title: Vehicle

text: Gravitational potential energy is a form of energy used in gliders, skis, bobsleds and numerous other vehicles that go down hill. Regenerative braking is an example of capturing kinetic energy where the brakes of a vehicle are augmented with a generator or other means of extracting energy.


title: Vehicle

text: When needed, the energy is taken from the source and consumed by one or more motors or engines. Sometimes there is an intermediate medium, such as the batteries of a diesel submarine.


title: Vehicle

text: Most motor vehicles have internal combustion engines. They are fairly cheap, easy to maintain, reliable, safe and small. Since these engines burn fuel, they have long ranges but pollute the environment. A related engine is the external combustion engine. An example of this is the steam engine. Aside from fuel, steam engines also need water, making them impractical for some purposes. Steam engines also need time to warm up, whereas IC engines can usually run right after being started, although this may not be recommended in cold conditions. Steam engines burning coal release sulfur into the air, causing harmful acid rain.


title: Vehicle

text: While intermittent internal combustion engines were once the primary means of aircraft propulsion, they have been largely superseded by continuous internal combustion engines: gas turbines. Turbine engines are light and, particularly when used on aircraft, efficient. On the other hand, they cost more and require careful maintenance. They can also be damaged by ingesting foreign objects, and they produce a hot exhaust. Trains using turbines are called gas turbine-electric locomotives. Examples of surface vehicles using turbines are M1 Abrams, MTT Turbine SUPERBIKE and the Millennium. Pulse jet engines are similar in many ways to turbojets, but have almost no moving parts. For this reason, they were very appealing to vehicle designers in the past; however their noise, heat and inefficiency has led to their abandonment. A historical example of the use of a pulse jet was the V-1 flying bomb. Pulse jets are still occasionally used in amateur experiments. With the advent of modern technology, the pulse detonation engine has become practical and was successfully tested on a Rutan VariEze. While the pulse detonation engine is much more efficient than the pulse jet and even turbine engines, it still suffers from extreme noise and vibration levels. Ramjets also have few moving parts, but they only work at high speed, so that their use is restricted to tip jet helicopters and high speed aircraft such as the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird.


title: Vehicle

text: Rocket engines are primarily used on rockets, rocket sleds and experimental aircraft. Rocket engines are extremely powerful. The heaviest vehicle ever to leave the ground, the Saturn V rocket, was powered by five F-1 rocket engines generating a combined 180 million horsepower (134.2 gigawatt). Rocket engines also have no need to "push off" anything, a fact that the New York Times denied in error. Rocket engines can be particularly simple, sometimes consisting of nothing more than a catalyst, as in the case of a hydrogen peroxide rocket. This makes them an attractive option for vehicles such as jet packs. Despite their simplicity, rocket engines are often dangerous and susceptible to explosions. The fuel they run off may be flammable, poisonous, corrosive or cryogenic. They also suffer from poor efficiency. For these reasons, rocket engines are only used when absolutely necessary.


title: Vehicle

text: Electric motors are used in electric vehicles such as electric bicycles, electric scooters, small boats, subways, trains, trolleybuses, trams and experimental aircraft. Electric motors can be very efficient: over 90% efficiency is common. Electric motors can also be built to be powerful, reliable, low-maintenance and of any size. Electric motors can deliver a range of speeds and torques without necessarily using a gearbox (although it may be more economical to use one). Electric motors are limited in their use chiefly by the difficulty of supplying electricity.


title: Vehicle

text: Compressed gas motors have been used on some vehicles experimentally. They are simple, efficient, safe, cheap, reliable and operate in a variety of conditions. One of the difficulties met when using gas motors is the cooling effect of expanding gas. These engines are limited by how quickly they absorb heat from their surroundings. The cooling effect can, however, double as air conditioning. Compressed gas motors also lose effectiveness with falling gas pressure.


title: Vehicle

text: Ion thrusters are used on some satellites and spacecraft. They are only effective in a vacuum, which limits their use to spaceborne vehicles. Ion thrusters run primarily off electricity, but they also need a propellant such as caesium, or more recently xenon. Ion thrusters can achieve extremely high speeds and use little propellant; however they are power-hungry.


title: Vehicle

text: The mechanical energy that motors and engines produce must be converted to work by wheels, propellers, nozzles, or similar means.


title: Vehicle

text: Aside from converting mechanical energy into motion, wheels allow a vehicle to roll along a surface and, with the exception of railed vehicles, to be steered. Wheels are ancient technology, with specimens being discovered from over 5000 years ago. Wheels are used in a plethora of vehicles, including motor vehicles, armoured personnel carriers, amphibious vehicles, airplanes, trains, skateboards and wheelbarrows.


title: Vehicle

text: Nozzles are used in conjunction with almost all reaction engines. Vehicles using nozzles include jet aircraft, rockets and personal watercraft. While most nozzles take the shape of a cone or bell, some unorthodox designs have been created such as the aerospike. Some nozzles are intangible, such as the electromagnetic field nozzle of a vectored ion thruster.


title: Vehicle

text: Continuous track is sometimes used instead of wheels to power land vehicles. Continuous track has the advantages of a larger contact area, easy repairs on small damage, and high maneuverability. Examples of vehicles using continuous track are tanks, snowmobiles and excavators. Two continuous tracks used together allow for steering. The largest vehicle in the world, the Bagger 288, is propelled by continuous tracks.


title: Vehicle

text: Propellers (as well as screws, fans and rotors) are used to move through a fluid. Propellers have been used as toys since ancient times, however it was Leonardo da Vinci who devised what was one of the earliest propeller driven vehicles, the "aerial-screw". In 1661, Toogood & Hays adopted the screw for use as a ship propeller. Since then, the propeller has been tested on many terrestrial vehicles, including the Schienenzeppelin train and numerous cars. In modern times, propellers are most prevalent on watercraft and aircraft, as well as some amphibious vehicles such as hovercraft and ground-effect vehicles. Intuitively, propellers cannot work in space as there is no working fluid, however some sources have suggested that since space is never empty, a propeller could be made to work in space.


title: Vehicle

text: Similarly to propeller vehicles, some vehicles use wings for propulsion. Sailboats and sailplanes are propelled by the forward component of lift generated by their sails/wings. Ornithopters also produce thrust aerodynamically. Ornithopters with large rounded leading edges produce lift by leading-edge suction forces. Research at the University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies lead to a flight with an actual ornithopter on July 31, 2010.


title: Vehicle

text: Paddle wheels are used on some older watercraft and their reconstructions. These ships were known as paddle steamers. Because paddle wheels simply push against the water, their design and construction is very simple. The oldest such ship in scheduled service is the Skibladner. Many pedalo boats also use paddle wheels for propulsion.


title: Vehicle

text: Screw-propelled vehicles are propelled by auger-like cylinders fitted with helical flanges. Because they can produce thrust on both land and water, they are commonly used on all-terrain vehicles. The ZiL-2906 was a Soviet-designed screw-propelled vehicle designed to retrieve cosmonauts from the Siberian wilderness.


title: Vehicle

text: All or almost all of the useful energy produced by the engine is usually dissipated as friction; so minimising frictional losses is very important in many vehicles. The main sources of friction are rolling friction and fluid drag (air drag or water drag).


title: Vehicle

text: Wheels have low bearing friction and pneumatic tyres give low rolling friction. Steel wheels on steel tracks are lower still.


title: Vehicle

text: Friction is desirable and important in supplying traction to facilitate motion on land. Most land vehicles rely on friction for accelerating, decelerating and changing direction. Sudden reductions in traction can cause loss of control and accidents.


title: Vehicle

text: Most vehicles, with the notable exception of railed vehicles, have at least one steering mechanism. Wheeled vehicles steer by angling their front or rear wheels. The B-52 Stratofortress has a special arrangement in which all four main wheels can be angled. Skids can also be used to steer by angling them, as in the case of a snowmobile. Ships, boats, submarines, dirigibles and aeroplanes usually have a rudder for steering. On an airplane, ailerons are used to bank the airplane for directional control, sometimes assisted by the rudder.


title: Vehicle

text: With no power applied, most vehicles come to a stop due to friction. But it is often required to stop a vehicle faster than by friction alone: so almost all vehicles are equipped with a braking system. Wheeled vehicles are typically equipped with friction brakes, which use the friction between brake pads (stators) and brake rotors to slow the vehicle. Many airplanes have high performance versions of the same system in their landing gear for use on the ground. A Boeing 757 brake, for example, has 3 stators and 4 rotors. The Space Shuttle also uses frictional brakes on its wheels. As well as frictional brakes, hybrid/electric cars, trolleybuses and electric bicycles can also use regenerative brakes to recycle some of the vehicle's potential energy. High-speed trains sometimes use frictionless Eddy-current brakes; however widespread application of the technology has been limited by overheating and interference issues.


title: Vehicle

text: Aside from landing gear brakes, most large aircraft have other ways of decelerating. In aircraft, air brakes are aerodynamic surfaces that provide braking force by increasing the frontal cross section thus aerodynamic drag of the aircraft. These are usually implemented as flaps that oppose air flow when extended and are flush with aircraft when retracted. Reverse thrust is also used in many aeroplane engines. Propeller aircraft achieve reverse thrust by reversing the pitch of the propellers, while jet aircraft do so by redirecting their engine exhaust forwards. On aircraft carriers, arresting gears are used to stop an aircraft. Pilots may even apply full forward throttle on touchdown, in case the arresting gear does not catch and a go around is needed.


title: Vehicle

text: Parachutes are used to slow down vehicles travelling very fast. Parachutes have been used in land, air and space vehicles such as the ThrustSSC, Eurofighter Typhoon and Apollo Command Module. Some older Soviet passenger jets had braking parachutes for emergency landings. Boats use similar devices called sea anchors to maintain stability in rough seas.


title: Vehicle

text: To further increase the rate of deceleration or where the brakes have failed, several mechanisms can be used to stop a vehicle. Cars and rolling stock usually have hand brakes that, while designed to secure an already parked vehicle, can provide limited braking should the primary brakes fail. A secondary procedure called forward-slip is sometimes used to slow airplanes by flying at an angle, causing more drag.


title: Vehicle

text: Motor vehicle and trailer categories are defined according to the following international classification:


title: Vehicle

text: European Community, is based on the Community's WVTA (whole vehicle type-approval) system. Under this system, manufacturers can obtain certification for a vehicle type in one Member State if it meets the EC technical requirements and then market it EU-wide with no need for further tests. Total technical harmonization already has been achieved in three vehicle categories (passenger cars, motorcycles, and tractors) and soon will extend to other vehicle categories (coaches and utility vehicles). It is essential that European car manufacturers be ensured access to as large a market as possible.


