title: Dhruva Natchathiram

text: Jomon later opted out of the film during March 2017 citing scheduling issues and was replaced as the film's cinematographer by Santhana Krishnan, the son of Ravi K. Chandran. Santhana Krishnan also opted out of the film in June 2017 and was replaced by Manoj Paramahamsa, who collaborated with Menon again after "Nadunisi Naaygal" (2011). During the same month, a bevy of supporting actors were signed to portray roles in the film including veteran actresses Raadhika and Simran, while rookie actresses Dhivyadharshini, Shravanthi Sainath and Maya S. Krishnan were also added to the cast. Three of Menon's former proteges Vamsi Krishna, Salim Baig and Sathish Krishnan also were selected to portray roles, as was Munna Simon. In mid-April 2018, it was revealed that Malayalam actor Vinayakan was a part of the film's cast, playing the leading antagonist in the film. It eventually marked Vinayakan's third Tamil film after "Thimiru" (2006) and "Maryan" (2013).


title: Dhruva Natchathiram

text: Following the shoot of the teaser in New York City, the team moved to Coonoor to begin the first schedule in late January 2017. Following a brief shoot in the town, the team moved to Chennai for a further short schedule. After a schedule break, the shoot continued intermittently throughout Chennai in early 2017 as Vikram simultaneously worked around his commitments for his other film "Sketch". During the initial schedules, scenes involving Vikram, Aishwarya Rajesh and Ritu Varma were primarily shot. The makers planned to shoot two schedules abroad, after a brief break, before wrapping the schedules in Chennai and Coonoor.


title: Dhruva Natchathiram

text: Despite initially wanting to film sequences in the US, the team later chose to use Eastern Europe as the main foreign backdrop for the ease of acquiring permission to shoot and sort out visas. The shoot began in Slovenia during mid-June 2017 with Vikram and the ensemble supporting cast, before moving to Bulgaria by the end of the month. After the completion of their work in Bulgaria, the team moved to Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates to film scenes in the desert and worked in extremely warm temperatures. Following the end of the schedule in mid-July 2017, Menon revealed that approximately thirty more days of shoot were required. During mid-August 2017, it was reported that Vikram had resumed shooting for the film, with substantial portions being shot in Chennai.


title: Dhruva Natchathiram

text: In late August 2017, the team travelled to Tbilisi, Georgia to continue the shoot, with the ensemble cast joining the schedule. After several days of shoot in Georgia, the team were briefly left stranded after being denied permission to enter Turkey as a result of a document oversight. After two days of no shoot, they were granted permission to travel to Istanbul and continued filming. Following the schedule in Turkey, they returned to Georgia to continue the shoot for ten days.


title: Dhruva Natchathiram

text: The film subsequently experienced production hell owing to Menon's financial constraints, with several other films associated with the director such as "Enai Noki Paayum Thota", "Naragasooran", "Nenjam Marappathillai" and the eventually shelved "Pon Ondru Kandein" also put on hold. During the period of delay, a second teaser trailer was released on YouTube during June 2018, and garnered positive reviews from critics. The very same month, Menon claimed that the film entered its final leg of shooting and will be completed within August 2018, although there was no information about the process. On 2 November 2019, Menon said the film had undergone post-production which will be completed within 60 days, and may resume shooting for patchwork scenes after his prior commitments with "Joshua Imai Pol Kaakha"; though by March 2021, Vikram had not yet dubbed his lines, one of the few things needed to finish post-production. Vikram began dubbing for his portions in March 2022. In August, Menon shared a picture of himself and Vikram with the caption "The stars will align!", leading to the media believing the project was nearing completion.


title: Dhruva Natchathiram

text: The film's music and background score was composed by Harris Jayaraj. It marked Jayaraj's seventh collaboration with Gautham Vasudev Menon; since the duo's debut film "Minnale" (2001) Jayaraj continued to work with Menon in all of his films, until he split up and later collaborated with the director in "Yennai Arindhaal" (2015). The untitled song in the first teaser was written and sung by Aaryan Dinesh Kanagaratnam and Sri Rascol.


title: Dhruva Natchathiram

text: "Oru Manam" was the first song recorded by Jayaraj for this film. Menon revealed the song title officially in June 2018, which has been recorded during the period of the film's delay. In November 2018, despite claims from the makers that the song will be released within the end of this month, it did not happen, due to delay in the film's production. A year later, in September 2020, it was reported that the makers planning to release the song during October, and revealed the details of the song that it had lyrics written by Thamarai and sung by Karthik and Shashaa Tirupati. On 7 October 2020, Sony Music, which acquired the film's audio rights, released the video song of the film along with its single track through digital platforms. The song received huge response from listeners, praising Jayaraj for its soothing composition and the melodious tunes.


title: Dhruva Natchathiram

text: The film's promotional posters cited the release of the film scheduled for August 2017, however it was postponed to April 2018 due to delays in the film production. Menon eventually cited that the film will release during the occasion of Diwali (6 November 2018), which did not happen. The film further delayed after Menon's financial constraints surrounding its production house affected several other films of the director. Despite claims from Menon that the shoot would be completed and the film would be released on 15 November 2019, the film continued to be delayed throughout 2019.


title: Dhruva Natchathiram

text: In July 2020, Menon stated that the film will be scheduled for release in theatres, after multiple films headed for a direct release on over-the-top media service platforms as a result of theatres being closed due to COVID-19 pandemic. Menon further added that the film will be "an event film in bringing back audiences to theatres". Vels Film International, a production studio led by Ishari K. Ganesh agreed to distribute and fund the project, in their third successive collaboration after "Enai Noki Paayum Thota" and "Joshua Imai Pol Kaakha". In mid-2021, it has been reported that Menon had shot about four-and-a-half hour long footage in the production, and has decided to split the film into two-parts. However, the prospects did not materialise as planned and the film remains unreleased as of November 2022.


title: Lee Min-jung

text: Lee Min-jung (; born February 16, 1982) is a South Korean actress. She began her career in Jang Jin's stage plays, and for a few years appeared in supporting roles on film and television. She became known after her appearance in "Boys Over Flowers" (2009), and landed her first lead role in family drama "Smile, You" (2009). Lee achieved widespread recognition for her leading role in the romantic comedy "Cyrano Agency" (2010). She also starred in "Wonderful Radio" (2012), "Big" (2012), "Cunning Single Lady" (2014) and "Come Back Mister" (2016). She recently starred and gained recognition in the KBS weekend drama, "Once Again."


title: Lee Min-jung

text: Lee began her career in playwright/filmmaker Jang Jin's stage plays, then appeared in the Christian-themed indie "Pruning the Grapevine", while doing minor roles on film and television. She became a household name in 2009 through her supporting role in the popular high school series "Boys Over Flowers", which then landed her first leading role in the weekend drama "Smile, You". The same year, she won the Best New Actress award at the Korean Association of Film Critics Awards for her performance in the mystery thriller "White Night".


title: Lee Min-jung

text: Lee's breakout role was in romantic comedy "Cyrano Agency" in 2010, where she swept Best New Actress awards at various local award-giving bodies.


title: Lee Min-jung

text: Commercials and endorsements flooded in, and Lee gained a "goddess" label in the press. One of the challenges of her next film "Wonderful Radio", was to strip her of that image. She successfully carried the film, with one review praising her as "expertly swinging from girly ditz, through self-centered pop diva (with memorable temper tantrums), to serious singer-songwriter." Co-star Lee Jung-jin said her actual personality is similar to the character's - "really upbeat and outgoing."


title: Lee Min-jung

text: After playing a disillusioned fiancée to an ambitious fund manager in "Midas", Lee returned to the romantic comedy genre in the body-swapping TV series "Big" written by the Hong sisters. In 2013 she starred in another rom-com series "All About My Romance", about a secret relationship between two politicians of rival parties. This was followed by "Cunning Single Lady" in 2014, in which she played the titular character who schemes to win her ex-husband back now that he's rich and successful.


title: Lee Min-jung

text: Lee made her acting comeback after three years in the SBS drama "Come Back Mister" with Rain. The series began airing in February 2016, and Lee won positive reviews for her performance.


title: Lee Min-jung

text: In 2018, Lee returned with a SBS weekend drama "Fates & Furies". She re-united with her former co-star Joo Sang-wook from "Cunning Single Lady" as main leads. In 2020, Lee gained widespread recognition portraying the role of Song Na-hee alongside actor Lee Sang-yeob in the weekend drama, "Once Again."


title: Lee Min-jung

text: Her maternal grandfather was renowned painter Park No-soo, who led the first generation of modern traditional Korean ink painters which emerged after the country's liberation from Japanese rule. Park died on February 25, 2013, at the age of 86.


title: Lee Min-jung

text: Lee married actor Lee Byung-hun on August 10, 2013, at the Grand Hyatt Seoul. The couple had briefly dated in 2006, then resumed their relationship in 2012. She gave birth to their first child, Lee Joon-hoo, a boy, on March 31, 2015.


title: Kuroko's Basketball

text: It was adapted into an anime television series by Production I.G, which aired for three seasons from April 2012 to June 2015. A sequel manga by Fujimaki titled "Kuroko's Basketball: Extra Game" was serialized in "Jump Next!" from December 2014 to March 2016. An anime film adaptation of the "Kuroko's Basketball: Extra Game" manga premiered in Japan in March 2017. A stage play adaptation opened in April 2016 followed by more stage adaptations.


title: Kuroko's Basketball

text: The manga has been licensed for English-language release by Viz Media in North America. As of November 2020, "Kuroko's Basketball" had over 31 million copies in circulation, making it one of the best-selling manga series.


title: Kuroko's Basketball

text: The Teiko Middle School basketball team dominated basketball teams within Japan, winning the middle school Nationals for three consecutive years. The star players of the team became known as the "Generation of Miracles". After graduating from middle school, the five star players went to different high schools with top basketball teams. However, there was a rumor that there was another player in the "Generation of Miracles": a phantom sixth man. This mysterious player is now a freshman at Seirin High, a new school with a powerful, if little-known, team. Now, Tetsuya Kuroko – the sixth member of the "Generation of Miracles", and Taiga Kagami – a naturally talented player who spent most of his youth in the US, aim to bring Seirin to the top of Japan by taking on Kuroko's former teammates one by one. The series chronicles Seirin's rise to become Japan's number one high school team. The Generation of Miracles include Ryota Kise, Shintaro Midorima, Daiki Aomine, Atsushi Murasakibara, and Seijuro Akashi.


