title: Asimina triloba

text: On a global (range-wide) scale, the common pawpaw ("A. triloba") has a NatureServe global conservation rank of G5 (very common). The species is, however, listed for conservation concern in the northernmost parts of its range, owing to the happenstance of where governmental boundaries exist. In the United States, the species has an N5 (very common), but is considered a threatened species in New York, and an endangered species in New Jersey. In Canada, where the species is found only in portions of southern Ontario, it has a rank of N3 (vulnerable), and a NatureServe subnational conservation rank of S3 (vulnerable) in Ontario. The Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources has given the species a general status of "Sensitive", and its populations there are monitored.


title: Asimina triloba

text: In areas in which deer populations are dense, pawpaws appear to be becoming more abundant locally, since the deer avoid them, but consume seedlings of most other woody plants.


title: Asimina triloba

text: The natural seed dispersal of the common pawpaw in North America, prior to the ice ages and lasting until roughly 10,000 years ago, occurred via the dung of certain megafauna (such as mastodons, mammoths, and giant ground sloths) until they became extinct during the Quaternary extinction event — a parallel case in North America to that of the avocado in South and Central America. After the arrival of humans and the subsequent extinction of megafauna that were distributing "A. triloba", the probable distribution of these large fruit-bearing plants has been by humans.


title: Asimina triloba

text: Indigenous peoples value pawpaw not only for its fruit but also for its bark. The bark has traditionally been used as a fiber source. Now that the exotic emerald ash borer beetle is destroying black ash trees ("Fraxinus nigra"), a basketmaker of the Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians in northern Michigan has begun planting pawpaw seeds on tribal lands several hundred miles north of pawpaw's historically native range.


title: Asimina triloba

text: The earliest documented mention of pawpaws is in the 1541 report of the Spanish de Soto expedition, who found Native Americans east of the Mississippi River cultivating what some have identified as the pawpaw. The tree's scientific name ("Asimina triloba") comes from the Powhatan word Assimina, which a Jamestown settler transcribed in 1612 as “wheat plum". The Lewis and Clark Expedition consumed pawpaws during their travels. Thomas Jefferson planted it at Monticello, his plantation in Virginia. Legend has it that chilled pawpaw fruit was a favorite dessert of George Washington.


title: Asimina triloba

text: Kentucky State University (KSU) has the only full-time pawpaw research program in the world; it was started in 1990 with the aim of developing pawpaw as a new tree-fruit crop for Kentucky. Pawpaw is the largest native fruit in North America and has very few diseases compared to other orchard crops. KSU is the site of the USDA National Clonal Germplasm Repository for "Asimina" species and the pawpaw orchards at KSU contain over 1,700 trees. Research activities include germplasm collection and variety trials, and efforts are directed towards improving propagation, understanding fruit ripening and storage, and developing orchard management practices. Cultivation is best in hardiness zones 5-9 and trees take 7–8 years from seedling to fruiting. KSU has created the three cultivars KSU-'Atwood', KSU-'Benson', and KSU-'Chappell', with foci on better flavors, higher yields, vigorous plants, and low seed-to-pulp ratios.


title: Asimina triloba

text: Cultivation is best in hardiness zones 5-9 and trees take 7–8 years from seedling to fruiting. Cross-pollination of at least two different genetic varieties of the plant is recommended. Scholarly research is insufficient for horticulturalists to adopt best methods for attracting insect pollinators, as effective pollinators have not yet been distinguished from casual insect visitors. Therefore, some growers resort to hand pollination or use pollinator attractants, such as spraying fish emulsion or hanging chicken necks or other meat near the open flowers to attract pollinators.


title: Asimina triloba

text: While pawpaws are larval hosts for the zebra swallowtail butterfly, these caterpillars are usually present only at low density, and not detrimental to the foliage of the trees.


title: Asimina triloba

text: Pawpaws have not been cultivated for their fruits on the scale of apples or peaches, primarily because pawpaw fruits ripen to the point of fermentation soon after they are picked, and only frozen fruit stores or ships well. Other methods of preservation include dehydration, production of jams or jellies, and pressure canning (using the numerical values for bananas). Methods of separating seeds from the pulp are still in the experimental phase. Mechanical methods are most efficient, but any splitting or injury of seeds can contaminate the remaining pulp with seed poisons.


title: Asimina triloba

text: Cultivation of pawpaws for fruit production has attracted interest, particularly among organic growers, as a fruit with few to no pests that can successfully be grown in its native environment without pesticides. The commercial cultivation and harvesting of pawpaws is strong in southeastern Ohio and also being explored in Kentucky and Maryland, as well as various areas outside the species' native range, including California, the Pacific Northwest, and Massachusetts.


title: Asimina triloba

text: The pawpaw is used for landscaping due to its distinctive growth habit, the appeal of its fresh fruit, and its relatively low maintenance needs once established.


title: Asimina triloba

text: Trees are easily grown from seed. Seeds should not be permitted to dry, as they lose viability if they dehydrate to 5% moisture. The seeds need to be stratified by moist cold storage for 60–100 days at (some publications suggest 90–120 days). They will lose their viability if stored for 3 years or more; some seeds survive if stored for 2 years. Germination is hypogeal and cotyledons remain within the seed coat. Strictly speaking, hypogeal means the cotyledons stay in the soil, acting as a food store for the seedling until the plumule emerges from the soil on the epicotyl or true stem. Because the large seeds contain enough energy to produce a long taproot prior to seeking photosynthetic opportunities above ground, the seed itself will be pushed upward and into the air if germinated in standard pots. (See photo at right.)


title: Asimina triloba

text: Desirable cultivars are propagated by chip budding or whip grafting onto a root stock. Pawpaw seeds do not grow "true to type" — each individual seed in a fruit is genetically different from the others and from its parent tree. Purchased cultivars do not produce seeds true to type, either, which is why cultivars are all grafted trees. Root sucker seedlings, however, are all genetically identical to their host.


title: Asimina triloba

text: Commercial nurseries usually ship seedlings in containers, usually grafted cultivars, but other nurseries such as the Kentucky Division of Forestry ship bareroot seedlings for reforestation projects and area homeowners.


title: Asimina triloba

text: Harvesting seedlings from the forest floor is tricky because most forest-floor seedlings are actually root suckers with few roots, and those seedlings that did grow from a seed have deep taproots.


title: Asimina triloba

text: Over the years, many cultivars of "A. triloba" have been developed or discovered. Many have been lost and are no longer available commercially.


title: Asimina triloba

text: The named varieties producing large fruit and performing well in Kentucky per research trials are 'NC-1', 'Overleese', 'Potomac', 'Shenandoah', 'Sunflower', 'Susquehanna', 'Wabash', KSU-'Atwood', KSU-'Benson', and KSU-'Chappell'.


title: Asimina triloba

text: Pawpaws are sometimes included in ecological restoration plantings, since this tree grows well in wet soil and has a strong tendency to form well-rooted clonal thickets.


title: Asimina triloba

text: As described by horticulturist Barbara Damrosch, the fruit of the pawpaw "looks a bit like mango, but with pale yellow, custardy, spoonable flesh and black, easy-to-remove seeds." Wild-collected pawpaw fruits, ripe in late August to mid-September, have long been a favorite treat throughout the tree's extensive native range in eastern North America, and on occasion are sold locally at farmers' markets. Pawpaw fruits have a sweet, custard-like flavor somewhat similar to banana, mango, and cantaloupe, varying significantly by source or cultivar, with more protein than most fruits. Nineteenth-century American agronomist E. Lewis Sturtevant described pawpaws as


title: Asimina triloba

text: The fruit ... has a tangy wild-wood flavor peculiarly its own. It is sweet, yet rather cloying to the taste and a wee bit puckery – only a boy can eat more than one at a time.


title: Asimina triloba

text: Fresh fruits of the pawpaw are commonly eaten raw, either chilled or at room temperature. However, they can be kept only 2–3 days at room temperature, or about a week if refrigerated. The easily bruised pawpaw fruits do not ship well unless frozen. Where pawpaws grow, the fruit pulp is also often used locally in baked dessert recipes, with pawpaw often substituted with volumetric equivalency in many banana-based recipes. Pawpaws may also be blended into ice cream or included in pancakes.


title: Asimina triloba

text: According to a report from the KSU Pawpaw Program (right table), raw pawpaw (with skin) is 19% carbohydrates, 1% protein, 1% fat, and 79% water (estimated). In a 100-g reference amount, the raw fruit provides 80 Calories and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin C (22% DV), magnesium (32% DV), iron (54% DV), and manganese (124% DV). The fruit also contains a moderate amount of vitamin A (11% DV).


title: Asimina triloba

text: Phytochemical extracts of the leaves and fruit contain acetogenins, including the neurotoxin annonacin. The seeds and bark contain the chemical asimitrin and other acetogenins, including asimin, asiminacin and asiminecin.


title: Asimina triloba

text: Due to the presence of acetogenins, the leaves, twigs, and bark of pawpaw trees can be used to make an organic insecticide. The only insect species immune to these insecticidal compounds is the zebra swallowtail butterfly ("Protographium marcellus"), whose larvae feed on the leaves of various species of "Asimina," conferring protection from predation throughout the butterflies' lives, as trace amounts of acetogenins remain present, making them unpalatable to birds and other predators.


title: Asimina triloba

text: The tough, fibrous inner bark of the pawpaw was used by Native Americans and settlers in the Midwest for making ropes, fishing nets, and mats, and for stringing fish.


title: Asimina triloba

text: A traditional American folk song portrays wild harvesting of pawpaws; Arty Schronce of the Georgia Department of Agriculture gives these lyrics:


title: Asimina triloba

text: He notes that "picking up pawpaws" refers to gathering the ripe, fallen fruit from beneath the trees, and that the "pocket" in the song is that of an apron or similar tie-on pocket, not a modern pants or blue-jeans pocket, into which pawpaws would hardly fit. A "pawpaw patch" refers to the plant's characteristic patch-forming clonal growth habit.


