "The Railway Children" (1970), the barman Felix Forsythe in Alfred Hitchcock's "Frenzy" (1972) and the pretentious hotel guest Mr Hutchinson in the "Fawlty Towers" episode "The Hotel Inspectors" (1975). On television, he was a regular and prolific reader for the BBC series "Jackanory" from 1966 to 1991, he narrated the children's programme "The Wombles" (1973–1975) and he played the title role in the CBeebies series "Old Jack's Boat" (2013–2015).


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: In the 1966 film "Daleks' Invasion Earth 2150 A.D.", Cribbins portrayed Tom Campbell, a companion to Dr. Who. 41 years later, he began appearing in the revival series of "Doctor Who" as Wilfred Mott, the grandfather of regular companion Donna Noble and a temporary companion to the Tenth Doctor.


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: Bernard Joseph Cribbins was born on 29 December 1928 in the Derker area of Oldham, Lancashire, the son of the cotton weaver Ethel ("née" Clarkson; 1898–1989) and the First World War veteran John Edward Cribbins (1896–1964). He had two sisters, alongside whom he grew up close to poverty. He described his father as a "jack of all trades" who also dabbled in acting. Cribbins left school at the age of 13 and found a job as an assistant stage manager at a local theatre club, where he also took on some small acting roles, and then served an apprenticeship at the Oldham Repertory Theatre. In 1947, he began national service with the Parachute Regiment in Aldershot, Hampshire, as well as Mandatory Palestine.


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: Cribbins made his first West End theatre appearance in 1956 at the Arts Theatre, playing the two Dromios in "A Comedy of Errors", and co-starred in the first West End productions of "Not Now Darling", "There Goes the Bride" and "Run for Your Wife". In 1960, he starred alongside Anna Quayle and Lionel Blair in the revue "And Another Thing", written by Ted Dicks and Myles Rudge. The show brought Cribbins to the attention of Parlophone head George Martin, who signed Cribbins to the label to record a single of a satirical song from the show titled "Folk Song". Subsequently, Rudge and Dicks were subsequently asked to provide new material for Cribbins; their compositions "The Hole in the Ground", about an annoyed workman who eventually buries a harasser, and "Right Said Fred", about three workmen who struggle to move an unspecified heavy and awkward object into or out of a building (later also the name of a pop novelty band who named themselves after the song), were top ten hits on the UK Singles Chart in 1962. The third and final Cribbins single of the year "Gossip Calypso", written by Trevor Peacock, was another top 30 hit.


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: Cribbins appeared in films from the early 1950s, mainly comedies. His credits include "Two-Way Stretch" (1960) and "The Wrong Arm of the Law" (1963) with Peter Sellers, "Crooks in Cloisters" (1964) and three "Carry On" films – "Carry On Jack" (1963), "Carry On Spying" (1964) and "Carry On Columbus" (1992). His other appearances include the second "Doctor Who" film "Daleks' Invasion Earth 2150 A.D." (1966) as Special Police Constable Tom Campbell; "She" (1965);" Casino Royale" (1967) as Carlton Towers, a British Foreign Office official, "The Railway Children" (1970) as Mr Albert Perks, the station porter and the Alfred Hitchcock thriller "Frenzy" (1972) as Felix Forsythe, the Covent Garden pub landlord. His later films include "Dangerous Davies – The Last Detective" (1981), "Blackball" (2003) and "Run for Your Wife" (2012).


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: Cribbins was the narrator of the British animated children's television series "The Wombles" from 1973 to 1975 and also played the character of the Water Rat in a BBC radio adaptation of "The Wind in the Willows". He was the celebrity storyteller in more episodes of "Jackanory" than any other personality, with a total of 114 appearances between 1966 and 1991. He also narrated the audio tape of the Antonia Barber book "The Mousehole Cat". From 1974 to 1976, Cribbins narrated "Simon in the Land of Chalk Drawings."


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: In the 1960s Cribbins provided the voice of the character Tufty in RoSPA road safety films. He also provided the voice of Buzby, a talking cartoon bird that was the mascot for the Post Office. He also appeared in advertisements for Hornby model trains. In 1978, he provided one of two voiceovers in the electricity safety public information film Play Safe. The other voice artist was Brian Wilde; Wilde voiced the owl and Cribbins voiced the robin. In 1981, Music for Pleasure released a "Swallows and Amazons" audio book on tape cassette, read by Cribbins, abridged by Edward Phillips.


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: Cribbins also provided the voiceover work for "A Passion For Angling", starring Chris Yates and Bob James (1993). In 1996, he played Puddleglum the marshwiggle in Brian Sibley's BBC Radio adaptation of C. S. Lewis's "The Silver Chair". In 2013, he played Old Bailey in the radio adaptation of "Neverwhere", dramatised by Dirk Maggs and in 2015 he was among an ensemble cast in an audio production of "The Jungle Book", in which he played the White Cobra.


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: Cribbins was the star of the ITV series "Cribbins" (1969–70). His other TV appearances include "The Avengers" (1968), "Fawlty Towers" (1975, as the spoon salesman Mr Hutchinson who is mistaken by the character Basil Fawlty for a hotel inspector), "Worzel Gummidge" (1980), "Shillingbury Tales" (1980) and its spin-off "Cuffy" (1983). Besides voicing "The Wombles", Cribbins was a regular on BBC children's television in the 1970s as host of performance panel game "Star Turn" and "Star Turn Challenge".


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: These programmes concluded with Cribbins narrating a detective story as recurring character "Ivor Notion", with a script usually by Johnny Ball but sometimes by Myles Rudge, the co-writer of his Top 10 singles. He starred in the BBC's 1975 Christmas production "Great Big Groovy Horse", a rock opera based on the story of the Trojan Horse shown on BBC2 alongside Julie Covington and Paul Jones. It was later repeated on BBC1 in 1977. He regularly appeared on BBC TV's "The Good Old Days" recreating songs made famous by the great stars of Music Hall.


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: Among his later TV appearances were "Dalziel and Pascoe" (1999), "Last of the Summer Wine" (2003), "Coronation Street" (2003, as Wally Bannister) and "Down to Earth" (2005).


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: Cribbins starred as Jack in the series "Old Jack's Boat", set in Staithes, and broadcast on the CBeebies channel starting in 2013. The cast included Helen Lederer, Janine Duvitski and former "Doctor Who" companion Freema Agyeman in supporting roles. Although Agyeman and Cribbins both played companions and supporting characters during David Tennant's tenure in "Doctor Who" (appearing in six episodes together), "Old Jack's Boat" was the first time the two actors have appeared together on screen. On 9 May 2015, Cribbins gave a reading at in Horse Guards Parade, London which was broadcast live on BBC1.


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: In November 2018, it was announced that Cribbins would portray Private Godfrey in a series of re-creations of lost episodes from the BBC sitcom "Dad's Army". However, Cribbins left the production in February 2019 citing "personal reasons". The role of Godfrey was later played by Timothy West.


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: Cribbins' later theatre credits include the roles of Nathan Detroit in "Guys and Dolls" at the National Theatre, Moonface Martin in "Anything Goes" with Elaine Paige at the Prince Edward Theatre, Dolittle in "My Fair Lady" at the Houston Opera House, Texas and Watty Watkins in George Gershwin's "Lady, Be Good" at the Regent's Park Open Air Theatre and on tour. He also appeared in numerous pantomimes. He appeared in the BBC CBeebies Proms (Number 11 & 13) at the Royal Albert Hall on Saturday 26 & Sunday 27 July 2014 as Old Jack.


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: National Life Stories conducted an interview (C1173/14) with Cribbins on his memories of Richard Negri in 2006 for its An Oral History of Theatre Design collection held by the British Library.


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: Having played Tom Campbell, a companion to Dr. Who in the feature film "Daleks' Invasion Earth 2150 A.D." (1966), Cribbins returned to "Doctor Who" in 2006, when a photograph of him and fellow "Doctor Who" alumna Lynda Baron at a wedding appeared on the BBC's tie-in website for the television episode "Tooth and Claw".


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: In January 2007, Cribbins had a guest role as glam rock promoter Arnold Korns in "Horror of Glam Rock", a "Doctor Who" audiodrama by Big Finish Productions. In December 2007, he appeared as Wilfred Mott in the Christmas television special, "Voyage of the Damned"; he then appeared in a recurring capacity as the same character for the 2008 series, as the grandfather of companion Donna Noble. He became a Tenth Doctor temporary companion himself in "The End of Time", the two-part 2009–10 Christmas and New Year special, when his character was inadvertently responsible for that Doctor's demise. Cribbins's role as Wilfred Mott makes him the only actor to have played two companions and the only actor featured alongside the Doctor's enemies, the Daleks, in both the TV and cinema versions of "Doctor Who". In 2019, he reprised the role of Wilfred in "No Place" a story in "" produced by Big Finish. Cribbins was set to return alongside David Tennant and Catherine Tate in a 2023 "Doctor Who" episode celebrating the programme's 60th anniversary, which he had been filming before his death in July 2022.