title: Kuroko's Basketball

text: Seirin High team faced Ryota Kise's team first in a practice match. Although Kise was capable of copying all of Kagami skills with added strength and speed, Kuroko's abilities helped narrow the distance and eventually, Seirin won this game. They then met Shintaro Midorima's school Shutoku in the preliminaries of Interhigh. The game was much more difficult; not only was Midorima considerably stronger than Kagami, but also Kuroko's ability of misdirection was completely shut down by Takao's Hawk Eyes. Seirin managed to defeat team Shutoku but their winning streak ended after they lost badly to Touhou Academy, whose basketball team included the Ace of the "Generation of Miracles" - Daiki Aomine. After this game, they lost their remaining two matches against Senshinkan and Meisei and were eliminated from the Interhigh. However, a new player arrives to join Seirin - Kiyoshi Teppei, the man who formed the Seirin Basketball team. They spent the entire summer training for the Winter Cup, even coincidentally meeting Shutoku while training.


title: Kuroko's Basketball

text: In the preliminaries, they met team Shutoku again. This match ended into a tie, so Seirin needed to defeat team Kirisaki Daichi in order to advance. Kirisaki Daichi's captain was Makoto Hanamiya, a member of the Uncrowned Kings well-known for his underhanded methods to win a match. However, they won and gained a ticket to the Winter Cup.


title: Kuroko's Basketball

text: Written and illustrated by Tadatoshi Fujimaki, "Kuroko's Basketball" was serialized in the manga anthology "Weekly Shōnen Jump" from December 8, 2008 to September 1, 2014. The 275 individual chapters were collected and published into 30 "tankōbon" volumes by its publisher Shueisha, the first on April 3, 2009 and the last on December 4, 2014. A crossover chapter between the series and Kawada's "Hinomaru Sumo", with a script written by Ichirō Takahashi, was published in the magazine on November 9, 2015. Kawada was formerly an assistant to Fujimaki on "Kuroko's Basketball".


title: Kuroko's Basketball

text: Fujimaki began a sequel titled in "Jump Next!" on December 29, 2014. On December 27, 2015, Tadashi announced that he will end "Kuroko's Basketball: Extra Game" manga in the next issue in early March 2016. At their New York Comic Con panel, North American publisher Viz Media announced their license to the manga. They began releasing the series in 2-in-1 editions in 2016.


title: Kuroko's Basketball

text: An anime adaptation based on the manga was produced by Production I.G. The series premiered on April 7, 2012 and ended on September 22, 2012. On April 5, 2012, Crunchyroll announced that they would simulcast the anime as part of their spring lineup of anime titles. As of September 22, 2012, the anime ended with a total of 25 episodes. The second season premiered on October 6, 2013 and ended on March 29, 2014, also with 25 episodes. The DVD and Blu-ray version of the second season was released on June 20, 2014, along with an episode which was designed around a specific chapter in the manga by Tadatoshi Fujimaki by working on chapter 124, and a bonus CD with an audio drama starring Satsuki Momoi. The third season premiered on January 10, 2015 and ended on June 30, 2015, with a total of 25 episodes. Three compilation films that compiled the anime series' "Winter Cup" arc opened in Japan in 2016. The first compilation film opened on September 3, 2016, titled "Winter Cup Compilation ~Shadow and Light~", the second compilation film opened on October 8, 2016, titled "Winter Cup Compilation ~Beyond the Tears~", and the third compilation film opened on December 3, 2016, titled "Winter Cup Compilation ~Crossing the Door~".


title: Kuroko's Basketball

text: An animated film adaptation was announced at the "KuroBas Cup 2015" event on September 20, 2015. The film, titled "", adapts the "Kuroko's Basketball: Extra Game" manga. It was released in Japanese theaters on March 18, 2017. The staff and cast from the previous seasons returned to reprise their roles in the film.


title: Kuroko's Basketball

text: On October 19, 2020, the SAG-AFTRA listed and approved an English dub for the series under the "Netflix Dubbing Agreement". The first season's English dub debuted on Netflix on January 15, 2021, with its second season on May 15, its third season on September 18, and the "Last Game" film's English dub on November 15.


title: Kuroko's Basketball

text: Five series of light novels have been written by Sawako Hirabayashi called "Kuroko's Basketball: Replace" and illustrated by Fujimaki. Each light novel focuses on the members of the Generation of Miracles. The first light novel "Replace" was released on March 4, 2011. A manga adaptation of the novel series illustrated by Ichirō Takahashi began on "Shōnen Jump+" in January 2015.


title: Kuroko's Basketball

text: The music for the "Kuroko's Basketball" anime series were directed by four different composers. Ryosuke Nakanishi, R・O・N, and Alpha Eastman (21-25) were in charge of the first season while Yoshihiro Ike was in charge of the second season.


title: Kuroko's Basketball

text: Three video games based on "Kuroko's Basketball" have been released. The first game was released on August 9, 2012 for PlayStation Portable. A second game was released on February 20, 2014 for the Nintendo 3DS. "Shōri e no Kiseki" sold 45,681 copies in its first four days on sale. A third game was released on March 26, 2015 for the Nintendo 3DS. Kuroko also appears as a support character in the "Jump" crossover fighting game "J-Stars Victory VS".


title: Kuroko's Basketball

text: A series of 2.5D musical stage plays began in 2016. Kensho Ono reprised his role as Kuroko from the anime series. Additions to the main cast included Yuuya Asato as Taiga and Shota Onume as Aomine. The plays were directed by Norihito Nakayashiki, who also directed "Hyper Projection Engeki Haikyu!!".


title: Kuroko's Basketball

text: The "Kuroko's Basketball" manga series sold nine million units in Japan by September 2012. In May 2013, the manga has over one million copies of volume 1 in print. As of 2013, the manga had over 23 million copies in circulation, a number that grew to 27 million by April 2014. As of November 2020, the series has over 31 million copies in circulation. Individual volumes frequently appeared on Oricon's weekly lists of the best-selling manga in Japan, and many of them were some of the best-selling manga in the year 2012. "Kuroko's Basketball" was the third best-selling manga series of 2013, with 8,761,081 copies sold in a year. In between 2013 and 2014, it became the 3rd best-selling manga from Shueisha. It was the 7th best-selling manga from Shueisha in between 2014 and 2015. The "Kuroko's Basketball" light novel series was also sold in Japan in 2014. The first light novel "Replace" was ranked the 9th best-selling light novel series, while the volume ranked 6th with 215,859 copies sold. DVD sales of the anime series have also been featured on Oricon's weekly Japanese anime DVD rankings various times.


title: Kuroko's Basketball

text: "Kuroko's Basketball" is often compared to "Weekly Shōnen Jump"s earlier basketball-themed manga "Slam Dunk". However, Azusa Takahashi of "Real Sound" pointed out whereas "Slam Dunk" was very realistic, the newer series is more focused on entertainment and is strongly based in fiction with each character having a "special move." The anime series was awarded the 2013 Tokyo Anime Award in the Television Category.


title: Kuroko's Basketball

text: After the anime began airing in 2012, the series became popular with "dōjinshi" circles, particularly for "yaoi dōjinshi", though there is no yaoi in the series itself. Several events at which dōjinshi of the series were to be sold, as well as several other locations linked to the series and the author Tadatoshi Fujimaki, including a television station airing the anime, a convenience store chain selling items of the series, and Fujimaki's alma mater Sophia University, received threatening letters containing a powder or liquid substance. It is still unknown if it is one individual behind all the threatening letters, nor is the reason for the threats known. Multiple doujinshi events, including Comiket, banned content related to the series, barring creators from selling "Kuroko's Basketball"-themed doujinshi at their events. The suspect, who was later revealed to be a 36-year-old man named Hirofumi Watanabe, was eventually caught and was arrested on December 15, 2013. Due to the loss of "Kuroko's Basketball" dōjinshi because of the threats, there was a special event that specifically focused on dōjinshi related to the series affectionately named "Kuroket", organized by the Comic Market Preparatory Committee, held during the Comiket Special 6 – Otaku Summit 2015 on March 29, 2015. The event hosted approx. 2400 "dōjinshi" circles.


title: Crossbow

text: A crossbow is a ranged weapon using an elastic launching device consisting of a bow-like assembly called a "prod", mounted horizontally on a main frame called a "tiller", which is hand-held in a similar fashion to the stock of a long firearm. Crossbows shoot arrow-like projectiles called "bolts" or "quarrels". A person who shoots crossbow is called a "crossbowman" or an "arbalist" (after the arbalest, a European crossbow variant used during the 12th century).


title: Crossbow

text: Although crossbows and bows use the same launch principle, the difference is that an archer must maintain a bow's draw manually by pitching the bowstring with fingers, pulling it back with arm and back muscles and then holding that same form in order to aim (which distresses the body and demands significant physical strength and stamina); while a crossbow utilizes a locking mechanism to maintain the draw, limiting the shooter's exertion to only pulling the string into lock and then releasing the shot by depressing a lever/trigger. This not only enables a crossbowman to handle stronger draw weight, but also to hold for longer with significantly less physical strain, thus potentially achieving better precision.


title: Crossbow

text: Historically, crossbows played a significant role in the warfare of East Asia and Europe. The earliest known crossbows were invented in the first millennium BC, not later than the 7th century BC in ancient China, not later than the 1st century AD in Greece (as the gastraphetes), each civilization developed the weapon independently of each other. Crossbows brought about a major shift in the role of projectile weaponry in wars, such as during Qin's unification wars and later the Han campaigns against northern nomads and western states. The medieval European crossbow was called by many names, including "crossbow" itself; most of these names derived from the word "ballista", an ancient Greek torsion siege engine similar in appearance but different in design principle. The traditional bow and arrow had long been a specialized weapon that required considerable training, physical strength, and expertise to operate with any degree of practical efficiency. Many cultures treated archers as a separate and superior warrior caste, despite usually being drawn from the common class, as their archery skill-set was essentially trained and strengthened from early childhood (similar to many cavalry-oriented cultures) and was impossible to reproduce outside a pre-established cultural tradition, which many cultures lacked. In contrast, the crossbow was the first ranged weapon to be simple, cheap and physically undemanding enough to be operated by large numbers of untrained conscript soldiers, thus enabling virtually any military body to field a potent force of crossbowmen with little expense beyond the cost of the weapons themselves.