title: Asimina triloba

text: The pawpaw is the basis for various place and school names in the United States, almost all using the older spelling variant "paw paw".


title: Demet Özdemir

text: Demet Özdemir was born on 26 February 1992 as the youngest of three children. She moved to Istanbul with her mother and siblings after her parents' divorce, when she was seven years old.


title: Demet Özdemir

text: Her grandmother was the one of Turkish minorities in Bulgaria. She immigrated from Bulgaria to Turkey. Her grandmother and her brother later immigrated to Germany. She died in 2022, Germany.


title: Demet Özdemir

text: Initially, she was a backup dancer for Bengü and later joined the dance group of "Efes Kızları". Özdemir then appeared on Mustafa Sandal's music video "Ateş Et ve Unut".


title: Demet Özdemir

text: She had her first casting for Fox's fantasy series "" alongside her first partner Ekin Koç, playing the character "Aylin" with electric power. This role became phenomenon for young audience. The series developed a loyal fanbase. Due to, The series was published before prime time. It wasn't known for adult audience. Later, she portrayed the character of "Ayla" on historical series "Kurt Seyit ve Şura", and got a role as "Demet" in the movie "Tut Sözünü". She then played the character of "Aslı" on Star TV's series "Çilek Kokusu". Özdemir also appeared in Bengü's music video "Hodri Meydan".


title: Demet Özdemir

text: In 2016, Özdemir played the lead role "Lale Yenilmez" in the Turkish romantic comedy series "No 309". It ended on 25 October 2017 with 65 episodes. It was aired in Venezuela, Paraguay, Chile, Bolivia, Spain, Romania, and Hungary as well. She played in dance-comedy film "Sen Kiminle Dans Ediyorsun, written by Burak Aksak famous writer of hit surreal comedy Leyla ile Mecnun.


title: Demet Özdemir

text: From 2018 to 2019, she played the lead role "Sanem" in the Turkish romantic comedy series "Erkenci Kuş (Daydreamer)" opposite Can Yaman . She received the Best Actress award at the 2019 Murex d'Or in Lebanon for her role in this series. "Erkenci Kuş" was aired many times as prime-time in Italy and the actress was invited at the popular entertainment show "Verissimo". Her interview was watched by over 3.5 million people.


title: Demet Özdemir

text: Between 2019 and 2021, Özdemir played the lead role "Zeynep" in "Doğduğun Ev Kaderindir" "(My Home, My Destiny)". The series is produced by OGM Pictures, directed by Çağrı Bayrak and premiered on TV8 on 25 December 2019. The script is inspired by Gülseren Budayıcıoğlu's novel "Camdaki Kız".


title: Jamie Hector

text: Jamie Hector (born October 7, 1975) is an American actor. He is known for his portrayal of drug kingpin Marlo Stanfield on the HBO drama series "The Wire" and as Detective Jerry Edgar in the drama series "Bosch".


title: Jamie Hector

text: Hector began acting immediately after high school when he auditioned for a community theater company. While in college he had roles on television shows such as "New York Undercover", "Third Watch", "Law & Order", "", and "The Beat". After graduation, he enrolled in the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute in New York City.


title: Jamie Hector

text: Hector appeared in the movie "Paid in Full" (2002). He attributes a defining moment in his career to the short film "Five Deep Breaths" (2003) directed by Seith Mann. With Hector in the lead role, "Five Deep Breaths" was an Official Selection of the Cannes, Sundance, Tribeca, and IFP Film Festivals; it went on to accumulate 16 awards.


title: Jamie Hector

text: From 2004 to 2008, Hector played Marlo Stanfield on the HBO television drama "The Wire", the young, ambitious, intelligent and extremely ruthless head of the eponymous Stanfield Organization in the Baltimore drug trade. In 2016, "Rolling Stone" ranked him #2 of their "40 Greatest TV Villains of All Time".


title: Jamie Hector

text: Hector starred in the film "Blackout" (2007) with Melvin Van Peebles and Jeffrey Wright, and was featured as recurring villain Benjamin "Knox" Washington in the third season of "Heroes". Hector appeared in the film "Max Payne" (2008), in which he plays the role of Lincoln DeNeuf, a Haitian crime boss. Hector also appeared in the television movie "Just Another Day" (2009), playing the up-and-coming rapper Young Eastie, who attempts to make it at all costs. His next film was "Night Catches Us" (2010), with Kerry Washington and Anthony Mackie. He voiced Emile-A239 (Noble 4) in "".


title: Jamie Hector

text: In 2014, Hector began starring in the series "Bosch" as Jerry Edgar, a detective and partner to the titular character Harry Bosch, played by Titus Welliver. Hector remained a part of the series starring cast across its seven season run.


title: Jamie Hector

text: In 2017, Hector appeared on the USA drama "Queen of The South" as Devon Finch in six episodes of season 2.


title: Jamie Hector

text: In 2007, Hector founded Moving Mountains, Inc., a non-profit theater based organization that provides youth with year-round classes in drama, dance, vocal, and film.


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: The Poseidon (, "Poseidon", NATO reporting name Kanyon), previously known by Russian codename Status-6 (), is an autonomous, nuclear-powered unmanned underwater vehicle under development by Rubin Design Bureau, capable of delivering both conventional and nuclear warheads.


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: The Poseidon is one of the six new Russian strategic weapons announced by Russian President Vladimir Putin on 1 March 2018.


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: On 10 November 2015, a page of a document that contained information about a secret "oceanic multi-purpose system" called "Status-6" was "accidentally" revealed by Russian NTV television channel. The leak happened during Russian President Vladimir Putin's speech denouncing American plans concerning defensive missile technology. Speculation arose as to whether this was a warning signal or disinformation intended to mislead foreign intelligence services. The CIA has claimed the leak was intentional.


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: According to the Pentagon, Russia conducted the first test-launch of Poseidon on 27 November 2016, using the B-90 "Sarov" special purpose submarine. The test was reportedly carried out in the Arctic Ocean.


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: In early 2018, the Pentagon's Nuclear Posture Review publicly acknowledged development of Russia's "new intercontinental, nuclear armed, nuclear-powered, undersea autonomous torpedo".


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: In January 2019, the Russian Navy announced plans to procure at least 30 Poseidon unmanned underwater vehicles, deployed on four submarines, two of which would serve in the Russian Northern Fleet and two in the Pacific Fleet.


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: On 2 February 2019, Russian President Vladimir Putin announced completion of the key stage of trials of Poseidon.


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: On 20 February 2019, the Russian Defence Ministry released a video, showing a Poseidon being test-launched by a B-90 "Sarov" special purpose submarine.


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: The Poseidon is intended to serve as response to U.S. withdrawal from the ABM treaty and to increase the Russian capability to overcome the U.S. missile defense systems, such as anti-ballistic missiles, railguns, or laser weapons, etc.


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: The Poseidon warhead can contaminate a large area with radiation. For this purpose, the Poseidon is speculated to be equipped with a cobalt bomb. The Poseidon could be a radiological second strike weapon.


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: Normal (not salted) thermonuclear weapons cause radioactive fallout primarily through neutron activation of material at the detonation site. Unless the detonation happens at low depths in shallow waters, an underwater detonation will have its fallout greatly reduced, except for at the surface immediately above, near the base surge. Much of the radioactivity will be deposited in the sea, and be carried by ocean currents. Water (and air) will not form radioisotopes suitable for radiological warfare when neutron activated, however the dissolved salt will, and the seabed may.


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: If used against an aircraft carrier battle group, the battle group would have reduced chances of defending itself against it. The drone could detonate its very large warhead at standoff range, and anti-submarine warfare units would have very little time to react because of the speed at which it travels.


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: The Poseidon appears to be a torpedo-shaped robotic mini-submarine which can travel at speeds of . More recent information suggests a top speed of , with a range of and a depth maximum of .


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: Typical depth of the drone may be about for increased stealth features in low-speed stealth mode. Low depth in stealth mode is preferred because sound waves move to ocean floor and reduce radius of detection. Submarines use the same strategy in silent running mode.


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: It is in diameter and long. The warhead shown in the leaked figure is a cylinder in diameter by in length, giving a volume of . Comparing this to the volumes of other large thermonuclear bombs, the 1961 Soviet-era Tsar Bomba itself measured long by in diameter, indicating that the yield is at least several tens of megatons, generally consistent with early reports of 100 megatons.<ref name="urlRussia releases first video footage of new Kanyon/Status-6 nuclear torpedo | Naval Today"></ref>


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: "The National Interest" compiled several unclassified defense sources from General Electric experts about the similar 601B project and they predicted low weight and compact gas-cooled nuclear reactor in the drone. Russian submarine designers say that a low-power reactor is preferred for Poseidon because a smaller reactor is less noisy.


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: The development includes also use of stealth technology, to elude acoustic tracking devices. Poseidon uses a silent running strategy like other submarines. Its main stealth feature is its very low speed before it reaches the target area. Its high-speed mode activates upon reaching a short finish range (2–3 kilometers), when the probability of detection of the drone is considerably higher. It could travel for weeks toward enemy port cities, reaching high-speed only in the final stage.


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: Russian designers estimated the radius of detection of the drone will be about for . A second important stealth feature of the drone is the special design of the pump-jet for clearance of the drone's acoustic signature to imitate the noise of civil ships.


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: A U.S. intelligence officer told CNBC that the Poseidon is difficult to detect and difficult to target in stealth mode.


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: Poseidon is a family of drones, some of which are designed only for destroying coastal cities and thus rely on "stealth" capabilities rather than on high speed, others of which are primarily designed to attack carrier battle groups and were claimed to possibly harness supercavitation, like the VA-111 Shkval torpedo, to attain extremely high speeds (>230 mph) in attack mode. However, supercavitation devices have not been observed on the available footage of Poseidon. The Pentagon estimates maximum speed of the Poseidon to be about without the supercavitation option.


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: The two ships speculated to carry the Poseidon are the Project 09852 modified Oscar-class submarine "Belgorod" and the Project 09851 "Khabarovsk" submarines. Oscar-class submarines could carry six Poseidon torpedoes at the same time for a total yield of up to 12 megatons.