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: Cribbins was awarded the General Service Medal, with clasp "Palestine 1945–48", for his service in Palestine with 2/3 Battalion, the Parachute Regiment, on 30 May 1948, under Army Order 146 of 1947.


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: In 2009, Cribbins was honoured for his work in children's television with a Special Award at the British Academy Children's Awards which was presented by former co-star Catherine Tate, who portrayed his character's granddaughter in "Doctor Who". He was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2011 Birthday Honours for services to drama. He received his OBE from the Princess Royal at an investiture in the Waterloo Chamber at Windsor Castle on 3 November 2011. In 2014, he was awarded the J. M. Barrie award for his "lasting contribution to children's arts".


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: Cribbins and his wife, actress Gillian, were married from 1955 until her death in October 2021. They lived in Weybridge, Surrey, and had no children, with Cribbins revealing in 2018 that they "lost one quite early on and that was the only time [they] got near it". He was diagnosed with prostate cancer in 2009, but said in 2018 that he was "in good health" at the age of 90 with the exception of a "nagging back condition".


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: In 2018 his autobiography, "Bernard Who? 75 Years of Doing Just About Anything", was published by Constable. A successful social media campaign in 2022 led to his autobiography being recorded as an audiobook, with Cribbins as the narrator, but this was left uncompleted at the time of his death.


title: Bernard Cribbins

text: Cribbins died at the age of 93 on 27 July 2022. His funeral took place at Woking Crematorium in Woking, Surrey on 14 September.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The Sweden Democrats ( ; SD ) is a nationalist and right-wing populist political party in Sweden. As of 2022, it is the largest member of Sweden's right-wing governing bloc to which it provides confidence and supply, and is the second largest party in the Riksdag. The party describes itself as social conservative with a nationalist foundation. The party has also been variously characterised by academics, political commentators, and media as national-conservative, anti-immigration, anti-Islam, Eurosceptic, and far-right. The Sweden Democrats reject the far-right label, saying that it no longer represents the party's political beliefs. Founded in 1988, the Sweden Democrats originally had its roots in Swedish nazism, as well as white nationalism, but began distancing itself from its past during the late 1990s and early 2000s. Under the leadership of Jimmie Åkesson since 2005, the SD underwent a process of reform by expelling hardline members and moderating its platform. Today, the Sweden Democrats officially reject both fascism and Nazism on their platform.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The Sweden Democrats oppose current Swedish immigration and integration policies, instead supporting stronger restrictions on immigration. The party supports closer cooperation with Nordic countries, but is against further European integration. The Sweden Democrats are critical of multiculturalism and support having a common national and cultural identity, which they believe improves social cohesion. The party supports the Swedish welfare state but is against providing welfare to people who are not Swedish citizens and permanent residents of Sweden, a policy known as welfare chauvinism. The Sweden Democrats support a mixed market economy combining ideas from the centre-left and centre-right. The party supports same-sex marriage, civil unions for gay couples, and sex reassignment surgery but prefers that children be raised in a traditional nuclear family. The Sweden Democrats support keeping Sweden's nuclear power plants in order to mitigate climate change but argues that other countries should reduce their greenhouse gas emissions instead of Sweden, which the party believes is doing enough to reduce their emissions. The Sweden Democrats support generally increasing minimum sentences for crimes, as well as increasing police resources and personnel. The party supports increasing the number of Swedish Army brigades and supports raising Sweden's defense spending. The Sweden Democrats are a member of the European Conservatives and Reformists group in the European Parliament.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: Support for the Sweden Democrats has grown steadily since the 1990s and the party crossed the 4% threshold necessary for parliamentary representation for the first time during the 2010 Swedish general election, polling 5.7% and gaining 20 seats in the Riksdag. This increase in popularity has been compared by international media to other similar anti-immigration movements in Europe. The party received increased support in the 2018 Swedish general election, when it polled 17.5% and secured 62 seats in parliament, becoming the third largest party in Sweden. The Sweden Democrats were formerly isolated in the Riksdag until the late 2010s, with other parties maintaining a policy of refusing cooperation with them. In 2019, the leader of the Christian Democrats, Ebba Busch announced that her party was ready to start negotiations with the Sweden Democrats in the Riksdag, as did Moderate Party leader Ulf Kristersson. In the 2022 Swedish general election, the party ran as part of a broad right-wing alliance with those two parties and the Liberals, and came second overall with 20.5% of the vote. Following the election and the Tidö Agreement, it was negotiated that SD agreed to support a Moderate Party-led government together with the Christian Democrats and the Liberals, and is the first time SD holds direct influence over the government.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The Sweden Democrats party was founded in 1988 as a direct successor to the Sweden Party, which in turn had been formed in 1986 by the merger of (BSS; in English: "Keep Sweden Swedish") and a faction of the Swedish Progress Party. SD claims 6 February 1988 as the date of its foundation, although observers tend to see the party's foundation as part of a complex decade-long series of events, with some even calling into question whether a meeting took place on 6 February.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: According to "Expo", it is generally agreed that the Sweden Democrats has never been a Nazi party, although some of the SD's early members had previously been connected with Swedish fascist and white nationalist groups. The party's first auditor, Gustaf Ekström, was a "Waffen-SS" veteran and had been a member of the national socialist party "Svensk Socialistisk Samling" in the1940s. In 1989, Ekström was a member of the Sweden Democrats' national board. The SD's first chairman Anders Klarström had been briefly active in the neo-Nazi ("Nordic Realm Party"). The SD's logo from the 1990s until 2006 was a version of the torch used by the British National Front. Academic Duncan McDonnell has argued that it is debated as to whether the SD itself was ever explicitly a neo-Nazi movement, but it was widely known to publicly align itself with extreme fringe politics and faced criticism in late 1980s and early 1990s for attracting skinheads to its public events. The SD also encountered controversy for some its early policy ideas before 1990, which included a proposal to repatriate most immigrants who came to Sweden from 1970, banning adoption of foreign born children and reinstating the death penalty.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The party promoted concerts by the Swedish offshoot of Rock Against Communism and sponsored music of the nationalist Viking rock band Ultima Thule. Various party officials today acknowledge that being fans of Ultima Thule's music factored prominently in their decision to become politically engaged. Early on, the party recommended international connections to its members such as the National Democratic Party of Germany, the American National Association for the Advancement of White People (founded by David Duke) and publications like the Nazi "Nation Europa" and "Nouvelle École", a newspaper that advocates racial biology and the British neo-Nazi Combat 18 movement.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: In 1995, Klarström was replaced as party chairman by Mikael Jansson, a former member of the Centre Party. Jansson strove to make the party more respectable and, after skinheads started to impose on party meetings, the wearing of any kind of political uniform was formally banned in 1996. Also in 1996 it was revealed that a party member, Tina Hallgren, had been to a party meeting of National Socialist Front posing in a Nazi uniform. Opposition to the party have mistakenly mixed these two events together and falsely claim that she was wearing the uniform at a rally of the Sweden Democrats and that it was because of this that the uniform ban came about. During the early 1990s, the party became more influenced by the French National Front, as well as the Freedom Party of Austria, the Danish People's Party, German The Republicans and Italian National Alliance. SDreceived economic support for the 1998 election from the French National Front, and became active in Le Pen's Euronat from the same time. By the end of the decade, the party took further steps to moderate itself by softening its policies on immigration and capital punishment. In 1999, the SD left Euronat although the youth wing remained affiliated until 2002. In 2001 the most extreme faction was expelled from the party, leading to the formation of the more radical National Democrats.