title: Crossbow

text: In modern times, firearms have largely supplanted bows and crossbows as weapons of warfare. However, crossbows still remain widely used for competitive shooting sports and hunting, or for relatively silent shooting.


title: Crossbow

text: It is possible to turn at least some store-bought bows into a crossbow. It is done by marrying a stock-and-trigger system to a bow.


title: Crossbow

text: A crossbowman or crossbow-maker is sometimes called an "arbalista", "arbalist" or "arbalest". The last two are also used to refer to the crossbow.


title: Crossbow

text: The "lath", also called the "prod", is the bow of the crossbow. According to W.F. Peterson, the "prod" came into usage in the 19th century as a result of mistranslating "rodd" in a 16th-century list of crossbow effects.


title: Crossbow

text: The "stock" is the wooden body on which the bow is mounted, although the medieval "tiller" is also used.


title: Crossbow

text: A crossbow is essentially a bow mounted on an elongated frame (called a tiller or stock) with a built-in mechanism that holds the drawn bow string, as well as a trigger mechanism which is used to release the string.


title: Crossbow

text: The Chinese trigger was a complex mechanism typically composed of three cast bronze pieces housed inside a hollow bronze enclosure. The entire mechanism is then dropped into a carved slot within the tiller and secured together by two bronze rods. The string catch (nut) is shaped like a "J" because it usually has a tall erect rear spine that protrudes above the housing, which serves the function of both a cocking lever (by pushing the drawn string onto it) and a primitive rear sight. It is held stationary against tension by the second piece, which is shaped like a flattened "C" and acts as the sear. The sear cannot move as it is trapped by the third piece, i.e. the actual trigger blade, which hangs vertically below the enclosure and catches the sear via a notch. The two bearing surfaces between the three trigger pieces each offers a mechanical advantage, which allow for handling significant draw weights with a much smaller pull weight. During shooting, the user will hold the crossbow at eye level by a vertical handle and aim along the arrow using the sighting spine for elevation, similar to how a modern rifleman shoots with iron sights. When the trigger blade is pulled, its notch disengages from the sear and allows the latter to drop downwards, which in turn frees up the nuts to pivot forward and release the bowstring.


title: Crossbow

text: European crossbows from the 10th to 12th centuries used wood for the bow, also called the "prod" or "lath", which tended to be ash or yew.


title: Crossbow

text: Composite bows started appearing in Europe during the 13th century and could be made from layers of different material, often wood, horn, and sinew glued together and bound with animal tendon. These composite bows made of several layers are much stronger and more efficient in releasing energy than simple wooden bows.


title: Crossbow

text: Traditionally, the prod was often lashed to the stock with rope, whipcord, or other strong cording. This cording is called the "bridle".


title: Crossbow

text: The Chinese used winches for large crossbows mounted on fortifications or wagons, known as "bedded crossbows" (床弩). Winches may have been used for handheld crossbows during the Han dynasty (202 BC–9 AD, 25–220 AD), but there is only one known depiction of it. The 11th century Chinese military text "Wujing Zongyao" mentions types of crossbows using winch mechanisms, but it is not known if these were actually handheld crossbows or mounted crossbows. Another drawing method involved the shooters sitting on the ground, and using the combined strength of leg, waist, back and arm muscles to help span much heavier crossbows, which were aptly called "waist-spun crossbows" (腰張弩).


title: Crossbow

text: During the Medieval period, both Chinese and European crossbows used stirrups as well as belt hooks. In the 13th century, European crossbows started using winches, and from the 14th century an assortment of spanning mechanisms such as winch pulleys, cord pulleys, gaffles (such as gaffe levers, goat's foot levers, and rarer internal lever-action mechanisms), cranequins, and even screws.


title: Crossbow

text: The smallest crossbows are pistol crossbows. Others are simple long stocks with the crossbow mounted on them. These could be shot from under the arm. The next step in development was stocks of the shape that would later be used for firearms, which allowed better aiming. The arbalest was a heavy crossbow that required special systems for pulling the sinew via windlasses. For siege warfare, the size of crossbows was further increased to hurl large projectiles, such as rocks, at fortifications. The required crossbows needed a massive base frame and powerful windlass devices.


title: Crossbow

text: The arrow-like projectiles of a crossbow are called crossbow bolts. These are usually much shorter than arrows, but can be several times heavier. There is an optimum weight for bolts to achieve maximum kinetic energy, which varies depending on the strength and characteristics of the crossbow, but most could pass through common mail. Crossbow bolts can be fitted with a variety of heads, some with sickle-shaped heads to cut rope or rigging; but the most common today is a four-sided point called a quarrel. A highly specialized type of bolt is employed to collect blubber biopsy samples used in biology research.


title: Crossbow

text: Even relatively small differences in arrow weight can have a considerable impact on its drop and, conversely, its flight trajectory.


title: Crossbow

text: The ancient Chinese crossbow often included a metal (i.e. bronze or steel) grid serving as iron sights. Modern crossbow sights often use similar technology to modern firearm sights, such as red dot sights and telescopic sights. Many crossbow scopes feature multiple crosshairs to compensate for the significant effects of gravity over different ranges. In most cases, a newly bought crossbow will need to be sighted for accurate shooting.


title: Crossbow

text: A major cause of the sound of shooting a crossbow is vibration of various components. Crossbow silencers are multiple components placed on high vibration parts, such as the string and limbs, to dampen vibration and suppress the sound of loosing the bolt.


title: Crossbow

text: In terms of archaeological evidence, crossbow locks made of cast bronze have been found in China dating to around 650 BC. They have also been found in Tombs 3 and 12 at Qufu, Shandong, previously the capital of Lu, and date to the 6th century BC. Bronze crossbow bolts dating from the mid-5th century BC have been found at a Chu burial site in Yutaishan, Jiangling County, Hubei Province. Other early finds of crossbows were discovered in Tomb 138 at Saobatang, Hunan Province, and date to the mid-4th century BC. It is possible that these early crossbows used spherical pellets for ammunition. A Western-Han mathematician and music theorist, Jing Fang (78–37 BC), compared the moon to the shape of a round crossbow bullet. The "Zhuangzi" also mentions crossbow bullets.


title: Crossbow

text: The earliest Chinese documents mentioning a crossbow were texts from the 4th to 3rd centuries BC attributed to the followers of Mozi. This source refers to the use of a giant crossbow between the 6th and 5th centuries BC, corresponding to the late Spring and Autumn Period. Sun Tzu's "The Art of War" (first appearance dated between 500 BC to 300 BC) refers to the characteristics and use of crossbows in chapters 5 and 12 respectively, and compares a drawn crossbow to "might". The "Huainanzi" advises its readers not to use crossbows in marshland where the surface is soft and it is hard to arm the crossbow with the foot. The "Records of the Grand Historian", completed in 94 BC, mentions that Sun Bin defeated Pang Juan by ambushing him with a body of crossbowmen at the Battle of Maling in 342 BC. The "Book of Han", finished 111 AD, lists two military treatises on crossbows.


title: Crossbow

text: Handheld crossbows with complex bronze trigger mechanisms have also been found with the Terracotta Army in the tomb of Qin Shihuang (r. 221–210 BC) that are similar to specimens from the subsequent Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD), while crossbowmen described in the Qin and Han Dynasty learned drill formations, some were even mounted as charioteers and cavalry units, and Han Dynasty writers attributed the success of numerous battles against the Xiongnu and Western Regions city-states to massed crossbow volleys. The bronze triggers were designed in such a way that they were able to store a large amount of energy within the bow when drawn, but was easily shot with little resistance and recoil when the trigger were pulled. The trigger nut also had a long vertical spine that could be used like a primitive rear sight for elevation adjustment, which allowed precision shooting over longer distances. The Qin/Han-era crossbow was also an early example of modular design, as the bronze trigger components were also mass-produced with relative precise tolerances so that the parts are interchangeable between different crossbows. The trigger mechanism from one crossbow can be installed into another simply by dropping into a tiller slot of the same specifications and secured with dowel pins. Some crossbow designs were also found to be fitted with bronze buttplates and trigger guard.


title: Crossbow

text: It is clear from surviving inventory lists in Gansu and Xinjiang that the crossbow was greatly favored by the Han dynasty. For example, in one batch of slips there are only two mentions of bows, but thirty mentions of crossbows. Crossbows were mass-produced in state armories with designs improving as time went on, such as the use of a mulberry wood stock and brass; a crossbow in 1068 could pierce a tree at 140 paces. Crossbows were used in numbers as large as 50,000 starting from the Qin dynasty and upwards of several hundred thousand during the Han. According to one authority, the crossbow had become "nothing less than the standard weapon of the Han armies", by the second century BC. Han soldiers were required to pull a crossbow with a draw weight equivalent of to qualify as an entry level crossbowman, while it was claimed that a few elite troops were capable of bending crossbows by the hands-and-feet method, with a draw-weight in excess of 750lb.


title: Crossbow

text: After the Han dynasty, the crossbow lost favor during the Six Dynasties until it experienced a mild resurgence during the Tang dynasty, under which the ideal expeditionary army of 20,000 included 2,200 archers and 2,000 crossbowmen. Li Jing and Li Quan prescribed 20 percent of the infantry to be armed with crossbows.


title: Crossbow

text: During the Song dynasty, the crossbow received a huge upsurge in military usage, and often overshadowed the bow 2 to 1 in numbers. During this time period, a stirrup was added for ease of loading. The Song government attempted to restrict the public use of crossbows and sought ways to keep both body armors and crossbows out of civilian ownership. Despite the ban on certain types of crossbows, the weapon experienced an upsurge in civilian usage as both a hunting weapon and pastime. The "romantic young people from rich families, and others who had nothing particular to do" formed crossbow shooting clubs as a way to pass time.


title: Crossbow

text: During the late Ming dynasty, no crossbows were mentioned to have been produced in the three-year period from 1619 to 1622. With 21,188,366 taels, the Ming manufactured 25,134 cannons, 8,252 small guns, 6,425 muskets, 4,090 culverins, 98,547 polearms and swords, 26,214 great "horse decapitator" swords, 42,800 bows, 1,000 great axes, 2,284,000 arrows, 180,000 fire arrows, 64,000 bow strings, and hundreds of transport carts.


