title: Righteous Among the Nations

text: A person who is recognized as Righteous for having taken risks to help Jews during the Holocaust is awarded a medal in their name, a certificate of honor, and the privilege of having the name added to those on the Wall of Honor in the Garden of the Righteous at Yad Vashem in Jerusalem (the last is in lieu of a tree planting, which was discontinued for lack of space). The awards are distributed to the rescuers or their next of kin during ceremonies in Israel, or in their countries of residence through the offices of Israel's diplomatic representatives. These ceremonies are attended by local government representatives and are given wide media coverage.


title: Righteous Among the Nations

text: The Yad Vashem Law authorizes Yad Vashem "to confer honorary citizenship upon the Righteous Among the Nations, and if they have died, the commemorative citizenship of the State of Israel, in recognition of their actions". Anyone who has been recognized as "Righteous" is entitled to apply to Yad Vashem for the certificate. If the person is no longer alive, their next of kin is entitled to request that commemorative citizenship be conferred on the Righteous who has died.


title: Righteous Among the Nations

text: In total, men and women from 51 countries have been recognized, amounting to more than 10,000 authenticated rescue stories. Yad Vashem's policy is to pursue the program for as long as petitions for this title are received and are supported by evidence that meets the criteria.


title: Righteous Among the Nations

text: Recipients who choose to live in the State of Israel are entitled to a pension equal to the average national wage and free health care, as well as assistance with housing and nursing care.


title: Righteous Among the Nations

text: At least 130 Righteous non-Jews have settled in Israel. They were welcomed by Israeli authorities, and were granted citizenship. In the mid-1980s, they became entitled to special pensions. Some of them settled in British Mandatory Palestine before Israel's establishment shortly after World War II, or in the early years of the new state of Israel, while others came later. Those who came earlier often spoke fluent Hebrew and have integrated into Israeli society. Children and grandchildren of Righteous Gentiles are entitled to a temporary residence visa in Israel, but not Israeli citizenship.


title: Righteous Among the Nations

text: One Righteous Among the Nations, Saint Elizabeth Hesselblad of Sweden, has been canonized a saint in the Catholic Church. Five others have been beatified: Giuseppe Girotti and Odoardo Focherini of Italy, Klymentiy Sheptytsky of Ukraine, Bernhard Lichtenberg of Germany, and Sára Salkaházi of Hungary.


title: Righteous Among the Nations

text: Maria Skobtsova of Paris and her companions are recognised as martyrs in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Her feast day is 20 July.


title: Righteous Among the Nations

text: In 2015, Lithuania's first street sign honoring a Righteous Among the Nations was unveiled in Vilnius. The street is named "Onos Šimaitės gatvė", after Ona Šimaitė, a Vilnius University librarian who helped and rescued Jewish people in the Vilna Ghetto.


title: Righteous Among the Nations

text: In Zvolen, Slovakia, the Park of Generous Souls commemorates the Righteous Among the Nations from Slovakia.


title: Righteous Among the Nations

text: Beginning in 2018, China's most significant World War II museum, the War of Resistance Museum, features China's Righteous Among the Nations and other Chinese figures who helped Jews escape Europe.


title: Righteous Among the Nations

text: , the award has been made to 27,921 people. This Yad Vashem highlights that the table is not representative of the effort or proportion of Jews saved per country, and notes that these numbers "are not necessarily an indication of the actual number of rescuers in each country, but reflect the cases that were made available to Yad Vashem."


title: Sikorsky Aircraft

text: Sikorsky Aircraft is an American aircraft manufacturer based in Stratford, Connecticut. It was established by aviation pioneer Igor Sikorsky in 1923 and was among the first companies to manufacture helicopters for civilian and military use.


title: Sikorsky Aircraft

text: Previously owned by United Technologies Corporation, in November 2015 Sikorsky was sold to Lockheed Martin.


title: Sikorsky Aircraft

text: On 5 March 1923, the Sikorsky Aero Engineering Corporation was founded near Roosevelt Field, New York, by Igor Sikorsky, an immigrant to the United States who was born in Kyiv. In 1925, the company name was changed to Sikorsky Manufacturing Company. After the success of the [[Sikorsky S-38|S-38]], the company was reorganized as the Sikorsky Aviation Corporation with capital of $5,000,000, allowing the purchase of land and the building of a modern aircraft factory in Stratford. In 1929, the company moved to [[Stratford, Connecticut]], and it became a part of [[United Aircraft and Transport Corporation]] (later [[United Technologies Corporation]] or UTC) in July of that year.


title: Sikorsky Aircraft

text: In the United States, Igor Sikorsky originally concentrated on the development of multiengine landplanes and then amphibious aircraft. In the late 1930s, sales declined and United Aircraft merged his division with [[Vought Aircraft]]. He then began work on developing a practical helicopter. After first flying the [[VS-300]] he developed the [[Sikorsky R-4]], the first stable, single-rotor, fully controllable [[helicopter]] to enter full-scale production in 1942, upon which most subsequent helicopters were based.


title: Sikorsky Aircraft

text: Sikorsky Aircraft remains a leading helicopter manufacturer, producing such well-known models as the [[UH-60 Black Hawk]] and [[SH-60 Seahawk]], and experimental types such as the [[Sikorsky S-72]]. Sikorsky has supplied the [[Marine One|Presidential helicopter]] since 1957. Sikorsky's [[SH-3 Sea King#Variants|VH-3]] and [[UH-60 Black Hawk#Special purpose|VH-60]] perform this role now.


title: Sikorsky Aircraft

text: The company acquired Helicopter Support Inc. (HSI) in 1998. HSI handles non-U.S. government aftermarket support for parts and repair for the Sikorsky product lines.


title: Sikorsky Aircraft

text: UTC acquired [[Schweizer Aircraft|Schweizer Aircraft Corp.]] in 2004, after which it operated as a subsidiary of Sikorsky. The product lines of the two firms were complementary, and had little overlap, as Sikorsky primarily concentrates on medium and large helicopters, while Schweizer produces small helicopters, [[unmanned aerial vehicle]]s (UAV), [[Glider (sailplane)|gliders]], and light planes. The Schweizer deal was signed on August 26, 2004, exactly one week after the death of [[Schweizer brothers|Paul Schweizer]], the company's founder and majority owner. In late 2005, Sikorsky completed the purchase of Keystone Helicopter Corporation, located in [[Coatesville, Pennsylvania]]. Keystone had been maintaining and completing Sikorsky S-76 and S-92 helicopters prior to the sale.


title: Sikorsky Aircraft

text: In 2007, Sikorsky opened the Hawk Works, a Rapid Prototyping and Military Derivatives Completion Center located west of the [[Elmira-Corning Regional Airport]] in [[Big Flats (CDP), New York|Big Flats, New York]]. That same year Sikorsky purchased the [[PZL Mielec]] plant in [[Poland]]. The plant is assembling the S-70i for international customers.


title: Sikorsky Aircraft

text: In February 2009, Sikorsky Global Helicopters was created as a business unit of Sikorsky Aircraft to focus on the construction and marketing of commercial helicopters. The business unit combined the main civil helicopters that were produced by Sikorsky Aircraft and the helicopter business of Schweizer Aircraft that Sikorsky had acquired in 2004. It was based at [[Coatesville, Pennsylvania]] until 2022.


title: Sikorsky Aircraft

text: In 2011, Sikorsky laid off 400 workers at the Hawk Works plant, and later in 2012 the remaining 570 workers and closed all Sikorsky facilities in Chemung County; moving the military completion work to their West Palm Beach, Florida, facility. The commercial products had already been moved to their Coatesville, Pennsylvania facility.


title: Sikorsky Aircraft

text: Sikorsky's main plant and administrative offices are located in Stratford, Connecticut, as is a large company-owned private heliport . Other Sikorsky facilities are in [[Trumbull, Connecticut|Trumbull]], [[Shelton, Connecticut|Shelton]], and [[Bridgeport, Connecticut]] (with small company heliport ); [[Fort Worth, Texas]]; [[West Palm Beach, Florida]]; and [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] and [[Troy, Alabama]]. Sikorsky-owned subsidiaries are in [[Grand Prairie, Texas]], and elsewhere around the world.


title: Sikorsky Aircraft

text: In 2015, UTC considered Sikorsky to be less profitable than its other subsidiaries, and analyzed a possible [[Corporate spin-off|spin-off]] rather than a tax-heavy sale.


title: Sikorsky Aircraft

text: On July 20, 2015, [[Lockheed Martin]] announced an agreement to purchase Sikorsky from UTC for $9.0 billion. The deal required review from eight different jurisdictions, and the final approval came in November 2015. The sale was completed on November 6, 2015.


title: Sikorsky Aircraft

text: In 1980, the [[AHS International|American Helicopter Society International]] offered a prize of US$10,000 for the first human-powered helicopter flight (60-second duration, a height of 3 meters, and staying within an area of 10 x 10 m) and soon increased prize money to US$25,000. In 2010, Sikorsky Aircraft pledged to increase the prize sponsorship to US$250,000. Canadian engineers Dr. Todd Reichert and Cameron Robertson developed the world's largest human-powered helicopter with a team from the [[University of Toronto]]. The first flight of [[AeroVelo Atlas]] was achieved in August 2012, the 64-second, 3.3-m-flight that won the prize on June 13, 2013.


title: Sikorsky Aircraft

text: Sikorsky designates nearly all of its models with S-numbers; numbers S-1 through S-27 were designed by Igor Sikorsky before he left the Russian Empire. Later models, especially helicopters, received multiple designations by the military services using them, often depending on purpose (UH, SH, and MH for instance), even if the physical craft had only minor variations in equipment. In some cases, the aircraft were returned to Sikorsky or to another manufacturer and additionally modified, resulting in still further variants on the same basic model number.


title: Stripper

text: A stripper or exotic dancer is a person whose occupation involves performing striptease in a public adult entertainment venue such as a strip club. At times, a stripper may be hired to perform at a bachelor party or other private event.