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: During the 2000s the so-called "Scania gang", also known as the "Gang of Four" or "Fantastic Four," which consisted of the youth wing chairman Jimmie Åkesson, as well as Björn Söder, Mattias Karlsson and Richard Jomshof continued and expanded the moderation policy, which included ousting openly extremist members, banning both foreign and Swedish extreme-right activists from attending party events and obtaining membership, and further revising the SD's policy platform. Before the 2002 election, former Moderate Party MP Sten Christer Andersson defected to SD, citing that the party had gotten rid of its extreme-right elements. In 2003 the party declared the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to be a cornerstone of its policies. In 2005, Åkesson defeated Jansson in a leadership contest. Shortly after, the party changed its logo from the flaming torch to one featuring an "Anemone hepatica", reminiscent of the party's very first, but short-lived, logo (a stylised "Myosotis scorpioides"). The party also formally introduced a charter against racism and extremism in 2010.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: In the 2010 Swedish general election, SDwon representation in the Swedish Riksdag for the first time, with5.7% of the vote and 20MPs.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: Sweden Democrat MP William Petzäll was persuaded to leave the party on 26 September 2011 while still retaining his parliamentary seat. This was done because of Petzäll's substance abuse and the problems this might cause for SD'spublic image. Petzäll later died of an overdose and his seat was turned over to Stellan Bojerud in September 2012.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: In November 2012, videos from August 2010 were released, in segments, over the course of three days by Swedish newspaper "Expressen" (a year earlier, "Expressen" had released the same videos without making much noise). This came to be known as the Iron pipe scandal, although the same videos had already been released on YouTube by Erik Almqvist in 2010. The videos, recorded by MP Kent Ekeroth, featured him along with fellow Sweden Democrats MP Erik Almqvist and Christian Westling. The videos show Almqvist arguing with comedian Soran Ismail: Almqvist is referring to Sweden as "my country, not your country", as an insult to Ismail. They are also shown arguing with a drunken man. A woman can also be seen approaching Kent Ekeroth while filming; he calls her a whore and pushes her out of the way. A few minutes later they are seen picking up iron bars. Coming only a month after party leader Åkesson had instated a zero-tolerance policy towards racism in the party, the release of the video caused Almqvist to leave his position as the party's economic policy spokesperson and his place in the executive committee on 14 November. He excused himself as having been under a lot of pressure and threats of violence at the time. As more segments of the video were released, revealing the other two men's involvement, the party announced on 15 November that Ekeroth would take a break from his position as the party's justice policy spokesman. Almqvist and Ekeroth both took time off from their parliament seats. Sweden Democratic Youth president Gustav Kasselstrand and vice president William Hahne criticised the decision to remove Almqvist and Ekeroth in an op-ed in "Dagens Nyheter", arguing that the party should not give in to media pressure.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: Only two weeks after Almqvist and Ekeroth were forced to step down, fellow MP Lars Isovaara reported being robbed of his backpack and pushed out of his wheelchair by "two unknown men of an immigrant background". When trying to get into the Riksdag, Isovaara was himself reported by the police for racial abuse against safety guards. The Sweden Democrats initially defended Isovaara, but backed down when "Expressen" revealed that Isovaara had actually forgotten his backpack at a restaurant, and that the two men had helped him when he fell out of his wheelchair. He left his seat in the Riksdag on 29 November, and was replaced by Markus Wiechel.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: In the European election of 2014 SD received 9.67% of votes, winning two seats in the European Parliament and becoming the fifth party of the country. The party later joined the Alliance for Direct Democracy in Europe and the Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy group.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: In the 2014 election the Sweden Democrats received 12.9%of the votes, doubling their support and becoming the third-largest party. The party remained big in Scania and Blekinge; for example in Malmö the party received 14% of the votes, in Landskrona it received 19% of the votes and in Sjöbo a total of 30% rendering the party the largest in that municipality. Other parties, however, remained firm in their decision to isolate them from exerting influence. Out of 29 constituencies electing parliamentarians, the party was the second largest in "Scania North & East" while being the third largest party in 25. Although relying heavily on rural areas and the deep south, the party also made strong inroads and results above 15% in some medium-sized central Sweden cities such as Norrköping, Eskilstuna and Gävle, indicating a widening of its voter base in all areas.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: Some time after that, Åkesson announced he would go on sick leave due to burnout. Mattias Karlsson was appointed to temporarily take over Åkesson's duties as party leader.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: On 23 March 2015, it was announced that Åkesson would return from his leave of absence to resume his duties as party leader following an interview to be broadcast on the Friday, 27 March instalment of the "Skavlan" program on SVT, and a subsequent press conference with the Swedish media.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: Amid media coverage regarding the high immigration figures and the European migrant crisis, the Sweden Democrats soared in all opinion polls during the summer of 2015, even topping web-based polls from YouGov and Sentio in late summer, with a little over a quarter of the vote. The party also saw rising support in phone-based polls, although the swing was lower.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: In early 2018 Alternative for Sweden was founded by members of the Sweden Democrat Youth, who were collectively expelled from the Sweden Democrats in 2015. Three Sweden Democrat members of the Riksdag, Olle Felten, Jeff Ahl and former leader Mikael Jansson subsequently defected to the party.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: On 2 July 2018 the two Sweden Democrats MEPs left the EFDD group and moved to the European Conservatives and Reformists group.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: In the 2018 Swedish general election, the SD increased its support to 17.5% of the vote, though it did not grow as much as most polls had predicted. According to Emily Schultheis of "Foreign Policy", the SD won an ideological victory, as it "effectively set the terms for debate" and forced its rivals to adopt immigration policies similar to its own, and other reporters made similar observations. The SD performed particularly well in Skåne County, having the highest number of voters in 21 out of the county's 33 municipalities. An SVT analysis of the results found that at least 22 seats in 17 city councils would be empty as the Sweden Democrats won more seats than the number of candidates it had. The party also received its first mayor, in Hörby Municipality.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: Following the election, Christian Democratic leader Ebba Busch announced that her party was willing to enter negotiations with the Sweden Democrats in the Riksdag. In December 2019, Moderate Party leader Ulf Kristersson held an official meeting with the Sweden Democrat leadership for the first time, despite having previously ruled out negotiating with the party. This led to speculation that the SD could be included in a new centre-right grouping to replace the Alliance which had collapsed after the Centre Party and the Liberal Party left to support the Social Democratic led government.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: In October 2018, the Sweden Democrats went into a governing coalitions with the Moderate Party and the Christian Democrats for the first time in Staffanstorp Municipality, Sölvesborg Municipality, Herrljunga Municipality and Bromölla Municipality. In Bromölla, coalition felt apart in 2020, while new coalitions with the SD emerged in Svalöv Municipality (2019), Bjuv Municipality (2020) and Surahammar Municipality (2021).