title: Crossbow

text: Military crossbows were armed by treading, or basically placing the feet on the bow stave and drawing it using one's arms and back muscles. During the Song dynasty, stirrups were added for ease of drawing and to mitigate damage to the bow. Alternatively the bow could also be drawn by a belt claw attached to the waist, but this was done lying down, as was the case for all large crossbows. Winch-drawing was used for the large mounted crossbows as seen below, but evidence for its use in Chinese hand-crossbows is scant.


title: Crossbow

text: Other sorts of crossbows also existed, such as the repeating crossbow, multi-shot crossbow, larger field artillery crossbows, and repeating multi-shot crossbow.


title: Crossbow

text: The first type of crossbow found in Japan was excavated in Shimane prefecture and dates back to the Yayoi period (probably around the 200-300 A.D). Like anything dealing with Yayoi, not much is known and that is the only example excavated.


title: Crossbow

text: There are other references for this kind of weapon; the first is inside a report concerning a bandit raid on the Dewa provincial office in 878, in which "100 shudo" were stolen. The second, an inventory from the Kōzuke provincial office compiled around 1030, lists "25 shudo" (apparently its entire stock) as missing.


title: Crossbow

text: According to design and the manufacture of the only trigger mechanism excavated in Japan, which was made of bronze, these crossbows were imported from China or Korea.


title: Crossbow

text: It is possible that crossbows saw relative use in between the 9th and 10th century, but the few scattered evidences disappeared completely from Japan after this period, up until the Edo period.


title: Crossbow

text: Oyumi were ancient Japanese artillery pieces that first appeared in the seventh century (during the Asuka Period). According to Japanese records, the Oyumi was different from the hand held crossbow also in use during the same time period. A quote from a seventh-century source seems to suggest that the Oyumi may have able to fire multiple arrows at once: "the Oyumi were lined up and fired at random, the arrows fell like rain". A ninth century Japanese artisan named Shimaki no Fubito claimed to have improved on a version of the weapon used by the Chinese; his version could rotate and fire projectiles in multiple directions. The last recorded use of the Oyumi was in 1189.


title: Crossbow

text: In Vietnamese historical legend, general Thục Phán, who ruled over the ancient kingdom of Âu Lạc from 257 to 207 BC, is said to have owed his power to a magic crossbow, capable of shooting thousands of bolts at once.


title: Crossbow

text: Crossbow technology for crossbows with more than one prod was transferred from the Chinese to Champa, which Champa used in its invasion of the Khmer Empire's Angkor in 1177. When the Chams sacked Angkor they used the Chinese siege crossbow. The Chinese taught the Chams how to use crossbows and mounted archery Crossbows and archery in 1171. The Khmer also had double bow crossbows mounted on elephants, which Michel Jacq-Hergoualc'h suggests were elements of Cham mercenaries in Jayavarman VII's army.


title: Crossbow

text: The native Montagnards of Vietnam's Central Highlands were also known to have used crossbows, as both a tool for hunting, and later, an effective weapon against the Viet Cong during the Vietnam War. Montagnard fighters armed with crossbows proved a highly valuable asset to the US Special Forces operating in Vietnam, and it was not uncommon for the Green Berets to integrate Montagnard crossbowmen into their strike teams.


title: Crossbow

text: The earliest crossbow-like weapons in Europe probably emerged around the late 5th century BC when the "gastraphetes", an ancient Greek crossbow, appeared. The device was described by the Greek author Heron of Alexandria in his "Belopoeica" ("On Catapult-making"), which draws on an earlier account of his compatriot engineer Ctesibius (fl. 285–222 BC). According to Heron, the gastraphetes was the forerunner of the later catapult, which places its invention some unknown time prior to 399 BC. The gastraphetes was a crossbow mounted on a stock divided into a lower and upper section. The lower was a case fixed to the bow while the upper was a slider which had the same dimensions as the case. Meaning "belly-bow", it was called as such because the concave withdrawal rest at one end of the stock was placed against the stomach of the operator, which he could press to withdraw the slider before attaching a string to the trigger and loading the bolt; this could thus store more energy than regular Greek bows. It was used in the Siege of Motya in 397 BC. This was a key Carthaginian stronghold in Sicily, as described in the 1st century AD by Heron of Alexandria in his book "Belopoeica".


title: Crossbow

text: Other arrow shooting machines such as the larger ballista and smaller "Scorpio" also existed starting from around 338 BC, but these are torsion catapults and not considered crossbows. Arrow-shooting machines ("katapeltai") are briefly mentioned by Aeneas Tacticus in his treatise on siegecraft written around 350 BC. An Athenian inventory from 330–329 BC includes catapults bolts with heads and flights. Arrow-shooting machines in action are reported from Philip II's siege of Perinthos in Thrace in 340 BC. At the same time, Greek fortifications began to feature high towers with shuttered windows in the top, presumably to house anti-personnel arrow shooters, as in Aigosthena.


title: Crossbow

text: The late 4th century author Vegetius, in his "De Re Militaris", describes "arcubalistarii" (crossbowmen) working together with archers and artillerymen. However it is disputed if arcuballistas were crossbows or torsion powered weapons. The idea that the arcuballista was a crossbow is based on the fact that Vegetius refers to it and the "manuballista", which was torsion powered, separately. Therefore, if the arcuballista was not like the manuballista, it may have been a crossbow. The etymology is not clear and their definitions obscure. According to Vegetius, these were well-known devices, and hence he did not describe them in depth. Joseph Needham argues against the existence of Roman crossbowmen:


title: Crossbow

text: On the other hand, Arrian's earlier "Ars Tactica", written around 136 AD, also mentions 'missiles shot not from a bow but from a machine' and that this machine was used on horseback while in full gallop. It is presumed that this was a crossbow.


title: Crossbow

text: The only pictorial evidence of Roman arcuballistas comes from sculptural reliefs in Roman Gaul depicting them in hunting scenes. These are aesthetically similar to both the Greek and Chinese crossbows, but it is not clear what kind of release mechanism they used. Archaeological evidence suggests they were similar to the rolling nut mechanism of medieval Europe.


title: Crossbow

text: References to the crossbow are basically nonexistent in Europe from the 5th century until the 10th century. There is however a depiction of a crossbow as a hunting weapon on four Pictish stones from early medieval Scotland (6th to 9th centuries): St. Vigeans no. 1, Glenferness, Shandwick, and Meigle.


title: Crossbow

text: The crossbow reappeared again in 947 as a French weapon during the siege of Senlis and again in 984 at the siege of Verdun. Crossbows were used at the battle of Hastings in 1066 and by the 12th century they had become common battlefield weapons. The earliest extant European crossbow remains to date were found at Lake Paladru and has been dated to the 11th century.


title: Crossbow

text: The crossbow superseded hand bows in many European armies during the 12th century, except in England, where the longbow was more popular. Later crossbows (sometimes referred to as arbalests), utilizing all-steel prods, were able to achieve power close (and sometime superior) to longbows, but were more expensive to produce and slower to reload because they required the aid of mechanical devices such as the cranequin or windlass to draw back their extremely heavy bows. Usually these could only shoot two bolts per minute versus twelve or more with a skilled archer, often necessitating the use of a pavise (shield) to protect the operator from enemy fire. Along with polearm weapons made from farming equipment, the crossbow was also a weapon of choice for insurgent peasants such as the Taborites. Genoese crossbowmen were famous mercenaries hired throughout medieval Europe, while the crossbow also played an important role in anti-personnel defense of ships.


title: Crossbow

text: Crossbows were eventually replaced in warfare by gunpowder weapons. Early hand cannons had slower rates of fire and much worse accuracy than contemporary crossbows, but the arquebus (which proliferated in the mid to late 15th century) matched their rate of fire while being far more powerful. The Battle of Cerignola in 1503 was largely won by Spain through the use of matchlock arquebuses, marking the first time a major battle was won through the use of hand-held firearms. Later, similar competing tactics would feature harquebusiers or musketeers in formation with pikemen, pitted against cavalry firing pistols or carbines. While the military crossbow had largely been supplanted by firearms on the battlefield by 1525, the sporting crossbow in various forms remained a popular hunting weapon in Europe until the eighteenth century. Crossbows saw irregular use throughout the rest of the 16th century; for example, Maria Pita's husband was killed by a crossbowman of the English Armada in 1589.


title: Crossbow

text: There are no references to crossbows in Islamic texts earlier than the 14th century. Arabs in general were averse to the crossbow and considered it a foreign weapon. They called it "qaus al-rijl" (foot-drawn bow), "qaus al-zanbūrak" (bolt bow) and "qaus al-faranjīyah" (Frankish bow). Although Muslims did have crossbows, there seems to be a split between eastern and western types. Muslims in Spain used the typical European trigger while eastern Muslim crossbows had a more complex trigger mechanism.


title: Crossbow

text: In Western Africa and Central Africa, crossbows served as a scouting weapon and for hunting, with African slaves bringing this technology to natives in America. In the US South, the crossbow was used for hunting and warfare when firearms or gunpowder were unavailable because of economic hardships or isolation. In the North of Northern America, light hunting crossbows were traditionally used by the Inuit. These are technologically similar to the African-derived crossbows, but have a different route of influence.


title: Crossbow

text: Spanish conquistadors continued to use crossbows in the Americas long after they were replaced in European battlefields by firearms. Only in the 1570s did firearms become completely dominant among the Spanish in the Americas.


title: Crossbow

text: The French and the British used a Sauterelle (French for grasshopper) in World War I. It was lighter and more portable than the Leach Trench Catapult, but less powerful. It weighed and could throw an F1 grenade or Mills bomb . The Sauterelle replaced the Leach Catapult in British service and was in turn replaced in 1916 by the 2-inch Medium Trench Mortar and Stokes mortar.


title: Crossbow

text: Crossbows are used for shooting sports and bowhunting in modern archery and for blubber biopsy samples in scientific research. In some countries such as Canada or the United Kingdom, they may be less heavily regulated than firearms, and thus more popular for hunting; some jurisdictions have bow and/or crossbow only seasons.