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: According to some reports, Poseidon may have a seabed or mobile site launch option. In this configuration, known as "Skif" (Скиф) and patented by designer Alexander Shalnev, Poseidon can be staged on the sea floor in a special container as long as necessary. Russian auxiliary vessels "Zvezdochka" (Project 20180) and "Akademik Aleksandrov" (Project 20183), both of which feature ice-breaking capabilities, are involved in testing of Poseidon drones, indicating that these ships may be used as platforms for deploying and retrieving such a seabed version.


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: In 2022, Russian domestic TV propaganda said Poseidon will be able to "plunge Britain into the depths of the sea".


title: Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System

text: Following the Russian President Vladimir Putin's statements during his presentation of several new Russian super-weapons in March 2018, in which he specifically referenced to the Poseidon as a weapon which could also target and hit American port cities, U.S. Defense Secretary James Mattis stated Russia already had the potential capability of targeting certain port cities on the American coastline with missiles, and said thus Poseidon "does not change at all the strategic balance".


title: Scouse

text: Scouse (; formally known as Liverpool English or Merseyside English) is an accent and dialect of English associated with Liverpool and the surrounding county of Merseyside. The Scouse accent is highly distinctive; having been influenced heavily by Irish, Norwegian, and Welsh immigrants who arrived via the Liverpool docks, it has little in common with the accents of its neighbouring regions or the rest of England. Scouse is also a general term for this pan-ethnic community or Liverpudlians in general. The accent is named after scouse, a stew eaten by sailors and locals.


title: Scouse

text: The development of Liverpool since the 1950s has spread the accent into nearby areas such as the towns of Runcorn and Skelmersdale. Variations within Scouse have been noted: the accent of Liverpool's city centre and northern neighbourhoods is usually described as fast, harsh, and nasal, while the accent found in the southern suburbs of Liverpool is typically referred to as slow, soft, and dark. Popular colloquialisms have shown a growing deviation from the historical Lancashire dialect that was previously found in Liverpool, as well as a growth in the influence of the accent in the wider area. Natives and residents of Liverpool are formally referred to as Liverpudlians, but are more often called Scousers.


title: Scouse

text: The northern variation of Scouse has appeared in mainstream British media but, until the 2010s, often served only to be impersonated and mocked in comedy series such as "Harry Enfield & Chums" and its Scousers sketch. It is consistently voted one of the least popular accents in the UK. Conversely, the Scouse accent as a whole is usually placed within the top two friendliest UK accents, alongside that of Newcastle upon Tyne.


title: Scouse

text: The word is a shortened form of lobscouse, the origin of which is uncertain. It is related to the Norwegian "lobscouse", Swedish "lapskojs", and Danish "labskovs (skipperlabskovs)", as well as the Low German "labskaus", and refers to a stew of the same name commonly eaten by sailors. In the 19th century, poorer people in Liverpool, Birkenhead, Bootle and Wallasey commonly ate scouse as it was a cheap dish, and familiar to the families of seafarers. Outsiders tended to call these people scousers. In "The Lancashire Dictionary of Dialect, Tradition and Folklore", Alan Crosby suggested that the word only became known nationwide with the popularity of the BBC sitcom "Till Death Us Do Part" (19651975), which featured a Liverpudlian socialist and a Cockney conservative in a regular argument.


title: Scouse

text: Originally a small fishing village, Liverpool developed as a port, trading particularly with Ireland. After the 1700s, it developed as a major international trading and industrial centre. The city consequently became a melting pot of several languages and dialects, as sailors and traders from different areas (alongside migrants from other parts of Britain, Ireland, and northern Europe) established themselves in the area. Until the mid-19th century, the dominant local accent was similar to that of neighbouring areas of Lancashire. The comedian and actor Robb Wilton (1881–1957), who was born in the Everton district of Liverpool, spoke with a dry Lancashire accent rather than a Scouse accent.


title: Scouse

text: The influence of Irish (especially Dublin Irish) and Northern Welsh migrants, combined with other European accents, contributed to a distinctive local Liverpool accent. The first reference to a distinctive Liverpool accent was in 1890. Linguist Gerald Knowles suggested that the accent's nasal quality may have derived from poor 19th-century public health, by which the prevalence of colds for many people over a long time resulted in a nasal accent becoming regarded as the norm and copied by others learning the language.


title: Scouse

text: The period of early dialect research in Great Britain did little to cover Scouse. The early researcher Alexander John Ellis said that Liverpool and Birkenhead "had no dialect proper", as he conceived of dialects as speech that had been passed down through generations from the earliest Germanic speakers. Ellis did research some locations on the Wirral, but these respondents spoke in traditional Cheshire dialect at the time and not in Scouse. The 1950s Survey of English Dialects recorded traditional Lancastrian dialect from the town of Halewood and found no trace of Scouse influence. The phonetician John C Wells wrote that "the Scouse accent might as well not exist" in "The Linguistic Atlas of England", which was the Survey's principal output.


title: Scouse

text: The first academic study of Scouse was undertaken by Gerald Knowles at the University of Leeds in 1973. He identified the key problem being that traditional dialect research had focused on developments from a single proto-language, but Scouse (and many other urban dialects) had resulted from interactions between an unknown number of languages.


title: Scouse

text: A notable Irish influence include the second person plural "you" as "" . The use of "" instead of "my" is also present, i.e. "" instead of "that's my book you've got there". An exception occurs when "my" is emphasised in an example such as "". Other common Scouse features include the use of "" instead of "give us", which became famous throughout the UK through "Boys from the Blackstuff" in 1982; the use of the term "" to mean "extremely happy", such as in ""; and the terms "" for "okay" and "" for "great", which can also be used to answer questions of wellbeing such as "I'm boss" in reply to "How are you?" and can also be used sarcastically in negative circumstances (the reply "" in the case of being told bad news translates to the sarcastic use of "good" or "okay").


title: Scouse

text: Scouse is highly distinguishable from other English dialects. Because of this international recognition, Keith Szlamp made a request to IANA on 16 September 1996 to make it a recognised Internet dialect. After citing a number of references, the application was accepted on 25 May 2000 and now allows Internet documents that use the dialect to be categorised as Scouse by using the language tag "en-Scouse".


title: Scouse

text: Scouse has also become well known as the accent of The Beatles, an international cultural phenomenon. While the members of the band are famously from Liverpool, their accents have more in common with the older Lancashire-like Liverpool dialect found in the southern suburbs; the accent has evolved into Scouse since the 1960s, mostly in the centre and northern areas of the city, with some identifying the improvement of air quality as a potential factor.


title: Prajakta Koli

text: Prajakta Koli, known for her YouTube Channel MostlySane, is an Indian YouTuber and actress who makes comedy videos. Her videos are focused mostly on relatable and observational comedy related to daily life situations.


title: Prajakta Koli

text: Koli was born and brought up in Thane. As a child, she was fond of listening to the radio and decided to be a radio jockey in Class 6. Her father Manoj Koli is a real-estate businessman turned restaurateur and her mother Archana Koli is a phonetics and language teacher. As a student, she participated in debates and elocutions. She studied in Vasant Vihar High School in Thane and later graduated with a Bachelor of Mass Media from V. G. Vaze College of Arts, Science and Commerce in Mulund, affiliated to University of Mumbai.


title: Prajakta Koli

text: Koli began her career in media as an intern at Fever 104 FM radio station in Mumbai. After interning for a year, she was given her first show, "Call Centre", which ultimately flopped and she quit her job. While working as an intern, Koli met future One Digital Entertainment vice-president Sudeep Lahiri, who encouraged her to launch a comedy YouTube channel. Koli launched her channel in February 2015.


title: Prajakta Koli

text: Koli has collaborated with mainstream Bollywood actors such as Hrithik Roshan, Kareena Kapoor Khan, Nawazuddin Siddiqui, Vicky Kaushal and Kajol.


title: Prajakta Koli

text: She performed at the YouTube FanFest in Delhi in 2018 and in Mumbai in 2019. In December 2018, she recorded a national TV commercial for WhatsApp which deals with the prevention of propaganda and spreading fake news through the messaging app.


title: Prajakta Koli

text: In February 2019 she was part of Forbes' list of 30 under 30 and in Outlook Business Magazine's list of Women of Worth and Entrepreneur India's list of 35 under 35 along with winning "Cosmopolitan"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s YouTuber of the Year award. In January 2020, she was included in the annual "Cool list" of the gossip magazine "Grazia India", and in April 2020 she was featured on the cover of the magazine "BW Businessworld" as part of their Most Influential Women's list.


title: Prajakta Koli

text: In 2020 she announced the launch of her YouTube Originals show "Pretty Fit", where she interviews other celebrities including Kareena Kapoor, Neha Kakkar, Sanya Malhotra, RJ Malishka, Mithila Palkar and Sumukhi Suresh, who are made to perform various tasks. The first episode was released on 21 January.


title: Prajakta Koli

text: In July 2020, Koli released a short film, "Khayali Pulao", about female empowerment in rural Haryana. She then acted in the Netflix series "Mismatched", released in November 2020. In 2022, she was seen in Dharma Productions' film "Jugjugg Jeeyo'as Ginny' and "Mismatched (Season 2)".


title: Prajakta Koli

text: On World Mental Health Day in 2016, Koli launched her campaign #iPledgeToBeMe which addresses mental health, well-being and body shaming. She shared her experiences of body shaming and wrote a rap song, "Shameless", in May 2017. The video features Raftaar, RJ Malishka and Mithila Palkar.


title: Prajakta Koli

text: In 2018, she participated in the #GirlsCount campaign for One.Org which dealt with the importance of girl's education.


title: Prajakta Koli

text: In September 2019, she traveled to the UN Headquarters in New York as a delegate to participate in the International Day of Tolerance and for the Goalkeepers program – an initiative by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.


title: Prajakta Koli

text: In May 2018, she was one of the content creators participating in YouTube's Creators for Change program. She made a music video named "No Offence" for her Creators For Change Project, which was shown in the United Nations as part of their International Day of Tolerance, where she represented India.