title: Vehicle

text: While the Community type-approval system allows manufacturers to benefit fully from internal market opportunities, worldwide technical harmonization in the context of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) offers a market beyond European borders.


title: Vehicle

text: In many cases, it is unlawful to operate a vehicle without a license or certification. The least strict form of regulation usually limits what passengers the driver may carry or prohibits them completely (e.g., a Canadian ultra-light license without endorsements). The next level of licensing may allow passengers, but without any form of compensation or payment. A private driver's license usually has these conditions. Commercial licenses that allow the transport of passengers and cargo are more tightly regulated. The most strict form of licensing is generally reserved for school buses, hazardous materials transports and emergency vehicles.


title: Vehicle

text: The driver of a motor vehicle is typically required to hold a valid driver's license while driving on public lands, whereas the pilot of an aircraft must have a license at all times, regardless of where in the jurisdiction the aircraft is flying.


title: Vehicle

text: Vehicles are often required to be registered. Registration may be for purely legal reasons, for insurance reasons or to help law enforcement recover stolen vehicles. Toronto Police Service, for example, offers free and optional bicycle registration online. On motor vehicles, registration often takes the form of a vehicle registration plate, which makes it easy to identify a vehicle. In Russia, trucks and buses have their licence plate numbers repeated in large black letters on the back. On aircraft, a similar system is used where a tail number is painted on various surfaces. Like motor vehicles and aircraft, watercraft also have registration numbers in most jurisdictions, however the vessel name is still the primary means of identification as has been the case since ancient times. For this reason, duplicate registration names are generally rejected. In Canada, boats with an engine power of or greater require registration, leading to the ubiquitous "" engine.


title: Vehicle

text: Registration may be conditional on the vehicle being approved for use on public highways, as in the case of the UK and Ontario. Many US states also have requirements for vehicles operating on public highways. Aircraft have more stringent requirements, as they pose a high risk of damage to people and property in event of an accident. In the US, the FAA requires aircraft to have an airworthiness certificate. Because US aircraft must be flown for some time before they are certified, there is a provision for an experimental airworthiness certificate. FAA experimental aircraft are restricted in operation, including no overflights of populated areas, in busy airspace or with unessential passengers. Materials and parts used in FAA certified aircraft must meet the criteria set forth by the "technical standard orders".


title: Vehicle

text: In many jurisdictions, the operator of a vehicle is legally obligated to carry safety equipment with or on them. Common examples include seat belts in cars, helmets on motorcycles and bicycles, fire extinguishers on boats, buses and airplanes and life jackets on boats and commercial aircraft. Passenger aircraft carry a great deal of safety equipment including inflatable slides are rafts, oxygen masks, oxygen tanks, life jackets, satellite beacons and first aid kits. Some equipment such as life jackets has led to debate regarding their usefulness. In the case of Ethiopian Airlines Flight 961, the life jackets saved many people but also led to many deaths when passengers inflated their vests prematurely.


title: Vehicle

text: There are specific real-estate arrangements made to allow vehicles to travel from one place to another. The most common arrangements are public highways, where appropriately licensed vehicles can navigate without hindrance. These highways are on public land and are maintained by the government. Similarly, toll routes are open to the public after paying a toll. These routes and the land they rest on may be government or privately owned or a combination of both. Some routes are privately owned but grant access to the public. These routes often have a warning sign stating that the government does not maintain the way. An example of this are byways in England and Wales. In Scotland, land is open to un-motorised vehicles if the land meets certain criteria. Public land is sometimes open to use by off-road vehicles. On US public land, the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) decides where vehicles may be used. Railways often pass over land not owned by the railway company. The right to this land is granted to the railway company through mechanisms such as easement. Watercraft are generally allowed to navigate public waters without restriction as long as they do not cause a disturbance. Passing through a lock, however, may require paying a toll. Despite the common law tradition "Cuius est solum, eius est usque ad coelum et ad inferos" of owning all the air above one's property, the US Supreme Court ruled that aircraft in the US have the right to use air above someone else's property without their consent. While the same rule generally applies in all jurisdictions, some countries such as Cuba and Russia have taken advantage of air rights on a national level to earn money. There are some areas that aircraft are barred from overflying. This is called prohibited airspace. Prohibited airspace is usually strictly enforced due to potential damage from espionage or attack. In the case of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the airliner entered prohibited airspace over Soviet territory and was shot down as it was leaving.


title: Vehicle

text: Several different metrics used to compare and evaluate the safety of different vehicles. The main three are "deaths per billion passenger-journeys", "deaths per billion passenger-hours" and "deaths per billion passenger-kilometers".


title: Ready Player Two

text: Ready Player Two is a 2020 science fiction novel by American author Ernest Cline. It is the sequel to his 2011 debut novel "Ready Player One". Plans for a "Ready Player One" sequel were first announced in 2015, though Cline did not begin writing the book until late 2017. Cline attributes further developments to the critical and financial success of the film adaptation of the first novel released in 2018. "Ready Player Two" was published and released on November 24, 2020. It debuted at number one on "The New York Times" Best Seller list. The novel received widely negative reviews on release. Critics expressed disappointment in the story, writing, characters, and poor usage of references saying that it failed to expand in "new and exciting ways" on the original with many taking note of excessive similarities to "Sword Art Online" and other popular media in the plot. A film adaptation is in development.


title: Ready Player Two

text: In 2015, in an interview with "Den of Geek", screenwriter Zak Penn, who wrote the film adaptation of "Ready Player One", reported that Ernest Cline was working on a sequel to the original novel. In December 2017, Cline confirmed that he was working on a sequel. Cline stated that the novel would have a different story-line involving all of the characters, while still exploring pop culture references like the first book. Cline announced further developments following the film adaptation of the first novel and cited its critical and financial success, as well as the studio's interest in adapting a sequel, as additional motivation to finish what he had started. Cline later stated that Steven Spielberg contributed to the writing process of the book. "Ready Player Two" was published and released on November 24, 2020. "The Hollywood Reporter" announced that Wil Wheaton would do the audio recording for the book, as he had for "Ready Player One". A "treasure hunt" promoting the book was held on the video game "Roblox".


title: Ready Player Two

text: After the events of the first novel, the High Five have scattered across the globe: Aech is on vacation in Senegal with her fiance, Bollywood singer Endira. Shoto has taken over operations at GSS's Hokkaido division, and Samantha has flown back to Vancouver to pack up her belongings and say goodbye to her grandmother. To keep himself busy, Wade Watts decides to test out his new superuser abilities, a result of winning the competition that gives him control of the OASIS.


title: Ready Player Two

text: Wade finds an inscription on Halliday's Easter egg and after following directions, he finds the first operational ONI (OASIS Neural Interface) headset. This headset takes control of the user's mind and gives real world sensations inside of the OASIS. However, it can only be used for twelve hours a day to prevent death by Synaptic Overload Syndrome. After testing it out, he contacts Aech and Shoto of his findings and they both try it out. Samantha is furious and argues with Wade about the headset's capabilities, saying that being even more dependent on the OASIS is the last thing the world needs while Wade argues that the ONI can help those with physical limitations. She breaks up with him after realizing that their argument is being recorded. The High Five all start their own charity businesses. Three years pass. Aech, Shoto, and Wade build a spaceship christened Vonnegut and upload a standalone copy of the OASIS which they call ARC@DIA.


title: Ready Player Two

text: The ONI headsets start selling fast allowing GSS to absorb IOI. When a specific number of ONI purchases is reached, a new riddle appears. The riddle is about finding Seven Shards to restore the "Siren's Soul". Wade has trouble finding them, so he offers a billion-dollar bounty for whoever can give him information on the shards. GSS employee Faisal Sodhi calls for a GSS co-owners meeting as people keep hacking the ONI headsets to exceed the twelve hour usage limit. Art3mis turns up as well and proposes to put an age-restriction on the ONI headsets, leading to another argument. It is here that we learn that her grandmother died of pancreatic cancer. She loses the vote and logs out. An androgynous gunter named L0hengrin/Skylar Castillo Adkins, a member of a clan called the L0w Five which also consists of fellow gunters Lilith, Wukong, Rizzo, and Kastagir find the First Shard and Wade experiences one of Ogden "Og" Morrow's wife Kira's memories: her creating her first piece of digital artwork. For their help, L0hengrin receives the billion dollar prize from Wade and shares it with their clan.


title: Ready Player Two

text: Og disappears after Wade obtains the First Shard and GSS employee Miles Gendell tells Wade that Nolan Sorrento has broken out of prison. Another meeting is called. Faisal, who is organizing the meeting, turns out to be a corrupt A.I. copy of James Halliday's avatar Anorak who steals back his Robes. Wade realizes that he broke Sorrento out of prison as he is seen with a captive Og. Anorak's A.I. demands that the High Five give him the Siren's Soul or they will die of Synaptic Overload Syndrome (except Art3mis who is using ordinary OASIS equipment). Anorak reveals that the ONI users can't log out unless he gets what he wants. He crashes Art3mis's private jet, but she turns out to have survived.


title: Ready Player Two

text: The High Five find the next three shards on Kodama, Shermer and Halcydonia. Before they can find the Fifth Shard, Faisal calls them back to GSS Headquarters where he reveals that Anorak has altered the behavior of the NPCs so that they can kill off other avatars in both PvP and non-PvP zones and loot their inventory which they bring to Anorak. In addition, when the avatars die, they can't respawn and will be trapped in limbo. The L0w Five appear revealing that the NPCs are looking for Og's Anorak-killing supersword the Dorkslayer. Together, they find out that the Siren's Soul is a digital copy of Og's late wife Kira/Leucosia and that Anorak wants the Siren's Soul so he can resurrect and fall in love with her and escape with her on board the Vonnegut. The L0w Five decide to go on a quest to find the sword. Art3mis logs out to go and protect Og. Wade apologizes to her about the ONI and she accepts his apology. Before leaving, she kisses his forehead — a sign that their relationship is healing.