title: Crossbow

text: In modern times, crossbows are no longer used for war, but there are still some applications. For example, in the Americas, the Peruvian army (Ejército) equips some soldiers with crossbows and rope, to establish a zip-line in difficult terrain. In Brazil the CIGS (Jungle Warfare Training Center) also trains soldiers in the use of crossbows. In the United States, SAA International Ltd manufacture a crossbow-launched version of the U.S. Army type classified Launched Grapnel Hook (LGH), among other mine countermeasure solutions designed for the Middle Eastern theatre. It has been successfully evaluated in Cambodia and Bosnia. It is used to probe for and detonate tripwire initiated mines and booby traps at up to . The concept is similar to the LGH device originally fired from a rifle, as a plastic retrieval line is attached. Reusable up to 20 times, the line can be reeled back in without exposing oneself. The device is of particular use in tactical situations where noise discipline is important.


title: Crossbow

text: In Europe, Barnett International sold crossbows to Serbian forces which according to "The Guardian" were later used "in ambushes and as a counter-sniper weapon" against the Kosovo Liberation Army during the Kosovo War in the areas of Pec and Djakovica, south west of Kosovo. Whitehall launched an investigation, though the Department of Trade and Industry established that not being "on the military list", crossbows were not covered by such export regulations. Paul Beaver of Jane's Defence Publications commented that, "They are not only a silent killer, they also have a psychological effect". On 15 February 2008, Serbian Minister of Defence Dragan Sutanovac was pictured testing a Barnett crossbow during a public exercise of the Serbian Army's Special Forces in Nis, south of Belgrade. Special forces in both Greece and Turkey also continue to employ the crossbow. Spain's Green Berets still use the crossbow as well.


title: Crossbow

text: In Asia, some Chinese armed forces use crossbows, including the special force Snow Leopard Commando Unit of the People's Armed Police and the People's Liberation Army. One justification for this comes in the crossbow's ability to stop persons carrying explosives without risk of causing detonation. During the Xinjiang riots of July 2009, crossbows were used alongside modern military hardware to quell protests. The Indian Navy's Marine Commando Force were equipped until the late 1980s with crossbows with cyanide-tipped bolts, as an alternative to suppressed handguns.


title: Crossbow

text: With a crossbow, archers could release a draw force far in excess of what they could have handled with a bow. Furthermore, the crossbow could hold the tension for a long time, whereas even the strongest longbowman could only hold a drawn bow for a short period of time. The ease of use of a crossbow allows it to be used effectively with little training, while other types of bows take far more skill to shoot accurately. The disadvantage is the greater weight and clumsiness to reload compared to a bow, as well as the slower rate of shooting and the lower efficiency of the acceleration system, but there would be reduced elastic hysteresis, making the crossbow a more accurate weapon.


title: Crossbow

text: Crossbows have a much smaller draw length than bows. This means that for the same energy to be imparted to the arrow (or bolt), the crossbow has to have a much higher draw weight.


title: Crossbow

text: A direct comparison between a fast hand-drawn replica crossbow and a longbow show a 6:10 rate of shooting or a 4:9 rate within 30 seconds and comparable weapons.


title: Crossbow

text: Today, the crossbow often has a complicated legal status due to the possibility of lethal use and its similarities to both firearms and archery weapons. While some jurisdictions regard crossbows the same as firearms, many others do not require any sort of license to own a crossbow. The legality of using a crossbow for hunting varies widely around the world, and even within different jurisdictions of some federal countries.


title: Crossbow

text: The "Star Wars" franchise features Wookiees, including Chewbacca, wielding bowcasters, crossbow-themed blasters.


title: Crossbow

text: In George R. R. Martin's fantasy novel series A Song of Ice and Fire, crossbows are a common weapon. One is famously used by Tyrion Lannister to kill his father. That particular crossbow is featured even more prominently in the derivative HBO TV show Game of Thrones.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: Kolkata Knight Riders (KKR) are a franchise cricket team representing the city of Kolkata in the Indian Premier League. The franchise is owned by Bollywood actor Shah Rukh Khan, actress Juhi Chawla and her spouse Jay Mehta. The Knight Riders play at the Eden Gardens stadium.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: The franchise, which has gained immense popularity due to its association with celebrity owners, qualified for the IPL playoffs for the first time in 2011. They became the IPL champions in 2012, by defeating Chennai Super Kings in the final. They repeated the feat in 2014, defeating Kings XI Punjab. The Knight Riders hold the record for the longest winning streak by any Indian team in T20s (14).