title: Sweden Democrats

text: In 2020, Mattias Karlsson, the former group leader of the Sweden Democrats in the Riksdag founded Oikos, a conservative think-tank which has been alleged to be an "extension of the Sweden Democrats' political project", supposedly also receiving funding from the party.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: Ahead of the 2022 Swedish general election, the SD attempted to form a conservative grouping with the Moderates, Christian Democrats and the Liberals and requested ministerial posts in government should the right-wing bloc form a parliamentary majority. During the election, the SD campaigned to reduce asylum migration close to zero, stricter policies on work permits, lower energy bills and a tougher stance on gang violence with longer prison sentences. Preliminary results indicated that the Sweden Democrats had seen their strongest result to date and had overtaken the Moderates to become the second largest party with 20.6% of the vote. The result was confirmed after the election.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: In October 2022, the SD was allocated chairmanship of four parliamentary committees for the first time in the Riksdag with party secretary Richard Jomshof appointed to head the justice committee. The party also formed a deal with Moderate leader Ulf Kristersson to provide for the first time in their history parliamentary support to a Moderate Party-led government as part of the Tidö Agreement.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The Sweden Democrats' current party programme is based on "democratic nationalism" and social conservatism. The party has also stated its main focus to be the areas of immigration, law & order and the elderly. The party also attaches particular importance to its economic and family policy. The SD criticizes multiculturalism in Sweden and emphasizes preserving national heritage. It is also opposed to what it sees as a constant shift of power from Stockholm to the European Union and campaigns to protect Swedish national identity and financial autonomy against the EU.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: Nordic Studies scholar Benjamin R. Teitelbaum has called the SD radical nationalist and in 2018 said the party has since evolved to the "softer side" of European populist parties. The party has been described by sociologist Jens Rydgren and others as xenophobic, racist and right-wing populist. In 2013, a Sveriges Radio journalist called the party xenophobic, which resulted in a complaint lodged to the broadcasting regulator. The Swedish Broadcasting Commission determined that this description was acceptable to use. Commentator on extremism and national security Kateřina Lišaníková observed that the SD had ethnic supremacist and hardline origins through its founders and initial support network, and notes the SD's leadership openly acknowledges its history, while arguing the present version of the SD does not match the description of a radical far-right party and is mistakenly labelled as such by media who focus on the party's early rather than current beliefs, but instead now resembles a national conservative party with populist elements that does not contradict democratic principles.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: Oscar Sjöstedt, the SD's financial spokesperson, places the party around the centre on the left–right political spectrum, while leader Jimmie Åkesson has stated that they are parallel with the Moderate Party. The party formally rejects Nazism, and in recent years has increasingly distanced itself from other European ultra-nationalist or far-right parties. In spite of this, a 2022 report by Swedish researchers Acta Publica claimed to have found 289 Swedish politicians who expressed racist or Nazi views, with 214 of them being members of the SD.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The Sweden Democrats believe that current Swedish immigration and integration policies have been a national failure. In a statement filed before the Riksdag Committee on Migration in August 2020, SD claims that Sweden's "irresponsible" immigration and asylum policies have subjected Sweden to an on-going "long-term, albeit low-intensity crisis". Their official policy brief states that the party "welcomes those who contribute to our [Sweden's] society, who follow our laws and respect our customs. On the other hand, anyone who comes here and exploits our systems, commits crimes or exposes our citizens to danger is not welcome." When handling asylum seekers, the party supports protecting national sovereignty in regards to Sweden's decisions on migration and border control, as well as "the principle of first safe country", meaning that asylum seekers should only be able to seek asylum in the first safe country that they arrive in. Until such legislation is realized, SD supports setting limits on the right to welfare and making cultural integration mandatory. The party opposes offering permanent residency to asylum seekers, believing that temporary residency should be the standard for those who claim asylum in Sweden. SD supports Sweden eventually accepting refugees exclusively through the UNHCR resettlement programme in accordance with a quota based on each municipality's capacity. The party also supports giving priority to persecuted secular, Christian, former Muslim and other religious or sexual minorities fleeing war or death for apostasy believing that such individuals are less likely to be offered refuge elsewhere.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: Historically, SD sought to repatriate most immigrants and ban immigration entirely; however, these policies were moderated in the 1990s before being scrapped altogether. Presently, SD wishes to strongly restrict and control immigration, and instead give generous support to immigrants who do not want to assimilate into Swedish society to emigrate back to their country of origin. As more state funds are made free from funding mass immigration, SD believes that Sweden will be better able to help refugees and economic migrants in their home areas. SD has referred to the recommendations from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) which state that the return of refugees should be the solution to refugee problems. Torbjörn Kastell (former party secretary from 2003 to 2004) said in 2002 that the party wanted "a multicultural world, not a multicultural society". SD also favours assimilation over integration of immigrants from non-European backgrounds, arguing that integration is a meet in the middle approach and that Swedes should not have to bear the burden over what the party claims have been reckless immigration policies. In 2017, members of the Sweden Democrats' leadership defended comments made by then US President Donald Trump in response to Trump's assertion that Sweden's migration and asylum policies had led to a rise of terrorism and crime in Sweden. However, following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine the SD supported accepting and accommodating Ukrainian refugees in Sweden.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The SD wants European governments to construct a security wall along the European border with Turkey in response to illegal immigration, terrorism and incursions by the Grey Wolves into Greece. It also calls on Europe to commonly adopt a migration system based on the Australian model to prevent human trafficking across the Mediterranean which the party states enables illegal immigrants and would-be terrorists to reach Sweden. SD calls for compulsory measures for immigrants to be employed, learn the Swedish language and be subject to a language and social skills test before becoming eligible for citizenship. The party also supports increased spending on border patrol forces, expulsion of illegal immigrants and foreign-born criminals, repatriations of Schengen area migrants who move to Sweden to make a living from street begging, changes in the law to enable the government to strip foreign-born Swedish nationals of their citizenship if found guilty of a serious crime, penalties against employers who use foreign and undocumented labor to circumvent Swedish working conditions and stricter laws against family migration.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: In recent years SDhas tried to approach the immigration policy of the Danish People's Party, which from 2001 to 2011 provided parliamentary support for the former Danish liberal/conservative government in return for a tightening of Danish immigration policies and stricter naturalisation laws.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The Sweden Democrats support close political co-operation within the Nordic sphere, but are eurosceptic and strictly against further EU integration and cession of Swedish sovereignty to the European Union. The party opposes EU regulation over Swedish tax and domestic affairs and calls for the national sovereignty and cultural identity of European nations to be prioritized over the EU's political ambitions. SD rejects joining the Economic and Monetary Union by opposing the Euro currency and favors keeping the krona. They also seek to reduce Swedish financial contributions to Brussels, renegotiate Swedish membership of the Schengen Agreement, protect freedom of speech and the free access to the internet from EU copyright bills, and are against the accession of Turkey to the European Union. The SD states that it supports pan-European political cooperation to combat cross-border organized crime, illegal immigration, Islamism, terrorism and environmental challenges but opposes creating a fully combined EU army or policies that could lead to the creation of a Federal European Superstate. The SD states that if the EU cannot be reformed and tries to transform itself into a Superstate, Sweden should immediately reconsider its membership via a referendum and prepare to exit the EU. The party also calls for Sweden to renegotiate its membership with the EU and an amendment to the Swedish constitution to make it mandatory that proposed EU bills and treaties be first put to a public vote in Sweden.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The Sweden Democrats are supportive of Israel and favors recognising Jerusalem as Israel's capital and proposes moving the Swedish embassy there, though Israel has stated it does not have and it does not wish to have any contact with the party "due its roots in Nazism". In 2011, SD was the only Swedish political party to vote against Swedish involvement in the 2011 military intervention in Libya. SD has advocated a "neutral" position on the Syrian Civil War and sent a delegation to meet with Syrian officials in 2017. SD also supports the creation of an independent Kurdish state and for the Armenian genocide to be formally recognised by the international community.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The party supports closer military cooperation with neighboring Nordic countries and previously opposed Swedish membership of NATO, instead calling for an alignment without full membership. However, following the Russian invasion of Ukraine the SD leadership announced it would consider changing its policy to endorse NATO membership and support joining if Finland also applied for NATO membership.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: In 2022 an analysis of votes relating to Russia in the European Parliament found that the Sweden Democrats were the 10th-most critical party in the parliament having voted against Russian interests 93 percent of the time. The report found that among all Swedish parties the Sweden Democrats were the most critical of Russia.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: SD values a strong, common national and cultural identity, believing this to be one of the most basic cornerstones of a functioning democracy. Minimizing linguistic, cultural and religious differences in society has a positive effect on societal cohesion, according to the party. The Swedish nation is defined "in terms of loyalty, a common language and common culture." A requirement for becoming a member of the Swedish nation is to either "be born in it or [...] by actively choosing to be a part of it." For these reasons among others, SDfirmly rejects multiculturalism.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: In an interview for "Dagens Nyheter", Second Deputy Speaker of the Riksdag and then-party secretary Björn Söder elaborated on the SDparty programme with respect to its views on national identity by saying that he personally did not think people with dual national identities in Sweden would necessarily identify themselves as Swedish. Although an immigrant of any ethnic background in theory can become a Swedish citizen, they would have to adapt and be assimilated in order to be considered Swedish in the cultural sense. Björn Söder stated that the officially recognised Swedish minority peoples (e.g. Sami, Tornedalians and Jews) in many cases have dual cultural identities and that they probably would be proud of both heritages. It was widely interpreted that Söder had stated in the interview that Jews cannot be Swedish unless they abandon their Jewish identity. Söder's comments were understood to be anti-semitic and caused Swedish parliamentary groups and party leaders to call for Björn Söder's resignation. The Simon Wiesenthal Center listed the statement as number six on their list of the top ten most anti-semitic events of 2014. Söder responded in the "Jerusalem Post", denying the charges of anti-semitism and claiming "Dagens Nyheter" had taken his statements out of context.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The Sweden Democrats advocates a cultural policy that would strip funding for multicultural initiatives and strengthen support for traditional Swedish culture. This agenda has often manifested itself as opposition to state funding of immigrant cultural organisations and festivals, and support for traditional Swedish craft, folk music, and folk dance groups. The party also tends to oppose state support for cultural initiatives deemed provocative or elitist. A 2014 letter signed by 52Swedish anthropologists, criticised the Sweden Democrats' use of the terms "culture" ("kultur" ) and "anthropology" ("antropologi" ), claiming their views on culture were "essentialist and obsolete", clarifying that culture is "dynamic" and "in constant change".


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The Sweden Democrats criticise modern art and have accused local councils of wasting public money on what it calls "provocative" art. The SD want citizens to be able to vote in local referendums on public art displayed near schools, public transport stations and town centres. "The important thing is that what is expressed in the public environment is anchored to the citizens and especially the local residents who are most often in the environment so that they feel an identification", says the party's cultural spokesperson Aron Emilsson. Sweden Democrats mayor in Sölvesborg Louise Erixon claimed "There's a big division between what the general public thinks is beautiful and interesting and what a tiny cultural elite thinks is exciting."


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The Sweden Democrats also support a ban on the burqa and niqab in public places, are against proposals to publicly broadcast the Islamic call to prayer from minarets, and want tougher enforcement of existing laws against female genital mutilation, honor violence and social segregation. The SD also want Swedish to remain Sweden's sole official language in state funded schools, government agencies and public funded media. It also supports prohibiting the hijab in primary schools, arguing that while it is not opposed to hijabs in general, the choice to wear it should be made on an individual basis when a child reaches adulthood. The SD is strongly opposed to sharia law being incorporated into the Swedish legal system.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The Sweden Democrats have described themselves as supporters of the Swedish welfare state, labour rights and the public sector, but argue that welfare should be restricted to Swedish citizens and permanent residents. In its platform, the SD claims that its economic policies are neither left or right-wing, but designed to improve conditions for small and medium-sized companies, self-employed citizens and entrepreneurs to boost employment and stimulate the economy, as opposed to what it describes as "constructed jobs" created by the government to reduce unemployment but hold no long term benefits for the Swedish economy or for the people who work them. SD wants to abolish the Swedish Employment Service in its current form and replace it with a new authority for the supervision and close regulation of private employment services to ensure large corporations do not exploit or undercut Swedish workers. The party also supports affordable and free access to public healthcare for Swedish nationals. Anders Backlund described the party as "economically centrist," leaning towards economic nationalism (in contrast to the other Swedish conservative parties who tend to favour open free markets and global cosmopolitan philosophies) and supporting a mixed market economy combining centre-left and centre-right ideas, as well as promoting "welfare chauvinist" policies which blend national-populism with socio-economics. According to political scientist Johan Martinsson: "In economic terms, the party is more centrist and pragmatic, with a mixture of left and right-wing proposals".