title: Stripper

text: Modern Americanized forms of stripping minimize interaction by strippers with customers, reducing the importance of "tease" in the performance in favor of speed to undress ("strip"). Not all strippers are comfortable dancing topless or fully nude, but in general, full nudity is common where not prohibited by law. The integration of the burlesque pole as a nearly ubiquitous prop has shifted the emphasis in the performance toward a more acrobatic, explicit expression compared to the slow-developing burlesque style. Most strippers work in strip clubs. A "house dancer" works for a particular club or franchise, while a "feature dancer" tends to have her own celebrity, touring a club circuit making appearances. Entertainers (dancers) are often not actual employees of the club itself but perform as independent contractors.


title: Stripper

text: Until the 1970s, strippers in Western cultures were almost invariably female, performing to male audiences. Since then, male strippers have become more common. Certain male and female strippers also perform for LGBT audiences as well as for all genders in bisexual contexts. Before the 1970s, dancers of all genders appeared largely in underground clubs or as part of a theatre experience, but the practice eventually became common enough on its own. Performances are usually fully choreographed, involve dance routines and a costume of some sort. The term "male stripper" has gone down in use in books in the 21st century.


title: Stripper

text: Strippers perform striptease for a number of reasons, predominantly to make money. The physical attractiveness and sex appeal of the dancer determines the business the stripper tends to generate. There are no job prerequisites; formal training is minimal, primarily on the job and provided by more senior dancers. Dancers learn a set of rules, such as: never leave money unattended; never leave the club with a customer; and never refuse a table dance. As long as she can "sell" herself, she is capable of becoming an exotic dancer. The image of strippers as known today evolved through the late 1960s and 1970s in the U.S. and international cultures. By the 1980s, the pole dancing and highly explicit imagery associated with today's performers was widely accepted and frequently portrayed in film, television, and theater. In a bikini performance, both breasts and genital areas typically remain covered by revealing attire while dancers provide services and entertainment. Go-go dancers will retain their tops and bottoms for the duration of their performance. A stripper whose upper body is exposed but the genital areas remain obscured during a performance is said to be topless.


title: Stripper

text: Touching strippers is not permitted in many localities. However, some dancers and clubs allow touching of dancers during private dances. If permitted, during a lap dance the dancer may dance sitting in the customer's lap, clothed or topless. In parts of the USA, there are laws forbidding the exposure of female nipples, which the dancers must cover with pasties. Due to the common practice of hiring strippers as contractors, not as full-time employees, strippers must deal with extreme job insecurity, unstable pay, no health benefits, and the requirement of paying fees to the club for technically renting their stage. This precarious employment is accepted because of the stigma associated with exotic dancing. Dancers use props such as make-up, clothing, costumes, and appealing fragrances to complete their character and maintain their "front".


title: Stripper

text: Strippers, when working, are most likely to be found at strip clubs. An essential draw of the strip club is the live entertainment, which the vast majority of the time are the strippers. Dancers effectively entertaining customers are the key to generating revenue by keeping the customers on site and enticing them to be repeat visitors. House dancers work for a particular club or franchise. Feature dancers tend to have their own celebrity, touring a club circuit and making appearances. Porn stars will often become feature dancers to earn extra income and build their fan base. High-profile adult film performers Jenna Haze and Teagan Presley among others have participated in feature shows through the USA, as did now-retired stars such as Jenna Jameson. Entertainers (dancers) are often not actual employees of the club itself but allowed to perform as independent contractors for a predetermined house fee.


title: Stripper

text: During each set of one or more songs, the current performer will dance on stage in exchange for tips. Where legal (or legal restrictions are ignored), dancers may offer additional services such as lap dances or a trip to the champagne room for a set fee rather than a tip. Strippers can be contracted for performances outside the strip club environment. Some strippers will only strip for private engagements and do not have a regular affiliation with a strip club. Much like activities inside the club, different dancers have different comfort levels for services they will provide during a private party. Aside from advertising for striptease services outside the club, an unknown percentage of strippers also work in other aspects of the sex industry. This can include erotic and nude modeling, pornography, escorting, and in some cases prostitution. Outside the U.S., the use of strip clubs to facilitate sex for hire is much more common, and stripping is viewed in those settings as advertising for sexually oriented services performed in private areas of the club or off premises.


title: Stripper

text: Most clubs have a dancer rotation where each dancer in turn will perform for one or more songs in a fixed sequence which repeats during a shift. More informal clubs will have dancers take turns when a stage becomes empty or have a free flow of entertainers where the stage has any number of entertainers who wander off and on at will. Feature entertainers are not usually part of the rotation, and have set times where they will perform that are advertised throughout the shift. If a DJ is present, they will emcee the rotation and typically announce the current dancer(s) on stage and possibly whom to expect in future sets.


title: Stripper

text: During each set of one or more songs, the current performer will dance on stage in exchange for tips. Dancers collect tips from customers either while on stage or after the dancer has finished a stage show and is mingling with the audience. A customary tip (where customers can do so at the stage) is a dollar bill folded lengthwise and placed in the dancer's garter from the "tip rail". Other common tip methods are to insert the dollar into the stripper's cleavage from the hand or mouth, or to simply place it or toss it onto the stage. Tipping during a stage performance is prohibited by some clubs due to restrictions in local ordinance or past incidents on the premises. Each club and dancer will have individual tolerance levels for customer interaction including tipping. Some clubs will have multiple stages on the premises that dancers will move between, but typically the dancer would collect for her time on the main stage during a rotation. Tips can also be collected during private dances.


title: Stripper

text: Where legal (or legal restrictions are ignored), dancers may offer additional services such as lap dances or a trip to the champagne room for a set fee rather than a tip. This fee will typically include a set fee for the room, for a set amount of time. Private dances in the main club areas most often take the form of table dances, lap and couch dances, and bed dances among others. An "air dance" is a particular form of private dance where little to no contact between the dancer and customer occurs. This class of dance spans the different categories above, and some dancers can perform air dances when more contact-heavy forms of dance were expected and paid for.


title: Stripper

text: Table dances are distinguished from other forms of dances in that they can be performed where the customer is seated on the main floor. Table dances also refer to a form of minimal touch private dance where the performer is physically located on a small table in front of the customer(s). Table dances should not be confused with table stages, where the stripper is at or above eye level on a platform surrounded by chairs and usually enough table surface for customers to place drinks and tip money. These stages are configured for close viewing of the striptease and are known for dancers lowering themselves from the stage onto customers during their set.


title: Stripper

text: Lap dances can be (and are) performed in all manner of seating, ranging from plain stools and kitchen-grade chairs to plush leather armchairs. They can also be performed with the customer standing in these designated areas. A service provided by many clubs is for a customer to be placed on stage with one or more dancers for a public lap dance. Occasions for this type of performance are bachelor parties and birthdays in the club among others. Bed dances are designed for the customer to be lying down with the entertainer(s) positioned on top of them. Bed dances are the least common of the three, and in many clubs, these are a more expensive option than a lap dance because of the novelty and increased level of contact between customer and service provider.


title: Stripper

text: A "champagne room" (also called a "champagne lounge" or "champagne court") is a specialized VIP Room service offered by gentleman's clubs where a customer can purchase time (usually in half-hour increments) with an exotic dancer in a private room on the premises. Depending on the quality of the club, the room, which is away from the hustle and bustle of the main club, is well decorated and usually has its own bar. Clubs sell champagne by the glass or by the bottle for both the dancer and the customer.


title: Stripper

text: Strippers can be contracted for performances outside the strip club environment. Some strippers will only strip for private engagements and do not have a regular affiliation with a strip club.


title: Stripper

text: A bachelor party may involve activities beyond the usual party and social-gathering ingredients (often drinking alcohol and gambling), such as going to a strip club or hiring a stripper to perform in a private setting like a home or hotel. In some traditions, more hazing-like tests and pranks at the future groom's expense, which shows the whole thing is also a rite of passage from bachelorhood (associated with an adolescent lifestyle, often in the common past of most participants, e.g., in their student years) to "more responsible" marital life. These pranks can involve a stripper if the entertainer is willing. Bachelor parties have come to symbolize the last time when the groom is free of the influence of his new wife. Some women also participate in a similar party to be held for the bride-to-be. This is known as a bachelorette party or Hen party. Some also chose instead to hold a so-called Stag and Doe party in the US or a "hag party" or "hag do" in the UK ("hag" being a portmanteau "hen" and "stag"), in which both the bride and groom attend. The female equivalent of a stag party in Canada is often known as a "stagette", "doe", or "bachelorette".


title: Stripper

text: Private parties are popular events for which to hire strippers. There are many entertainment businesses that have strippers contracted for private performances. Some of these companies have a national presence, with strippers contracted in multiple states and some who work regionally over a multi-state area. Strippers will also do side work and handle their own agreements and payment arrangements. Written agreements are atypical in this type of transaction unless a formal, registered business is involved. They could also travel over significant (i.e. flight required) distances for private events and appointments, most of the time passing the cost of travel and accommodations onto the customer. Patrons at the clubs in which the strippers work are a primary source of customers for their work outside the club. Much like activities inside the club, different dancers have different comfort levels for services they will provide during a private party.


title: Stripper

text: Aside from advertising for striptease services outside the club, an unknown percentage of strippers also work in other aspects of the sex industry. This can include erotic and nude modeling, pornography, escorting, and in some cases prostitution (which is now illegal in all states other than Nevada within the U.S.). These activities are not mutually exclusive, meaning that a stripper who models on the side would be a stripper "and" a model.


title: Stripper

text: Adult industry trade shows often have strippers working, though many of them are affiliated with individual companies and not necessarily freelancers. More traditional industries have made use of go-go dancers to provide entertainment and act as bargirls or hostesses. The lack of explicit nudity makes go-go dancers more socially acceptable than topless and nude performers in public areas. There are also exhibitions, festivals, and competitions where independent strippers are more likely to be performing. Nudes-A-Poppin' is a popular festival scheduled annually which features both female and male dancers competing in erotic dance. Outside the U.S., the use of strip clubs to facilitate sex for hire is much more common, and stripping is viewed in those settings as advertising for sexually oriented services performed in private areas of the club or off premises.


title: Stripper

text: While working, a stripper is not necessarily required to remove all of their clothing. Regardless of size, name, or location in the world, strip clubs can be full nude, topless or bikini. For any type of strip club there are exceptions based on the individual dancer and management, and clubs are classified based on typical performances, zoning, and advertised services.