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: The side's all-time leading run-scorer is Gautam Gambhir, while their leading wicket-taker is Sunil Narine. The official theme of the team is "Korbo, Lorbo, Jeetbo Re" ("we will perform, fight, and win!") and the official colours are purple and gold.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: In 2007, the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) created the cricket tournament Indian Premier League, based on the Twenty20 format of the game. Eight teams participated in the inaugural tournament held in April – June 2008. The teams representing the eight different cities of India were put up on auction in Mumbai on 20 February 2008. The team representing Kolkata was eventually bought by Bollywood superstar Shah Rukh Khan's company Red Chillies Entertainment in partnership with actress Juhi Chawla and her husband Jay Mehta for a price of $75.09 million, equal to approximately ₹2.98 billion at that time. Sourav Ganguly, former captain of the Indian national team, a native of West Bengal and the current President of BCCI, was named the Icon player for the team. The name of the team is a reference to the popular 1980s American television series Knight Rider.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: In June 2015, the team's ownership group bought a stake in the Caribbean Premier League's Trinidad and Tobago Red Steel, and renamed it the Trinbago Knight Riders in 2016. In December 2020, the team also made an investment in the upcoming American T20 league Major League Cricket.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: In 2021, the Knight Riders Group CEO, Venky Mysore, announced their entry into the South African T20 league with Cape Town Knight Riders and signalled intentions to invest in ECB's new competition format, The Hundred.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: Initially, when the Kolkata Knight Riders were first introduced in 2008, the logo of the team consisted of a blazing golden Viking helmet against a black background with the name of the team written in gold next to it. However, the black background was changed to purple in the third season. It was in 2012 that the current logo, which has a blazing purple Corinthian helmet trimmed with gold, with Kolkata Knight Riders written within a shield was introduced.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: The tagline of the team was "All the King's Men" during the first four seasons. However, in the fifth it was replaced by "New Dawn, New Knights". The team's official colours were black and gold during the first two seasons. At the time, Khan said that "golden symbolizes spirit of life and black presents the Goddess Kali." It was later changed to purple and gold during the third season and was kept so. The jersey was created by Bollywood fashion designer Manish Malhotra.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: The main theme of the team "Korbo, Lorbo, Jeetbo Re" ("we will act, fight, and win!") was scored by Vishal–Shekhar duo. A "Knight Riders" album featuring several singers and music composers including Usha Uthup and Bappi Lahiri was also created.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: The Knight Riders have historically been a successful franchise in the IPL. This success has led to them having many rivalries among other teams.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: Both the teams play in major markets, as the Mumbai Indians play in Mumbai and the Kolkata Knight Riders play in Kolkata. The Mumbai Indians are the most successful IPL franchise with five championships, but until Mumbai's third championship, both the teams were tied with two championships. In the first two seasons of the IPL, Mumbai swept Kolkata in all four games. It was not until the 2010 IPL Season that Kolkata won against Mumbai. Both sides have been captained by Indian cricket legends at one point (Mumbai was captained by Sachin Tendulkar, and Kolkata was captained by Sourav Ganguly). This rivalry has often played out in Mumbai's favour, as they have won 22 games compared to Kolkata's seven wins. Both have played each other twice in the playoffs.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: In 2011, both teams played against each other in the Eliminator round, as both franchises made their first playoff appearances. This was the first time that the two teams met in the playoffs. Mumbai won the match by four wickets and advanced to the next round, ultimately losing to the Royal Challengers Bangalore.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: In 2012, both the teams were chasing a playoff spot in the tournament. The game started out poorly for KKR as their batting side did not score runs. KKR picked up the pace and ended the innings with 140/7. Mumbai was expected to win at that point and started to attack quickly, and started 60/2 with more than 10 overs left to play. Mumbai quickly collapsed and finished their innings with 108 runs and all out. Sunil Narine was named Man of the Match with 4 wickets, and KKR eliminated MI from the playoffs. KKR won its first championship that season. Knight Riders owner Shah Rukh Khan was handed a 5-year ban at Wankhede Stadium, home of the Mumbai Indians. He was accused of walking on the field post-match and abusing the security guards. In 2015, the ban was lifted.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: Mumbai and Kolkata faced off in the opening match of the 2015 season. Mumbai was up to bat in the first innings as they scored 168/3. This charge was led by captain Rohit Sharma with his 98 runs. Kolkata captain, Gautam Gambhir had 57 runs and led his side to victory. Suryakumar Yadav's 46 runs were crucial to KKR's chase.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: In 2017, Mumbai earned its 100th T20 win against KKR. Later that season, both sides met in the playoffs in the Qualifier 2 round. KKR had a poor batting performance as they posted 107 runs and all out. Mumbai was able to capitalise and won the match. Mumbai went onto the finals to beat Rising Pune Supergiant to claim their third championship.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: From 2015 to 2018, Mumbai Indians held an eight-game winning streak against the Kolkata Knight Riders. That streak was broken on 29 April 2019, as KKR posted a total of 232 runs and won by 34 runs. KKR's Andre Russell scored 80 runs, and MI's Hardik Pandya scored 91 runs. KKR holds the record for highest total for an IPL match played at Eden Gardens. This victory was KKR's 100th T20 win. Mumbai have won all three games between them since then.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: The rivalry between Kolkata Knight Riders and Royal Challengers Bangalore is one of the oldest in the IPL. The inaugural match of IPL was played between both the teams in which KKR won by 140 runs due to a 158* off just 73 balls by Brendon McCullum.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: In IPL 2009, both teams faced off against each other again in which RCB won both times. In the second time they faced each other, Ross Taylor scored a blitzkrieg 81* off 33 balls to win it for RCB by six wickets.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: In the 2012 edition of IPL, KKR was at the lower half of the IPL table and needed to win the crucial match against RCB. KKR won the toss and chose to bat first. The skipper Gautam Gambhir led from the front with 93 (51). In reply, RCB lost wickets at regular intervals, as only Chris Gayle managed to put up a fight with a score of 86 (58). The next time they met, Gambhir again was the thorn of RCB as he top scored for KKR at a tough pitch, taking KKR to a competitive total of 165. RCB in reply made 129, as Lakshmipathy Balaji ripped through their lineup with a 4/18 in 4 overs.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: In the 2015 IPL edition, RCB and KKR took part in a match reduced due to rain. It was reduced to a 10 over match. RCB won the toss and elected to field. For KKR, Andre Russell was the top scorer as he scored 45 off just 17 balls as he took them to a score of 111/4 in just 10 overs. Mitchell Starc took one wicket for 15 runs in 2 overs. In reply, RCB were at 0–48 at 3.4 overs before Brad Hogg got Chris Gayle out. After that, RCB stuttered and started to collapse as they were reduced to 3–81 in 7.2 overs. When Virat Kohli got out to Andre Russell, the match looked to be over for RCB. However, Mandeep Singh scored 45 off just 18 balls hitting 3 sixes and 4 fours.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: In the 2017 IPL edition, Kolkata Knight Riders and Royal Challengers Bangalore locked horns with one another again. In the first match between them, RCB got KKR put for a score of 131 after KKR got off to a strong start of 0–48 in 3.3 overs. However, KKR reduced RCB to 49/9 before getting the final wicket, resulting in RCB getting the lowest score in the history of IPL – 49 all out. Nathan Coulter Nile, Colin de Grandhomme and Chris Woakes got three wickets each. In the next time they faced, Sunil Narine scored the fastest fifty of IPL then and the second fastest now (50 off 15 balls). KKR made the highest score made in powerplay in any IPL match, and chased down the target offered by RCB easily.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: The 2019 IPL saw Virat Kohli scoring 84 off 49 and AB de Villiers scoring 63 off 32, taking RCB to a total of 205/3. KKR had a strong start scoring 28/0 in 1.3 overs before losing wickets at regular intervals and having their run rate reduced. They were 139/4 in 15.5 overs. Dinesh Karthik and Andre Russell however brought back the chase on control. Karthik got out scoring 19 off 15, leaving KKR at 153/5 in 17 overs. Andre Russell, however, took KKR over the line as he scored 48 off 13, hitting Mohammed Siraj for 23 runs in one over.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: In the next match, RCB struck back as Virat Kohli made his 5th IPL century scoring 100 runs in 58 balls only. Moeen Ali scored 66 runs in only 28 balls as RCB scored 213 runs. For KKR, Nitish Rana scored 85 off 46 and Andre Russell scored 65 off 25, taking the game to the wire. However, RCB won the match by 10 runs, with Virat Kohli being Man of the Match.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: The home venue of the Knight Riders is Eden Gardens (with the two ends of the crease called the High Court End and the Club House End). Owned by the Cricket Association of Bengal, it was the largest cricket stadium in India and had a seating capacity of over 90,000. In 2011, the stadium was renovated to meet the standards set by the International Cricket Council for the 2011 Cricket World Cup; reducing its capacity to around 68,000. The renovated stadium includes a new clubhouse and players' facilities, upgrading the exterior wall, cladding the existing roof structure with a new metal skin, and general infrastructure improvements. In 2013, two of the team's home matches were hosted by the JSCA International Cricket Stadium in Ranchi.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: Multinational communications corporation Nokia was the official founding sponsor of the Kolkata Knight Riders and remained their principal sponsor until 2014. In 2015, Chinese mobile phone manufacturer Gionee took over as their principal sponsor and signed a three-year deal worth . In 2018, Nokia returned as the main sponsor of the Knight Riders, signing a two-year deal. Star Plus, Reebok, HDIL, Kit Kat, SB Nation, Doublemint, SAP AG, Asian Paints, Red FM 93.5, The Telegraph, Seiko, U.S. Polo Assn., Uber, Dish TV, Sansui Electric, Ola Cabs, Exide, Ibibo, Sprite, Dream11, Pepsi, Sony Music India, Royal Stag, Greenply, MoneyGram, Fever 104 FM and Pocari Sweat have all formerly been either co-sponsors or partners.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: In 2020, MPL became their principal sponsor. As of 2021, they have co-sponsorship deals with Jio, Lux Cozi, Colgate, Pentonic and Unacademy along with others. They also have partnerships with Kotak Mahindra Bank, BKT Tyres, Kingfisher Calendar, Amul Kool and MX Takatak. In 2022, the Esports app, WinZO Sports entered into a long-term partnership as the principal sponsor of the Kolkata Knight Riders.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: Sourav Ganguly, the former captain of the Indian cricket team was the icon player and led the franchise in the 2008 and 2010 seasons. Brendon McCullum led the team in the intervening period. Both the captains were released before the 2011 season. The former team included all-rounders Chris Gayle, David Hussey, Mohammad Hafeez, Laxmi Ratan Shukla, Angelo Mathews, batsman Ricky Ponting, Brad Hodge, Salman Butt and wicket-keeper Wriddhiman Saha. The main bowlers were Umar Gul, Shoaib Akhtar, Ishant Sharma, Ashok Dinda, Ajit Agarkar and Murali Karthik. Australian batsman Brad Hodge and bowlers Ajantha Mendis and Charl Langeveldt were bought outside the IPL auction in late 2008.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: At the 2009 auction, the team bought Bangladeshi all-rounder Mashrafe Mortaza for $600,000. Due to the unavailability of Pakistani players starting 2009, KKR had to suspend the contract of Umar Gul, who was a key performer from the 2008 season. On 26 April 2009, KKR administration sent back two of its players Akash Chopra and Sanjay Bangar on the premises of poor performance. Shane Bond was acquired after releasing Ricky Ponting, Morne van Wyk and the Pakistani players Umar Gul, Salman Butt, Mohammad Hafeez and Shoaib Akhtar before the third season. Moises Henriques was traded to Delhi in return for Owais Shah and Manoj Tiwary. Thus, their overseas roster for the 2010 season consisted of Shane Bond, Mashrafe Mortaza, Brendon McCullum, Charl Langeveldt, Ajantha Mendis, Angelo Mathews, Brad Hodge, David Hussey, Owais Shah and Chris Gayle.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: 2011 heralded the beginning of a new era for KKR. In the 2011 season, KKR drastically revamped their squad. Former captain and icon player Sourav Ganguly was not purchased in the January auction. This led to protest rallies, signature campaigns throughout the country and abroad along with stadium protests by various fan groups, such as 'No Dada No KKR', which received both national and international press attention. The team appointed Gautam Gambhir, who was bought for a record-breaking $2.4 million as skipper. Yusuf Pathan was also picked up for $2.1 million. Other international names who were added include Shakib Al Hasan, Brad Haddin, Jacques Kallis, Brett Lee, Ryan ten Doeschate, Eoin Morgan and James Pattinson. Haddin was replaced by Mark Boucher mid-season due to injury.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: In the 2012 auction, KKR bought back their former captain, Brendon McCullum. They also acquired West Indian spinner Sunil Narine and South African fast bowler Marchant de Lange.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: The team later added four domestic players to their squad, including Debabrata Das and Iresh Saxena from Bengal, Saurashtra's Chirag Jani and Sanju Samson from Kerala. However, in November 2012, KKR released the latter three from their team along with Jaydev Unadkat, a key performer from the previous seasons. In the 2013 auction, the team acquired only two overseas players, Sachithra Senanayake and Ryan McLaren.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: Before the February 2014 auction, the team had only retained their key performers Gautam Gambhir and Sunil Narine. From the auctions that took place, the team brought back Jacques Kallis and Yusuf Pathan with their right-to-match (RTM) card. Also keeping their place in the squad were Ryan ten Doeschate and Shakib Al Hasan. New international players were Morne Morkel, Patrick Cummins and Chris Lynn. Prominent Indian players bought included Robin Uthappa, Umesh Yadav, Manish Pandey, Suryakumar Yadav and Piyush Chawla.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: KKR's impressive additions in the 2015 auction were veteran Australian bowler Brad Hogg and wicket-keeper Sheldon Jackson. Before the auction in February 2016, they released Ryan ten Doeschate who was a part of their team for five consecutive seasons along with pace bowler Pat Cummins. The Knight Riders were particularly noted for their change in approach from the previous auctions where they had concentrated on spinners. For the 2016 edition, however, they acquired as many as six pacers in the form of all-rounders John Hastings, Colin Munro, Jason Holder and Rajagopal Sathish as well as bowlers Ankit Rajpoot and Jaydev Unadkat, with the latter being a former player of the squad. They signed one spinner Manan Sharma.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: Before the 2017 auctions, they released Morne Morkel, Brad Hogg, Jason Holder, Colin Munro, John Hastings, Jaydev Unadkat, Rajagopal Sathish, Manan Sharma and replacement signing Shaun Tait. From the 2017 Indian Premier League auction, they signed Trent Boult, English all-rounder Chris Woakes, Australian Nathan Coulter-Nile, West Indian Darren Bravo and Jamaican Rovman Powell. The domestic players signed were Rishi Dhawan, Ishank Jaggi, Sayan Ghosh and R Sanjay Yadav. At the time, Andre Russell was banned for one year for doping; he was replaced by Colin de Grandhomme for the season. In January 2018, they only retained West Indian cricketers Sunil Narine and Andre Russell. Their two-time title winning captain Gautam Gambhir was released. At the auction, they retained Robin Uthappa, Piyush Chawla and Kuldeep Yadav using RTM (Right-To-Match) card. KKR also bought back opener Chris Lynn and uncapped Indian batsman Ishank Jaggi. Other uncapped batsmen bought were Nitish Rana, Shubman Gill, Cameron Delport, Rinku Singh and Apoorv Wankhade. They also bought West Indian uncapped all-rounder Javon Searles and uncapped Indian all-rounders Kamlesh Nagarkoti and Shivam Mavi. Other signings were veteran Indian wicket-keeper Dinesh Karthik, Australian pace bowlers Mitchell Starc and Mitchell Johnson and former Knight Riders player Vinay Kumar.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: On 4 March 2018, Dinesh Karthik was appointed as the captain of KKR for IPL 2018 and Robin Uthappa was named vice-captain. Mitchell Starc was ruled out before the season due to injury and Tom Curran was announced as his replacement. Ahead of the auction for IPL 2019, eight players were released from the squad including Mitchell Starc and his replacement Tom Curran.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: At the auction, their high-profile buys were Carlos Brathwaite for and New Zealand pacer Lockie Ferguson for . Other players bought were South African pacer Anrich Nortje, English duo Harry Gurney and Joe Denly as well as uncapped Indian players Nikhil Naik, Prithvi Raj Yarra and Shrikant Mundhe for their base prices of each. Before IPL 2020, KKR released 11 players from their squad and also traded in Siddhesh Lad from Mumbai Indians.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: At the 2020 IPL Auction, KKR bought pace bowler Pat Cummins for ₹15.5 crores. This was the biggest buy in the auction. KKR also purchased Eoin Morgan, who just came off as captain of the World Cup winning England squad. He was bought for ₹5.25 crores. On 16 October 2020, Kolkata Knight Riders skipper Dinesh Karthik handed over Kolkata Knight Riders' captaincy to Eoin Morgan.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: Since 2022 was a mega auction, Kolkata Knight Riders had to release majority of players including top order batsman Shubman Gill, skipper Eoin Morgan and vice captain Dinesh Karthik. KKR retained 4 players; Andre Russell for 12 crore, Sunil Narine for 6 crore and Varun Chakravarthy and Venkatesh Iyer for 8 crore each. With 48 crore in their purse, KKR bought marquee players Shreyas Iyer for 12.25 crore and re-signed Pat Cummins for 7.25 crore. KKR also bought back Nitish Rana, Sheldon Jackson, Rinku Singh, Shivam Mavi and Tim Southee. Overseas players included English wicket-keeper Sam Billings for 2 crore, English batsman Alex Hales for 1.5 crore, Afghan all-rounder Mohammed Nabi for 1 crore and Sri Lankan all-rounder Chamika Karunaratne for 50 lakh. KKR also signed top order batsman Ajinkya Rahane, Jharkhand left-handed spin all-rounder Anukul Roy and Jammu and Kashmir pacer Rasikh Salam Dar. They also bought back their former player Umesh Yadav for the base price of 2 crores, who last played for them in 2017. Alex Hales didn't turn up for the IPL citing personal reasons and KKR signed Australian skipper Aaron Finch as his replacement. In the middle of tournament, Rasikh suffered injury which ruled him out of IPL tournament. Due to this, KKR signed fast bowler Harshit Rana as the replacement.