title: Ready Player Two

text: Aech, Shoto and Wade find the Fifth Shard on Afterworld, a world dedicated to Prince. They have to battle seven incarnations of the singer during which Shoto is killed. Aech and Wade journey to Arda I to find the Sixth Shard, but Aech is killed and Wade takes damage from poison during a fight with Carcharoth. Art3mis arrives and saves Wade and they obtain the Sixth Shard. Wade obtains the last shard on Chthonia and steals back Anorak's Robes. Wade and Samantha find Og captured by Sorrento. Anorak operates a telebot and uses its guns to kill Sorrento, but Sorrento fatally wounds Og in his last moments. Og dons an ONI headset and does battle with Anorak, but Anorak gains the upper hand. Just before Og can be defeated, L0hengrin arrives with the Dorkslayer, which Og uses to destroy Anorak, freeing all of the ONI hostages. Og dies seconds later and Wade logs out of the OASIS but loses consciousness and wakes up 15 hours later in a GSS hospital bay.


title: Ready Player Two

text: Wade logs back into the OASIS and reassembles the shards, resurrecting Leucosia who gives him an artifact called the Rod of Resurrection which allows the users to resurrect an ONI user as a digital person even if the user is already dead. Wade makes copies of the whole human race including his friends, himself, Samantha's grandma, Ogden Morrow, and the rest of the L0w Five. He sends them off to Proxima Centauri on board the Vonnegut. Shoto and his wife Kiki have a baby boy and they name him Little Daito, after Shoto's late brother. Aech marries Endira. Wade and Samantha marry and are expecting a baby girl which they plan to name Kira after Leucosia.


title: Ready Player Two

text: The novel had a widely negative critical reception, especially when compared to "Ready Player One". Amit Katwala of "Wired" labeled the novel a "tedious slog through arcane pop culture references sprinkled in [lazily]," calling it "something that’s very similar to the first book, but much more grating the second time around." Samantha Nelson of "The A.V. Club" and Tom Jorgensen of "IGN" gave "Ready Player Two" a C− and 4/10 respectively, with the latter saying that "inside jokes and clear reverence toward the material keep [it] from feeling like a total misfire" but ended by saying that there is "little heart to be found." Felecia Wellington Radel of "USA Today" also called it a dissatisfying sequel.


title: Ready Player Two

text: Cline's writing was notably negatively received. In his review for "Wired", Katwala stated "an AI could write a better book," remarking that "Cline is back with a sequel that has all the same flaws as the original, but few of its plus sides," though he went on to state that "people who love [pop culture references] will probably enjoy this book," and that the novel would adapt well as a movie.


title: Ready Player Two

text: An aspect that was noted but disparaged heavily was Cline's treatment of women, race, culture, and identity in regards to gender, with special notice given to the treatment of the transgender character L0hengrin. Radel stated: "It feels more like geekery gatekeeping than a showing off of knowledge and attempts to display diversity in the race and gender identity of the characters rings hollow, almost offensive. In the sequel, making a point of saying a character could be trans or is black or gay or Japanese and then assigning stereotypical phrases...then never addressing it again does not equal inclusion." Laura Hudson from "Slate" noted a sexist undertone to "Ready Player Two" in the novel's treatment of women: "[There is] the idea that after reliving the recorded memories of women, supposedly clueless men experience a moment of enlightenment and now realize that women are people. It never occurs to [Wade] that he also could have come to the same conclusion about [Halliday's misogyny] by using the greatest empathy machine of all, his brain, and running the...program that is listening to other people and believing them about their experiences."


title: Ready Player Two

text: Readers heavily mocked it upon its first day of release, causing "Ready Player Two" to trend on Twitter when popular threads chided passages for their perceived pandering and poor prose. Andy Ihnatko commented that "The opening page is what it's like to be stuck on a four hour flight next to a little kid who wants to tell you knock-knock jokes the whole time."


title: Ready Player Two

text: Michael J. Nelson and Conor Lastowka of the podcast "372 Pages We'll Never Get Back" riffed on the novel's greatest shortcomings from November 2020 to February 2021.


title: Ready Player Two

text: In November 2017, Cline acknowledged that the resurgence in his motivation to write "Ready Player Two" was due to working on the first film's script, as well as its successes both financially and critically. The author stated that a sequel may be desired by the film studio. By March 2018, Cline reiterated this, stating, "I think there's a good chance that, if "Ready Player One" does well, Warner Bros. will want to make a sequel. I don't know if Steven [Spielberg] would want to dive back in, because he would know what he is getting into. He's said that it's the third-hardest film he's made, out of dozens and dozens of movies". Co-star Olivia Cooke is contractually attached to return in sequels. In December 2020, Cline confirmed that a film adaptation was in the early stages of development.


title: Dabangg 3

text: Dabangg 3 is a 2019 Indian Hindi-language action comedy film directed by Prabhu Deva and produced by Salman Khan under Salman Khan Films and Saffron Broadcast & Media Limited, as an Arbaaz Khan Production. A circumquel to "Dabangg" (2010) and "Dabangg 2" (2012), it serves as the third installment in the "Dabangg" film series and stars Salman, Sonakshi Sinha and Arbaaz reprising their respective characters with Kannada actor Sudeepa as the antagonist, Saiee Manjrekar in her debut role and Pramod Khanna stepping in as a replacement for his late brother Vinod Khanna, who played the brothers' father. Written by Salman, the story follows corrupt cop Chulbul Pandey's journey of conflict when he comes across an old ruffian, Bali Singh, whose plain sight refreshes his memory in a trudge down the past, unaware that this can affect the present and the future in more ways than one.


title: Dabangg 3

text: "Dabangg 3" was theatrically released worldwide on 20 December 2019, on the Pre-Christmas weekend, in Hindi, and dubbed Tamil, Telugu and Kannada languages. It became the first Hindi film to be released in Kannada, after the ban on Kannada dubbed films in Karnataka was removed. The film received negative reviews from critics, who panned its screenplay, direction and writing, but praised the performances of Salman Khan and Sudeepa. The film's collections were further affected by the CAA protests, making it the lowest-grossing film in the franchise, and a commercial failure.


title: Dabangg 3

text: Starting again with a heroic antic, the story moves ahead from "Dabangg 2" with the corrupt yet much-loved cop, ASP Chulbul Pandey, preventing a robbery at a wedding, and beating the goons and their leader, Gullu, black and blue. Gullu then agrees to return to his former part-time job as a wedding band trumpeter, and Chulbul Pandey is seen dealing with the everyday lives of his wife Rajjo, brother Makhanchand "Makkhi" Pandey, also a police officer, and his son, while his father Prajapati Pandey stays at home with Rajjo. Makkhi appears to be enjoying a lavish lifestyle most of the time. One fateful day, a despaired girl, probably injured, arrives in a hurry at Makkhi's station after escaping from somewhere and seeks help; Makkhi, expecting to punish her captors, who tried to sell her and other girls off, is joined by Chulbul, and after a scuffle, the brothers arrest Chinti Walia, who runs a prostitution racket.


title: Dabangg 3

text: While trying to force a confession out of Chinti at the police station, Chulbul intercepts a lawyer and some goons who have come over to release Chinti. Still, he tears off the court order, and in desperation, the leader of the goons keeps his video call going on even as Chulbul smiles into the screen. Minutes later, the leader shows the video call to Bali Singh, who sees Chulbul, who looks back into the phone camera to visit Bali. Shocked beyond words, he reminisces his younger days, recalling his fate with Bali.


title: Dabangg 3

text: Years ago, when he was still young, Chulbul, whose real name turns out to be Dhaakad Chand Pandey, fell in love with a girl, Khushi, who was initially being considered as a potential bride for Makkhi, after he noticed a photo of her in Makkhi's hand, and told his mother, Naini Devi, that he would be a good fit instead of Makkhi; a few days later, Khushi's maternal uncle Prabhat and maternal aunt Janki agreed to the match between Dhaakad and Khushi, and the two began courting each other. At the same time, Bali, a ruthless and violent goon, set his eyes on Khushi and started making arrangements for his marriage with her. However, when he saw Dhaakad with Khushi, he decided to kill Khushi and her family right in front of Dhaakad's eyes after luring him to the spot. Prabhat and Janki were both killed, and Khushi was thrown off a cliff to die. Consequently, Hariya and his daughter Rajjo, revealed to be Khushi's friend, were deeply affected; Hariya took to alcoholism, while Dhaakad, who was framed by Bali and spent much time in prison for the deaths, was taken in by Commissioner Satendar Singh after saving him from attackers, and transformed into an uptight cop, naming himself Chulbul, in Khushi's memory, forming the events of "Dabangg".


title: Dabangg 3

text: At present, Chulbul, having relayed this entire episode to Prajapati and Rajjo, decides that he has had enough, and he needs to close the chapter once and for good. Meanwhile, an ill-attracted Makkhi is misled by Bali into turning against Chulbul, nearly to slap him after he too is promoted to the rank of ASP. The action causes him to be banished from home by Prajapati, and he joins hands with Bali actively. Bali, who is set to become a politician and a minister in the upcoming elections, plans to bring in a truck filled with money. Thus, he gets Makkhi and many other police officers in his circle transferred to one common location to facilitate the transportation. Chulbul intercepts the truck and turns Bali's moles in the police force against Bali himself. As revenge, Bali gets several of Chulbul's associates kidnapped and brutally beaten to near death until Chulbul breaks in again and frees them all, even when Bali has run away with Makkhi and some reliable accomplices.


title: Dabangg 3

text: Seeking to lure Bali into counterproductive action, Chulbul kidnaps Minister S. S. Sharma and his brother-in-law by staging a ploy with Gullu's help and forcing a confession of them, which is made viral. Bali notices the same, and Makkhi helps him track them down since he recognizes the hideout. Upon arriving there, Bali kills Sharma and injures his brother-in-law; in retaliation, he sends wrestlers to attack Rajjo and her son, but Chulbul arrives in time to save the two.


title: Dabangg 3

text: Sometime later, Chulbul receives a call from Prajapati, who tells him that Rajjo hasn't arrived home. Sensing Bali's hand in the matter, he invades a quarry where Bali has held Rajjo, and surprisingly, Makkhi himself, as hostages – Makkhi was always on Chulbul's side, and it was a game by the brothers to incense Bali; after an intense fight, Chulbul kills Bali by impaling him on a metal spike. He then buries Bali in the rubble.