title: Stripper

text: In some localities, strippers are required to obtain permits to work in adult entertainment. During a bikini performance, both breasts and genital areas typically remain covered by revealing attire, while dancers provide services and entertainment. Go-go dancers will retain their tops and bottoms for the duration of their performance. A female stripper whose upper body is exposed, but whose genital areas remain obscured during a performance, is said to be topless. Strippers who uncover the genital areas along with other clothing during a performance are said to be dancing fully nude. The fully nude practice is banned in many jurisdictions, but many dancers work around these constraints by selective uncovering of the vulva, anus, or both, for short periods of time, followed by immediate replacement of the clothing.


title: Stripper

text: In a bikini performance, both breasts and genital areas typically remain covered by revealing attire while providing services and entertainment. Go-go dancers will retain their tops and bottoms for the duration of their performance. What differentiates a bikini dancer from other types of performers is the degree to which her body is exposed.


title: Stripper

text: The stripper, in the case of a bikini performance, may begin with layers of clothing worn over the bikini which then would be removed during the course of the dance set. When a bikini performance is being performed, many dancers will forgo a garter because they can accept tips at various points in their outfit (typically at the waist or hip or over their ribcage). A bikini performance is far more likely to be performed by a female than a male given social norms throughout the world. It has been debated whether or not bikini clubs and performances should count as striptease, but there is little contention over its classification as exotic dance. The phrase "Go-Go" was adopted by bars in the 1960s in Tokyo, Japan. It was of lesser reputation until it was appropriated by American burlesque and striptease establishments, which in turn became known as "go-go bars" and the women working there known as "Go-Go dancers".


title: Stripper

text: In many clubs, while a stripper is walking the floor she will be required to wear her full bikini top and bottom. When a stripper performs personal services (such as lap or bed dances) where she comes into contact with a customer, she would also be required to remain in her bikini in more restrictive club environments. Private dances in particular are scrutinized to ensure that no club policies or local ordinances are being violated during the performance. The additional clothing also acts as a deterrent to prevent a customer from exceeding the boundaries set by a particular dancer. On 19 June 1964, Carol Doda began go-go dancing topless at the Condor Club on Broadway and Columbus in the North Beach neighborhood of San Francisco. She became the world's most famous go-go dancer, and a prototype for the modern stripper, while dancing at the Condor for 22 years.


title: Stripper

text: Women are at times employed in adult-only venues to perform or pose topless in forms of commercial erotic entertainment. Such venues can range from downmarket strip clubs to upmarket cabarets, such as the Moulin Rouge. A stripper whose upper body is exposed but the genital areas remain obscured during a performance is said to be topless. Topless entertainment may also include competitions such as wet T-shirt contests in which women display their breasts through translucent wet fabric—and may end up removing their T-shirts before the audience. Strippers can engage in these alternate topless activities at sanctioned times inside the club or as independent contractors at outside venues. Not all strippers are comfortable dancing topless. In areas where choice in formats exist, exotic dancers express concern that the more they offer in their performance (nudity included) the more they stand to profit.


title: Stripper

text: Even the dancers that will go topless have been known to stay covered during a dance during slow periods in the club with few customers. This is particularly true if the customers do not appear to be engaged or actively tipping because they are not being compensated for their time on stage. The practice of topless dancing is banned in many jurisdictions, but strippers have been known to work around the constraints by selectively uncovering her breasts "peek-a-boo" style for short periods of time then replacing the clothing. For a male dancer, a bare chest is not considered in the same light and does not face the same legal restrictions. During a show where customer tipping is permitted, most strip clubs limit contact with a dancer's breasts to one way—from dancer to customer. Many clubs do not allow any breast contact, and some go so far as to place markers on stage that a dancer is not permitted to cross while nude. This physical separation enforces compliance with the no-touch policy.


title: Stripper

text: Strippers who uncover the genital areas along with other clothing during a performance are said to be dancing fully nude. The practice is banned in many jurisdictions, but many dancers will work around the constraints by selectively uncovering her vulva, anus, or both for short periods of time then replacing the clothing. For a male dancer, exposing the penis or anus is equivalent. Many dancers prefer to leave their clothing on their bodies once they have shifted them from their private areas. In some cases this disguises blemishes or areas of their figure they are not comfortable with, or could simply be to prevent those parts of the outfit from being misplaced.


title: Stripper

text: Not all strippers are comfortable dancing fully nude. If viewed as a continuum, fewer dancers will dance topless than go-go and fewer still would dance fully nude. It has been reported when in direct competition with more conservative offerings, fully nude formats are seen by customers as a superior enough substitute for them to switch clubs. In areas where choice in formats exist, exotic dancers express concern that the more they offer in their performance (nudity included) the more they stand to profit. Still, strippers have been known to dance only at topless clubs because of their desire not to strip completely nude. Some clubs permit both nude stage dancing and fully nude lap dances. Where nude private dances are allowed with contact, some dancers choose to place some type of barrier (cloth or occasionally plastic) over the customer's lap as a precautionary measure.


title: Stripper

text: Strippers are focused on making money from customers. How dancers go about maximizing revenue varies. For customers they do not already know, dancers use factors such as clothing, shoes, age, and race to determine whom they wish to interact with. Dancers are the primary enablers to encourage potential patrons to spend time in strip clubs. The dancers continually interact with the customers in the club by walking around and attempting to solicit drinks and lap dances, usually scanning the floor of a club to find the most lucrative customer to target.


title: Stripper

text: While clubs can generate revenue through means such as cover charges and drink fees, dancers make most of their profit from giving lap dances or VIP dances where regulations allow. Otherwise, customer tips to dancers from a stage set are their primary form of payment per shift. The dancer qualifies a customer by sizing up their appearance and personal characteristics. Once the dancer identifies her mark, she approaches and attempts to create social relationship with her customer using tactical interactions and manipulations. Alternatively, customers can make the first move and engage the dancer directly. Strippers appeal to masculine desires, but they can adapt to fit the needs of female patrons to view them as customers. Adapting the experience to the customer is an integral part of exotic dancing.


title: Stripper

text: In the 21st century, as adult themes and work are becoming more commonplace, more of the population is attracted to this type of work. For example, a University of Leeds study, published by the British Journal of Sociology of Education, revealed that as many as one third of "strip club dancers are students, with many using the cash earned to support themselves throughout their studies" and likely to come from middle class backgrounds. The study also stated that "students were now a 'core supply group into the sex industries', with clubs even targeting freshers' week events with recruitment leaflets." This is supported by a 2014 story in the New York Daily News regarding San Francisco strip clubs taking out recruitment ads in the university newspaper for the University of California at Berkeley, "The Daily Californian". One distinction made is that many view working as a strip club dancer as a short-term means to address financial needs, while others view it as a profession and go on to other types of sex work such as performing in adult films.


title: Stripper

text: Until the 1970s, strippers in Western cultures were almost invariably female, performing to male audiences. Male and female strippers also perform for gay and lesbian audiences respectively, as well as for both sexes in pansexual contexts.


title: Stripper

text: The modern male stripper show usually involves full nudity, although sometimes they may retain underwear, especially g-strings, bikini briefs or thongs throughout the show, or only remove all clothing for a brief time. Performances are usually fully choreographed, involve dance routines and a costume of some sort. Prominent male strip groups include the Dreamboys in the UK & Chippendales in the US.


title: Stripper

text: A male stripper will likely perform at club, bar, workplace or private home with private advanced bookings or ladies nights being prevalent over strip clubs which is the norm for female strippers. This is different from the Chippendales scene that emerged to prominence in the 1980s with today's norm being one sole performer, or a series of individual performers rather than a group of strippers.


title: Stripper

text: Tewksbury argues that male strippers 'masculinise' the role; thus are not disempowered in the way that, he asserts, female strippers are.


title: Stripper

text: Ethnographic research has observed that strippers, regardless of sexual orientation, have a tendency to treat female customers differently than males. Because of the non-physical motivations ascribed to female intimacy, dancers select women to approach who are smiling and sitting comfortably with open body language such as uncrossed arms, actively participating with the crowd, laughing and engaging with fellow customers, and applauding for dancers at the main stage also increase the likelihood they will be approached. Dancers tend to avoid women with unfriendly facial expressions or visibly hostile body language, again regardless of sexual orientation. In order to become approached, men must indicate financial potential through their appearance. Women must demonstrate their good attitude and willingness to participate in club activities. At that point, a woman's perceived profitability is also a factor in a dancer's decision to approach a female patron. The presence of male companionship has been cited in research as an indicator used by dancers to gauge the profitability of a female once she is perceived to be a customer.


title: Stripper

text: The image of strippers as known today evolved through the late 1960s and 1970s in the U.S. and international cultures which embraced Americanized striptease, introduced into popular culture by the genre-defining performances of Carol Doda at the Condor Club in San Francisco, California.


title: Stripper

text: By the 1980s pole-dancing had become popular in America, and the highly sexual imagery associated with the period's performers was widely accepted and frequently portrayed in film, television, and theater.


title: Stripper

text: In addition to lesser-known videos, the 1980s also featured mainstream films involving strippers and their work as part of the central narrative. These included "Flashdance" (1983), which told the story of blue-collar worker Alexandra "Alex" Owens (Jennifer Beals), who works as an exotic dancer in a Pittsburgh bar at night and at a steel mill as a welder during the day. "Blaze" (1989) features Lolita Davidovitch as notorious stripper Blaze Starr. Starr herself appears in the film in a cameo role. "Exotica" (1994), directed by Atom Egoyan, is set in a Canadian lap-dance club, and portrays a man's (Bruce Greenwood) obsession with a schoolgirl stripper named Christina (Mia Kirshner). "Showgirls" (1995) was directed by Paul Verhoeven and starred Elizabeth Berkley and Gina Gershon. "Striptease" (1996), was an adaptation of the novel starring Demi Moore. "The Players Club" (1998) starred LisaRaye McCoy as a girl who becomes a stripper to earn enough money to enter college and study journalism.