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: Kolkata Knight Riders is part of the Knight Riders Group (KRG), a global brand in cricket, with franchises in the Caribbean Premier League (Trinbago Knight Riders), the upcoming Major League Cricket (Los Angeles Knight Riders), and in the upcoming International League T20 (Abu Dhabi Knight Riders) of UAE. KRG had also acquired a franchise in Cricket South Africa's T20 Global League, but the league was eventually scrapped and replaced with Mzansi Super League due to the absence of the board to secure a broadcasting deal. Other Indian Premier League Franchises have followed KRG's path and have franchises in T20 Leagues outside India, or have shown interest for the same. In 2022, KRG announced the construction of a 10,000-seater stadium in Los Angeles, in partnership with Major League Cricket, for their franchise (Los Angeles Knight Riders).


title: Kolkata Knight Riders

text: A reality show by the name "Knights and Angels" aired on NDTV Imagine in 2009 to pick six cheerleaders for the Knight Riders for the 2009 edition of the Indian Premier League.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Standard anatomical terms of location are used to unambiguously describe the anatomy of animals, including humans. The terms, typically derived from Latin or Greek roots, describe something in its standard anatomical position. This position provides a definition of what is at the front ("anterior"), behind ("posterior") and so on. As part of defining and describing terms, the body is described through the use of anatomical planes and anatomical axes.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: The meaning of terms that are used can change depending on whether an organism is bipedal or quadrupedal. Additionally, for some animals such as invertebrates, some terms may not have any meaning at all; for example, an animal that is radially symmetrical will have no anterior surface, but can still have a description that a part is close to the middle ("proximal") or further from the middle ("distal").


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: International organisations have determined vocabularies that are often used as standard vocabularies for subdisciplines of anatomy, for example, Terminologia Anatomica for humans, and Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria for animals. These allow parties that use anatomical terms, such as anatomists, veterinarians, and medical doctors to have a standard set of terms to communicate clearly the position of a structure.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Standard anatomical and zoological terms of location have been developed, usually based on Latin and Greek words, to enable all biological and medical scientists, veterinarians, doctors and anatomists to precisely delineate and communicate information about animal bodies and their organs, even though the meaning of some of the terms often is context-sensitive. Much of this information has been standardised in internationally agreed vocabularies for humans (Terminologia Anatomica) and animals (Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria).


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: For humans, one type of vertebrate, and other animals that stand on two feet (bipeds), terms that are used are different from those that stand on four (quadrupeds). One reason is that humans have a different neuraxis and another is that unlike animals that rest on four limbs, humans are considered when describing anatomy as being in the standard anatomical position, which is standing up with arms outstretched. Thus, what is on "top" of a human is the head, whereas the "top" of a dog may be its back, and the "top" of a flounder could refer to either its left or its right side. Unique terms are used to describe animals without a backbone (invertebrates), because of their wide variety of shapes and symmetry.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Because animals can change orientation with respect to their environment, and because appendages like limbs and tentacles can change position with respect to the main body, terms to describe position need to refer to an animal when it is in its standard anatomical position. This means descriptions as if the organism is in its standard anatomical position, even when the organism in question has appendages in another position. This helps avoid confusion in terminology when referring to the same organism in different postures. In humans, this refers to the body in a standing position with arms at the side and palms facing forward, with thumbs out and to the sides.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Many anatomical terms can be combined, either to indicate a position in two axes simultaneously or to indicate the direction of a movement relative to the body. For example, "anterolateral" indicates a position that is both anterior and lateral to the body axis (such as the bulk of the pectoralis major muscle).


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: In radiology, an X-ray image may be said to be "anteroposterior", indicating that the beam of X-rays passes from their source to patient's anterior body wall through the body to exit through posterior body wall. Combined terms were once generally hyphenated, but the modern tendency is to omit the hyphen.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: The axes of the body are lines drawn about which an organism is roughly symmetrical. To do this, distinct ends of an organism are chosen, and the axis is named according to those directions. An organism that is symmetrical on both sides has three main axes that intersect at right angles. An organism that is round or not symmetrical may have different axes. Example axes are:


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Superior () describes what is above something and inferior () describes what is below it. For example, in the anatomical position, the most superior part of the human body is the head and the most inferior is the feet. As a second example, in humans, the neck is superior to the chest but inferior to the head.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Anterior () describes what is in front, and posterior () describes what is to the back of something. For example, for a dog the nose is anterior to the eyes and the tail is considered the most posterior part; for many fish the gill openings are posterior to the eyes but anterior to the tail.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: These terms describe how close something is to the midline, or the medial plane. Lateral () describes something to the sides of an animal, as in "left lateral" and "right lateral". Medial () describes structures close to the midline, or closer to the midline than another structure. For example, in a human, the arms are lateral to the torso. The genitals are medial to the legs.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: The terms "left" and "right" are sometimes used, or their Latin alternatives (; ). However, as left and right sides are mirror images, using these words is somewhat confusing, as structures are duplicated on both sides. For example, it is very confusing to say the dorsal fin of a fish is "right of" the left pectoral fin, but is "left of" the right eye, but much easier and clearer to say "the dorsal fin is medial to the pectoral fins".


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Varus () and valgus ( ) are terms used to describe a state in which a part further away is abnormally placed towards (varus) or away from (valgus) the midline.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: The terms proximal () and distal () are used to describe parts of a feature that are close to or distant from the main mass of the body, respectively. Thus the upper arm in humans is proximal and the hand is distal.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: "Proximal and distal" are frequently used when describing appendages, such as fins, tentacles, and limbs. Although the direction indicated by "proximal" and "distal" is always respectively towards or away from the point of attachment, a given structure can be either proximal or distal in relation to another point of reference. Thus the elbow is distal to a wound on the upper arm, but proximal to a wound on the lower arm.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: This terminology is also employed in molecular biology and therefore by extension is also used in chemistry, specifically referring to the atomic loci of molecules from the overall moiety of a given compound.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Central and peripheral refer to the distance towards and away from the centre of something. That might be an organ, a region in the body, or an anatomical structure. For example, the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous systems.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Central () describes something close to the centre. For example, the great vessels run centrally through the body; many smaller vessels branch from these.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Peripheral (, originally from Ancient Greek) describes something further away from the centre of something. For example, the arm is peripheral to the body.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Deep () describes something further away from the surface of the organism. For example, the external oblique muscle of the abdomen is deep to the skin. "Deep" is one of the few anatomical terms of location derived from Old English rather than Latin – the anglicised Latin term would have been "profound" ().


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Superficial () describes something near the outer surface of the organism. For example, in skin, the epidermis is superficial to the subcutis.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: These two terms, used in anatomy and embryology, describe something at the back ("dorsal") or front/belly ("ventral") of an organism.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: The dorsal () surface of an organism refers to the back, or upper side, of an organism. If talking about the skull, the dorsal side is the top.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Specific terms exist to describe how close or far something is to the head or tail of an animal. To describe how close to the head of an animal something is, three distinct terms are used:


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: These terms are generally preferred in veterinary medicine and not used as often in human medicine. In humans, "cranial" and "cephalic" are used to refer to the skull, with "cranial" being used more commonly. The term "rostral" is rarely used in human anatomy, apart from embryology, and refers more to the front of the face than the superior aspect of the organism. Similarly, the term "caudal" is used more in embryology and only occasionally used in human anatomy. This is because the brain is situated at the superior part of the head whereas the nose is situated in the anterior part. Thus, the "rostrocaudal axis" refers to a C shape (see image).