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The Sweden Democrats considers children raised in a nuclear family as the preferred option for the child's development. Those not raised by their biological parents should have the right to associate with or at least find out who they were. SD has been critical of adoption and artificial insemination for same-sex couples and polyamorous people. The party now fully supports same-sex marriage and civil partnerships for gay couples but believes the ultimate decision to perform ceremonies should be decided by the individual religious institution rather than the state.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: SD previously opposed government sanctioned adoption to single people, same-sex couples and polyamorous relationships unless the adopting party are close relatives or already have a close relationship with the child.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: Historically, members of SD have criticized a so-called "Homosex Lobby" but the party has changed its position on LGBT in Swedish society. Party leader Jimmie Åkesson has expressed concerns that what he describes as the gradual Islamisation of Sweden will eventually lead to the rights of sexual minorities being violated.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: Throughout the early 2000s, "SD-Kuriren" (the official SD party newspaper) regularly published articles criticizing LGBT events and describing homosexuality as "perversion", before moderating itself alongside a shift in party ideology. A blog post claiming Stockholm Pride sexualised young children and equating homosexuality with pedophilia titled "Botten måste snart vara nådd" (Soon enough we'll hit rock bottom) was published by SD Party secretary Björn Söder on 1 August 2007. The post was widely criticised in the Swedish media as an attack on LGBT people.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: An unofficial gay pride parade called Pride Järva was organised by SD member and former party magazine editor Jan Sjunnesson in the Stockholm suburbs of Tensta and Husby, two areas with large immigrant populations. The event was disavowed by the official Stockholm Pride organisation and the Swedish Federation for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Rights; in a joint statement both organisations called Sjunnesson "a person who's spreading hatred towards Muslims on social media [and] who's not supporting LGBT rights". Approximately 30 people participated in Pride Järva, with a larger amount of LGBT and heterosexual anti-racist counter protestors arriving to oppose them.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: In recent years, the SD has shifted its stance to supporting LGBT rights and same-sex parenting through updating its policies on LGBT issues. In its current platform, the SD states "everyone must be treated equally, regardless of sexual orientation, and discrimination must be combated." In a 2018 interview, SD member of the Riksdag and gender-equality spokesperson Paula Bieler stated that homophobes "are not welcome in our party."


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The party also calls for a ban on child, polygamous and forced marriages, as well as harsher penalties for honor violence.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: SD opposes any "negative or positive special treatment on the basis of gender, age, sexual orientation, nationality or ethnic origin" in the labour market.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The party maintains that, collectively, there are biological differences between men and women, some of which that cannot be "observed with the naked eye". Perceived differences between men and women in regards to preference, behaviour and life choices exist due to each individual's choices and does not necessarily have to be "problematic, the result of discrimination nor the result of an oppressive gender power structure".


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The party argues that, while Sweden should maintain its "active role in global climate cooperation", other countries should reduce their emissions, as it believes Sweden to already be doing enough on that front. The party advocates keeping nuclear power plants as a prominent energy source in Sweden, believing it to be an efficient way to mitigate climate change. They also advocate investing in climate research internationally and funding climate action on a global scale.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The Sweden Democrats support generally increased minimum sentences as well as increased resources and personnel for the police. SD wishes to instate the possibility of life imprisonment without parole for the worst crimes and to repatriate foreign citizens found guilty of serious crimes. SD also wants to establish a public register of individuals convicted for certain sexual crimes.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: SD previously supported the reinstatement of capital punishment before dropping it as an official policy after the party program was updated in 1998, although individuals within the party continue to support the death penalty for serious crimes such as murder and infanticide.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The SD is also opposed to repatriating and offering state funded assistance to Swedish citizens who joined ISIS.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The party is a supporter of the Swedish monarchy playing a constitutional and cultural role in Swedish life, but also supports an amendment to the constitution that obligates the Riksdag to elect a new monarch in the event of there being no heir to the throne.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: SD wishes to lower the tax rate for the elderly, as well as increase subsidised housing for the elderly. SD also wishes to allocate additional resources to municipalities in order to provide seniors with greater food assistance and, in general, improve their quality of life. SD has also emphasised a desire to crack down on abuses and crimes of which the elderly are particular targets.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The Sweden Democrats are critical of the special rights given to the indigenous Sami people of northern Sweden. In 2008 the party accepted a motion against the rights to reindeer husbandry. They have argued that those "who do not involve themselves with reindeer husbandry are treated as second class citizens" and that the privileges the herders have are "undemocratic". They want to restructure the councils and funds that are used to benefit the Sami population, so that they are used "regardless of ethnic identity and business operations". They also want to abolish the Sami Parliament, which claims special privileges for an "ethnic minority while the society claims equal rights for others".


title: Sweden Democrats

text: In its early days, the Sweden Democrats was known to associate itself with both native Swedish and wider European extreme-right activist groups and parties. During the 1990s, the Sweden Democrats began distancing itself from such groups and made connections with the French National Front and Jean Marie Le Pen through his "Euronat" initiative, but otherwise the party did not actively seek formal relationships outside of Sweden. After party left Euronat, it became more influenced by the neighboring Danish People's Party. The SD has also had some contacts with the Austrian FPÖ, the Dutch Party for Freedom and Forum for Democracy, and the Flemish Vlaams Belang. The Danish People's Party was initially reluctant to collaborate with the SD until 2010 when Pia Kjærsgaard travelled to Sweden to help with the party's general election campaign. Following the European election of 2014 there was some speculation that the SD would enter a grouping with other European nationalist parties led by Marine Le Pen. However, the party began to distance itself from other European far-right parties and elected to become a member of the more moderate right-wing Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy group with the UK Independence Party. In 2015, SD began forging closer relations with the Danish People's Party and in 2018 announced an official cooperation pact with the Finns Party. All three parties are members of the Nordic Freedom group. In 2018, SD joined both the European Conservatives and Reformists group and the European Conservatives and Reformists Party.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: During the 1980s and early 1990s, many outspoken far-right and Nazi advocates were involved with the party. It was founded by, among others, the Swedish Waffen-SS veteran Gustaf Ekström and members of both older Nazi and neo-Nazi organisations. In its early days, the SD also had a reputation for attracting biker and skinhead gangs to its rallies. The party had flyers printed by the French National Front in the 1998 general election, and was financially backed for the 2004 European election by Belgian Bernard Mengal. The party was a member of the "Euronat" initiative which was set up by Jean-Marie Le Pen. However, as part of the moderation process, the Sweden Democrats have subsequently sought to distance themselves from far-right parties in Europe, including turning down an invitation to join a grouping in the European parliament with the National Front in 2014 and choosing to ally themselves with more moderate parties during the 2014 and 2019 European elections.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: Both before and after the 2010 Swedish general election all the major parties, including the Swedish Social Democrats and the Moderate Party, declared they would not collaborate or work with the Sweden Democrats. The move was described by international pundits as an unofficial "cordon sanitaire". The policy of non-cooperation was kept in place for the 2014 Swedish general election. However, at a local level other parties from the Moderates to the Left Party have collaborated or voted in favour of SD initiatives. Following the 2018 general election, which saw the disintegration of the centre-right Alliance, Christian Democrats leader Ebba Busch and Moderates leader Ulf Kristersson signaled an end to the non-cooperation policy and began talks with the SD.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The Sweden Democrats have complained about difficulties buying advertising space due to the media banning the party from advertising and have accused media outlets of trying to censor or limit the party's campaign messages during elections which has been criticised by free speech organisations. On 16 June 2006, "Dagens Nyheter" and "Svenska Dagbladet" decided to stop their boycott. "Expressen", however, still retains a ban on Sweden Democrat advertising. During the 2010 Swedish general election, broadcaster TV4 refused to air a Sweden Democrats campaign video which depicted a Swedish pensioner being outrun by burka-clad women with prams. TV4's decision was criticized by both free speech advocates and politicians from Denmark, including by Danish People's Party leader Pia Kjærsgaard, Venstre and the Conservative People's Party (who reacted to TV4's decision to ban the video by calling for international election observers to be sent to Sweden), and by members of the Norwegian Progress Party who called the decision a "violation of democratic rules." Journalist Hanne Kjöller argued that attempts to censor the SD in 2010 ended up emboldening their support by giving them more publicity.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: After the Danish daily newspaper "Jyllands-Posten" published twelve cartoons depicting Muhammad and ignited a controversy during the2005 autumn and winter, the Sweden Democrats gave their unreserved support to the publication with reference to the freedom of speech. SDstated that it saw no reason why a Danish newspaper should be forced to abide by Muslim rules and prohibitions regarding expression. When the boycott of Danish products was launched in the Middle East, SDlaunched a "Buy Danish" campaign in support of Danish workers. In 2006 SD entered the Muhammad cartoon debate by publishing a cartoon depicting Muhammad on its youth league (SDU) and "SD-Kuriren" () websites. The cartoon showed Muhammad from behind holding a mirror in front of his face. However, instead of any facial features, the mirror showed only a blank head. The cartoon was captioned "Muhammad's Face" ( ).