title: Prajakta Koli

text: In a special episode of Creators For Change in 2020, Koli and two other YouTube content creators, Liza Koshy and Thembe Mahlaba, interviewed girls in different countries about their opportunities for education, and discussed the topic with Michelle Obama.


title: Prajakta Koli

text: Prajakta represented India at "The Call To Unite" event which started on 1 May 2020 and featured Oprah Winfrey, Julia Roberts, Eva Longoria, Deepak Chopra, Alanis Morissette, Quincy Jones and Mandy Moore among others. The 24 hour 'streamathon' event was organized by UNITE and Room To Read in support of people facing challenges during the pandemic and to promote education among children during the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: P. K. Subban

text: Pernell-Karl Sylvester Subban ( ; born May 13, 1989) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey defenceman. Between 2009 and 2022, he played 13 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL) with the Montreal Canadiens, Nashville Predators, and New Jersey Devils. The Canadiens selected Subban in the second round, 43rd overall, of the 2007 NHL Entry Draft. In 2013, he won the Norris Trophy as the NHL's top defenceman, and tied with Kris Letang as the season’s leading scorer among defencemen. In the summer of 2014, he signed an eight-year, $72 million contract with the Canadiens, running through the 2021–22 season. After the 2015–16 season, Subban was traded to the Nashville Predators, where he spent three seasons before being traded to New Jersey in 2019. He is also an analyst for the NHL on ESPN.


title: P. K. Subban

text: Subban spent his junior career with the Belleville Bulls of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL). In 2005–06, he recorded 12 points in a 52-game rookie campaign. In 2006–07, he improved to 56 points in 68 games, where he was later drafted by the Canadiens in the off-season at the 2007 NHL Entry Draft. Subban then recorded 46 points in just 58 games during the 2007–08 campaign, before adding 23 points and matching his regular season goals total of eight in the post-season. He helped Belleville to the J. Ross Robertson Cup Finals against the Kitchener Rangers, where they lost the OHL title in seven games. Subban finished his four-year junior career with 76 points in 56 games in the 2008–09 regular season, with the Bulls advancing to the league playoffs, losing in the OHL semi-finals.


title: P. K. Subban

text: In May 2009, two weeks after his last junior game, Subban was signed to a three-year, entry-level contract by the Canadiens. He began the 2009–10 season with the Hamilton Bulldogs, Montreal's American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate. Later in the season, he was then selected to play in the 2010 AHL All-Star Game in Portland. Shortly thereafter, he earned his first call-up to the Canadiens on February 11, 2010, and, on the following day, registered his first career NHL point, an assist, in his debut against the Philadelphia Flyers on February 12.


title: P. K. Subban

text: On April 26, 2010, Subban was recalled from Hamilton during the Canadiens' first round Stanley Cup playoff series against the Washington Capitals. He recorded his first NHL playoff point, an assist, in his first career NHL playoff game, on April 26. His first goal came in Game 1 of the Canadiens' second round series against the Pittsburgh Penguins on April 30, 2010. In Game 3 against the Philadelphia Flyers in the 2010 Eastern Conference Finals, Subban became the third rookie defenceman in Canadiens history to register three assists in one game. In all, Subban recorded one goal and eight points in 14 playoff games for the Canadiens, who ultimately fell to Philadelphia.


title: P. K. Subban

text: After the Canadiens were eliminated by the Flyers, Subban was returned to the Bulldogs, who were still in contention in the Calder Cup playoffs. At the end of the AHL season, Subban was awarded the AHL President's Award in recognition of his accomplishments for the year.


title: P. K. Subban

text: On March 20, 2011, Subban became the first Canadiens rookie defenceman to score a hat-trick in a game, which came in an 8–1 victory over the Minnesota Wild.


title: P. K. Subban

text: Playing in 81 games in the 2011–12 season, Subban recorded seven goals and 29 assists. A restricted free agent after the season, Subban sat out the first four games of the 2012–13 season, which was postponed until January 2013 due to a labour lock-out, while the two sides negotiated a contract. On January 28, 2013, however, Subban eventually signed a two-year, $5.75 million deal with Montreal. He scored 11 goals and 27 assists, matching his career-high 38 points despite playing in only 42 games due to the lock-out. At the end of the season, he was awarded with the James Norris Memorial Trophy as the NHL's defenceman of the year, edging-out Kris Letang and Ryan Suter for the honour.


title: P. K. Subban

text: Subban then played all 82 games during the 2013–14 regular season, in which he registered a total of 53 points, ten of which were goals. During the 2014 playoffs, he was one of Montreal's most important assets, registering 14 points in 17 games as the Canadiens ultimately reached the Eastern Conference Finals, falling to the New York Rangers.


title: P. K. Subban

text: Subban became a restricted free agent at the close of the 2013–14 season when his contract expired. According to the NHL Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA), Subban earned the right to salary arbitration, having signed his first Standard Player Contract between the ages of 18 and 20 and having accrued four years of professional experience or more. He subsequently filed for arbitration before the deadline of July 5. The hearing took place on August 1, 2014, with Subban's camp asking for a one-year deal worth $8.5 million, while the Canadiens offered a one-year deal worth $5.5 million.


title: P. K. Subban

text: Under NHL CBA rules, the parties could continue to negotiate and reach an agreement until the arbitrator announced her decision, given in the 48 hours following the hearing. As arbitration was player-elected, once the arbitrator released her decision, the team would have had 48 hours to agree to the terms or walk away from the player, thereby making Subban an unrestricted free agent. The day after the hearing, on August 2, it was announced that Subban and the Habs had agreed to terms on an eight-year, $72 million contract, running through the 2021–22 season. The contract made him the highest-paid defenceman in the NHL and third-highest-paid League player overall at the time. It included a no-trade clause that would take effect July 1, 2016.


title: P. K. Subban

text: On September 15, 2014, Subban was named an alternate captain of the Canadiens along with Max Pacioretty, Tomáš Plekanec, and Andrei Markov as Montreal head coach Michel Therrien elected not to name a captain following Brian Gionta's departure in off-season.


title: P. K. Subban

text: On June 29, 2016, Subban, in a blockbuster move, was traded to the Nashville Predators in exchange for defenceman Shea Weber. In his first season with the club, Subban recorded 10 goals and 40 points in 66 games. The Predators qualified for the 2017 Stanley Cup playoffs in the final wild card spot in the Western Conference. The team advanced to the 2017 Stanley Cup Finals against the Pittsburgh Penguins, but were defeated in six games. Subban finished the postseason with 12 points in 22 games.


title: P. K. Subban

text: On May 2, 2018, Subban was named one of three finalists for the King Clancy Memorial Trophy as a player who best exemplifies leadership qualities and gives back to his community. The award eventually went to Daniel and Henrik Sedin.


title: P. K. Subban

text: On June 22, 2019, the second day of the 2019 NHL Entry Draft, Subban was traded to the New Jersey Devils in exchange for Steven Santini, prospect Jérémy Davies, and two second-round draft picks in an effort for the Predators to free up salary cap space. Subban faced one of his former clubs, the Montreal Canadiens, for the first time on November 16, 2019, a 4–3 Devils' victory. Subban faced another one of his former clubs, the Nashville Predators on December 7, a 6–4 Predators' victory. In that game, Subban was given a tribute video and a standing ovation from Predators fans.


title: P. K. Subban

text: Subban's debut season in New Jersey was statistically the worst season of his career, recording just 18 points in 68 games and a career worst plus–minus of –21. At season's end, Subban was nominated for the King Clancy Memorial Trophy. He would later be a finalist for and win the same award in 2022, in recognition of his commitment to "racial and social justice, underserved youth, COVID-19 relief and youth hockey."


title: P. K. Subban

text: Subban was selected to play for Canada at the 2008 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships in the Czech Republic. He saw limited ice time as Canada's seventh defenceman, but was able to help the team capture their fourth consecutive gold medal at the tournament, defeating Sweden in overtime in the final. Subban again represented Canada at the 2009 World Juniors in Ottawa, taking on a more central role with the team. He scored three goals and nine points and a differential of +12 in the tournament, helping Canada to its fifth consecutive gold medal as they once again defeated Sweden in the final. Subban was named to the Tournament All-Star team, along with Cody Hodgson and tournament MVP John Tavares.


title: P. K. Subban

text: Subban was invited to participate in the 2012 IIHF World Championship, but was injured during pre-tournament play. In the next season, Subban was a late addition to the Canadian team at the 2013 edition of the tournament; he joined them in the elimination round for one game, which Canada lost. On January 7, 2014, Subban was named to Canada's 2014 Winter Olympic team for participation in the games in Sochi in defence of their 2010 gold medal. They won gold, prevailing 3–0 over Sweden in the tournament final.


title: P. K. Subban

text: Subban's parents both immigrated to Ontario from the Caribbean in the 1970s. His father, Karl, moved from Jamaica to Sudbury, and his mother, Maria, came from Montserrat to Hamilton. Karl is a retired school principal. Subban was born in Toronto and raised in the city's Rexdale neighbourhood. He has four siblings: Nastassia, Natasha, Jordan and Malcolm. Malcolm is a goaltender who was selected by the Boston Bruins in the first round of the 2012 NHL Entry Draft, and currently plays for the Buffalo Sabres. During the Vegas Golden Knights' inaugural season (2017-2018), Malcolm and P.K. faced each other in the NHL regular season for the first time in a December 8, 2017 game on the elder Subban's home ice (Nashville's Bridgestone Arena). Malcolm, starting in net for the injured Marc-André Fleury, earned the win. Jordan was drafted by the Vancouver Canucks in the fourth round of the 2013 NHL Entry Draft.


title: P. K. Subban

text: P. K., Malcolm, and Jordan all played for the Belleville Bulls during their junior career. Growing up, Subban was good friends with Toronto Maple Leafs player John Tavares. He also played and won a Triple-A Novice title with Tampa Bay Lightning captain and star Steven Stamkos.