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: The location of anatomical structures can also be described in relation to different anatomical landmarks. They are used in anatomy, surface anatomy, surgery, and radiology.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Structures may be described as being at the level of a specific spinal vertebra, depending on the section of the vertebral column the structure is at. The position is often abbreviated. For example, structures at the level of the fourth cervical vertebra may be abbreviated as "C4", at the level of the fourth thoracic vertebra "T4", and at the level of the third lumbar vertebra "L3". Because the sacrum and coccyx are fused, they are not often used to provide the location.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: References may also take origin from superficial anatomy, made to landmarks that are on the skin or visible underneath. For example, structures may be described relative to the anterior superior iliac spine, the medial malleolus or the medial epicondyle.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Anatomical lines are used to describe anatomical location. For example, the mid-clavicular line is used as part of the cardiac exam in medicine to feel the apex beat of the heart.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Special terms are used to describe the mouth and teeth. Fields such as osteology, palaeontology and dentistry apply special terms of location to describe the mouth and teeth. This is because although teeth may be aligned with their main axes within the jaw, some different relationships require special terminology as well; for example, teeth also can be rotated, and in such contexts terms like "anterior" or "lateral" become ambiguous. For example, the terms "distal" and "proximal" are also redefined to mean the distance away or close to the dental arch, and "medial" and "lateral" are used to refer to the closeness to the midline of the dental arch. Terms used to describe structures include "buccal" () and "palatal" () referring to structures close to the cheek and hard palate respectively.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Additional terms may be used to avoid confusion when describing the surfaces of the hand and what is the "anterior" or "posterior" surface. The term "anterior", while anatomically correct, can be confusing when describing the palm of the hand; Similarly is "posterior", used to describe the back of the hand and arm. This confusion can arise because the forearm can pronate and supinate and flip the location of the hand. For improved clarity, the directional term palmar () is commonly used to describe the front of the hand, and dorsal is the back of the hand. For example, the top of a dog's paw is its dorsal surface; the underside, either the palmar (on the forelimb) or the plantar (on the hindlimb) surface. The palmar fascia is "palmar" to the tendons of muscles which flex the fingers, and the dorsal venous arch is so named because it is on the dorsal side of the foot.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: In humans, volar can also be used synonymously with "palmar" to refer to the underside of the palm, but plantar is used exclusively to describe the sole. These terms describe location as "palmar" and "plantar"; For example, "volar" pads are those on the underside of hands or fingers; the "plantar" surface describes the sole of the heel, foot or toes.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Similarly, in the forearm, for clarity, the sides are named after the bones. Structures closer to the radius are radial, structures closer to the ulna are ulnar, and structures relating to both bones are referred to as radioulnar. Similarly, in the lower leg, structures near the tibia (shinbone) are tibial and structures near the fibula are fibular (or peroneal).


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Anteversion and retroversion are complementary terms describing an anatomical structure that is rotated forwards (towards the front of the body) or backwards (towards the back of the body), relative to some other position. They are particularly used to describe the curvature of the uterus.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Several other terms are also used to describe location. These terms are not used to form the fixed axes. Terms include:


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Different terms are used because of different body plans in animals, whether animals stand on one or two legs, and whether an animal is symmetrical or not, as discussed above. For example, as humans are approximately bilaterally symmetrical organisms, anatomical descriptions usually use the same terms as those for other vertebrates. However, humans stand upright on two legs, meaning their anterior/posterior and ventral/dorsal directions are the same, and the inferior/superior directions are necessary. Humans do not have a beak, so a term such as "rostral" used to refer to the beak in some animals is instead used to refer to part of the brain; humans do also not have a tail so a term such as "caudal" that refers to the tail end may also be used in humans and animals without tails to refer to the hind part of the body.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: In invertebrates, the large variety of body shapes presents a difficult problem when attempting to apply standard directional terms. Depending on the organism, some terms are taken by analogy from vertebrate anatomy, and appropriate novel terms are applied as needed. Some such borrowed terms are widely applicable in most invertebrates; for example proximal, meaning "near" refers to the part of an appendage nearest to where it joins the body, and distal, meaning "standing away from" is used for the part furthest from the point of attachment. In all cases, the usage of terms is dependent on the body plan of the organism.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: In organisms with a changeable shape, such as amoeboid organisms, most directional terms are meaningless, since the shape of the organism is not constant and no distinct axes are fixed. Similarly, in spherically symmetrical organisms, there is nothing to distinguish one line through the centre of the organism from any other. An indefinite number of triads of mutually perpendicular axes could be defined, but any such choice of axes would be useless, as nothing would distinguish a chosen triad from any others. In such organisms, only terms such as "superficial" and "deep", or sometimes "proximal" and "distal", are usefully descriptive.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: In organisms that maintain a constant shape and have one dimension longer than the other, at least two directional terms can be used. The "long" or "longitudinal axis" is defined by points at the opposite ends of the organism. Similarly, a perpendicular "transverse axis" can be defined by points on opposite sides of the organism. There is typically no basis for the definition of a third axis. Usually such organisms are planktonic (free-swimming) protists, and are nearly always viewed on microscope slides, where they appear essentially two-dimensional. In some cases a third axis can be defined, particularly where a non-terminal cytostome or other unique structure is present.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Some elongated protists have distinctive ends of the body. In such organisms, the end with a mouth (or equivalent structure, such as the cytostome in "Paramecium" or "Stentor"), or the end that usually points in the direction of the organism's locomotion (such as the end with the flagellum in "Euglena"), is normally designated as the anterior end. The opposite end then becomes the posterior end. Properly, this terminology would apply only to an organism that is always planktonic (not normally attached to a surface), although the term can also be applied to one that is sessile (normally attached to a surface).


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Organisms that are attached to a substrate, such as sponges, animal-like protists also have distinctive ends. The part of the organism attached to the substrate is usually referred to as the basal end (), whereas the end furthest from the attachment is referred to as the apical end ().


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Radially symmetrical organisms include those in the group Radiata primarily jellyfish, sea anemones and corals and the comb jellies. Adult echinoderms, such as starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers and others are also included, since they are pentaradial, meaning they have five discrete rotational symmetry. Echinoderm larvae are not included, since they are bilaterally symmetrical. Radially symmetrical organisms always have one distinctive axis.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Cnidarians (jellyfish, sea anemones and corals) have an incomplete digestive system, meaning that one end of the organism has a mouth, and the opposite end has no opening from the gut (coelenteron). For this reason, the end of the organism with the mouth is referred to as the oral end (), and the opposite surface is the aboral end ().


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Unlike vertebrates, cnidarians have no other distinctive axes. "Lateral", "dorsal", and "ventral" have no meaning in such organisms, and all can be replaced by the generic term peripheral (). Medial can be used, but in the case of radiates indicates the central point, rather than a central axis as in vertebrates. Thus, there are multiple possible radial axes and medio-peripheral (half-) axes. However, some biradially symmetrical comb jellies do have distinct "tentacular" and "pharyngeal" axes and are thus anatomically equivalent to bilaterally symmetrical animals.


title: Anatomical terms of location

text: Special terms are used for spiders. Two specialized terms are useful in describing views of arachnid legs and pedipalps. Prolateral refers to the surface of a leg that is closest to the anterior end of an arachnid's body. Retrolateral refers to the surface of a leg that is closest to the posterior end of an arachnid's body. Most spiders have eight eyes in four pairs. All the eyes are on the carapace of the prosoma, and their sizes, shapes and locations are characteristic of various spider families and other taxa. Usually, the eyes are arranged in two roughly parallel, horizontal and symmetrical rows of eyes. Eyes are labelled according to their position as anterior and posterior lateral eyes (ALE) and (PLE); and anterior and posterior median eyes (AME) and (PME).


title: Elaine Benes

text: Elaine Marie Benes () is a fictional character on the American television sitcom "Seinfeld", played by Julia Louis-Dreyfus. Elaine's best friend in the sitcom is her ex-boyfriend Jerry Seinfeld, and she is also good friends with George Costanza and Cosmo Kramer. Louis-Dreyfus received critical acclaim for her performance as Elaine, winning an Emmy, a Golden Globe and five SAG Awards. She reprised the role during season 41 of "Saturday Night Live" in 2016.


title: Elaine Benes

text: Unlike her three close friends, Elaine is absent from the pilot episode. Previously the female role was supposed to be Claire, the waitress at Pete's Luncheonette played by Lee Garlington, but Monk's Cafe replaced the luncheonette and Garlington was dropped from the role. Elaine first appears in "The Stake Out," but in production order she appears in a final scene eating M&Ms in "Male Unbonding." NBC executives felt the show was too male-centric, and demanded that Jerry Seinfeld and Larry David add a woman to the cast as a condition for commissioning the show, as revealed in the commentary on the Season 1 and 2 DVD. In addition to the first episode, Elaine doesn't appear in "The Trip" (Louis-Dreyfus having been in the late stages of pregnancy at the time of filming) and therefore appears in fewer episodes than George and Jerry.


title: Elaine Benes

text: After it was discovered that Jerry Seinfeld once dated writer and comedian Carol Leifer, speculation grew that Elaine was based on Leifer, though that was later largely denied. Leifer, who wrote or cowrote a number of episodes for the show, has said only some elements of the backstory of the character — that she and Seinfeld had dated and have remained good friends since the relationship ended — relate to her. Leifer has said some elements of the character of Elaine, especially her assertiveness, intelligence and sense of humor, are drawn from the off-screen personality of Julia Louis-Dreyfus herself. According to Jerry Seinfeld's biography (written by Jerry Oppenheimer), Elaine was based in part on Susan McNabb (who was dating Seinfeld when the character was created), though eventually named after friend and fellow comic Elayne Boosler. The character was also partially based on Monica Yates (daughter of novelist Richard Yates), whom Larry David once dated; they remained good friends after they broke up.


title: Elaine Benes

text: It has been reported that other actresses were in line to play the character, including Rosie O'Donnell, Megan Mullally, Jessica Lundy, Patricia Heaton, Mariska Hargitay, and Amy Yasbeck.


title: Elaine Benes

text: Unlike George, Jerry and Kramer, Elaine is not a native of New York City, having grown up in the affluent Baltimore suburb of Towson, and is shown to be a fan of the Baltimore Orioles. She attended finishing school and completed her undergraduate education at Tufts University, revealed to be her safety school in "The Puerto Rican Day", as a French literature major. In "The Dog", she tells George she moved to New York in 1986, which, by coincidence, is the year Jerry moved into his apartment across the hall from Kramer. She started dating Jerry later that year. In "The Doodle" it is stated by George that Elaine takes a drawing class at The New School with his girlfriend Paula.