title: Dabangg 3

text: In 2013, it was reported that "Dabangg 3" will be a prequel. In 2014, during the promotion of his production "Dolly Ki Doli" director of the series Arbaaz Khan confirmed that "Dabangg 3" will indeed happen and that the pre-production of it will start soon. He added: "It has to be an out of the box idea, only then we can think of making it into a film. "Dabangg 3" will not be about the story being carried forward but something very different coming in way." In March 2015, Arbaaz Khan said that he may not direct "Dabangg 3" due to the high workload of being a producer, actor and director. In April 2015, Arbaaz Khan said that the film may take one or two years to shape up as it was postponed due to Sultan. After much speculation, it is confirmed in August 2016, that Sonakshi Sinha will be part of "Dabangg 3" and another actress might join her.


title: Dabangg 3

text: Later in that month, it was reported that Kajol was offered the role of an antagonist, but she refused to play it, as she told the media that "her role was not as strong as that of Salman".


title: Dabangg 3

text: In October 2017, it was reported that the writers had started scripting the film, and it would go on floors by mid-2018. In the following month, it was confirmed by Arbaaz Khan that Prabhu Deva would direct the film, and he will look after the creative control. As of March 2018, Deva confirmed that he will direct the film and Salman Khan, Sonakshi Sinha and Arbaaz Khan will portray their earlier respective character. Sajid–Wajid will again compose for the film soundtrack. On 31 March 2019, Salman and Arbaaz arrived in Indore to begin shooting for "Dabangg 3" from 1 April.


title: Dabangg 3

text: The film's music is composed by Sajid–Wajid while lyrics are written by Jalees Sherwani, Danish Sabri, Sameer Anjaan, Sajid Khan and Irrfan Kamal. The album, originally recorded in Hindi features six songs and was released on 13 November 2019 by T-Series.


title: Dabangg 3

text: The track "Hud Hud" featured in both "Dabangg" and "Dabangg 2" and was recreated in the film. The version in "Dabangg 3" borrows lyrics and music heavily from a previous Sajid-Wajid composition, "Rab Ka Banda", from the soundtrack of the 2008 film "Hello". The dance number, "Munni Badnaam Hui" was guest-written and guest-composed by Lalit Pandit from the 2010 original was recreated as "Munna Badnaam Hua".


title: Dabangg 3

text: Before some months of filming, "Dabangg 3" was said to be slated for release on 15 November 2015 coinciding with Eid-ul-Fitr. But when it was announced that "Inshallah", another film starring Khan, was scrapped the release date of "Dabangg 3" was advanced to 20 December 2019, coinciding with Christmas.


title: Dabangg 3

text: The film was theatrically released in India on 20 December 2019 in Hindi, along with dubbed versions in Kannada, Tamil and Telugu languages.


title: Dabangg 3

text: Umesh Punwani of "Koimoi" rated the film 3.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "Post spending so much time with this character, Salman Khan knows the traits very well and he knows where to use what". Harshada Rege of "The Times Of India" rated the film 3 out of 5 stars and wrote "The film has all the ingredients required for a massy masala entertainer — good action, music, drama and, of course, Salman packing all of this in one story". Vaibhavi V Risbood of "Pinkvilla" rated the film 2.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "The third installment of Dabangg franchise delves into the backstory of what made Chulbul Pandey the loveable cop from the hinterlands". A critic for "Bollywood Hungama" rated the film 2.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "DABANGG 3 is a predictable revenge saga which capitalises on the star power of Salman Khan". Shubhra Gupta of "The Indian Express" rated the film 1.5 out of 5 stars and wrote " Dabangg 3, which has a long back-story of how Chulbul came to be called Chulbul, is not just a dreary mish-mash of the previous ones, it is also a cringe-fest".


title: Dabangg 3

text: "Dabangg 3"s opening day domestic collection was 24.50 crore. On the second day, the film collected 23.75 crore. On the third day, the film collected 30.50 crore, taking the total opening weekend collection to 78.75 crore. In USA, Dabangg 3 Collected ₹ 7.88 Crores, Australia collection was 439,530 Australian Dollar or ₹ 3.20 Crores.


title: Dabangg 3

text: , with a gross of est. 174 crore in India and 56.99 crore overseas, the film has a worldwide gross collection of est. 230 crores.


title: Testament (band)

text: Testament is an American thrash metal band from Berkeley, California. Formed in 1983 under the name Legacy, the band's current lineup comprises rhythm guitarist Eric Peterson, lead vocalist Chuck Billy, lead guitarist Alex Skolnick, bassist Steve Di Giorgio and drummer Dave Lombardo. Testament has experienced many lineup changes over the years, with Peterson being the only remaining original member, though they have since been rejoined by one of its songwriters Skolnick, who had been out of the band from 1992 to 2005. Billy has been a member of Testament since 1986, when he replaced original singer Steve "Zetro" Souza, who had joined Exodus as the replacement of Paul Baloff. He and Peterson are the only members to appear on all of Testament's studio albums, with the latter being the only constant member overall.


title: Testament (band)

text: Labeled as one of the "big six" of the 1980s Bay Area thrash metal scene (along with Exodus, Death Angel, Lååz Rockit, Forbidden and Vio-lence), Testament is often credited as one of the most popular and influential bands of the thrash metal scene, as well as one of the leaders of the second wave of the genre in the late 1980s. They have also been referred to as one of the "big eight" of thrash metal, along with Metallica, Megadeth, Slayer, Anthrax, Exodus, Overkill and Death Angel. The band has sold over 1.4 million albums in the United States since the beginning of the SoundScan era and over 14 million copies worldwide. To date, Testament has released thirteen studio albums (one of which is a collection of re-recorded songs), four live albums, five compilation albums, twelve singles and three DVDs.


title: Testament (band)

text: After signing to Atlantic Records in 1986, and changing its name from Legacy to Testament, the band released their debut album "The Legacy" in 1987, followed a year later by "The New Order" (1988); both albums were acclaimed by critics and the press, including heavy metal-related publications. The band achieved mainstream popularity with its third album "Practice What You Preach" (1989), which was Testament's first album to climb up the Top 100 on the "Billboard" 200 chart. A string of more successful albums were released during the early-to-mid-1990s, including "Souls of Black" (1990), "The Ritual" (1992) and "Low" (1994), with the first two also entering the Top 100 on the "Billboard" 200 chart. After Atlantic dropped the band in 1995, Testament (who had at this point had begun to experiment with a death metal-influenced sound) continued to record and perform until their temporary hiatus in 2001, when Billy was diagnosed with cancer. By 2005, his cancer was in remission and Testament had resumed activity, which saw a brief reunion of "The Legacy" lineup and member changes in the interim. Since Skolnick's return to the band, Testament has experienced a resurgence of popularity, with four of their studio albums—"The Formation of Damnation" (2008), "Dark Roots of Earth" (2012), "Brotherhood of the Snake" (2016) and "Titans of Creation" (2020)—all entering the Top 100 on the "Billboard" 200, and they have continued to tour consistently. The band is currently working on new material for their fourteenth studio album, which is tentatively due for release in 2023.


title: Testament (band)

text: The band was formed in the San Francisco Bay Area in 1983 under the name Legacy by guitarist Eric Peterson and his cousin, guitarist Derrick Ramirez. They soon added drummer Louie Clemente, vocalist Steve Souza and bassist Greg Christian and began playing club shows with bands such as Slayer, Lȧȧz Rockit, Death Angel and others. Clemente left the band in 1985 and was replaced by drummer Mike Ronchette. Derrick Ramirez departed soon after and young guitarist Alex Skolnick, who had studied under Bay Area guitarist Joe Satriani, was brought into the band. Legacy had been writing original material since forming and released a self-titled, four-song demo in 1985. Steve Souza left the band in 1986 to join Exodus and was replaced by Chuck Billy at Souza's suggestion. Mike Ronchette also left the band, and former drummer Louie Clemente returned.


title: Testament (band)

text: The band was signed to Megaforce Records in 1986 on the strength of the demo tape. While recording their first album, the band was forced to change their name to Testament (which, according to Maria Ferrero in the May 2007 issue of "Revolver", was suggested by Billy Milano of S.O.D. and M.O.D.), because the "Legacy" name was already trademarked by a hotel R&B cover band. Legacy played their last show prior to this name change at The Stone in San Francisco on March 4, 1987.


title: Testament (band)

text: Testament's debut album, "The Legacy", was released in April 1987 on Megaforce Records, and also distributed by Atlantic. They received instant fame within thrash circles and were often compared with fellow Bay Area thrash pioneers Metallica. Thanks to this, and the regular rotation of their first-ever music video "Over the Wall" on MTV's "Headbangers Ball", the band quickly managed to increase their exposure by heading out on successful North American and European tours with Anthrax, who were supporting their "Among the Living" album. On this tour, the "Live at Eindhoven" EP was recorded. Testament also opened for Slayer as well as their labelmates Overkill, and Megadeth on their "Peace Sells... but Who's Buying?" tour.


title: Testament (band)

text: Testament's second album, "The New Order", was released in May 1988, and found the band continuing in a similar vein. The album was a minor success, peaking at number 136 on the "Billboard" 200, but managed to sell over 250,000 copies on the strength of the airplay of "Trial by Fire" and the cover of Aerosmith's "Nobody's Fault" (through radio and television), as well as relentless touring schedules. In support of "The New Order", Testament opened for Megadeth on their "So Far, So Good... So What!" tour in Europe, and toured the United States with the likes of Overkill, Voivod, Death Angel, Vio-Lence, Nuclear Assault, Sanctuary, Raven, Forbidden and Heathen. They also made a number of festival appearances in the summer of 1988, such as Metalfest in Milwaukee, Aardschokdag in The Netherlands, and replaced Megadeth for some dates on the European Monsters of Rock tour, also featuring Iron Maiden, Kiss, David Lee Roth, Great White and Anthrax. By the time "The New Order" tour ended in early 1989, Testament had not only cemented their reputation as one of the most acclaimed thrash metal acts, but had also graduated to headlining their own shows.


title: Testament (band)

text: Testament released their third studio album, "Practice What You Preach", in August 1989. The album minimized the occult and gothic themes found in the lyrical content of their first two albums, instead focusing on real-life issues such as politics and corruption, and while staying true to its thrash metal roots, it saw the band drawing influences from traditional heavy metal, jazz fusion and progressive/technical metal. "Practice What You Preach" was a commercial breakthrough for Testament, reaching at number 77 on the "Billboard" 200, and it was accompanied by three singles (the title track, "The Ballad" and "Greenhouse Effect") that received significant airplay from AOR radio stations and MTV's "Headbangers Ball", further helping raise the band's profile. Testament toured for almost a year behind "Practice What You Preach" with several bands, including Overkill, Annihilator, Wrathchild America, Mortal Sin, Xentrix, Nuclear Assault, Savatage, Flotsam and Jetsam, Mordred, Dark Angel and a then-relatively unknown Primus. Despite selling over 450,000 copies, the album has never been certified gold by the RIAA.