title: P. K. Subban

text: Although he was raised in Toronto, Subban did not grow up as a fan of the hometown Toronto Maple Leafs. He revealed on the Montreal talk show "Tout le monde en parle" that he always wanted to play for Montreal ever since he was a kid. He also said that Canadiens' legend Jean Béliveau was one of his biggest idols growing up as a hockey player.


title: P. K. Subban

text: In June 2018, Subban began a relationship with American skier Lindsey Vonn. On August 23, 2019, they announced their engagement and on Christmas day 2019 Vonn proposed to Subban.


title: P. K. Subban

text: On December 29, 2020, they both announced their breakup on Instagram. Vonn announced that the two had parted ways and remained friends.


title: P. K. Subban

text: On October 21, 2020, Subban and Vonn were announced as members of the ownership group of Angel City FC, a Los Angeles-based team that will start play in the National Women's Soccer League in 2022.


title: P. K. Subban

text: In November of 2022, ESPN announced that Subban had signed a three-year contract to become a full-time in-studio analyst at the network. He will also cover some upcoming hockey games. Subban had been a contributor to the channel during last season’s Stanley Cup playoff coverage.


title: P. K. Subban

text: In addition to the RW&CO. deal, Subban's marketing company, P.K.S.S., has landed him several business partnerships including ones with Adidas, Bridgestone, Gatorade and Air Canada.


title: P. K. Subban

text: Subban is known for his exciting and hard-hitting style of play as well as having a colourful personality that has been criticized by some as brash and self-absorbed. In an interview with ESPN.com, he addressed it:


title: P. K. Subban

text: Off the ice, Subban has a well-known, stylish sense of fashion. He often is seen in designer suits and unique accessories. That appreciation of style has been parlayed into being the spokesman for a RW-CO line of suits. Subban was ranked in the top 50 of Best Dressed athletes by "Sports Illustrated" and made their alternate cover page in July 2018. In May 2019, P.K Subban showcased his hatmaker Gunner Foxx and bespoke tailor and shoemaker Sartorialto for "GQ Magazine".


title: P. K. Subban

text: On September 16, 2015, Subban announced a commitment to raise $10 million for the Montreal Children's Hospital by 2022. The hospital called it "the biggest philanthropic commitment by a sports figure in Canadian history". After his donation, Subban continued his commitment as spokesman and organized the "Winter Wonderland" with Air Canada at the hospital before the holidays. In 2017, he was awarded the Meritorious Service Cross (Civil Division) in recognition of how his "generous gift stands as an example of how professional athletes can positively change lives in their communities". He was also added to the Google.org Impact Challenge judge panel in Canada, to help choose which organizations should receive money to help Canada. After his trade to Nashville, Subban continued his philanthropy. The "P.K.'s Blue Line Buddies" focused on building better relations between law enforcement and inner-city youths, by treating a police officer, a youth and their guests to a Predators home game with perks like autographs and dinner in Bridgestone Arena's Patron Platinum Club. After being traded to the New Jersey Devils, Subban continued his Blue Line Buddies initiative in New Jersey. Subban wanted to make sure that his program reached out to somewhere other than Nashville. In January 2018, Subban appeared on "The Daily Show" to discuss his philanthropy efforts with the children's hospital and his Blue Line Buddies program.


title: P. K. Subban

text: In June 2020, Subban donated US$50,000 to the GoFundMe effort to raise money for Gianna Floyd, the daughter of the late George Floyd.


title: KISS principle

text: KISS, an acronym for "Keep it simple, stupid!", is a design principle noted by the U.S. Navy in 1960. First seen partly in American English by at least 1938, the KISS principle states that most systems work best if they are kept simple rather than made complicated; therefore, simplicity should be a key goal in design, and unnecessary complexity should be avoided. The phrase has been associated with aircraft engineer Kelly Johnson. The term "KISS principle" was in popular use by 1970. Variations on the phrase (usually as some euphemism for the more churlish "stupid") include "keep it super simple", "keep it simple, silly", "keep it short and simple", "keep it short and sweet", "keep it simple and straightforward", "keep it small and simple", "keep it simple, soldier", "keep it simple, sailor", "keep it simple, sweetie", or "keep it sweet and simple".


title: KISS principle

text: The acronym was reportedly coined by Kelly Johnson, lead engineer at the Lockheed Skunk Works (creators of the Lockheed U-2 and SR-71 Blackbird spy planes, among many others). However, the variant "Keep it Short and Simple" is attested from a 1938 issue of the "Minneapolis Star".


title: KISS principle

text: While popular usage has transcribed it for decades as "Keep it simple, stupid", Johnson transcribed it simply as "Keep it simple stupid" (no comma), and this reading is still used by many authors.


title: KISS principle

text: The principle is best exemplified by the story of Johnson handing a team of design engineers a handful of tools, with the challenge that the jet aircraft they were designing must be repairable by an average mechanic in the field under combat conditions with only these tools. Hence, the "stupid" refers to the relationship between the way things break and the sophistication available to repair them.


title: KISS principle

text: The acronym has been used by many in the U.S. military, especially the U.S. Navy and United States Air Force, and in the field of software development.


title: KISS principle

text: Heath Robinson machines and Rube Goldberg's machines, intentionally overly-complex solutions to simple tasks or problems, are humorous examples of "non-KISS" solutions.


title: KISS principle

text: Master animator Richard Williams explains the KISS principle in his book "The Animator's Survival Kit", and Disney's Nine Old Men write about it in "", a considerable work of the genre. The problem faced is that inexperienced animators may "over-animate" in their works, that is, a character may move too much and do too much. Williams urges animators to "KISS".


title: Caterpillar

text: Caterpillars ( ) are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths).


title: Caterpillar

text: As with most common names, the application of the word is arbitrary, since the larvae of sawflies (suborder Symphyta) are commonly called caterpillars as well. Both lepidopteran and symphytan larvae have eruciform body shapes.


title: Caterpillar

text: Caterpillars of most species eat plant material (often leaves), but not all; some (about 1%) eat insects, and some are even cannibalistic. Some feed on other animal products. For example, clothes moths feed on wool, and horn moths feed on the hooves and horns of dead ungulates.


title: Caterpillar

text: Caterpillars are typically voracious feeders and many of them are among the most serious of agricultural pests. In fact, many moth species are best known in their caterpillar stages because of the damage they cause to fruits and other agricultural produce, whereas the moths are obscure and do no direct harm. Conversely, various species of caterpillar are valued as sources of silk, as human or animal food, or for biological control of pest plants.


title: Caterpillar

text: The origins of the word "caterpillar" date from the early 16th century. They derive from Middle English "catirpel", "catirpeller", probably an alteration of Old North French "catepelose": "cate", cat (from Latin "cattus") + "pelose", hairy (from Latin "pilōsus").


title: Caterpillar

text: The inchworm, or looper caterpillars from the family Geometridae are so named because of the way they move, appearing to measure the earth (the word "geometrid" means "earth-measurer" in Greek); the primary reason for this unusual locomotion is the elimination of nearly all the prolegs except the clasper on the terminal segment.


title: Caterpillar

text: Caterpillars have soft bodies that can grow rapidly between moults. Their size varies between species and instars (moults) from as small as up to . Some larvae of the order Hymenoptera (ants, bees, and wasps) can appear like the caterpillars of the Lepidoptera. Such larvae are mainly seen in the sawfly suborder. However while these larvae superficially resemble caterpillars, they can be distinguished by the presence of prolegs on every abdominal segment, an absence of crochets or hooks on the prolegs (these are present on lepidopteran caterpillars), one pair of prominent ocelli on the head capsule, and an absence of the upside-down Y-shaped suture on the front of the head.


title: Caterpillar

text: In 2019, a geometrid moth caterpillar dating back to the Eocene epoch, approximately 44 million years ago, was found preserved in Baltic amber. It was described under "Eogeometer vadens". Previously, another fossil dating back approximately 125 million years was found in Lebanese amber.


title: Caterpillar

text: Many animals feed on caterpillars as they are rich in protein. As a result, caterpillars have evolved various means of defense.


title: Caterpillar

text: Caterpillars have evolved defenses against physical conditions such as cold, hot or dry environmental conditions. Some Arctic species like "Gynaephora groenlandica" have special basking and aggregation behaviours apart from physiological adaptations to remain in a dormant state.


title: Caterpillar

text: The appearance of a caterpillar can often repel a predator: its markings and certain body parts can make it seem poisonous, or bigger in size and thus threatening, or non-edible. Some types of caterpillars are indeed poisonous or distasteful and their bright coloring warns predators of this. Others may mimic dangerous caterpillars or other animals while not being dangerous themselves. Many caterpillars are cryptically colored and resemble the plants on which they feed. An example of caterpillars that use camouflage for defense is the species "Nemoria arizonaria". If the caterpillars hatch in the spring and feed on oak catkins they appear green. If they hatch in the summer they appear dark colored, like oak twigs. The differential development is linked to the tannin content in the diet. Caterpillars may even have spines or growths that resemble plant parts such as thorns. Some look like objects in the environment such as bird droppings. Some Geometridae cover themselves in plant parts, while bagworms construct and live in a bag covered in sand, pebbles or plant material.


title: Caterpillar

text: More aggressive self-defense measures are taken by some caterpillars. These measures include having spiny bristles or long fine hair-like setae with detachable tips that will irritate by lodging in the skin or mucous membranes. However some birds (such as cuckoos) will swallow even the hairiest of caterpillars. Other caterpillars acquire toxins from their host plants that render them unpalatable to most of their predators. For instance, ornate moth caterpillars utilize pyrrolizidine alkaloids that they obtain from their food plants to deter predators. The most aggressive caterpillar defenses are bristles associated with venom glands. These bristles are called urticating hairs. A venom which is among the most potent defensive chemicals in any animal is produced by the South American silk moth genus "Lonomia". Its venom is an anticoagulant powerful enough to cause a human to hemorrhage to death (See Lonomiasis). This chemical is being investigated for potential medical applications. Most urticating hairs range in effect from mild irritation to dermatitis. Example: brown-tail moth.