title: Stripper

text: In "Jekyll and Hyde" (1997), the character of Lucy Harris (originally portrayed by Linda Eder) works as a prostitute and stripper in a small London club called The Red Rat, where she meets a multi-dimension man named Doctor Henry Jekyll, who turns into his evil persona Mr. Edward Hyde. Lucy performs the song "Bring on the Men" during a show at The Red Rat (which was later replaced with "Good 'n' Evil" in the Broadway production, some claiming "Bring on the Men" was too "risqué"). In "Neighbours" (1985), the character of Daphne is originally a stripper at Des's bucks party, and eventually goes on to marry him. "Married... with Children" (1987–97) often featured Al Bundy, Jefferson D'Arcy, and the NO MA'AM crew spending a night at the Nudie Bar. In "The Sopranos" (1999–2007) business was often conducted at the Bada Bing strip club.


title: Stripper

text: "Dancing at the Blue Iguana" (2000) is a feature film starring Sandra Oh and Daryl Hannah. The female cast of the film researched the film by dancing at strip clubs and created their parts and their storylines to be as realistic as possible. "Stripsearch" (2001–), an ongoing Australian reality television show which centers around the training of male strippers. "The Hot Chick" (2002) stars Rachel McAdams, in her film debut, as a high school cheerleader who, after switching bodies with a small time criminal (Rob Schneider), starts working at a strip club called Pole Cat. "The Raymond Revuebar: The Art of Striptease" (2002) is a documentary, directed by Simon Weitzman. "Los Debutantes" (2003) is a Chilean film set in a strip club in Santiago. In "Closer" (2004), Natalie Portman plays Alice Ayres aka Jane Jones, a young American stripper who arrives in London, England. Portman won the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture for her performance. Rob Zombie's 2007 "Halloween" remake features Michael Myers' mother Deborah (played by Zombie's wife Sheri Moon Zombie), dancing to "Love Hurts" by Nazareth.


title: Stripper

text: "I Know Who Killed Me" (2007) stars Lindsay Lohan as Dakota Moss, an alluring stripper involved in the machinations of a serial killer, and features a long striptease sequence at a strip club. In "Planet Terror" (2007), Rose McGowan plays go-go dancer Cherry Darling who, after having her leg eaten by a zombie, uses an assault rifle as a prosthetic leg. In the two-part season 6 finale of "", Alex Nunez resorts to stripping after she and her mother do not have enough money to pay the rent on their apartment. Darren Aronofsky's 2008 drama film "The Wrestler" features Marisa Tomei playing a stripper and single mother who is romantically pursued by professional wrestler Randy "The Ram" Robinson (Mickey Rourke). Tomei received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance. "Zombie Strippers" (2008) chronicles a zombie virus that makes its way to a strip club. "Barely Phyllis" is a play on Phyllis Dixey which was first staged at the Pomegranate Theatre, Chesterfield in 2009. "The Hangover" (2009) features Heather Graham as a Las Vegas stripper and escort who marries Stu (Ed Helms) despite his plan to propose to his controlling girlfriend (Rachael Harris). She reprised her role in the sequel "The Hangover III".


title: Stripper

text: The seventh episode of season 6 of the CBS crime drama "Criminal Minds" focuses on the BAU team tracking down a trio of young men, one of whom is revealed to be the son of the sheriff leading the investigation, who kidnap, rape, and murder several exotic dancers in Indiana. The 2012 film "Magic Mike" and 2015 sequel "Magic Mike XXL" are fictionalized stories of the lives of several male performers. In "We're the Millers" (2013), Jennifer Aniston plays a stripper who is hired by her drug dealer neighbor to pose as his wife in order to smuggle marijuana from Mexico into America. "Lap Dance" (2014), which stars Briana Evigan and Carmen Electra, focuses on an aspiring actress who makes a pact with her husband to take a job as an exotic dancer so she can make money to care for her cancer-stricken father. It is based on the true story of the film's director Greg Carter. "Dixieland" (2015) involves Riley Keough as a stripper making money to support her sick mother and is also being abused by her manager. In the TV series "La que se avecina", Lola Reynolds (played by Macarena Gómez), changes her job and works as a stripper after know she will earn more money.


title: Stripper

text: Strippers have been the inspiration for a number of musical artists, with several of the songs resulting in hit singles. An instrumental, "The Stripper", was a No. 1 hit on the U.S. pop singles charts for David Rose and His Orchestra in 1962. That song pre-dated the opening of what is considered to be the first modern strip club, Condor Club on Broadway in the U.S. city of San Francisco, California. "Private Dancer" by Tina Turner was an international hit and her second highest charting single reaching No. 7 on the U.S. "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. "Girls, Girls, Girls" by Mötley Crüe was also a Top 20 hit on the U.S. charts.


title: Stripper

text: T-Pain had a No. 5 hit on the Billboard chats with "I'm 'n Luv (Wit a Stripper)" in 2006. Hip hop artist Flo Rida had two No. 1 hits in the U.S. in the 2000s with "Right Round" and "Low". For both hip-hop artists, the depictions of strippers and expressions of lust are far more explicit than in songs released in earlier music eras. This is not limited to hip-hop, with contemporary songs in other styles of music sharing similar traits. "Worked Up So Sexual" by The Faint is graphic in its depiction of dancer rivalry ("older dancers gag at what new talent seems to mean, smaller tits and younger limbs") and customers longing to bed them. Public acceptance of the music has not faltered, and many dancers perform to these and other songs depicting women in subjectively negative ways while on stage.


title: Stripper

text: "Duke Nukem 3D", released in 1996, became the original pioneer video game for the inclusion of strippers. "" (2004) was the first video game of the saga to include strippers. "Grand Theft Auto IV" (2008) includes a strip club where the player can mingle with the strippers. In "Grand Theft Auto V" (2013) the character can visit Vanila Unicorn and takes lap dances with the strippers. In the online version, the player can flirt with the stripper by using their voice on the microphone.


title: Stripper

text: From ancient times to the present day, striptease has been considered a form of public nudity and subject to legal and cultural prohibitions on moral and decency grounds.


title: Stripper

text: Many U.S. jurisdictions have specific laws on the books related to striptease, with more being added increasing both complexity of enforcement and impact. For example, the classification of dancers as independent contractors has been challenged in court, successfully in Massachusetts in 2009. One of the more notorious local ordinances is San Diego Municipal Code 33.3610, specific and strict in response to allegations of corruption among local officials which included contacts in the nude entertainment industry. Among its provisions is the "six foot rule", copied by other municipalities in requiring that dancers maintain a six-foot distance while performing.


title: Stripper

text: Touching of performers is illegal in many U.S. states. However, some dancers and some clubs condone touching of dancers during private dances. This touching often includes the fondling of breasts, buttocks, and in rare cases the vaginal region. In some locales, dancers may give a customer a "lap dance", whereby the dancer grinds against the customer's crotch while they are fully clothed in an attempt to arouse them or bring them to climax. Other rules forbid "full nudity". In some parts of the USA, there are laws forbidding the exposure of female nipples, which have thus to be covered by pasties by the dancer (though not applied to the exposure of male nipples). In early 2010, the U.S. city of Detroit, Michigan banned fully exposed breasts in its strip clubs, following the example of Houston, Texas who began enforcing a similar ordinance in 2008. The Detroit city council has since softened the rules eliminating the requirement for pasties but kept other restrictions. Both municipalities were reputed to have rampant occurrences of illicit activity including prostitution linked to its striptease establishments within their city limits.


title: Stripper

text: In Britain in the 1930s, when the Windmill Theatre, London, began to present nude shows, British law prohibited performers moving whilst in a state of nudity. To get around that rule, models appeared naked in stationary "tableaux vivants". To keep within the law, sometimes devices were used which rotated the models without them moving themselves. Fan dances were another device used to keep performances within the law. These allowed a naked dancer's body to be concealed by her fans or those of her attendants, until the end of an act, when she posed naked for a brief interval whilst standing stock still, and the lights went out or the curtain dropped to allow her to leave the stage.


title: Stripper

text: In 2010, Iceland outlawed striptease. Johanna Sigurðardottir, Iceland's prime minister, said: "The Nordic countries are leading the way on women's equality, recognizing women as equal citizens rather than commodities for sale." The politician behind the bill, Kolbrún Halldórsdóttir, said: "It is not acceptable that women or people in general are a product to be sold."


title: Stripper

text: As the sex industry has grown and become a more established sector of national economies, sex workers—strippers included—have mobilized to negotiate or demand workplace rights. One means of collectivization pursued by strippers is the formation of labor unions, which involves formal membership. These strippers' unions have tended to focus on economic and workers' rights rather than civil rights, which constitutes a significant departure from the advocacy groups for prostitutes' rights that began in the 1970s and 1980s. The stigma attached to sex work also creates another obstacle to organization because many strippers and other types of sex workers are uncomfortable with declaring their profession publicly, even in a movement to improve their work environment and benefits.


title: Stripper

text: One potential critique of the organization of strippers and sex workers of other types is that people in management positions in these industries, who are in a position to perpetuate the exploitation that sex workers face, can infiltrate these labor organizations and lobby for the maintenance of a status quo.


title: Stripper

text: The Striptease Artists of Australia formed in 2002. The SAA successfully negotiated an industrial award with the AIRC in 2006. Despite this establishment of an industry-wide minimum standard for labor rights, changes to employment legislature under a Conservative government enabled employers to utilize loopholes such as employing strippers as sub-contractors.


title: Stripper

text: Another group, the Scarlet Alliance has been involved in advocacy and projects geared towards improving the standing of sex workers since its inception in 1989. While labor rights are an important part of this group's agenda, it is not a labor union.


title: Stripper

text: The International Union of Sex Workers is a branch of the GMB, a major general union in Great Britain.


title: Stripper

text: In the 1980s, the Vancouver Exotic Dancers Alliance formed and was active for about a decade. The Canadian Guild for Erotic Labour was established in 2004.


title: Stripper

text: The Lusty Lady of San Francisco is a notable example of collectivization of strippers in the U.S. When the strippers of the establishment successfully unionized in 1996 through the Erotic Dancers' Alliance, the owners of the club closed it. In response, the strippers formed a cooperative in 2003 to run the club themselves, now renamed the Looking Glass Collective.