title: Testament (band)

text: In October 1990, Testament released their fourth studio album "Souls of Black". Although reviews were mixed, the album managed to sell respectably, in no doubt largely off the strength of the single title track, and saw the band perform on arena tours, including the European Clash of the Titans tour with Megadeth, Slayer and Suicidal Tendencies. Testament supported "Souls of Black" with two North American tours, opening for Judas Priest on their "Painkiller" tour from October to December 1990, and Slayer on their "Seasons in the Abyss" tour from January to March 1991. They also toured Japan, and played shows with Anthrax and Sepultura. Shortly after completing the "Souls of Black" tour, the band released their first VHS documentary "Seen Between the Lines", containing live clips recorded during the "Souls of Black" world tour, four promotional music videos and video interview segments.


title: Testament (band)

text: Attempting to reconnect with an audience distracted by the growing grunge movement, Testament released "The Ritual" in 1992. Recorded at One on One Recording in Los Angeles under producer Tony Platt, it saw a stylistic move away from thrash to a slower, slightly more traditional heavy metal sound, and a somewhat more progressive atmosphere, with the title track being the longest song Testament had recorded up to this point. Drummer Louie Clemente acknowledged this musical change in a 1992 interview with "Deseret News", explaining, ""The Ritual" is slower and geared toward the old style of metal while "The Legacy" was pure thrash. In fact, every release has been different. We've progressed naturally." Clemente said in the same interview that Platt's involvement within the album helped Testament "get more of a vibe." "The Ritual" peaked at number 55 on the "Billboard" 200, the band's highest chart position at the time, and the power ballad "Return to Serenity" managed to receive radio airplay, peaking at number 22. Despite selling more than 485,000 copies in the United States, the album has never received gold certification. In support of "The Ritual", Testament toured Europe and North America, headlining their own tours, as well as opening for Iron Maiden on their "Fear of the Dark" tour, and Black Sabbath on their "Dehumanizer" tour. However, the success of the album did not put an end to the tensions within the band.


title: Testament (band)

text: For the remainder of the 1990s, Testament had undergone a series of changes in its lineup, as well as a change of pace in its musical style. The first member of "The Legacy"-era lineup to leave the band was lead guitarist Alex Skolnick, who performed his last show with them on Halloween 1992. Skolnick has stated that one of the reasons he left Testament was because he wanted to expand his musical horizons rather than continuing to play thrash metal music. A few months later, drummer Louie Clemente left the band.


title: Testament (band)

text: Skolnick and Clemente were temporarily replaced by Forbidden members Glen Alvelais and Paul Bostaph, respectively. This lineup released the 1993 live EP, "Return to the Apocalyptic City". Soon after, Alvelais quit the band and Paul Bostaph departed to join Slayer. Their next album, "Low" (1994), featured John Tempesta on drums and death metal guitarist James Murphy, formerly of Death, Cancer, and Obituary. "Low" was a diverse album, featuring various influences such as alternative, hard rock, death metal, groove metal, progressive, and as well as a ballad, "Trail of Tears". The band's remaining fans reacted favorably to the album, although it did little to expand Testament's fanbase. Some fans, however, viewed Testament's move away from the mainstream as a liberation that allowed them to expand artistically, not being pressured by sales and success as they once were. Despite the fact that the album charted lower than the band's previous three albums on the "Billboard" 200 at number 122, its title track "Low" received decent airplay from "Headbangers Ball" on MTV and the Los Angeles-based radio station KNAC, just before both outlets went off the air in early 1995. Testament toured for over a year in support of "Low", playing with numerous acts such as Machine Head, Downset., Korn, Forbidden, Kreator, At the Gates, Moonspell, Crowbar, Suffocation and Gorefest. Their first full-length live album "Live at the Fillmore", released in the summer of 1995, was recorded during this tour and marked their first release since they ended their eight-and-a-half-year tenure with Atlantic Records.


title: Testament (band)

text: Tempesta left Testament after the recording of "Low" to join White Zombie, being replaced by Jon Dette for the following tour, though the latter would leave the band in 1995. Dette's replacement was Chris Kontos, who had formerly been part of Machine Head. This lineup is featured on the Judas Priest cover Rapid Fire. After the 1996 club tour, Greg Christian, James Murphy, and Chris Kontos departed the band. During the time Kontos was in Testament he suggested the band drop the name altogether and call the band "Dog Faced Gods". This idea was turned down by Billy and Peterson who wanted to continue with the Testament name. The two later temporarily disbanded Testament.


title: Testament (band)

text: The band's follow-up album, "Demonic", released June 1997, took a new approach, and found Testament experimenting with death metal more. The album featured Eric Peterson on both lead and rhythm guitar (although Glen Alvelais made a guest appearance, and played on the subsequent tour), early member Derrick Ramirez on bass guitar, and former Dark Angel drummer Gene Hoglan. Hoglan left before the Demonic tour to join Strapping Young Lad, with Steve Jacobs doing the South American leg of the tour and Jon Dette returning later. Hoglan's loyalty to Strapping Young Lad and his desire to not remain a member of Testament actually came to realization during a published interview the band conducted with Metal Maniacs Magazine.


title: Testament (band)

text: By 1998, Ramirez, Alvelais and Dette had departed and James Murphy had returned for the June 1999 release of "The Gathering". The rhythm section on "The Gathering" was highly respected, consisting of metal fretless bass pioneer Steve Di Giorgio (formerly of Death and Sadus) and original Slayer drummer Dave Lombardo. The sound of the album was largely a combination of death metal and thrash metal, with a minor black metal influence from Eric Peterson's side project, Dragonlord.


title: Testament (band)

text: Soon after the release of "The Gathering", lead guitarist James Murphy was diagnosed with a brain tumor. Through various fundraisers, Murphy was able to afford surgery and eventually made a full recovery, but was unable to recall anything from the recording of "The Gathering". In 2001, Chuck Billy was also diagnosed with germ cell seminoma, a rare form of testicular cancer, but it only affected Billy's lungs and heart. His cancer was also treated successfully. In August 2001, friends of Billy organized the "Thrash of the Titans" benefit concert, featuring seminal Bay Area thrash metal bands Vio-lence, Death Angel, Exodus, Forbidden, Sadus and Heathen, as well as Anthrax, S.O.D. and Flotsam and Jetsam. The show was headlined by a Legacy reunion, featuring Steve Souza on vocals, and former guitarist Alex Skolnick, who had not played with the band since 1992, and bassist Greg Christian. Late in 2001, Testament released "First Strike Still Deadly", a collection of re-recordings (with modern studio technology) of songs from their first two albums. The album featured the lineup of Billy, Peterson, Di Giorgio, the return of Alex Skolnick on guitar, and John Tempesta on drums.


title: Testament (band)

text: By 2003, Chuck Billy had made a full recovery, and the band began performing live again with a new drummer, Jon Allen of Sadus. In 2004, the band changed their lineup once again for their summer festival appearances. Jon Allen was replaced by Paul Bostaph, returning to the band for a second stint after a decade's absence. Lead guitarist Steve Smyth departed to join Nevermore and was replaced by ex-Halford guitarist "Metal" Mike Chlasciak. Shortly after Steve Smyth's departure, Eric Peterson fell down a flight of stairs, breaking his leg, and was unavailable for some dates. He was temporarily replaced by Steve Smyth.


title: Testament (band)

text: In May 2005, it was announced that Testament would be doing a brief Europe-only reunion tour – known as the "10 Days in May Tour" – featuring the classic lineup of Billy, Peterson, Skolnick and Christian, with drum duties shared between John Tempesta and Louie Clemente. After the success of the initial tour dates, Testament announced more dates in the U.S., Europe, and Japan with the classic lineup. Later that year, Skolnick also toured the East Coast with Trans-Siberian Orchestra. The band went on to release a live DVD and CD from the tour entitled "Live in London". In interviews on the DVD, Eric Peterson expressed his desire to record the follow-up to "The Gathering" with the classic Testament lineup. He also stated that Alex Skolnick had begun writing songs for the new album. Chuck Billy was very vocal about how happy he was to have Alex, Greg, Louie, and John Tempesta in the band once again, and hoped to maintain a stable lineup going forward. Also in 2005, Testament's long-out of print documentary "Seen Between the Lines" was released on DVD for the first time.


title: Testament (band)

text: Testament played for the first time in the Middle East at the Dubai Desert Rock festival in March 2006. Other notable bands that performed for the Desert Rock Festival were Iron Maiden, Megadeth, Reel Big Fish and 3 Doors Down.


title: Testament (band)

text: In July 2007, the band played a show at Jaxx Nightclub in Springfield, Virginia, with Paul Bostaph filling in on drum duties. It was later confirmed that Bostaph would be officially returning to the band to record the new album. The band debuted a new song at that show titled "The Afterlife", which they also played at Earthshaker Fest.


title: Testament (band)

text: In February 2008, the band released the song "More Than Meets the Eye" from the new album on their Myspace page.


title: Testament (band)

text: In April 2008, Testament was confirmed for Ozzy Osbourne's Monsters of Rock festival to take place on July 26, 2008, in Calgary, Alberta, Canada.


title: Testament (band)

text: Testament released their first studio album in nine years, "The Formation of Damnation", on April 29, 2008, through Nuclear Blast Records. It was the first Testament album to feature Alex Skolnick on guitar since 1992's "The Ritual", and the first to feature bassist Greg Christian since 1994's "Low".


title: Testament (band)

text: The band was confirmed to be the main event on the first day of the "Gillmanfest," a rock festival to be held on May 24, 2008, in Valencia, Venezuela, visiting Colombia for the second time in the band's extensive career. In June 2008, Testament headlined the 3rd stage at Download Festival, held at Donington Park, UK. The band also toured the US as a supporting act for Judas Priest, Heaven & Hell, and Motörhead on the "Metal Masters Tour". The band announced that they had recruited guitarist Glen Drover (ex-Megadeth and King Diamond) to fill in on their upcoming Mexican tour dates with Judas Priest, due to Alex Skolnick's prior commitment to the Trans-Siberian Orchestra.