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The publication attracted the attention of the Swedish government, which informed internet service provider "Levonline" about the SD's publications. Subsequently, "Levonline" shut down SD's web page. The Minister for Foreign Affairs, Laila Freivalds, denied any direct interference. However, at the same time, Laila Freivalds condemned the publication as a provocation. Freivalds then resigned from the Persson Cabinet after being accused of interference with press freedom and lying about such actions.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: This event spurred debate on government censorship in Sweden. The Sweden Democrats also had a hate speech charge filed against them due to the posted caricature. Similar hate speech charges were filed against other Swedish publishers who had depicted Muhammad. However, these charges were immediately deemed to be unfounded by the Swedish Chancellor of Justice.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The Sweden Democrats originally planned to publish a set of cartoons in their newspaper "SD-Kuriren". However, after the controversy erupted, Jimmie Åkesson issued a statement on SD's website on 9 February 2006, stating that they would refrain from further publications online and in print, due to concerns that publishing might spur hostile actions against Swedes and Swedish interests.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The shutdown of the Sweden Democrats' websites was reported to the Committee on the Constitution by the Liberal People's Party leader Lars Leijonborg. SD filed complaints against the Security Service ("Säpo") and the Ministry for Foreign Affairs with the "Justitiekansler" and "Justitieombudsmannen", alleging that the government's interference was unconstitutional. The spokesperson of the Green Party, Peter Eriksson, also criticised the involvement of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs in the event.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The Sweden Democrats have, among all Swedish parliamentary parties, had the largest share of elected municipal representatives resign since the 2010 elections (27.8%). Many of these resignations were brought on by racist statements or actions by these representatives.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: In November 2012, party spokesperson Erik Almqvist resigned after he had been caught on tape making racist and sexist statements. Another video later surfaced, showing how Almqvist, in addition to party spokesperson Kent Ekeroth and party official Christian Westling were arming themselves with iron pipes before they sought out a confrontation with Soran Ismail, a Swedish comedian of Kurdish descent. In November 2012, parliamentarian Lars Isovaara resigned after accusing two people of foreign origin of stealing his bag (which Isovaara had left at a restaurant) and then proceeding to verbally abuse a security guard of a foreign background. Isovaara's replacement in parliament, Markus Wiechel, was found in April 2013 to have referred to a group of black people as "monkeys" in a Facebook comment back in 2011. Wiechel later apologised and stated the comment had been in reference to a video of a tribal witch burning in Africa.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: In March 2013, 12 individuals were thrown out of the party for their involvement in neo-Nazi or other extremist movements. In November 2013, parliamentarian and then vice party leader Jonas Åkerlund gained attention for having called immigrants "parasites" during a broadcast on SD's own radio station in 2002, after the recording was publicly rediscovered. In his defence, Åkerlund stated that he only said it to provoke people. In September 2014, the party chairman of the local Stockholm branch, Christoffer Dulny was asked to resign from his position after it was found he had previously posted mocking comments about immigrants, calling them "shameless liars" on alternative media sites. He also resigned from parliament on the same day he was elected, 29 September 2014.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: In October 2016, a video of the parliamentarian and economic policy spokesperson Oscar Sjöstedt laughing at antisemitic jokes was released by a former school friend of his who also accused Sjöstedt of chanting fascist slogans. Whilst at a party believed to have been organized by the neo-Nazi group "Info-14" in 2011 when Sjöstedt was a member of the SD's youth wing, he laughingly told a story about former co-workers with Nazi sympathies mocking Jews and comparing them to sheep. Following an investigation by the party, Sjöstedt stated that a friend had invited him to the party but he had walked out upon discovering who had organized it and denied expressing fascist statements. During the same month, the parliamentarian and second vice party leader Carina Herrstedt was confronted with having sent an allegedly racist, antisemitic, homophobic and anti-romanyist email to her then spouse in 2011. The email, which had been leaked from the party's internal servers, for instance contained phrases that named black football players from the team Landskrona BoIS as "niggers" whilst also picturing Romani people as thieves. The email was meant to be playful and ironic, Herrstedt told Aftonbladet.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: Between 2015 and 2016 various members of the party were expelled from the SD for expressing extremist or racist views, or because of disagreement with the party's shift towards moderation and social conservatism. In April 2015, the Sweden Democratic Youth leaders were also expelled for these reasons, and the organisation was dissolved shortly after with the mother party issuing a warning for remaining SDU members to leave the youth wing or be expelled from the party. In December 2016, the parliamentarian Anna Hagwall was thrown out of the party after using arguments associated with antisemitism to argue for a bill that she introduced in parliament intended to reduce concentration of media ownership in Sweden.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: In September 2017, a report from "Dagens ETC" found that 14 former municipal representatives of the party had infiltrated the SD in order to financially support the Nordic Resistance Movement, a neo-Nazi organisation, through financial transactions, memberships, or purchases of antisemitic and racist literature or souvenirs. In August 2018, 2 members were kicked out due to purchases of Nazi memorabilia online; following the expulsions, Michael Erlandsson, one of the SD spokesmen, publicly stated that people who "have these types of views and share these types of materials" have no place in the party. 14 candidates were expelled from the party as well after being exposed as former members of neo-Nazi organisations. Referring to the latest expulsions, SD leader Jimmie Åkesson declared that the party "works extremely hard to keep clean".


title: Sweden Democrats

text: Researcher on Nordic nationalism Benjamin R. Teitelbaum described the present day version Sweden Democrats as paradoxical compared to other European nationalist parties on the issues of racism and radicalism. Teitelbaum notes that in contrast to other Nordic and wider European populist parties, the SD differs by having a past rooted in white nationalism and extremism, but in the present day is comparably more proactive in rejecting ethno-nationalism and expelling members who make racist statements to the point where he considers the SD to be on the "softer side" of national-populism. Similar observations were made by British conservative author Douglas Murray who described the SD as undergoing one of the most significant transformations on the European political right from a party on the fringes that openly pushed extreme tendencies to a more mainstream movement that draws on diverse support.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: Ashley Fox, leader of the British Conservative MEPs, praised the Sweden Democrats regarding the party's policy decisions on the expulsion of extremist and racist members: "Over the past decade the Sweden Democrats have made progress in reforming themselves, expelling any members displaying unacceptable views or behaviour and diversifying their party base."


title: Sweden Democrats

text: The Sweden Democrats came under fire in 2015 for changing their position on profits made by private welfare companies. Before the election in 2014 they favored having restrictions on the amount of profit that welfare companies could take and use for their own gain. Since the election, they have favored the approach of the Alliance parties, that is higher and more restrictive quality standards. This has been suspected to be because of extensive lobbying done by the organisation Svenskt Näringsliv among others. The story was discovered by the Swedish newspaper "Dagens Industri" on 14 September 2015. SD has denied all accusations of corruption.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: Since its founding, the SD has published its own newspaper "SD-Kuriren" which was previously known as "Sverige-Kuriren" and then "SD Bulletin" until 2003. Party secretary Richard Jomshof currently serves as the paper's editor. In 2014, the party also launched an online magazine "Samtiden" (Contemporary). It is currently edited by Swedish economist Dick Erixon.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: In 2020, Mattias Karlsson, the former group leader of the Sweden Democrats in the Riksdag founded Oikos, a conservative think-tank. Expo has alleged the think-tank to be an "extension of the Sweden Democrats' political project" supposedly also receiving funding from the party although the group itself claims to be non-partisan.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: According to the Statistiska Centralbyrån (SCB) 2017 party preference survey the Sweden Democrats (SD) have a stronger support among men than among women. There is no noticeable difference in support for the party among different age groups. The support for SD is greater among native born than among foreign born. Since 2014 the SD has substantially increased its support among both foreign-born and foreign-background voters, becoming the third largest party in Sweden also among this demographic by 2017. Sympathies are greater for the party among persons with primary and secondary education than among those with a higher education. The 2018 party preference survey of the SCB show that SD has twice as much support among men than among women.


title: Sweden Democrats

text: A study by "Aftonbladet" in 2010 found that 14%of SD members were of immigrant origin, which matches the share of foreign-born inhabitants of Sweden, while their vote share in this population group has always been lower. For the 2010 election in the municipality of Södertälje (Stockholm County), SDwas the only party with a majority of immigrants on its electoral list, mostly Assyrians from the Middle East. Polling7.31%(3,447 votes), SD'smunicipal list in Södertälje got 5of the65 municipal seats. Nader Helawi and four other Swedes of immigrant origin will sit as municipal councilors. Since 2014, the SD has seen growing support from foreign-born Swedish voters, and was estimated to have become the third most popular party for voters of immigrant backgrounds by 2017. In recent years, politicians of ethnic minority and immigrant backgrounds have become increasingly active in the party, with notable examples including Nima Gholam Ali Pour,Sara Gille and Rashid Farivar.


title: Aidan Hutchinson

text: Aidan Hutchinson (born August 9, 2000) is an American football defensive end for the Detroit Lions of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Michigan, where he won several awards as a senior in 2021, such as the Ted Hendricks and Lombardi Awards, as well as being named runner-up for the Heisman Trophy. Hutchinson was selected second overall by the Lions in the 2022 NFL Draft.