title: Banana Wars

text: The Banana Wars were a series of conflicts that consisted of military occupation, police action, and intervention by the United States in Central America and the Caribbean between the end of the Spanish–American War in 1898 and the inception of the Good Neighbor Policy in 1934. The military interventions were primarily carried out by the United States Marine Corps, who also developed a manual, the "Small Wars Manual" (1921) based on their experiences. On occasion, the United States Navy provided gunfire support and troops from the United States Army were also deployed.


title: Banana Wars

text: With the Treaty of Paris signed in 1898, control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines fell to the United States (surrendered from Spain). Following this, the United States proceeded to conduct military interventions in Cuba, Panama, Honduras, Nicaragua, Mexico, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic. These conflicts ended with the withdrawal of troops from Haiti in 1934 under President Franklin D. Roosevelt.


title: Banana Wars

text: The term "banana wars" was popularized in 1983 by writer Lester D. Langley. Langley wrote several books on Latin American history and American intervention, including: "The United States and the Caribbean, 1900–1970" and "The Banana Wars: An Inner History of American Empire, 1900–1934." His work regarding the Banana Wars encompasses the entire United States tropical empire, which overtook the western hemisphere, spanning both Roosevelt presidencies. The term was popularized through this writing and portrayed the United States as a police force sent to reconcile these warring tropical countries, lawless societies and corrupt politicians; essentially establishing US reign over tropical trade. Hundreds of American soldiers and thousands of locals died in the Banana Wars.


title: Banana Wars

text: Most prominently, the US was advancing economic, political, and military interests in order to maintain its sphere of influence and to secure the Panama Canal (which opened in 1914). The United States had recently built the Panama Canal in order to promote global trade and to project its naval power. US companies, such as the United Fruit Company, also had financial stakes in the production of bananas, tobacco, sugar cane, and other commodities throughout the Caribbean, Central America and northern South America.


title: Banana Wars

text: Other Latin American nations were influenced or dominated by American economic policies and/or commercial interests to the point of coercion. Theodore Roosevelt declared the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine in 1904, asserting the right of the United States to intervene to stabilize the economic affairs of states in the Caribbean and Central America if they were unable to pay their international debts. From 1909–1913, President William Howard Taft and his Secretary of State Philander C. Knox asserted a more "peaceful and economic" Dollar Diplomacy foreign policy, although that too was backed by force, as in Nicaragua.


title: Banana Wars

text: The first decades of the history of Honduras is marked by instability in terms of politics and economy. Indeed, three armed conflicts occurred between independence and the rise to power of the Carias government. This instability was due in part to the American involvement in the country.


title: Banana Wars

text: The first company that concluded an agreement with the Honduras government was the Vaccaro Brothers Company (Standard Fruit Company). The Cuyamel Fruit Company then followed their lead. United Fruit Company also contracted with the government through its subsidiaries, Tela Railroad Company and Truxillo Rail Road Company.


title: Banana Wars

text: Contract between the Honduran government and the American companies most often involved exclusive rights to a piece of land in exchange for building railroads in Honduras.


title: Banana Wars

text: However, banana producers in Central America (including Honduras) "were scourged by Panama disease, a soil-borne fungus (…) that decimated production over large regions". Typically, companies would abandon the decimated plantations and destroy the railroads and other utilities that they had used along with the plantation, so the exchange of services between the government and the companies was not always respected.


title: Banana Wars

text: The ultimate goal of the contracts for the companies was control of the banana trade from production to distribution. The companies would finance guerrilla fighters, presidential campaigns and governments. According to Rivera and Carranza, the indirect participation of American companies in the country's armed conflicts worsened the situation. The presence of more dangerous and modern weapons allowed more dangerous warfare among the factions.


title: Banana Wars

text: In British Honduras (now Belize) the situation was significantly different. Although the United Fruit Company was the sole exporter of bananas there, and the company also attempted to manipulate the local government, the country did not suffer the instability and armed conflicts that its neighbors experienced.


title: Banana Wars

text: Perhaps the single most active military officer in the Banana Wars was U.S. Marine Corps Major General, Smedley Butler, nicknamed "Maverick Marine", who saw action in Honduras in 1903, served in Nicaragua enforcing American policy from 1909 to 1912, was awarded the Medal of Honor for his role in Veracruz in 1914, and a second Medal of Honor for bravery in Haiti in 1915. After his forced retirement for making reckless statements, Butler made a career of speaking to left-wing groups denouncing capitalism. His standard speech after 1933 was titled "War is a Racket", where he denounced the role he had played, describing himself as "a high class muscle man for Big Business, for Wall Street and the bankers...a racketeer, a gangster for capitalism".


title: Macaw

text: Macaws are a group of New World parrots that are long-tailed and often colorful. They are popular in aviculture or as companion parrots, although there are conservation concerns about several species in the wild.


title: Macaw

text: Of the many different Psittacidae (true parrots) genera, six are classified as macaws: "Ara", "Anodorhynchus", "Cyanopsitta", "Primolius", "Orthopsittaca", and "Diopsittaca". Previously, the members of the genus "Primolius" were placed in "Propyrrhura", but the former is correct in accordance with ICZN rules. In addition, the related macaw-like thick-billed parrot is sometimes referred to as a "macaw", although it is not phylogenetically considered to be a macaw species. Macaws are native to Central America and North America (only Mexico), South America, and formerly the Caribbean. Most species are associated with forests, but others prefer woodland or savannah-like habitats.


title: Macaw

text: Proportionately larger beaks, long tails, and relatively bare, light-coloured medial (facial patch) areas distinguish macaws from other parrots. Sometimes the facial patch is smaller in some species and limited to a yellow patch around the eyes and a second patch near the base of the beak in the members of the genus "Anodorhynchus". A macaw's facial feather pattern is as unique as a fingerprint.


title: Macaw

text: The largest macaws are the hyacinth, Buffon's (great green) and green-winged macaws. While still relatively large parrots, mini-macaws of the genera "Cyanopsitta", "Orthopsittaca" and "Primolius" are significantly smaller than the members of "Anodorhynchus" and "Ara". The smallest member of the family, the red-shouldered macaw, is no larger than some parakeets of the genus "Aratinga".


title: Macaw

text: Macaws, like other parrots, toucans and woodpeckers, are zygodactyl, having their first and fourth toes pointing backward.


title: Macaw

text: There are 19 species of macaws, including extinct and critically endangered species. In addition, there are several hypothetical extinct species that have been proposed based on very little evidence.


title: Macaw

text: Several hypothetical extinct species of macaws have been postulated based on little evidence, and they may have been subspecies, or familiar parrots that were imported onto an island and later wrongly presumed to have a separate identity.


title: Macaw

text: The majority of macaws are now endangered in the wild and a few are extinct. The Spix's macaw is now probably extinct in the wild. The glaucous macaw is also probably extinct, with only two reliable records of sightings in the 20th century. The greatest problems threatening the macaw population are the rapid rate of deforestation and illegal trapping for the bird trade. Prehistoric Native Americans in the American Southwest farmed macaws in establishments known as "feather factories".


title: Macaw

text: International trade of all macaw species is regulated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES). Some species of macaws—the scarlet macaw ("Ara macao") as an example—are listed in the CITES Appendix I and may not be lawfully traded for commercial purposes. Other species, such as the red-shouldered macaw ("Diopsittaca nobilis"), are listed in Appendix II and may legally be traded commercially provided that certain controls are in place, including a non-detriment finding, establishment of an export quota, and issuing of export permits.


title: Macaw

text: Aviculturists have reported an over-abundance of female blue-and-yellow macaws in captivity, which differs from the general rule with captive macaws and other parrots, where the males are more abundant. This would explain why the blue and gold is the most commonly hybridised macaw, and why the hybridising trend took hold among macaws. Common macaw hybrids include the harlequin ("Ara ararauna" × "Ara chloroptera"), miligold macaw ("Ara ararauna" × "Ara militaris") and the Catalina (known as the rainbow in Australia, "Ara ararauna" × "Ara macao"). In addition, unusual but apparently healthy intergeneric hybrids between the hyacinth macaw and several of the larger "Ara" macaws have also occasionally been seen in captivity. Another, much rarer, occurrence of a second-generation hybrid (F2) is the Miliquin macaw (harlequin and military macaws).


title: Macaw

text: Macaws eat a variety of foods including seeds, nuts, fruits, palm fruits, leaves, flowers, and stems. Safe vegetables include asparagus, beets, bell peppers, broccoli, butternut, carrots, corn on the cob, dandelion greens, collard greens, hot peppers, spinach, sweet potatoes, tomatoes and zucchini. Wild species may forage widely, over for some of the larger species such as "Ara araurana" (blue and yellow macaw) and "Ara ambigua" (great green macaw), in search of seasonally available foods.


title: Macaw

text: Some foods eaten by macaws in certain regions in the wild are said to contain toxic or caustic substances which they are able to digest. It has been suggested that parrots and macaws in the Amazon Basin eat clay from exposed river banks to neutralize these toxins. In the western Amazon hundreds of macaws and other parrots descend to exposed river banks to consume clay on an almost daily basis – except on rainy days. Donald Brightsmith, the principal investigator of The Macaw Society, located at the Tambopata Research Center (TRC) in Peru, has studied the clay eating behaviour of parrots at clay licks in Peru. He and fellow investigators found that the soils macaws choose to consume at the clay licks do not have higher levels of cation-exchange capacity (ability to absorb toxins) than that of unused areas of the clay licks and thus the parrots could not be using the clay to neutralize ingested food toxins. Rather, the macaws and other bird and animal species prefer clays with higher levels of sodium. Sodium is a vital element that is scarce in environments greater than 100 kilometres from the ocean. The distribution of clay licks across South America further supports this hypothesis – as the largest and most species-rich clay licks are found on the western side of the Amazon Basin far from oceanic influences. Salt-enriched (NaCl) oceanic aerosols are the main source of environmental sodium near coasts and this decreases drastically farther inland.


title: Macaw

text: Clay-eating behaviour by macaws is not seen outside the western Amazon region, even though macaws in these areas consume some toxic foods such as the seeds of "Hura crepitans", or sandbox tree, which have toxic sap. Species of parrot that consume more seeds, which potentially have more toxins, do not use clay licks more than species that eat a greater proportion of flowers or fruit in their diets.