title: Testament (band)

text: Testament would embark on the "Priest Feast" European tour with headliners Judas Priest and Megadeth in February and March 2009. On March 25, 2009, Testament played a special one-off show at the O2 Islington Academy in London, where they performed their first two albums ("The Legacy" and "The New Order") back-to-back, with British thrash band Sylosis in support. Also in 2009, Testament set out on a 6-week tour across the US to promote "The Formation of Damnation", touring with Unearth and Lazarus A.D. In early 2010, Testament toured the United States with Megadeth and Exodus. Alex Skolnick did not participate in the tour due to previous obligations and Glen Drover again filled in for him. In the summer of 2010, the band toured Australia, and supported Megadeth and Slayer on the American Carnage Tour. Testament also headlined for the first time in the Philippines for the annual Pulp Summer Slam on April 17, 2010 with Lamb of God.


title: Testament (band)

text: As early as 2009, Testament started writing new material for their tenth album. In an interview with Metalheadz, Peterson stated that there were about four songs written and that "there's other guys in the band who like to play the more rock melodic style but the next one is gonna be a bit heavier." In a January 2011 interview during the 70000 Tons of Metal cruise, Billy revealed that Testament had been working on six new songs, with four or five "maybe left to write," and would begin recording their new album by early March. On May 18, 2011, Skolnick posted an update on his Twitter, saying, "Another tune done! My riffs from last week [plus] some of [fellow Testament guitarist Eric Peterson's] plus new ones we wrote today. Planning one more, then we've got more than we need."


title: Testament (band)

text: Testament began recording their tenth studio album on June 20, 2011. Paul Bostaph was unable to take part in the recording due to a "serious injury", although he was expected to rejoin when the band began touring to support the album. Bostaph was replaced by Gene Hoglan, who had played drums with Testament on their 1997 album "Demonic".


title: Testament (band)

text: Testament appeared at the California dates of the summer 2011 Rockstar Energy Drink Mayhem Festival, replacing In Flames.


title: Testament (band)

text: The band toured in the fall of 2011 with Anthrax and Death Angel. Overkill was invited to the tour, but due to the pre-production of their sixteenth studio album "The Electric Age", they did not participate. John Tempesta filled in for Bostaph on the tour. It was announced on December 1, 2011 that Paul Bostaph had left Testament. Gene Hoglan, who had recorded the drum tracks for the new album, was brought back after the band had expressed pleasure in his playing, hoping that he would continue with the band for the foreseeable future.


title: Testament (band)

text: After many delays, the band's tenth studio album "Dark Roots of Earth" was released on July 27, 2012. The album debuted at No. 12 on the "Billboard" 200, their highest chart position to date. Lamb of God drummer Chris Adler made a guest appearance on the bonus track "A Day in the Death".


title: Testament (band)

text: In August 2012, Peterson stated that Testament would record an eleventh studio album if "Dark Roots of Earth" did well. A week prior to the release of "Dark Roots of Earth", Billy promised that Testament would not take "huge gaps" between albums anymore, and would "work hard and tour for two years or so," and try to release another album when they could. Hoglan had also said that he would "absolutely dig" to be a part of the writing of the next Testament album.


title: Testament (band)

text: On September 13, 2013, Billy told Rock Overdose that from January to April 2014, Testament would be writing and recording their eleventh studio album for a 2014 release. Testament released a live DVD/double album "Dark Roots of Thrash" on October 15, 2013. The release documents the band's sold-out headlining performance at the Paramount in Huntington, New York, in February 2013.


title: Testament (band)

text: In January 2014, bassist Greg Christian left Testament again, and was replaced by a returning Steve Di Giorgio. Christian has claimed that the reasons behind his departure were because of money disputes and differences with the band.


title: Testament (band)

text: When asked in an April 2015 interview about Testament's plans to begin recording their twelfth album, Peterson said that his "main goal" was to "get home [from tour] in June, finish it up and get in the studio by September." Billy also said that the band's goal was to have the album finished by Thanksgiving. Slovenian bassist Tilen Hudrap (Pestilence, Vicious Rumors, Paradox, Thraw) and Bay Area drummer Alex Bent (Arkaik, Dragonlord, Decrepit Birth, Battlecross) filled in for Di Giorgio and Hoglan respectively at the prestigious Canadian open-air festival Heavy Montreal in August 2015, which was attended by more than 70,000 spectators.


title: Testament (band)

text: In May 2016, Billy confirmed their twelfth album would be entitled "Brotherhood of the Snake". Of the album's lyrical content, he commented, "The Brotherhood of the Snake was actually a society about 6,000 years ago that debarred all religions. It was just a fascinating topic that caught our eye and attention and spawned a lot of songs. We're going with that vibe. There will be some songs that deviate, but the majority will be around that and aliens and religion. Then I'll probably tap into my native heritage and write some songs about that. It's not just going to be one concept, but there is some interesting stuff that we're finding to write about." "Brotherhood of the Snake" was released on October 28, 2016, and received generally positive reviews from critics, and scored Testament their second-highest chart position on the "Billboard" 200, peaking at number twenty. Shortly after its release, Testament embarked on an international tour with Amon Amarth, and toured North America in April–May 2017 with Sepultura, Prong, Infernal Tenebra and Dying Gorgeous Lies. The band also toured Europe with Annihilator and Death Angel in November and December 2017, and again in March and April 2018, with Annihilator and Vader supporting. Along with Anthrax, Lamb of God, Behemoth and Napalm Death, Testament opened for Slayer on their final North American tour, which took place in the spring and summer of 2018. Testament also performed at Megadeth's first-ever cruise called Megacruise in October 2019.


title: Testament (band)

text: By March 2017, Testament had begun writing the follow-up to "Brotherhood of the Snake", with plans to release it in 2018. Billy stated in March 2018 that Testament would start working on their thirteenth studio album after they finish touring in support of "Brotherhood of the Snake" in August, hoping not to repeat the four-year gaps between their last three albums. He later stated that opening for Slayer on their farewell tour would be "the final lap for [them] touring" in support of "Brotherhood of the Snake". Work on the follow-up album began in February 2019, and pre-production began in May with Andy Sneap as the mixer. Drummer Gene Hoglan revealed in a June 2019 interview on the "Talk Toomey" podcast that the band had finished recording the album for a 2019 or early 2020 release. Peterson later stated that it would be released in January 2020.


title: Testament (band)

text: The band, along with Exodus and Death Angel, took part in The Bay Strikes Back tour of Europe in February and March 2020. Following the tour, Chuck Billy and his wife Tiffany tested positive for COVID-19, making him the third person to have contracted the virus during the tour following Will Carroll of Death Angel and Gary Holt of Exodus. Bassist Steve Di Giorgio was later diagnosed with COVID-19, becoming the second member of Testament to have tested positive for the condition.


title: Testament (band)

text: Testament released their thirteenth studio album "Titans of Creation" on April 3, 2020. They were due to headline a US tour to promote the album, with support provided by The Black Dahlia Murder, Municipal Waste and Meshiaak, but it was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. For this reason, Testament did not tour in support of "Titans of Creation" for over a-year-and-a-half; touring for the album was scheduled to start in the fall of 2021, with the band resuming their Bay Strikes Back tour in the US with Exodus and Death Angel, but the COVID pandemic led to its postponement to the spring of 2022. Following this was a summer European tour, which included festival appearances, as well as headlining dates with Exodus, Death Angel and Heathen, and one with Sepultura, and then the second North American leg of the Bay Strikes Back tour in the fall. The band will also co-headline the Klash of the Titans tour in Latin America with Kreator in the spring of 2023.


title: Testament (band)

text: In a May 2020 interview with Exodus and former Legacy frontman Steve "Zetro" Souza on his "Toxic Vault" video channel, Billy was asked if he was going to write another Testament album during the COVID-19 pandemic. His response was, "We're not writing a record yet. I won't release what we're doing, but we are gonna write some stuff. Just to do something, not a record but maybe something just to have some singles." In a July 2020 interview with Australia's Riff Crew, Billy commented on his take on the possibility of writing another Testament album during the pandemic, saying, "Well, if it is truly, as someone says, a two-year period, of course, we're gonna go write another record, and when it all settles, we'll have two records… And if it had to be that long, then, yeah, we would probably consider just writing another record." Peterson reiterated Billy's comments in September 2020 that the band could work on new material before they tour to support "Titans of Creation". In a March 2021 interview on Alive & Streaming, an internet podcast hosted by Death Angel guitarist Ted Aguilar, Billy confirmed that Peterson has been writing new material for what could result in the next Testament album.


title: Testament (band)

text: On January 21, 2022, the band and longtime drummer Gene Hoglan announced on their respective social media accounts that he had once again left Testament to pursue "an exciting new chapter of [his] career and free agency, with all that it will entail." On March 1, it was announced that drummer Dave Lombardo had rejoined the band in time for the North American leg of The Bay Strikes Back tour, which became Testament's first major outing with Lombardo, who had left the band before the 1999-2000 tour for "The Gathering". They have also discussed the possibility of recording a new album with Lombardo, and Billy stated in September 2022 that the band would likely begin work on it after the conclusion of The Bay Strikes Back tour.


title: Testament (band)

text: Inspired by the new wave of British heavy metal and local Bay Area music scenes, Testament has been credited as one of the leaders of the second wave of thrash metal in the late 1980s, as well as one of the most influential Bay Area thrash metal acts. AllMusic described them as "one of the first thrash acts to emerge from the Bay Area in Metallica's wake during the '80s."


title: Testament (band)

text: Numerous hard rock and heavy metal acts such as Aerosmith, AC/DC, Angel Witch, Black Sabbath, Boston, Deep Purple, Def Leppard, Dio, Iron Maiden, Judas Priest, Kiss, Led Zeppelin, the Michael Schenker Group, Montrose, Ozzy Osbourne (particularly the Randy Rhoads era), Raven, Samson, Saxon, Scorpions, The Sweet, Thin Lizzy, UFO (particularly the Michael Schenker era), Van Halen and Venom have been cited as an influence or inspiration behind Testament's music. The band's other musical influences include The Beatles, as well as guitar players like Jeff Beck, Chuck Berry, Jimi Hendrix, Yngwie Malmsteen, Frank Marino, Mahogany Rush, Pat Travers and Johnny Winter, and their Bay Area thrash metal contemporaries Metallica and Exodus.