title: Aidan Hutchinson

text: Hutchinson was born on August 9, 2000, in Plymouth, Michigan. He attended Divine Child High School in Dearborn, Michigan, where he played defensive end, tight end, offensive line, and long snapper. He played in the 2018 U.S. Army All-American Game and had two sacks. Hutchinson committed to play college football at the University of Michigan.


title: Aidan Hutchinson

text: As a true freshman at Michigan in 2018, Hutchinson played in all 13 games and had 15 tackles. As a sophomore in 2019, he started all 13 games, recording 68 tackles and 4.5 sacks. As a junior in 2020, he started the first three games until he had a season-ending injury.


title: Aidan Hutchinson

text: As a senior in 2021, Hutchinson set the team's single-season sack record at 14. He won several awards for his efforts, including the Ted Hendricks Award, Lombardi Award, Lott IMPACT Trophy, and the Chicago Tribune Silver Football. He was also the runner-up for the Heisman Trophy, the only defensive player among three quarterbacks to be named a finalist. Following the season, Hutchinson declared for the 2022 NFL Draft.


title: Aidan Hutchinson

text: Hutchinson was selected in the first round with the second overall pick by the Detroit Lions in the 2022 NFL Draft. He signed his four-year contract, worth $35.7 million fully guaranteed, on May 9, 2022. Hutchinson recorded three sacks, a Lions rookie record, in Week 2 against the Washington Commanders. He recorded his first career interception in a 15–9 victory over the Green Bay Packers on November 6, 2022, with a second interception against the New York Giants two weeks later.


title: Aidan Hutchinson

text: His father, Chris Hutchinson, also played college football at Michigan. His mother, Melissa Sinkevics, won the 1988 Miss Michigan Teen USA event while his older sister, Aria, won Miss Michigan USA 2022.


title: Hydrazine

text: Hydrazine is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula . It is a simple pnictogen hydride, and is a colourless flammable liquid with an ammonia-like odour. Hydrazine is highly toxic unless handled in solution as, for example, hydrazine hydrate ().


title: Hydrazine

text: Hydrazine is mainly used as a foaming agent in preparing polymer foams, but applications also include its uses as a precursor to polymerization catalysts, pharmaceuticals, and agrochemicals, as well as a long-term storable propellant for in-space spacecraft propulsion. Additionally, hydrazine is used in various rocket fuels and to prepare the gas precursors used in air bags. Hydrazine is used within both nuclear and conventional electrical power plant steam cycles as an oxygen scavenger to control concentrations of dissolved oxygen in an effort to reduce corrosion.


title: Hydrazine

text: Hydrazines refer to a class of organic substances derived by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms in hydrazine by an organic group.


title: Hydrazine

text: The nomenclature is a bi-valent form, with prefix "hydr-" used to indicate the presence of hydrogen atoms and suffix beginning with "-az-", from the francised root "azote", used to indicate the presence of nitrogen.


title: Hydrazine

text: The largest use of hydrazine is as a precursor to blowing agents. Specific compounds include azodicarbonamide and azobisisobutyronitrile, which produce of gas per gram of precursor. In a related application, sodium azide, the gas-forming agent in air bags, is produced from hydrazine by reaction with sodium nitrite.


title: Hydrazine

text: Hydrazine is also used as a long-term storable propellant on board space vehicles, such as the "Dawn" mission to Ceres and Vesta, and to both reduce the concentration of dissolved oxygen in and control pH of water used in large industrial boilers. The F-16 fighter jet, Eurofighter Typhoon, Space Shuttle, and U-2 spy plane use hydrazine to fuel their Emergency Start System in the event of an engine stall.


title: Hydrazine

text: Hydrazine is a precursor to several pharmaceuticals and pesticides. Often these applications involve conversion of hydrazine to heterocyclic rings such as pyrazoles and pyridazines. Examples of commercialized bioactive hydrazine derivatives include cefazolin, rizatriptan, anastrozole, fluconazole, metazachlor, metamitron, metribuzin, paclobutrazol, diclobutrazole, propiconazole, hydrazine sulfate, diimide, triadimefon, and dibenzoylhydrazine.


title: Hydrazine

text: Hydrazine compounds can be effective as active ingredients in admixture with or in combination with other agricultural chemicals such as insecticides, miticides, nematicides, fungicides, antiviral agents, attractants, herbicides or plant growth regulators.


title: Hydrazine

text: The Italian catalyst manufacturer Acta (chemical company) has proposed using hydrazine as an alternative to hydrogen in fuel cells. The chief benefit of using hydrazine is that it can produce over 200 mW/cm more than a similar hydrogen cell without the need to use expensive platinum catalysts. Because the fuel is liquid at room temperature, it can be handled and stored more easily than hydrogen. By storing the hydrazine in a tank full of a double-bonded carbon-oxygen carbonyl, the fuel reacts and forms a safe solid called hydrazone. By then flushing the tank with warm water, the liquid hydrazine hydrate is released. Hydrazine has a higher electromotive force of 1.56 V compared to 1.23 V for hydrogen. Hydrazine breaks down in the cell to form nitrogen and hydrogen which bonds with oxygen, releasing water. Hydrazine was used in fuel cells manufactured by Allis-Chalmers Corp., including some that provided electric power in space satellites in the 1960s.


title: Hydrazine

text: A mixture of 63% hydrazine, 32% hydrazine nitrate and 5% water is a standard propellant for experimental bulk-loaded liquid propellant artillery. The propellant mixture above is one of the most predictable and stable, with a flat pressure profile during firing. Misfires are usually caused by inadequate ignition. The movement of the shell after a mis-ignition causes a large bubble with a larger ignition surface area, and the greater rate of gas production causes very high pressure, sometimes including catastrophic tube failures (i.e. explosions). From January–June 1991, the U.S. Army Research Laboratory conducted a review of early bulk-loaded liquid propellant gun programs for possible relevance to the electrothermal chemical propulsion program.


title: Hydrazine

text: The United States Air Force (USAF) regularly uses H-70, a 70% hydrazine 30% water mixture, in operations employing the General Dynamics F-16 “Fighting Falcon” fighter aircraft and the Lockheed U-2 “Dragon Lady” reconnaissance aircraft. The single jet engine F-16 utilizes hydrazine to power its Emergency Power Unit (EPU), which provides emergency electrical and hydraulic power in the event of an engine flame out. The EPU activates automatically, or manually by pilot control, in the event of loss of hydraulic pressure or electrical power in order to provide emergency flight controls. The single jet engine U-2 utilizes hydrazine to power its Emergency Starting System (ESS), which provides a highly reliable method to restart the engine in flight in the event of a stall.


title: Hydrazine

text: Hydrazine was first used as a component in rocket fuels during World War II. A 30% mix by weight with 57% methanol (named M-Stoff in the German Luftwaffe) and 13% water was called C-Stoff by the Germans. The mixture was used to power the Messerschmitt Me 163B rocket-powered fighter plane, in which the German high test peroxide "T-Stoff" was used as an oxidizer. Unmixed hydrazine was referred to as B-Stoff by the Germans, a designation also used later for the ethanol/water fuel for the V-2 missile.


title: Hydrazine

text: Hydrazine is used as a low-power monopropellant for the maneuvering thrusters of spacecraft, and was used to power the Space Shuttle's auxiliary power units (APUs). In addition, mono-propellant hydrazine-fueled rocket engines are often used in terminal descent of spacecraft. Such engines were used on the Viking program landers in the 1970s as well as the Mars landers Phoenix (May 2008), Curiosity (August 2012) and Perseverance (February 2021).


title: Hydrazine

text: A mixture of hydrazine and red fuming nitric acid was used in the Soviet space program where it was known as devil's venom due to its dangerous nature.


title: Hydrazine

text: In all hydrazine mono-propellant engines, the hydrazine is passed over a catalyst such as iridium metal supported by high-surface-area alumina (aluminium oxide), which causes it to decompose into ammonia, nitrogen gas, and hydrogen gas according to the following reactions:


title: Hydrazine

text: The first two reactions are extremely exothermic (the catalyst chamber can reach 800 °C in a matter of milliseconds,) and they produce large volumes of hot gas from a small volume of liquid, making hydrazine a fairly efficient thruster propellant with a vacuum specific impulse of about 220 seconds. Reaction 2 is the most exothermic, but produces a smaller number of molecules than that of reaction 1. Reaction 3 is endothermic and reverts the effect of reaction 2 back to the same effect as reaction 1 alone (lower temperature, greater number of molecules). The catalyst structure affects the proportion of the that is dissociated in reaction 3; a higher temperature is desirable for rocket thrusters, while more molecules are desirable when the reactions are intended to produce greater quantities of gas.


title: Hydrazine

text: Since hydrazine is a solid below 2 °C, it is not suitable as a general purpose rocket propellant for military applications. Other variants of hydrazine that are used as rocket fuel are monomethylhydrazine, , also known as MMH (melting point −52 °C), and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine, , also known as UDMH (melting point −57 °C). These derivatives are used in two-component rocket fuels, often together with dinitrogen tetroxide, . A 50:50 mixture by weight of hydrazine and UDMH was used in the Titan II ICBMs and is known as Aerozine 50. These reactions are extremely exothermic, and the burning is also hypergolic (it starts burning without any external ignition).