title: Macaw

text: Studies at TRC have shown a correlation between clay-lick use and the breeding season. Contents of nestling crop samples show a high percentage of clay fed to them by their parents. Calcium for egg development – another hypothesis – does not appear to be a reason for geophagy during this period as peak usage is after the hatching of eggs.


title: Macaw

text: Another theory is that the birds, as well as other herbivorous animals, use the clay licks as a source of cobalamin, otherwise known as vitamin B.


title: Macaw

text: Macaws and their feathers have attracted the attention of people throughout history, most notably in pre-Columbian civilizations such as the Inca, Wari', and Nazca. Macaw feathers were highly desired for their bright colors and acquired through hunting and trade. Feathers were often used as adornment and were found at both ceremonial and burial sites. South American weavers have used their feathers to create a number of textiles, most notably feathered panels and tabards. Due to the fragile nature of the feathers, many of these pieces have begun to deteriorate over time.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: Ezekiel Elijah Elliott (born July 22, 1995) is an American football running back for the Dallas Cowboys of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Ohio State, where he earned second-team All-America honors in 2015. Elliott was drafted by the Cowboys fourth overall in the 2016 NFL Draft. As a three-time Pro Bowl and two-time All-Pro selection, he led the league in rushing yards in 2016 and 2018.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: Elliott was born in Alton, Illinois, to a mother and father who were both athletes in college. His mother, the former Dawn Huff, was a high school state champion in three sports before attending the University of Missouri and running track there. His father, Stacy, was a linebacker for the Missouri football team and CEO of Fifth Down Enterprises. Elliott's maternal grandfather played basketball for Drake University. His uncle is Finnish professional basketball player Shawn Huff.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: Despite his athletic pedigree, Elliott attended more academically driven John Burroughs School in Ladue, Missouri, where he was a three-sport star in football, basketball, and track and field. He also played baseball. He played as a running back for the John Burroughs Bombers football team. As a junior in 2012, he was named the "St. Louis Post-Dispatch" offensive player of the year after rushing for 1,802 yards and 34 touchdowns and receiving 23 passes for 401 yards and six scores. In his senior year, he had 3,061 all-purpose yards and 50 total touchdowns, including 2,155 rushing yards and 40 rushing touchdowns. He led the football team to three straight championship games, but lost all three.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: Also a standout track and field athlete, Elliott was a state qualifier in sprinting and hurdling events. He capped his high school career by winning four state championships at the Missouri Class 3 state championships in hours (100-meter dash, 200-meter dash, 110-meter high hurdles and 300-meter hurdles). He recorded career-best times of 10.95 seconds in the 100-meter dash, 22.05 seconds in the 200-meter dash, 13.77 seconds in the 110m hurdles and 37.52 seconds in the 300m hurdles. He was named the Gatorade Track Athlete of the Year in the state of Missouri.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: Considered a four-star recruit by Scout.com, Elliott was listed as the No. 9 running back in the nation in 2013. He played in the 2013 U.S. Army All-American Bowl. Despite overwhelming support and pressure for Elliott to sign with his parents' alma mater, the University of Missouri, he decided to sign with Ohio State University.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: As a true freshman at Ohio State University in 2013, Elliott rushed for 262 yards on 30 carries with two touchdowns as a backup to starter Carlos Hyde, mostly playing as a gunner on special teams.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: In 2014, with the departure of Hyde to the NFL, Elliott took over as the starter for the Buckeyes. During the season, Elliott was named to the Academic All-Big Ten Conference team. Elliott rushed over 100 yards six times during the scheduled season. In the 2014 Big Ten Championship Game against the Wisconsin Badgers, Elliott ran for 220 yards on 20 carries for two touchdowns. This win qualified Ohio State for the first-ever College Football Playoff. In the 2015 Sugar Bowl against #1 Alabama, Elliott ran for 230 yards on 20 carries in a hard-fought 42–35 win where he was named the Offensive Player of the Game. He then capped the Buckeyes' championship season by rushing for 246 yards on 36 carries and scoring four touchdowns against the Oregon Ducks. He was named the Offensive MVP of that game as well; it was the third most rushing yards ever by an Ohio State player.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: In 2015, Elliott began the season by rushing for over 100 yards in 10 straight wins, including 274 against Indiana on October 3 (the second most all-time by an Ohio State player). However, the team suffered a 14–17 loss to Michigan State on November 21, 2015, and Elliott announced that he would enter the 2016 NFL Draft. The following week, Elliott ran for 214 yards on 30 carries in a 42–13 Ohio State victory over rival Michigan in Ann Arbor, his fifth 200+ yard game. He ended his collegiate career with 149 yards and four touchdowns in a Fiesta Bowl win over Notre Dame.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: Elliott finished his career at Ohio State on several leaderboards. He was second in career rushing yards with 3,961 and yards per game with 101.6 (both behind only Archie Griffin), had the second and third most rushing yards in a season, and five of the top 20 rushing yards in a game. His 43 rushing touchdowns was fourth most all time, and his 23 in 2015 was third most in a season. His twelve 100-yard rushing games in the 2015 season tied Eddie George for a school record, and the 22 he amassed over his career was again second only to Griffin (as was his streak of 15 consecutive 100-yard games from 2014 to 2015). He and George are the only Ohio State players with five 200-yard rushing games.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: Elliott received numerous honors during his tenure at Ohio State. In the 2014 season, Elliott was named the Offensive MVP of both the 2015 Sugar Bowl and the 2015 College Football Playoff National Championship Game.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: Elliott's success at the end of the 2014 season made him a front-runner for the 2015 Heisman Trophy, though he in fact finished 8th in the voting. After a successful regular season in which he gained 1,672 yards and 19 touchdowns, Elliott was named the 2015 Graham-George Offensive Player of the Year, 2015 Ameche-Dayne Running Back of the Year and was selected as Unanimous First Team All-Big Ten. In addition to the yearly awards, he was also named Big Ten Player of the Week twice during the 2015 season for his performances in Week 5 against Indiana, and in Week 13 against Michigan.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: Before the draft, Elliott was labeled the most complete back to enter the NFL since Adrian Peterson in 2007, and was predicted to be a top 10 selection. On a draft breakdown by NFL.com, he drew comparisons to Edgerrin James and was listed as a three-down back that had "rare combination of size, athleticism, pass-catching and blocking skills", and that he "should still come out of the gates as one of the most productive young running backs in the league".