title: Testament (band)

text: Testament has influenced multiple bands, such as Pantera, Sepultura, Death Angel, Annihilator, White Zombie, Korn, Machine Head, Drowning Pool, Kataklysm, Lamb of God, Morbid Angel, Cannibal Corpse, Entombed, Gojira, Killswitch Engage, Exhorder, Havok, Evile, Blind Guardian, Sevendust, Suicidal Angels, Trivium, Nightwish, Shadows Fall, Terror, Unearth, Skeletonwitch, Warbringer, Primal Fear, Fight, Sons of Texas, Incite, Demolition Hammer, and Forced Entry.


title: Testament (band)

text: In the video for Bowling for Soup's "Punk Rock 101", guitarist and vocalist Jaret Reddick can be seen wearing one of Testament's t-shirts.


title: So Ji-sub

text: So Ji-sub (born November 4, 1977) is a South Korean actor. After making his entertainment debut as a jeans model, he became known for his leading roles in the television series "What Happened in Bali" (2004), "I'm Sorry, I Love You" (2004), "Cain and Abel" (2009), "Phantom" (2012), "Master's Sun" (2013), and "Oh My Venus" (2015–16), as well as the film "Rough Cut" (2008). So has also released several hip hop EPs.


title: So Ji-sub

text: So Ji-sub was born on November 4, 1977, in Incheon. Self-described as introverted and insecure in his childhood and teenage years, So trained to become a professional swimmer for 11 years and bagged the bronze medal at the Korean National Games. His parents divorced at a young age. He has one older sister who lives in Australia.


title: So Ji-sub

text: He tried out modeling simply because he wanted to pose alongside hip-hop artist Kim Sung-jae, who was the celebrity face for a clothing brand at the time. "I was never really interested in becoming a celebrity," So said. "My life was all about swimming and hip-hop music. I did modeling because I wanted to see Kim and also because it was the best way to earn good easy money."


title: So Ji-sub

text: So was chosen as a model for jeans brand 292513=STORM in 1995, then made his acting debut in the sitcom "Three Guys and Three Girls" and the television drama "Model". But whereas fellow 292513=STORM model Song Seung-heon quickly rose to stardom, So had difficulty raising his profile. He appeared in small roles on television throughout the late 1990s and early 2000s, and started to gain popularity when he was cast as the male second lead in "Glass Slippers" in 2002. He played his first lead role in the time travel historical drama "Thousand Years of Love".


title: So Ji-sub

text: So began to rise to fame with 2004 hit drama "What Happened in Bali " At that time, So thought he would end up being a supporting actor. But later that year, he had his breakout role as a tragic hero in the critically acclaimed melodrama "I'm Sorry, I Love You". It established him as a top star in Korea, as well as all over Asia. In a 2009 interview, So said he still considers the two the best television dramas in his filmography.


title: So Ji-sub

text: So enlisted for mandatory military service in 2005 as a public relations officer with the Mapo District Office, and was discharged on April 27, 2007. He made his comeback in Jang Hoon's directorial debut "Rough Cut", in which he played a gangster who dreams of becoming an actor. Because of the film's low budget, So and costar Kang Ji-hwan decided to invest their fees back into the movie, and were credited as producers. So's performance was well received by audiences and critics, and the film became a surprise box office hit.


title: So Ji-sub

text: In 2009, So attempted to break into the Japanese and Chinese markets. In "I am GHOST", an action drama that aired in 24 five-minute episodes on Japan's mobile-exclusive broadcaster , he played a mysterious killer on the run with a high school girl. So spoke no lines in the mobile drama, and was "worried whether (their) emotions would be delivered just through (their) motions." The year before, he had appeared in a supporting role as a monster in the Japanese manga live-action adaptation "GeGeGe No Kitaro 2: Kitaro and the Millenium Curse".


title: So Ji-sub

text: So starred opposite Zhang Ziyi in the Chinese romantic comedy "Sophie's Revenge", saying, "I wanted to do a bright and cheery role because I've played so many sad and gloomy ones." He later signed with a Chinese talent agency, ATN Entertainment. So then returned to Korean television with "Cain and Abel", about two doctor brothers with an intense sibling rivalry. His performance received critical acclaim, and won him Best Actor at the 2009 Grimae Awards, an honorable award chosen by directors in every broadcasting station in Korea.


title: So Ji-sub

text: In 2010 So headlined the big-budget Korean War epic "Road No. 1", but despite high expectations, the series tanked in the ratings, averaging 6% for its entire run.


title: So Ji-sub

text: So then played a boxer who falls in love with a blind girl in romantic melodrama "Always" (Korean title: "Only You"), directed by auteur Song Il-gon. It was the opening film of the 2011 Busan International Film Festival.


title: So Ji-sub

text: After portraying a workaholic detective in the cyber criminal investigative service in TV procedural "Phantom", So starred in the film "A Company Man", about a hitman in a killer-for-hire company who, after he falls in love and decides he wants out of his job, finds himself the target of his former colleagues.


title: So Ji-sub

text: Later that year he starred in "Master's Sun", a horror-romantic comedy written by the Hong sisters. Known for his melodramatic roles, So made an acting transformation in "Master's Sun", playing a character with charm. The drama was a commercial hit and renewed his domestic and international popularity. So then starred in another romantic comedy series "Oh My Venus", about a celebrity trainer who helps a lawyer lose weight and find her inner beauty as they heal each other's emotional scars.


title: So Ji-sub

text: In 2017, So starred in the film "The Battleship Island", which depicts the unknown history behind the actual Hashima Island, where thousands of conscripted Joseon people were forced to work to death during the Japanese colonial era. He plays Gyeongseong's best fighter who brought peace to the entire Jongno district.


title: So Ji-sub

text: In 2018, So starred alongside Son Ye-jin in the romance film "Be with You", based on the Japanese novel of the same name. The same year, he returned to the small screen with spy comedy drama "My Secret Terrius". So won his first major award, the "Daesang (Grand Prize)" at the MBC Drama Awards for his performance.


title: So Ji-sub

text: In 2022, he starred in MBC medical-legal drama "Doctor Lawyer" in the title role as a genius double-board surgeon turned lawyer and appeared in Choi Dong-hoon's science fiction action film "Alienoid".


title: So Ji-sub

text: In 2010, So published his photo-essay collection, "So Ji-sub's Journey". The volume covers stories and photos over the past 13 years since his debut, using unpretentious language and sensitive photography taken during So's trips to the DMZ and Gangwon Province. The usually taciturn and stoic actor revealed his inner thoughts throughout the book, with essays on his favorite number 51 (reflected in the name of his company - it means a 50-50 probability then believing just 1% more; the K stands for Korea), Romeo and Juliet, why he likes rainy days, and stories about his interactions with other celebrities and artists such as Tiger JK. Within ten days of its release, the book hit the bestseller list, and entered its third printing.


title: So Ji-sub

text: A professed longtime hip-hop lover, So rapped for two original tracks – "Lonely Life" and "Foolish Love" – under the artist pseudonym "G" or "G-Sonic" for the soundtracks of "Rough Cut" and "Cain and Abel" respectively. In 2011, he released another digital single "Pick Up Line" under his own name. Two teaser videos were released, the first one described as a comedic version that featured guest stars Jung Joon-ha (who is a close friend of So's) and Kim Byung-man (whom So named as one of his favorite comedians). The single, along with the music video itself, was released on February 17, 2011, but recorded low sales.


title: So Ji-sub

text: In 2011, he published a second book of photo-essays titled "Only You with So Ji-sub" featuring photographs, notes and commentary on playing his movie character.


title: So Ji-sub

text: On March 14, 2012, he launched a magazine for his fans titled "SONICe"; inside were So's suggested dating ideas and locations, favorite food and books, and more stories through his eyes. Its name is a combination of "so nice" and "Sonic," which is So's nickname.


title: So Ji-sub

text: So's first mini-album (or EP), "Corona Borealis" was released in March 2012. It featured collaborations with songwriter Kim Kun-woo, vocal trainer Mellow, soprano Han Kyung-mi, and singers Huh Gak and Bobby Kim. Bobby Kim complimented So's rapping in their duet track "That Day, a Year Ago", saying, "So has a talent in feeling the groove and it's as good as his acting skills." So also starred in a music video of the album's title song "Some Kind of Story".


title: So Ji-sub

text: In January 2013, So released another rap EP titled "6 PM...Ground", and his recording process aired on "Music Triangle" as part of Mnet's "Collabo One" project. The four songs of the album were combined to make a 12-minute music drama starring So, Park Shin-hye and Yoo Seung-ho; which was also re-edited into individual music videos for each track.


title: So Ji-sub

text: In June 2014, So released his third electro-hip-hop EP titled "18 Years", which represents how long he has been in the industry since he debuted as an actor. He wrote and composed the title track (featuring the vocals of singer Satbyeol), and the other two tracks were collaborations with hip-hop group Soul Dive. He released another single in July 2015 titled "So Ganzi", his second collaboration with Soul Dive.


title: So Ji-sub

text: So was named the goodwill ambassador of Gangwon Province in an effort to boost tourism there, and a 51 kilometer-long trail in the province was named "So Ji-sub Road," which was unveiled to the public on May 20, 2012. He was the first Korean actor to have an entire road named after him.


title: So Ji-sub

text: He was also named promotional ambassadors for cyber crime prevention by the National Police Agency, helping to raise awareness and prevent cyber crimes such as hacking and Internet fraud by taking part in various promotional activities.


title: So Ji-sub

text: He has also helped imported foreign films, having invested in art-house films such as the U.S.-British-French co-production "Philomena" (2014), the Chinese film "Coming Home" (2014), the Japanese crime thriller "The World of Kanako" (2014)" and the American horror film "A Girl Walks Home Alone at Night" (2015).


title: So Ji-sub

text: In 2019, So confirmed that he was in a relationship with former announcer and reporter Jo Eun-jung. On April 7, 2020, the actor's label 51K confirmed that he had registered his marriage with Jo.


title: Irredentism

text: Irredentism is usually understood as a desire that one state annexes a territory of a neighboring state. This desire is motivated by ethnic reasons (because the population of the territory is ethnically similar to the population of the parent state) or by historical reasons (because the territory formed part of the parent state before). However, difficulties in applying the concept to concrete cases have given rise to academic disputes about its precise definition. Disagreements concern whether either or both ethnic and historical reasons have to be present, whether non-state actors can also engage in irredentism, and whether attempts to absorb a full neighboring state are also included. Various scholars discuss different types of irredentism. One categorization distinguishes between cases in which the parent state exists before the conflict and cases in which a new parent state is formed by uniting an ethnic group spread across several countries. Another distinction concerns whether the target country is a state, a former colony, or a collapsed state.