title: Caterpillar

text: Plants contain toxins which protect them from herbivores, but some caterpillars have evolved countermeasures which enable them to eat the leaves of such toxic plants. In addition to being unaffected by the poison, the caterpillars sequester it in their body, making them highly toxic to predators. The chemicals are also carried on into the adult stages. These toxic species, such as the cinnabar moth ("Tyria jacobaeae") and monarch ("Danaus plexippus") caterpillars, usually advertise themselves with the danger colors of red, yellow and black, often in bright stripes (see aposematism). Any predator that attempts to eat a caterpillar with an aggressive defense mechanism will learn and avoid future attempts.


title: Caterpillar

text: Some caterpillars regurgitate acidic digestive juices at attacking enemies. Many papilionid larvae produce bad smells from extrudable glands called osmeteria.


title: Caterpillar

text: Many caterpillars display feeding behaviors which allow the caterpillar to remain hidden from potential predators. Many feed in protected environments, such as enclosed inside silk galleries, rolled leaves or by mining between the leaf surfaces.


title: Caterpillar

text: Some caterpillars, like early instars of the tomato hornworm and tobacco hornworm, have long "whip-like" organs attached to the ends of their body. The caterpillar wiggles these organs to frighten away flies and predatory wasps. Some caterpillars can evade predators by using a silk line and dropping off from branches when disturbed. Many species thrash about violently when disturbed to scare away potential predators. One species ("Amorpha juglandis") even makes high pitched whistles that can scare away birds.


title: Caterpillar

text: Some caterpillars obtain protection by associating themselves with ants. The Lycaenid butterflies are particularly well known for this. They communicate with their ant protectors by vibrations as well as chemical means and typically provide food rewards.


title: Caterpillar

text: Some caterpillars are gregarious; large aggregations are believed to help in reducing the levels of parasitization and predation. Clusters amplify the signal of aposematic coloration, and individuals may participate in group regurgitation or displays. Pine processionary ("Thaumetopoea pityocampa") caterpillars often link into a long train to move through trees and over the ground. The head of the lead caterpillar is visible, but the other heads can appear hidden. Forest tent caterpillars cluster during periods of cold weather.


title: Caterpillar

text: Caterpillars are eaten by many animals. The European pied flycatcher is one species that preys upon caterpillars. The flycatcher typically finds caterpillars among oak foliage. Paper wasps, including those in the genus" Polistes" and "Polybia" catch caterpillars to feed their young and themselves.


title: Caterpillar

text: Caterpillars have been called "eating machines", and eat leaves voraciously. Most species shed their skin four or five times as their bodies grow, and they eventually enter a pupal stage before becoming adults. Caterpillars grow very quickly; for instance, a tobacco hornworm will increase its weight ten-thousandfold in less than twenty days. An adaptation that enables them to eat so much is a mechanism in a specialized midgut that quickly transports ions to the lumen (midgut cavity), to keep the potassium level higher in the midgut cavity than in the hemolymph.


title: Caterpillar

text: Most caterpillars are solely herbivorous. Many are restricted to feeding on one species of plant, while others are polyphagous. Some, including the clothes moth, feed on detritus. Some are predatory, and may prey on other species of caterpillars (e.g. Hawaiian "Eupithecia"). Others feed on eggs of other insects, aphids, scale insects, or ant larvae. A few are parasitic on cicadas or leaf hoppers (Epipyropidae). Some Hawaiian caterpillars ("Hyposmocoma molluscivora") use silk traps to capture snails.


title: Caterpillar

text: Many caterpillars are nocturnal. For example, the "cutworms" (of the family Noctuidae) hide at the base of plants during the day and only feed at night. Others, such as gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) larvae, change their activity patterns depending on density and larval stage, with more diurnal feeding in early instars and high densities.


title: Caterpillar

text: Caterpillars cause much damage, mainly by eating leaves. The propensity for damage is enhanced by monocultural farming practices, especially where the caterpillar is specifically adapted to the host plant under cultivation. The cotton bollworm causes enormous losses. Other species eat food crops. Caterpillars have been the target of pest control through the use of pesticides, biological control and agronomic practices. Many species have become resistant to pesticides. Bacterial toxins such as those from "Bacillus thuringiensis" which are evolved to affect the gut of Lepidoptera have been used in sprays of bacterial spores, toxin extracts and also by incorporating genes to produce them within the host plants. These approaches are defeated over time by the evolution of resistance mechanisms in the insects.


title: Caterpillar

text: Plants evolve mechanisms of resistance to being eaten by caterpillars, including the evolution of chemical toxins and physical barriers such as hairs. Incorporating host plant resistance (HPR) through plant breeding is another approach used in reducing the impact of caterpillars on crop plants.


title: Caterpillar

text: Caterpillar hair can be a cause of human health problems. Caterpillar hairs sometimes have venoms in them and species from approximately 12 families of moths or butterflies worldwide can inflict serious human injuries ranging from urticarial dermatitis and atopic asthma to osteochondritis, consumption coagulopathy, kidney failure, and brain bleeding. Skin rashes are the most common, but there have been fatalities. "Lonomia" is a frequent cause of envenomation in Brazil, with 354 cases reported between 1989 and 2005. Lethality ranging up to 20% with death caused most often by intracranial hemorrhage.


title: Caterpillar

text: Caterpillar hair has also been known to cause kerato-conjunctivitis. The sharp barbs on the end of caterpillar hairs can get lodged in soft tissues and mucous membranes such as the eyes. Once they enter such tissues, they can be difficult to extract, often exacerbating the problem as they migrate across the membrane.


title: Caterpillar

text: This becomes a particular problem in an indoor setting. The hair easily enter buildings through ventilation systems and accumulate in indoor environments because of their small size, which makes it difficult for them to be vented out. This accumulation increases the risk of human contact in indoor environments.


title: Caterpillar

text: Caterpillars are a food source in some cultures. For example, in South Africa mopane worms are eaten by the bushmen, and in China silkworms are considered a delicacy.


title: Caterpillar

text: In the Old Testament of the Bible caterpillars are feared as pest that devour crops. They are part of the "pestilence, blasting, mildew, locust" because of their association with the locust, thus they are one of the plagues of Egypt. Jeremiah names them as one of the inhabitants of Babylon. The English word caterpillar derives from the old French "catepelose" (hairy cat) but merged with the "piller" (pillager). Caterpillars became a symbol for social dependents. Shakespeare's Bolingbroke described King Richard's friends as "The caterpillars of the commonwealth, Which I have sworn to weed and pluck away". In 1790 William Blake referenced this popular image in The Marriage of Heaven and Hell when he attacked priests: "as the caterpillar chooses the fairest leaves to lay her eggs on, so the priest lay his curse on the fairest joys".


title: Caterpillar

text: The role of caterpillars in the life stages of butterflies was badly understood. In 1679 Maria Sibylla Merian published the first volume of "The Caterpillars' Marvelous Transformation and Strange Floral Food", which contained 50 illustrations and a description of insects, moths, butterflies and their larvae. An earlier popular publication on moths and butterflies, and their caterpillars, by Jan Goedart had not included eggs in the life stages of European moths and butterflies, because he had believed that caterpillars were generated from water. When Merian published her study of caterpillars it was still widely believed that insects were spontaneously generated. Merian's illustrations supported the findings of Francesco Redi, Marcello Malpighi and Jan Swammerdam.


title: Caterpillar

text: Butterflies were regarded as symbol for the human soul since ancient time, and also in the Christian tradition. Goedart thus located his empirical observations on the transformation of caterpillars into butterflies in the Christian tradition. As such he argued that the metamorphosis from caterpillar into butterfly was a symbol, and even proof, of Christ's resurrection. He argued "that from dead caterpillars emerge living animals; so it is equally true and miraculous, that our dead and rotten corpses will rise from the grave." Swammerdam, who in 1669 had demonstrated that inside a caterpillar the rudiments of the future butterfly's limbs and wings could be discerned, attacked the mystical and religious notion that the caterpillar died and the butterfly subsequently resurrected. As a militant Cartesian, Swammerdam attacked Goedart as ridiculous, and when publishing his findings he proclaimed "here we witness the digression of those who have tried to prove Resurrection of the Dead from these obviously natural and comprehensible changes within the creature itself."


title: Caterpillar

text: Since then the metamorphoses of the caterpillar into a butterfly has in Western societies been associated with countless human transformations in folktales and literature. There is no process in the physical life of human beings that resembles this metamorphoses, and the symbol of the caterpillar tends to depict a psychic transformation of a human. As such the caterpillar has in the Christian tradition become a metaphor for being "born again".


title: Caterpillar

text: Famously, in Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland a caterpillar asks Alice "Who are you?". When Alice comments on the caterpillar's inevitable transformation into a butterfly, the caterpillar champions the position that in spite of changes it is still possible to know something, and that Alice is the same Alice at the beginning and end of a considerable interval. When the Caterpillar asks Alice to clarify a point, the child replies "I'm afraid I can't put it more clearly... for I can't but understand it myself, to begin with, and being so many different sizes in a day is very confusing". Here Carroll satirizes René Descartes, the founder of Cartesian philosophy, and his theory on innate ideas. Descartes argued that we are distracted by urgent bodily stimuli that swamp the human mind in childhood. Descartes also theorised that inherited preconceived opinions obstruct the human perception of the truth.


title: Caterpillar

text: More recent symbolic references to caterpillars in popular media include the "Mad Men" season 3 episode "The Fog", in which Betty Draper has a drug-induced dream, while in labor, that she captures a caterpillar and holds it firmly in her hand. In "The Sopranos" season 5 episode "The Test Dream", Tony Soprano dreams that Ralph Cifaretto has a caterpillar on his bald head that changes into a butterfly.


title: Bill Mumy

text: Charles William Mumy Jr. (; born February 1, 1954) is an American actor, writer, and musician and a figure in the science-fiction community/comic book fandom. He came to prominence in the 1960s as a child actor, which included television appearances on "Bewitched", "I Dream of Jeannie", "The Twilight Zone", "Alfred Hitchcock Presents", and a role in the film "Dear Brigitte", followed by a three-season role as Will Robinson in the 1960s CBS sci-fi series "Lost in Space".