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: Elliott was selected in the first round with the fourth overall pick by the Dallas Cowboys in the 2016 NFL Draft on April 28, 2016. He was the first running back selected in the draft that year. Elliott was widely regarded as an early favorite for the 2016 Offensive Rookie of the Year while playing behind what many agreed upon as the NFL's most dominant offensive line leading up to the 2016 NFL season.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: On May 18, 2016, Elliott signed his four-year rookie contract reportedly worth $24.9 million with a $16.3 million signing bonus.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: Elliott was named the Cowboys' starting running back going into the regular season, ahead of veterans Alfred Morris and Darren McFadden. In the season-opener against the New York Giants, he rushed for 51 yards on 20 attempts and scored his first NFL touchdown on an eight-yard run in the narrow 20–19 loss. In the next game against the Washington Redskins, Elliott had 21 carries for 83 yards and a touchdown but also fumbled twice, losing one of them. The Cowboys prevailed on the road 27–23. During Week 3 against the Chicago Bears, he posted his first game with over a hundred yards and finished the 31–17 victory with 140 rushing yards on 30 carries. In the next game, against the San Francisco 49ers, he had 138 rushing yards and a rushing touchdown in the 24–17 road victory. During Week 5 against the Cincinnati Bengals, Elliott rushed for 134 yards on 15 carries and scored two rushing touchdowns, including a 60-yard touchdown as the Cowboys won 28–14. In the next game against the Green Bay Packers, Elliott continued his four-game streak with over 100 yards after carrying the ball 28 times for 157 rushing yards in the 30–16 road victory.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: After the ninth game of the 2016 season, he became the second Cowboys rookie to rush for more than 1,000 yards in a season, after Tony Dorsett achieved the mark in 1977. He also became the third running back to rush for 1,000 yards after just the ninth game of his career, joining Adrian Peterson and Eric Dickerson.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: During a Week 10 35–30 road victory over the Pittsburgh Steelers, Elliott recorded 209 scrimmage yards and three touchdowns, including his first NFL receiving touchdown on an 83-yard pass from fellow rookie Dak Prescott, and a 32-yard run for the game-winning touchdown with nine seconds left. During a Week 11 27–17 victory over the Baltimore Ravens, Elliott rushed for 97 yards and passed Tony Dorsett's Cowboys rookie rushing record on his second carry.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: In Week 15, after scoring a touchdown against Tampa Bay, Elliott jumped into an oversized Salvation Army Red Kettle, an unusual touchdown celebration. Since 1997 the Dallas Cowboys Thanksgiving Day football game halftime show has traditionally kicked off the Red Kettle campaign. With that rushing touchdown, he surpassed Tony Dorsett and Herschel Walker for the Cowboys rookie record. He ran for 159 yards in the 26–20 victory. Because the Cowboys clinched the number one seed and home field advantage throughout the playoffs, Elliott rushed for 80 yards in a Week 16 42–21 victory over the Detroit Lions and did not play in the regular-season finale against the Philadelphia Eagles.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: Elliott finished his rookie year as the NFL's top rusher with 1,631 yards, which was the 47th best season all-time, the third most by a rookie (behind Eric Dickerson's 1,808 in 1983 and George Rogers' 1,674 in 1981), and the youngest player to reach 1,600 yards. He finished third with 15 touchdowns behind LeGarrette Blount and David Johnson. He tied Mike Anderson, Clinton Portis, and Ickey Woods for the second most all-time by a rookie behind Eric Dickerson's 18. Elliott's 464 yards after contact ranked fourth among NFL running backs. As a result of his successful season, Elliott was selected as a First-team All-Pro, and earned his first Pro Bowl, joining Dak Prescott as the first rookie running back and quarterback duo in NFL history to be selected. He was also ranked seventh by his peers on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2017 as the highest ranked running back.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: In his first NFL playoff game, Elliott ran 22 times for 125 yards in a 34–31 loss to the Green Bay Packers in the , joining Duane Thomas as the only Cowboy rookie to rush for over 100 yards in a playoff game.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: On August 11, 2017, the NFL suspended Elliott for the first six games of the 2017 season for violating the personal conduct policy. His suspension stemmed from accusations of domestic violence against his ex-girlfriend on five occasions in 2016. NFL officials conducted a year-long investigation into the allegations, and though Elliott was never criminally charged, decided to suspend him. On August 16, Elliott announced that he would appeal the suspension. Although the suspension was upheld on September 6 by a league-appointed arbitrator, on September 8, a federal judge granted a request for injunction by the NFL Players Association (NFLPA), putting the suspension on hold indefinitely.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: In the season-opener against the New York Giants on "NBC Sunday Night Football", Elliott rushed for 104 yards on 24 attempts as the Cowboys won by a score of 19–3. During Week 2, Elliott had the worst game of his career statistically in an away game against the Denver Broncos. He was held to eight rushing yards on nine carries in the 42–17 road loss.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: On October 12, the Fifth Circuit U.S. Court of Appeals announced that Elliot's suspension had been reinstated, meaning that he would have to serve the six-game suspension up from that point. On October 18, Elliott was granted a temporary restraining order, meaning that he would not have to serve his suspension from that point, allowing him to play in Week 7. During Week 7 against the San Francisco 49ers, Elliott rushed for 147 yards and two touchdowns and had a 72-yard touchdown reception from Dak Prescott in the 40–10 road victory.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: On October 30, Judge Katherine Polk Failla of the New York Southern District Court, denied Elliott's request for a preliminary injunction, which reinstated the 6-game suspension. The following day, the NFLPA filed an emergency motion for the injunction.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: On November 3, Elliott was once again granted a stay by the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, which delayed the suspension.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: On November 9, the suspension was once again reinstated by the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit. Three days afterward, Elliott decided to accept the suspension and leave the country to train for a little while. On November 15, he officially announced that he withdrew from another appeal attempt. During his suspension, Elliott had been training and rehabbing his hamstrings in Mexico before his reinstatement. Elliott returned in Week 16 during a must-win situation against the Seattle Seahawks, where he rushed for 97 yards on 24 carries. The Cowboys lost, 21–12, and were eliminated from playoff contention. In the regular season finale against the Philadelphia Eagles, Elliott recorded 27 carries for 103 rushing yards in the 6–0 victory.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: Elliott finished the 2017 season with 242 carries for 983 yards and seven touchdowns to go along with 26 receptions for 269 yards and two touchdowns in 10 games and starts. He was ranked 54th by his peers on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2018.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: In the first two games of the season, Elliott recorded a rushing touchdown in both games against the Carolina Panthers and New York Giants. During a Week 3 24–13 road loss to the Seattle Seahawks, he rushed for 127 yards. In the next game against the Detroit Lions, he had 152 rushing yards along with four receptions for 88 yards and a touchdown in a 26–24 victory. During Week 6, he ran for 106 yards and a touchdown against the Jacksonville Jaguars. With his only score, Elliott became the 12th Cowboy to reach 25 touchdowns on the ground as well as the fastest to do so, three games faster than Emmitt Smith. During a Week 10 27–20 road victory, Elliott scored twice, racking up 151 rushing yards and 36 receiving yards against the reigning Super Bowl champions, the Philadelphia Eagles. He broke 150 yards rushing for the fifth time in his career, surpassing DeMarco Murray for third-most in franchise history. In the next game, he recorded 201 scrimmage yards and a touchdown against the Atlanta Falcons, his fourth game over 200, tying with DeMarco Murray and Emmitt Smith for most in franchise history. Elliott continued his success, with 121 yards and a score on the run against the Washington Redskins on Thanksgiving, eclipsing 1,000 yards on the year, the second time of his career, tied for third (along with DeMarco Murray & Calvin Hill) most in Cowboys' history. In a narrow Week 13 13–10 road victory over the New Orleans Saints on "Thursday Night Football", Elliott recorded 136 scrimmage yards and a receiving touchdown.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: Elliott finished the 2018 season with 1,434 rushing yards and six touchdowns to go along with 77 receptions for 567 yards and three touchdowns in 15 games and starts. He won the rushing title for the second time in three seasons. Elliott earned a second Pro Bowl nomination for his 2018 season.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: The Cowboys finished atop the NFC East and made the playoffs as the #4-seed for the NFC Playoffs. In the 2019 NFC against the Seattle Seahawks, Elliott rushed 26 times for 137 yards and a touchdown in the 24–22 victory. In the against the Los Angeles Rams, he had 20 carries for 47 yards and a touchdown in the 30–22 loss. He was ranked 18th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2019.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: On April 17, 2019, the Cowboys picked up the fifth-year option on Elliott's contract. However, Elliott began holding out during training camp, demanding a contract extension. On September 4, Elliott signed a six-year extension with the Cowboys worth $90 million, with $50 million guaranteed, keeping him under contract through the 2026 season.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: In Elliott's first game back, he rushed 13 times for 53 yards and a touchdown in the 35–17 opening game victory over the New York Giants. In the next game against the Washington Redskins, Elliott rushed 23 times for 111 yards and a touchdown in a 31–21 road victory. The following week against the Miami Dolphins, Elliott rushed 19 times for 125 yards as the Cowboys won 31–6. In Week 6 against the New York Jets, Elliott rushed 28 times for 105 yards and a touchdown and caught five passes for 48 yards in the 24–22 road loss. In the next game against the Philadelphia Eagles, he rushed 22 times for 111 yards and a touchdown and caught six passes for 36 yards in the 37–10 victory. After a Week 8 bye, the Cowboys faced the New York Giants on "Monday Night Football". In that game, Elliott rushed 23 times for 139 yards in the 37–18 road victory. During Week 14 against the Chicago Bears on "Thursday Night Football", he rushed 19 times for 84 yards and two touchdowns in the 31–24 loss. During the game, Elliott reached 1,000 rushing yards on the season. In Week 15 against the Los Angeles Rams, Elliott rushed 24 times for 117 yards and two touchdowns and caught three passes for 43 yards during the 44–21 win. In the regular-season finale against the Redskins, Elliott rushed 18 times for 122 yards and a touchdown and caught three passes for two yards and a touchdown during the 47–16 win. Elliott earned his third Pro Bowl nomination for 2019.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: Elliott finished the 2019 season with 1,357 rushing yards and 12 touchdowns to go along with 54 receptions for 420 yards and two touchdowns in 15 games and starts. He was ranked 24th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2020.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: During the season-opening 20–17 loss to the Los Angeles Rams on "NBC Sunday Night Football", Elliott rushed 22 times for 96 yards and a touchdown and caught three passes for 31 yards and a touchdown. In the next game against the Atlanta Falcons, he rushed 22 times for 89 yards and a rushing touchdown to go along with six receptions for 33 receiving yards during the 40–39 comeback victory.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: During Week 5 against the New York Giants, Elliott recorded 105 yards from scrimmage and two rushing touchdowns during the 37–34 win. In Week 11 against the Minnesota Vikings, Elliott rushed for 103 yards and recorded two receptions for 11 yards and a touchdown during the 31–28 win. This was his first 100-yard rushing game of the season. Elliott missed his first career game due to injury on December 20, 2020, in Week 15 against the San Francisco 49ers, whom the Cowboys went on to beat 41-33. In Week 16 against the Philadelphia Eagles, he had 19 carries for 105 yards in the 37–17 victory.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: Elliott finished the 2020 season with 979 rushing yards and six touchdowns to go along with 52 receptions for 338 yards and two touchdowns.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: On August 27, 2021, the Cowboys restructured Elliott's contract, converting $8.6 million of his base salary for the upcoming season into a signing bonus to save some salary cap space. Despite dealing with lingering knee and ankle injuries during the majority of the season, Elliott was still able to start all 17 games and rush for 1,002 yards and ten touchdowns on 237 carries along with 47 receptions for 287 yards and two touchdowns. He had two games going over the 100-yard mark and four games with multiple touchdowns.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: In the against the San Francisco 49ers, Elliott rushed for 31 yards in the 23–17 loss. After the game, it was revealed that Elliott was playing with a partially torn PCL, which he suffered in Week 4 against the Carolina Panthers.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: Elliott bought his parents Dawn and Stacy Elliott a new house after signing his rookie contracts. He studied marketing at Ohio State University. He was good friends with fellow Buckeye teammate Kosta Karageorge, who was a walk-on defensive end. Karageorge received national attention when he died from a self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head. Elliott was surprised by the death of his friend. "Our hearts dropped," he told ESPN. "It was just a hard moment for all of us. For me, personally, that was my first time losing someone that I was very close with."


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: In August 2020, Elliott became a shareholder of OnCore Golf Technology, Inc., a manufacturer of golf balls based in Buffalo, New York.


title: Ezekiel Elliott

text: In May 2021, Elliott was cited by police after one of his dogs bit and injured two people in his Frisco neighborhood.


title: Kevin Alejandro

text: Kevin Michael Alejandro (born April 7, 1976) is an American actor and film director. He is known for his roles as Nate Moretta in the crime drama "Southland", Forklift Mike in "Parenthood," Jesús Velázquez in the supernatural thriller "True Blood", Sebastian Blood / Brother Blood in the superhero series "Arrow" and as Daniel Espinóza in the comedy-crime drama "Lucifer".


title: Kevin Alejandro

text: Alejandro was born in San Antonio, Texas to Mexican parents of Spanish and English ancestry. He was featured on the ABC series "Ugly Betty", playing Santos, the father of Justin Suarez and love interest of Hilda. At the time of the season 1 finale episode's filming, he had just become a series regular on the Fox network's newly introduced "Drive", since cancelled. He was a featured player in the second season of the Showtime original series "Sleeper Cell", playing Benito Velasquez, and also played Dominic Hughes in "The Young and the Restless".


title: Kevin Alejandro

text: In 2006, he appeared in the "NCIS" episode "Driven" as character Jamie Jones. He made an appearance, along with fellow "Ugly Betty" actor Eric Mabius, in the "" episode "One of Our Own", and another as a gay hustler in HBO's "Big Love". He appeared on an episode of "Charmed" season 7 as Malvock, a cunning demon. He also appeared in the first few episodes of "24"s fourth season, as a terrorist henchman, in which he also stars with Tony Plana, fellow "Ugly Betty" actor. Alejandro was a regular on the now defunct drama "Shark" as Deputy District Attorney Danny Reyes. and had a small role on "The Cleaner", an A&E television series.