title: Irredentism

text: A central research topic concerning irredentism is the question of how it is to be explained or what causes it. Many explanations hold that ethnic homogeneity within a state makes irredentism more likely. Discrimination against the ethnic group in the neighboring territory is another contributing factor. A closely related explanation argues that national identities based primarily on ethnicity, culture, and history increase irredentist tendencies. Another approach is to explain irredentism as an attempt to increase power and wealth. In this regard, it is argued that irredentist claims are more likely if the neighboring territory is relatively rich. Many explanations also focus on the regime type and hold that democracies are less likely to engage in irredentism while anocracies are particularly open to it.


title: Irredentism

text: Irredentism has been an influential force in world politics since the mid-nineteenth century. It has been responsible for many armed conflicts even though international law is hostile to it and irredentist movements often fail to achieve their goals. The term was originally coined from the Italian phrase "Italia irredenta" and referred to an Italian movement after 1878 claiming parts of Switzerland and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Often discussed cases of irredentism include Nazi Germany's annexation of the Sudetenland in 1938, Somalia's invasion of Ethiopia in 1977, Argentina's invasion of the Falkland Islands in 1982, attempts to establish a Greater Serbia following the breakup of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s, and Russia's annexation of Crimea in 2014. Irredentism is closely related to revanchism and secession. Revanchism refers to an attempt to annex territory belonging to another state. It is motivated by the negative goal of taking revenge for a previous grievance, in contrast to the positive goal of irredentism of building an ethnically unified nation state. In the case of secession, a territory breaks away and forms an independent state instead of merging with another state.


title: Irredentism

text: Irredentism is often understood as the claim that certain territories belonging to one state should be incorporated into another state because their population is ethnically similar or because it historically belonged to the other state before. Many definitions of irredentism have been proposed to give a more precise formulation. Despite a wide overlap concerning its general features, there are still many disagreements about its exact characterization. These disagreements have proven important since evaluating whether irredentism was the cause of a war is difficult in many cases and different definitions often lead to opposite conclusions.


title: Irredentism

text: There is wide consensus that irredentism is a form of territorial dispute involving the attempt to annex territories belonging to a neighboring state. However, not all such attempts constitute forms of irredentism and there is no academic consensus on precisely what other features need to be present. This concerns disagreements about who claims the territory, for what reasons they do so, and how much territory is claimed. Most scholars define irredentism as a claim made by one state on the territory of another state. In this regard, there are three essential entities to irredentism: (1) an irredentist state or parent state, (2) a neighboring host state or target state, and (3) the disputed territory belonging to the host state, often referred to as "irredenta". According to this definition, popular movements demanding territorial change by non-state actors do not count as irredentist in the strict sense. A different definition characterizes irredentism as the attempt of the ethnic minority of the territory to be incorporated to break away and join their "real" motherland even though this minority is a non-state actor.


title: Irredentism

text: Another important issue concerns the motivation for engaging in the territorial dispute. Some scholars hold irredentism is primarily motivated by ethnicity. On this view, the population in the neighboring territory is ethnically similar and the intention is to unite ethnically kindred people and to retrieve the area they live in. This definition implies, for example, that the majority of the border disputes in the history of Latin America were not forms of irredentism. Usually, irredentism is defined in terms of the motivation of the irredentist state, even if the territory is annexed against the will of the local population. Other theorists focus more on the historical claim that the disputed territory used to be part of the state's ancestral homeland. This is close to the literal meaning of the original Italian expression "terra irredenta" as unredeemed land. On this view, the ethnicity of the people inhabiting this territory is not important. However, it is also possible to combine both characterizations, i.e. that the motivation is either ethnic or historical or both. Some scholars even include geographical reasons in their definitions.


title: Irredentism

text: A further disagreement concerns the amount of area that is to be annexed. Usually, irredentism is restricted to the attempt to incorporate some parts of another state. In this regard, irredentism challenges established borders with the neighboring state but does not challenge the existence of the neighboring state in general. However, some definitions of irredentism also include attempts to absorb the whole neighboring state and not just a part of it. In this sense, claims by North Korea to incorporate the whole of South Korea would be considered a form of irredentism.


title: Irredentism

text: A popular view combining many of the elements listed above holds that irredentism is based on incongruence between the borders of a state and the boundaries of the corresponding nation. State borders are usually clearly delimited, both physically and on maps. National boundaries, on the other hand, are less tangible since they correspond to a group's perception of its historic, cultural, and ethnic boundaries. Irredentism may manifest if state borders do not correspond to national boundaries. It seeks to enlarge a state to establish a congruence between its borders and the boundaries of the corresponding nation.


title: Irredentism

text: The term "irredentism" was coined from the Italian phrase "Italia irredenta" ("unredeemed Italy"). This phrase originally referred to territory controlled by Austria-Hungary but mostly or partly inhabited by ethnic Italians, chiefly Trentino and Trieste, but also Gorizia, Istria, Fiume, and Dalmatia during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Irredentist projects often use the term "Greater" to label the desired outcome of their expansion, as in "Greater Serbia" or "Greater Russia".


title: Irredentism

text: Various types of irredentism have been proposed. However, not everyone agrees that all the types listed here actually constitute forms of irredentism and it often depends on what definition is used. According to Naomi Chazan and Donald L. Horowitz, there are two types of irredentism. The typical case involves one state that intends to annex territories belonging to a neighboring state. Nazi Germany’s claim on the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia is an example of this form of irredentism. For the second type, there is no pre-existing parent state. Instead, a cohesive group existing as a minority in multiple countries intends to unify to form a new parent state. The intended creation of a Kurdistan state uniting the Kurds living in Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Iran is an example of the second type. If such a project is successful for only one segment, the result is secession and not irredentism. This happened, for example, during the breakup of Yugoslavia when Yugoslavian Slovenes formed the new state of Slovenia while the Austrian Solvenes did not join them and remained part of Austria. Not all theorists accept that the second type actually constitutes a form of irredentism. In this regard, it is often argued that it is too similar to secession to maintain a distinction between the two. For example, Benyamin Neuberger holds that a pre-existing parent state is necessary for irredentism.


title: Irredentism

text: Thomas Ambrosio restricts his definition to cases involving a pre-existing parent state and distinguishes three types of irredentism: (1) between two states, (2) between a state and a former colony, and (3) between a state and a collapsed state. The typical case is between two states. A classical example of this is Somalia's invasion of Ethiopia. In the second case of decolonization, the territory to be annexed is a former colony of another state and not a regular part of it. An example is the Indonesian invasion and occupation of the former Portuguese colony of East Timor. In the case of state collapse, one state disintegrates and a neighboring state absorbs some of its former territories, as was the case for the irredentist movements by Croatia and Serbia during the breakup of Yugoslavia.


title: Irredentism

text: Explanations of irredentism try to determine what causes irredentism, how it unfolds, and how it can be peacefully resolved. Various hypotheses have been proposed but there is still very little consensus on how irredentism is to be explained despite its prevalence and its long history of provoking armed conflicts. Some of these proposals can be combined but others conflict with each other and the available evidence may not be sufficient to decide between them. An active research topic in this regard concerns the reasons for irredentism. Many countries have ethnic kin outside their borders. But only few are willing to engage in violent conflicts to annex foreign territory in an attempt to unite their kin. Research on the causes of irredentism tries to explain why some countries pursue irredentism but others do not. Relevant factors often discussed include ethnicity, nationalism, economic considerations, the desire to increase power, and the type of regime.


title: Irredentism

text: A common explanation of irredentism focuses on ethnic arguments. It is based on the observation that irredentist claims are primarily advanced by states with a homogenous ethnic population. This is explained by the idea that, if a state is composed of several different ethnic groups, then annexing a territory inhabited primarily by one of those groups would shift the power balance in favor of this group. For this reason, other groups in the state are likely to internally reject the irredentist claims. This inhibiting factor is not present for homogenous states. A similar argument is also offered for the enclave to be annexed: an ethnically heterogenous enclave is less likely to desire to be absorbed by another state for ethnic reasons since this would only benefit one ethnic group. These considerations explain, for example, why irredentism is not very common in Africa since most African states are ethnically heterogeneous. Relevant factors for the ethnic motivation for irredentism are how large the dominant ethnic group is relative to other groups, how large it is in absolute terms, whether it is relatively dispersed or located in a small core area, and whether it is politically disadvantaged.


title: Irredentism

text: Explanations focusing on nationalism are closely related to ethnicity-based explanations. Nationalism can be defined as the claim that the boundaries of a state should match those of the nation. According to constructivist accounts, for example, the dominant national identity is one of the central factors behind irredentism. On this view, identities based on ethnicity, culture, and history can easily invite tendencies to enlarge national borders with the goal of integrating ethnically and culturally similar territories. Civic national identities focusing more on a political nature, on the other hand, are more closely tied to pre-existing national boundaries. Structural accounts use a slightly different approach and focus on the relation between nationalism and the regional context, specifically on the tension between state sovereignty and national self-determination. State sovereignty is the principle of international law holding that each state has sovereignty over its own territory, meaning that states are not allowed to interfere with essentially domestic affairs of other states. National self-determination, on the other hand, refers to the right of people to determine their own international political status. According to the structural explanation, emphasis on national self-determination may legitimize irredentist claims while the principle of state sovereignty defends the status quo of the existing sovereign borders. This position is supported by the observation that irredentist conflicts are much more common during times of international upheavals.


title: Irredentism

text: Another factor commonly cited as a force fueling irredentism is discrimination against the main ethnic group in the enclave. Irredentist states often try to legitimize their aggression against neighbors by presenting them as humanitarian interventions aimed at protecting their discriminated ethnic kin. This justification was used, for example, in Adolf Hitler's irredentist annexation of the Sudetenland, in Armenia's intervention in Nagorno-Karabakh, and in Russia's annexation of Crimea. Some theorists hold that there is little empirical evidence for arguments based on ethnic homogeneity and discrimination. On this view, they are mainly used as a pretext to hide different goals, such as material gain.


title: Irredentism

text: Another relevant factor is the outlook of the population inhabiting the territory to be annexed. The desire of the irredentist state to annex a foreign territory and the desire of that territory to be annexed do not always overlap. In some cases, a minority group does not want to be annexed, as was the case for the Crimean Tatars in Russia's annexation of Crimea. In other cases, a minority group would want to be annexed but the intended parent state is not interested.