title: Bill Mumy

text: Mumy later appeared as lonely teenager Sterling North in the Disney film "Rascal" (1969) and Teft in the film "Bless the Beasts and Children" (1971).


title: Bill Mumy

text: In the 1990s, Mumy performed the role of Lennier in all five seasons of the syndicated sci-fi TV series "Babylon 5" and narrated A&E Network's Emmy Award-winning series "Biography".


title: Bill Mumy

text: Mumy is also known for his musical career as a guitarist, singer, songwriter and composer: he is an Emmy nominee for original music in "Adventures in Wonderland" (1992). As a musician Mumy performs as a solo artist, an occasional guest performer, and as half of the duo Barnes & Barnes. From 1988 through the 90s he performed at the San Diego Comic-Con and other comics-related events as part of the band Seduction of the Innocent (named after the titular book by Fredric Wertham) along with Miguel Ferrer, Steve Leialoha, Max Allan Collins and John "Chris" Christensen. The band released one CD, "The Golden Age".


title: Bill Mumy

text: Mumy was born in San Gabriel, California, to Charles William Mumy (December 28th, 1904 - August 7th, 1995), a cattle rancher, and Muriel Gertrude Mumy (; July 19th, 1912 - December 29th, 2010) . He began his professional career at age five and has worked on more than four hundred television episodes, eighteen films, various commercials, and scores of voice-over projects. He has also worked as a musician, songwriter, recording artist, and writer.


title: Bill Mumy

text: Among Mumy's earliest television roles was six-year-old Willy in the "Donald's Friend" (1960) episode of the NBC-TV family drama series "National Velvet", starring Lori Martin. He starred in three episodes of CBS-TV's original "Twilight Zone": "It's a Good Life" (November 1961), as a child who terrorizes his town with psychic powers (a role he later reprised along with his daughter Liliana in the "It's Still a Good Life" episode of the second revival series); "In Praise of Pip" (September 1963), as a vision of Jack Klugman's long-neglected dying son; and "Long Distance Call" (March 1961) as Billy Bayles, who talks to his dead grandmother through a toy telephone.


title: Bill Mumy

text: In 1961, Mumy was cast on CBS-TV's "Alfred Hitchcock Presents" series in "The Door Without a Key", featuring John Larch, who played his father in "It's a Good Life". The same year, Mumy starred as little Jackie in the episode "Bang! You're Dead", featuring Marta Kristen, who later played his sister Judy on "Lost in Space". Mumy was cast as Mark Murdock in the "Keep an Eye on Santa Claus" (1962) episode of the ABC-TV drama series "Going My Way", starring Gene Kelly. His fellow guest stars were Cloris Leachman (who played his mother in "It's a Good Life"), Steve Brodie, and Frank McHugh.


title: Bill Mumy

text: At age eight, Mumy appeared in Jack Palance's ABC-TV circus drama "The Greatest Show on Earth" (1963); he was cast as Miles, a parentless boy, in the "Perry Mason" episode "The Case of the Shifty Shoebox" (1963), and he portrayed Freddy in the "End of an Image" (1963) episode of NBC-TV's modern Western series "Empire", starring Richard Egan.


title: Bill Mumy

text: In 1964, he was cast as Richard Kimble's nephew in ABC-TV's "The Fugitive" episode, "Home Is the Hunted"; as Barry in the NBC-TV medical drama "The Eleventh Hour" episode "Sunday Father"; as himself three times in the ABC sitcom "The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet"; in the Disney film "For the Love of Willadena"; and as a troubled orphan taken in by the Stephenses in the "Bewitched" fantasy sitcom episode "A Vision of Sugarplums" (December 1964), on ABC-TV.


title: Bill Mumy

text: Mumy was reportedly the first choice to portray Eddie Munster in the 1964 CBS situation comedy "The Munsters", but his parents objected to the extensive makeup requirements. The role instead went to Butch Patrick. Mumy appeared in one episode as a friend of Eddie's.


title: Bill Mumy

text: Mumy guest starred in an episode of NBC-TV's "I Dream of Jeannie", "Whatever Became of Baby Custer?" (1965). That same year, he also appeared in an episode of "Bewitched" entitled "Junior Executive" (1965), in which he played a young Darrin Stephens.


title: Bill Mumy

text: Mumy starred in "Dear Brigitte" (1965), a film adaptation of the novel "Erasmus with Freckles", as Erasmus Leaf, a child mathematical genius who develops a crush on Brigitte Bardot (played by herself in the film). His parents, played by James Stewart and Glynis Johns, attempt to manage his obsession.


title: Bill Mumy

text: From 1965 to 1968, Mumy portrayed Will Robinson in "Lost in Space", the recipient of numerous warnings (including "Danger, Will Robinson") from the show's robot character, voiced by Dick Tufeld.


title: Bill Mumy

text: Mumy was later cast in "Bless the Beasts and Children" (1971) as Teft, a leader in a group of misfit teenage boys resolved to save a herd of bison from hunters. He also played a musician friend of Cliff DeYoung's character in the TV movie "Sunshine" (1973), later reprising the role in "Sunshine Christmas" and in the TV series "Sunshine". In 1974, Mumy played Nick Butler in the pilot episode of NBC's "The Rockford Files" and made an appearance in a later episode in season 1 as a sidewalk artist. In 1988, he played Ben Matlock's genius nephew, Dr. Irwin Bruckner, on "Matlock".


title: Bill Mumy

text: In 1996, Mumy was a writer and co-creator of "Space Cases", a Nickelodeon television show with themes similar to those of "Lost in Space". Between 1994 and 1998, he played the ambassadorial aide Lennier in the syndicated science fiction series "Babylon 5". In November 1998, he played Kellin, a Starfleet officer, in the "" episode "The Siege of AR-558", in which he assists in defeating a Jem'Hadar detachment. To Mumy's delight, his character was human this time due to makeup time and his distaste as being known as an "alien actor"; while playing Lennier in Babylon 5, he was required to wear prosthetic makeup. Mumy later appeared in a 2006 episode of "Crossing Jordan" and in the Syfy original film "A.I. Assault".


title: Bill Mumy

text: In 2018, Mumy appeared in the pilot episode of the Netflix remake series, "Lost in Space". His character's name is Dr. Z. Smith, in homage to the character played by Jonathan Harris in the 1965 television series.


title: Bill Mumy

text: Mumy has narrated over 50 episodes of the Arts & Entertainment Channel's "Biography" series, as well as hosted and narrated several other documentaries and specials for A & E, Animal Planet network, The Sci-Fi Channel, and E!. His voice acting talents can be heard on animated shows like "Ren and Stimpy", "Scooby-Doo", "", Steven Spielberg's "Animaniacs", "Bravest Warriors", "The Oz Kids" and Disney's "Buzz Lightyear of Star Command" and "Doc McStuffins". He has done voice over work in national commercials for such businesses as Bud Ice, Farmers Insurance, Ford, Blockbuster, Twix, Oscar Mayer and McDonald's.


title: Bill Mumy

text: Mumy is an accomplished musician who plays the banjo, bass, guitar, harmonica, keyboards, mandolin, and percussion. His various musical credits include songs he has written and recorded with America, performed on tour with Shaun Cassidy, and played with Rick Springfield's band in the film "Hard to Hold". He created the band The Be Five with other "Babylon 5" actors.


title: Bill Mumy

text: Mumy has released a number of solo CDs, including "Dying to Be Heard", "In the Current", "Pandora's Box", "After Dreams Come True", "Los Angeles Times" and "Ghosts", as well as nine albums with music partner Robert Haimer as Barnes and Barnes. Their most famous hit is the song "Fish Heads", which "Rolling Stone" named one of the top 100 videos of all time. He also performs with the Jenerators, a blues-rock band based in Los Angeles featuring Tom Hebenstreit on vocals, electric guitars, and keyboards; Mumy on vocals, acoustic and electric guitars, harmonica, keyboards and percussion; Gary Stockdale on vocals and bass; Miguel Ferrer on vocals, percussion and drums; David Jolliffe on guitar, percussion and vocals; and Chris Ross on drums and percussion. Additionally, Mumy released a Byrds tribute song, "When Roger Was Jim" (2012). In 2017, along with John Cowsill (The Cowsills) and Vicki Peterson (The Bangles) he founded the Action Skulls. Their first CD, "Angels Hear", which also included posthumous contributions from the bassist Rick Rosas, was released on September 27, 2017.


title: Bill Mumy

text: Mumy produces and hosts "The Real Good Radio Hour", a weekly series on KSAV Internet Radio focusing on various styles of music and the artists who pioneered them.


title: Bill Mumy

text: In 1996, Mumy and his "Lost in Space" costar Jonathan Harris were reunited at a Walt Disney convention in Orlando, Florida. Mumy worked again with Harris on the retrospective special "Lost In Space: Forever" (1998), where they reprised their roles in a scene written by Mumy (Harris rewrote his own lines). This occurred the year after the rest of the cast (including both Mumy and Harris) stated in a "TV Guide" article that the Sci Fi Channel planned to do a "Lost in Space" marathon while promoting a new movie. Harris was to appear in the planned TV movie, "Lost in Space: The Journey Home", but died before production was scheduled to start, in 2002, and it was subsequently cancelled. Mumy read the eulogy at Harris' funeral and was asked to narrate an account of his longtime friend's life on A&E "Biography" that year.


title: Bill Mumy

text: In a 2010 interview on "Blog Talk Radio"'s "Lessons Learned", Rick Tocquigny was asked if Mumy was a Jonathan Harris fan before they appeared together on "Lost in Space". Tocquigny said that at age five, Mumy was too young to watch his mentor's show "The Third Man", which would have been aired late at night, but he was old enough to see "The Bill Dana Show".