title: Kevin Alejandro

text: Alejandro appeared in the movie "Crossing Over", which was released in February 2009, alongside Harrison Ford. He played Detective Nate Moretta in "Southland", produced by Emmy Award winner John Wells. "Southland" was canceled by NBC Broadcasting just two weeks prior to the première of the show's sophomore run, but was then picked up by the cable network TNT. Alejandro appeared in the TV series "The Mentalist" Season 2, Episode 17 as Victor Bandino.


title: Kevin Alejandro

text: He had a role in "Weeds", seasons 4 and 5. "Drop Dead Diva"s Season 1 Episode 5 also features Alejandro as the wrongfully convicted Michael Fernandez. He appeared on Season 1 of "Sons of Anarchy" as one of the Mayan MC members, son of Marcus, the MC's president. Alejandro stars in the third and fourth seasons of the vampire series "True Blood" as Jesús Velázquez.


title: Kevin Alejandro

text: In 2011, he appeared in the movie "Red State", opposite John Goodman and directed by Kevin Smith, as well a horror film "Cassadaga". He also played Tony Arroyo, a homicide detective in the 2013 television show "Golden Boy". Alejandro portrayed Sheriff Tommy Solano in the ABC / A&E series "The Returned".


title: Kevin Alejandro

text: In 2013, Alejandro joined the CW series "Arrow" as Sebastian Blood/Brother Blood, recurring throughout the show's second season. In January 2016, he began his role on the Fox TV series "Lucifer" as LAPD Homicide Detective Dan Espinoza. "Lucifer" ran for three seasons before being cancelled by Fox, only to be picked up by Netflix since season four, which released 2019. Alejandro directed the episode "Once Upon a Time", which was intended to be aired in the series' fourth season but instead aired as a bonus episode on May 28, 2018 after the third season had concluded. He also directed the season 5 episode "Spoiler Alert", and in an interview with Tell-Tale TV, he confirmed he directed the season 6 premiere.


title: Morphology (linguistics)

text: In linguistics, morphology () is the study of words, how they are formed, and their relationship to other words in the same language. It analyzes the structure of words and parts of words such as stems, root words, prefixes, and suffixes. Morphology also looks at parts of speech, intonation and stress, and the ways context can change a word's pronunciation and meaning. Morphology differs from morphological typology, which is the classification of languages based on their use of words, and lexicology, which is the study of words and how they make up a language's vocabulary.


title: Morphology (linguistics)

text: While words, along with clitics, are generally accepted as being the smallest units of syntax, in most languages, if not all, many words can be related to other words by rules that collectively describe the grammar for that language. For example, English speakers recognize that the words "dog" and "dogs" are closely related, differentiated only by the plurality morpheme "-s", only found bound to noun phrases. Speakers of English, a fusional language, recognize these relations from their innate knowledge of English's rules of word formation. They infer intuitively that "dog" is to "dogs" as "cat" is to "cats"; and, in similar fashion, "dog" is to "dog catcher" as "dish" is to "dishwasher". By contrast, Classical Chinese has very little morphology, using almost exclusively unbound morphemes ("free" morphemes) and it relies on word order to convey meaning. (Most words in modern Standard Chinese ["Mandarin"], however, are compounds and most roots are bound.) These are understood as grammars that represent the morphology of the language. The rules understood by a speaker reflect specific patterns or regularities in the way words are formed from smaller units in the language they are using, and how those smaller units interact in speech. In this way, morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies patterns of word formation within and across languages and attempts to formulate rules that model the knowledge of the speakers of those languages.


title: Morphology (linguistics)

text: Phonological and orthographic modifications between a base word and its origin may be partial to literacy skills. Studies have indicated that the presence of modification in phonology and orthography makes morphologically complex words harder to understand and that the absence of modification between a base word and its origin makes morphologically complex words easier to understand. Morphologically complex words are easier to comprehend when they include a base word.


title: Morphology (linguistics)

text: Polysynthetic languages, such as Chukchi, have words composed of many morphemes. For example, the Chukchi word "təmeyŋəlevtpəγtərkən", meaning "I have a fierce headache", is composed of eight morphemes "t-ə-meyŋ-ə-levt-pəγt-ə-rkən" that may be glossed. The morphology of such languages allows for each consonant and vowel to be understood as morphemes, while the grammar of the language indicates the usage and understanding of each morpheme.


title: Morphology (linguistics)

text: The discipline that deals specifically with the sound changes occurring within morphemes is morphophonology.


title: Morphology (linguistics)

text: The history of morphological analysis dates back to the ancient Indian linguist Pāṇini, who formulated the 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology in the text "Aṣṭādhyāyī" by using a constituency grammar. The Greco-Roman grammatical tradition also engaged in morphological analysis. Studies in Arabic morphology, conducted by Marāḥ al-arwāḥ and Aḥmad b. ‘alī Mas‘ūd, date back to at least 1200 CE.


title: Morphology (linguistics)

text: The term "word" has no well-defined meaning. Instead, two related terms are used in morphology: lexeme and word-form. Generally, a lexeme is a set of inflected word-forms that is often represented with the citation form in small capitals. For instance, the lexeme contains the word-forms "eat, eats, eaten," and "ate". "Eat" and "eats" are thus considered different word-forms belonging to the same lexeme . "Eat" and "Eater", on the other hand, are different lexemes, as they refer to two different concepts.


title: Morphology (linguistics)

text: Here are examples from other languages of the failure of a single phonological word to coincide with a single morphological word form. In Latin, one way to express the concept of 'NOUN-PHRASE and NOUN-PHRASE' (as in "apples and oranges") is to suffix '-que' to the second noun phrase: "apples oranges-and". An extreme level of the theoretical quandary posed by some phonological words is provided by the Kwak'wala language. In Kwak'wala, as in a great many other languages, meaning relations between nouns, including possession and "semantic case", are formulated by affixes, instead of by independent "words". The three-word English phrase, "with his club", in which 'with' identifies its dependent noun phrase as an instrument and 'his' denotes a possession relation, would consist of two words or even one word in many languages. Unlike most other languages, Kwak'wala semantic affixes phonologically attach not to the lexeme they pertain to semantically but to the preceding lexeme. Consider the following example (in Kwak'wala, sentences begin with what corresponds to an English verb):


title: Morphology (linguistics)

text: That is, to a speaker of Kwak'wala, the sentence does not contain the "words" 'him-the-otter' or 'with-his-club' Instead, the markers -"i-da" (PIVOT-'the'), referring to "man", attaches not to the noun "bəgwanəma" ("man") but to the verb; the markers -"χ-a" (ACCUSATIVE-'the'), referring to "otter", attach to "bəgwanəma" instead of to "q'asa" ('otter'), etc. In other words, a speaker of Kwak'wala does not perceive the sentence to consist of these phonological words:


title: Morphology (linguistics)

text: A central publication on this topic is the volume edited by Dixon and Aikhenvald (2002), examining the mismatch between prosodic-phonological and grammatical definitions of "word" in various Amazonian, Australian Aboriginal, Caucasian, Eskimo, Indo-European, Native North American, West African, and sign languages. Apparently, a wide variety of languages make use of the hybrid linguistic unit clitic, possessing the grammatical features of independent words but the prosodic-phonological lack of freedom of bound morphemes. The intermediate status of clitics poses a considerable challenge to linguistic theory.


title: Morphology (linguistics)

text: Given the notion of a lexeme, it is possible to distinguish two kinds of morphological rules. Some morphological rules relate to different forms of the same lexeme, but other rules relate to different lexemes. Rules of the first kind are inflectional rules, but those of the second kind are rules of word formation. The generation of the English plural "dogs" from "dog" is an inflectional rule, and compound phrases and words like "dog catcher" or "dishwasher" are examples of word formation. Informally, word formation rules form "new" words (more accurately, new lexemes), and inflection rules yield variant forms of the "same" word (lexeme).


title: Morphology (linguistics)

text: The distinction between inflection and word formation is not at all clear-cut. There are many examples for which linguists fail to agree whether a given rule is inflection or word formation. The next section will attempt to clarify the distinction.


title: Morphology (linguistics)

text: Word formation is a process in which one combines two complete words, but inflection allows the combination of a suffix with a verb to change the latter's form to that of the subject of the sentence. For example: in the present indefinite, ‘go’ is used with subject I/we/you/they and plural nouns, but third-person singular pronouns (he/she/it) and singular nouns causes ‘goes’ to be used. The ‘-es’ is therefore an inflectional marker that is used to match with its subject. A further difference is that in word formation, the resultant word may differ from its source word's grammatical category, but in the process of inflection, the word never changes its grammatical category.


title: Morphology (linguistics)

text: There is a further distinction between two primary kinds of morphological word formation: derivation and compounding. The latter is a process of word formation that involves combining complete word forms into a single compound form. "Dog catcher", therefore, is a compound, as both "dog" and "catcher" are complete word forms in their own right but are subsequently treated as parts of one form. Derivation involves affixing bound (non-independent) forms to existing lexemes, but the addition of the affix derives a new lexeme. The word "independent", for example, is derived from the word "dependent" by using the prefix "in-", and "dependent" itself is derived from the verb "depend". There is also word formation in the processes of clipping in which a portion of a word is removed to create a new one, blending in which two parts of different words are blended into one, acronyms in which each letter of the new word represents a specific word in the representation (NATO for North Atlantic Treaty Organization), borrowing in which words from one language are taken and used in another, and coinage in which a new word is created to represent a new object or concept.


title: Morphology (linguistics)

text: A linguistic paradigm is the complete set of related word forms associated with a given lexeme. The familiar examples of paradigms are the conjugations of verbs and the declensions of nouns. Also, arranging the word forms of a lexeme into tables, by classifying them according to shared inflectional categories such as tense, aspect, mood, number, gender or case, organizes such. For example, the personal pronouns in English can be organized into tables by using the categories of person (first, second, third); number (singular vs. plural); gender (masculine, feminine, neuter); and case (nominative, oblique, genitive).