title: Hydrazine

text: There are ongoing efforts in the aerospace industry to replace hydrazine with its potential ban across the European union. Promising alternatives include nitrous oxide-based propellant combinations, with development being led by commercial companies Dawn Aerospace, Impulse Space, and Launcher. The first nitrous oxide-based system ever flown in space was by D-Orbit onboard their ION Satellite Carrier in 2021, using six Dawn Aerospace B20 thrusters.


title: Hydrazine

text: Hydrazine exposure can cause skin irritation/contact dermatitis and burning, irritation to the eyes/nose/throat, nausea/vomiting, shortness of breath, pulmonary edema, headache, dizziness, central nervous system depression, lethargy, temporary blindness, seizures and coma. Exposure can also cause organ damage to the liver, kidneys and central nervous system. Hydrazine is documented as a strong skin sensitizer with potential for cross-sensitization to hydrazine derivatives following initial exposure. In addition to occupational uses reviewed above, exposure to hydrazine is also possible in small amounts from tobacco smoke.


title: Hydrazine

text: The official U.S. guidance on hydrazine as a carcinogen is mixed but generally there is recognition of potential cancer-causing effects. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) lists it as a “potential occupational carcinogen”. The National Toxicology Program (NTP) finds it is "reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen". The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) grades hydrazine as "A3—confirmed animal carcinogen with unknown relevance to humans". The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) grades it as "B2—a probable human carcinogen based on animal study evidence".


title: Hydrazine

text: The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) rates hydrazine as "2A—probably carcinogenic to humans" with a positive association observed between hydrazine exposure and lung cancer. Based on cohort and cross-sectional studies of occupational hydrazine exposure, a committee from the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine concluded that there is suggestive evidence of an association between hydrazine exposure and lung cancer, with insufficient evidence of association with cancer at other sites. The European Commission’s Scientific Committee on Occupational Exposure Limits (SCOEL) places hydrazine in carcinogen “group B—a genotoxic carcinogen”. The genotoxic mechanism the committee cited references hydrazine's reaction with endogenous formaldehyde and formation of a DNA-methylating agent.


title: Hydrazine

text: In the event of a hydrazine exposure-related emergency, NIOSH recommends removing contaminated clothing immediately, washing skin with soap and water, and for eye exposure removing contact lenses and flushing eyes with water for at least 15 minutes. NIOSH also recommends anyone with potential hydrazine exposure to seek medical attention as soon as possible. There are no specific post-exposure laboratory or medical imaging recommendations, and the medical work-up may depend on the type and severity of symptoms. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends potential exposures be treated symptomatically with special attention given to potential lung and liver damage. Past cases of hydrazine exposure have documented success with Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6) treatment.


title: Hydrazine

text: The odour threshold for hydrazine is 3.7 ppm, thus if a worker is able to smell an ammonia-like odor then they are likely over the exposure limit. However, this odor threshold varies greatly and should not be used to determine potentially hazardous exposures.


title: Hydrazine

text: For aerospace personnel, the USAF uses an emergency exposure guideline, developed by the National Academy of Science Committee on Toxicology, which is utilized for non-routine exposures of the general public and is called the Short-Term Public Emergency Exposure Guideline (SPEGL). The SPEGL, which does not apply to occupational exposures, is defined as the acceptable peak concentration for unpredicted, single, short-term emergency exposures of the general public and represents rare exposures in a worker's lifetime. For hydrazine the 1-hour SPEGL is 2 ppm, with a 24-hour SPEGL of 0.08 ppm.


title: Hydrazine

text: A complete surveillance programme for hydrazine should include systematic analysis of biologic monitoring, medical screening and morbidity/mortality information. The CDC recommends surveillance summaries and education be provided for supervisors and workers. Pre-placement and periodic medical screening should be conducted with specific focus on potential effects of hydrazine upon functioning of the eyes, skin, liver, kidneys, hematopoietic, nervous and respiratory systems.


title: Hydrazine

text: Common controls used for hydrazine include process enclosure, local exhaust ventilation and personal protective equipment (PPE). Guidelines for hydrazine PPE include non-permeable gloves and clothing, indirect-vent splash resistant goggles, face shield and in some cases a respirator. The use of respirators for the handling of hydrazine should be the last resort as a method of controlling worker exposure. In cases where respirators are needed, proper respirator selection and a complete respiratory protection program consistent with OSHA guidelines should be implemented.


title: Hydrazine

text: For USAF personnel, Air Force Occupational Safety and Health (AFOSH) Standard 48-8, Attachment 8 reviews the considerations for occupational exposure to hydrazine in missile, aircraft and spacecraft systems. Specific guidance for exposure response includes mandatory emergency shower and eyewash stations and a process for decontaminating protective clothing. The guidance also assigns responsibilities and requirements for proper PPE, employee training, medical surveillance and emergency response. USAF bases requiring the use of hydrazine generally have specific base regulations governing local requirements for safe hydrazine use and emergency response.


title: Hydrazine

text: Hydrazine has formula , or more clearly , with two amine groups connected by a single bond between the two nitrogens. Each subunit is pyramidal. The N–N single bond distance is 1.45 Å (145 pm), and the molecule adopts a gauche conformation. The rotational barrier is twice that of ethane. These structural properties resemble those of gaseous hydrogen peroxide, which adopts a "skewed" anticlinal conformation, and also experiences a strong rotational barrier.


title: Hydrazine

text: Diverse routes have been developed. The key step is the creation of the N–N single bond. The many routes can be divided into those that use chlorine oxidants (and generate salt) and those that do not.


title: Hydrazine

text: Hydrazine can be synthesized from ammonia and hydrogen peroxide with a ketone catalyst, in a procedure called the Peroxide process (sometimes called Pechiney-Ugine-Kuhlmann process, the Atofina–PCUK cycle, or ketazine process). The net reaction follows:


title: Hydrazine

text: In this route, the ketone and ammonia first condense to give the imine, which is oxidised by hydrogen peroxide to the oxaziridine, a three-membered ring containing carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen. Next, the oxaziridine gives the hydrazone by treatment with ammonia, which process creates the nitrogen-nitrogen single bond. This hydrazone condenses with one more equivalent of ketone.


title: Hydrazine

text: The Olin Raschig process, first announced in 1907, produces hydrazine from sodium hypochlorite (the active ingredient in many bleaches) and ammonia without the use of a ketone catalyst. This method relies on the reaction of monochloramine with ammonia to create the N–N single bond as well as a hydrogen chloride byproduct:


title: Hydrazine

text: Related to the Raschig process, urea can be oxidized instead of ammonia. Again sodium hypochlorite serves as the oxidant. The net reaction is shown:


title: Hydrazine

text: The Bayer Ketazine Process is the predecessor to the peroxide process. It employs sodium hypochlorite as oxidant instead of hydrogen peroxide. Like all hypochlorite-based routes, this method produces an equivalent of salt for each equivalent of hydrazine.


title: Hydrazine

text: Hydrazine forms a monohydrate that is denser (1.032 g/cm) than the anhydrous form (1.021 g/cm). Hydrazine has basic (alkali) chemical properties comparable to those of ammonia:


title: Hydrazine

text: Hydrazine is a convenient reductant because the by-products are typically nitrogen gas and water. This property makes it useful as an antioxidant, an oxygen scavenger, and a corrosion inhibitor in water boilers and heating systems. It is also used to reduce metal salts and oxides to the pure metals in electroless nickel plating and plutonium extraction from nuclear reactor waste. Some colour photographic processes also use a weak solution of hydrazine as a stabilising wash, as it scavenges dye coupler and unreacted silver halides. Hydrazine is the most common and effective reducing agent used to convert graphene oxide (GO) to reduced graphene oxide (rGO) via hydrothermal treatment.


title: Hydrazine

text: Hydrazine can be protonated to form various solid salts of the hydrazinium cation , by treatment with mineral acids. A common salt is hydrazinium hydrogensulfate, . Hydrazinium hydrogensulfate was investigated as a treatment of cancer-induced cachexia, but proved ineffective.


title: Hydrazine

text: Hydrazines are part of many organic syntheses, often those of practical significance in pharmaceuticals (see applications section), as well as in textile dyes and in photography.


title: Hydrazine

text: Hydrazine is used in the Wolff-Kishner reduction, a reaction that transforms the carbonyl group of a ketone into a methylene bridge (or an aldehyde into a methyl group) via a hydrazone intermediate. The production of the highly stable dinitrogen from the hydrazine derivative helps to drive the reaction.


title: Hydrazine

text: Being bifunctional, with two amines, hydrazine is a key building block for the preparation of many heterocyclic compounds via condensation with a range of difunctional electrophiles. With 2,4-pentanedione, it condenses to give the 3,5-dimethylpyrazole. In the Einhorn-Brunner reaction hydrazines react with imides to give triazoles.