title: Bill Mumy

text: On June 14, 2006, Mumy got to work with Harris one last time, though posthumously. Years before Harris died, he recorded voice work for the animated short "The Bolt Who Screwed Christmas," narrating the film and playing the part of The Bolt. As a tribute to Harris, writer-director John Wardlaw added a scene that reunited "Lost in Space" cast members Mumy, Marta Kristen, and Angela Cartwright as the animated Ratchett family.


title: Bill Mumy

text: Mumy appears in two episodes of the 2018 series "Lost in Space" on Netflix. He plays the role of Dr. Smith, whose identity is stolen by June Harris, the villain.


title: Bill Mumy

text: Mumy attends "Lost in Space" reunions and shows, and co-authored a 2015 book, "Lost (and Found) in Space" with Angela Cartwright.


title: Bill Mumy

text: Mumy and Angela Cartwright co-authored the 2021 book, "Lost (and Found) in Space 2: Blast Off into the Expanded Edition".


title: Bill Mumy

text: Mumy and co-author Peter David published a short story, "The Black '59" (1992), in the anthology "Shock Rock", edited by F. Paul Wilson.


title: Bill Mumy

text: He has also written a number of comics. With his friend, the late Miguel Ferrer, Mumy created Comet Man and Trypto the Acid Dog. They also co-wrote the Marvel Graphic Novel "The Dreamwalker".


title: Bill Mumy

text: Mumy married Eileen Joy Davis on October 9, 1986. They live in Laurel Canyon, Los Angeles with their two children, Seth (b. 1989) and Liliana (b. 1994).


title: Dam

text: A dam is a barrier that stops or restricts the flow of surface water or underground streams. Reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but also provide water for activities such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture, and navigability. Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity. A dam can also be used to collect or store water which can be evenly distributed between locations. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees (also known as dikes) are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions. The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan, dating to 3,000 BC.


title: Dam

text: The word "dam" can be traced back to Middle English, and before that, from Middle Dutch, as seen in the names of many old cities, such as Amsterdam and Rotterdam.


title: Dam

text: Early dam building took place in Mesopotamia and the Middle East. Dams were used to control water levels, for Mesopotamia's weather affected the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.


title: Dam

text: The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan, northeast of the capital Amman. This gravity dam featured an originally and stone wall, supported by a earthen rampart. The structure is dated to 3000 BC.


title: Dam

text: The Ancient Egyptian Sadd-el-Kafara Dam at Wadi Al-Garawi, about south of Cairo, was long at its base and wide. The structure was built around 2800 or 2600 BC as a diversion dam for flood control, but was destroyed by heavy rain during construction or shortly afterwards. During the Twelfth Dynasty in the 19th century BC, the Pharaohs Senosert III, Amenemhat III, and Amenemhat IV dug a canal long linking the Fayum Depression to the Nile in Middle Egypt. Two dams called Ha-Uar running east-west were built to retain water during the annual flood and then release it to surrounding lands. The lake called "Mer-wer" or Lake Moeris covered and is known today as Birket Qarun.


title: Dam

text: By the mid-late third millennium BC, an intricate water-management system in Dholavira in modern-day India was built. The system included 16 reservoirs, dams and various channels for collecting water and storing it.


title: Dam

text: One of the engineering wonders of the ancient world was the Great Dam of Marib in Yemen. Initiated sometime between 1750 and 1700 BC, it was made of packed earth – triangular in cross-section, in length and originally high – running between two groups of rocks on either side, to which it was linked by substantial stonework. Repairs were carried out during various periods, most importantly around 750 BC, and 250 years later the dam height was increased to . After the end of the Kingdom of Saba, the dam fell under the control of the Ḥimyarites (c. 115 BC) who undertook further improvements, creating a structure high, with five spillways, two masonry-reinforced sluices, a settling pond, and a canal to a distribution tank. These works were not finished until 325 AD when the dam permitted the irrigation of .


title: Dam

text: Eflatun Pınar is a Hittite dam and spring temple near Konya, Turkey. It is thought to date from the Hittite empire between the 15th and 13th centuries BC.


title: Dam

text: The Kallanai is constructed of unhewn stone, over long, high and wide, across the main stream of the Kaveri River in Tamil Nadu, South India. The basic structure dates to the 2nd century AD and is considered one of the oldest water diversion or water regulating structures still in use. The purpose of the dam was to divert the waters of the Kaveri across the fertile delta region for irrigation via canals.


title: Dam

text: Du Jiang Yan is the oldest surviving irrigation system in China that included a dam that directed waterflow. It was finished in 251 BC. A large earthen dam, made by Sunshu Ao, the prime minister of Chu (state), flooded a valley in modern-day northern Anhui Province that created an enormous irrigation reservoir ( in circumference), a reservoir that is still present today.


title: Dam

text: Roman dam construction was characterized by "the Romans' ability to plan and organize engineering construction on a grand scale." Roman planners introduced the then-novel concept of large reservoir dams which could secure a permanent water supply for urban settlements over the dry season. Their pioneering use of water-proof hydraulic mortar and particularly Roman concrete allowed for much larger dam structures than previously built, such as the Lake Homs Dam, possibly the largest water barrier to that date, and the Harbaqa Dam, both in Roman Syria. The highest Roman dam was the Subiaco Dam near Rome; its record height of remained unsurpassed until its accidental destruction in 1305.


title: Dam

text: Roman engineers made routine use of ancient standard designs like embankment dams and masonry gravity dams. Apart from that, they displayed a high degree of inventiveness, introducing most of the other basic dam designs which had been unknown until then. These include arch-gravity dams, arch dams, buttress dams and multiple arch buttress dams, all of which were known and employed by the 2nd century AD (see List of Roman dams). Roman workforces also were the first to build dam bridges, such as the Bridge of Valerian in Iran.


title: Dam

text: In Iran, bridge dams such as the Band-e Kaisar were used to provide hydropower through water wheels, which often powered water-raising mechanisms. One of the first was the Roman-built dam bridge in Dezful, which could raise water 50 cubits (c. 23 m) to supply the town. Also diversion dams were known. Milling dams were introduced which the Muslim engineers called the "Pul-i-Bulaiti". The first was built at Shustar on the River Karun, Iran, and many of these were later built in other parts of the Islamic world. Water was conducted from the back of the dam through a large pipe to drive a water wheel and watermill. In the 10th century, Al-Muqaddasi described several dams in Persia. He reported that one in Ahwaz was more than long, and that it had many water-wheels raising the water into aqueducts through which it flowed into reservoirs of the city. Another one, the Band-i-Amir Dam, provided irrigation for 300 villages.


title: Dam

text: In the Netherlands, a low-lying country, dams were often built to block rivers to regulate the water level and to prevent the sea from entering the marshlands. Such dams often marked the beginning of a town or city because it was easy to cross the river at such a place, and often influenced Dutch place names. The present Dutch capital, Amsterdam (old name "Amstelredam"), started with a dam on the river Amstel in the late 12th century, and Rotterdam began with a dam on the river Rotte, a minor tributary of the Nieuwe Maas. The central square of Amsterdam, covering the original site of the 800-year-old dam, still carries the name "Dam Square".


title: Dam

text: The Romans were the first to build arch dams, where the reaction forces from the abutment stabilizes the structure from the external hydrostatic pressure, but it was only in the 19th century that the engineering skills and construction materials available were capable of building the first large-scale arch dams.


title: Dam

text: Three pioneering arch dams were built around the British Empire in the early 19th century. Henry Russel of the Royal Engineers oversaw the construction of the Mir Alam dam in 1804 to supply water to the city of Hyderabad (it is still in use today). It had a height of and consisted of 21 arches of variable span.


title: Dam

text: In the 1820s and 30s, Lieutenant-Colonel John By supervised the construction of the Rideau Canal in Canada near modern-day Ottawa and built a series of curved masonry dams as part of the waterway system. In particular, the Jones Falls Dam, built by John Redpath, was completed in 1832 as the largest dam in North America and an engineering marvel. In order to keep the water in control during construction, two sluices, artificial channels for conducting water, were kept open in the dam. The first was near the base of the dam on its east side. A second sluice was put in on the west side of the dam, about above the base. To make the switch from the lower to upper sluice, the outlet of Sand Lake was blocked off.


title: Dam

text: Hunts Creek near the city of Parramatta, Australia, was dammed in the 1850s, to cater to the demand for water from the growing population of the city. The masonry arch dam wall was designed by Lieutenant Percy Simpson who was influenced by the advances in dam engineering techniques made by the Royal Engineers in India. The dam cost £17,000 and was completed in 1856 as the first engineered dam built in Australia, and the second arch dam in the world built to mathematical specifications.


title: Dam

text: The first such dam was opened two years earlier in France. It was the first French arch dam of the industrial era, and it was built by François Zola in the municipality of Aix-en-Provence to improve the supply of water after the 1832 cholera outbreak devastated the area. After royal approval was granted in 1844, the dam was constructed over the following decade. Its construction was carried out on the basis of the mathematical results of scientific stress analysis.


title: Dam

text: The 75-miles dam near Warwick, Australia, was possibly the world's first concrete arch dam. Designed by Henry Charles Stanley in 1880 with an overflow spillway and a special water outlet, it was eventually heightened to .


title: Dam

text: In the latter half of the nineteenth century, significant advances in the scientific theory of masonry dam design were made. This transformed dam design from an art based on empirical methodology to a profession based on a rigorously applied scientific theoretical framework. This new emphasis was centered around the engineering faculties of universities in France and in the United Kingdom. William John Macquorn Rankine at the University of Glasgow pioneered the theoretical understanding of dam structures in his 1857 paper "On the Stability of Loose Earth". Rankine theory provided a good understanding of the principles behind dam design. In France, J. Augustin Tortene de Sazilly explained the mechanics of vertically faced masonry gravity dams, and Zola's dam was the first to be built on the basis of these principles.


title: Dam

text: The era of large dams was initiated with the construction of the Aswan Low Dam in Egypt in 1902, a gravity masonry buttress dam on the Nile River. Following their 1882 invasion and occupation of Egypt, the British began construction in 1898. The project was designed by Sir William Willcocks and involved several eminent engineers of the time, including Sir Benjamin Baker and Sir John Aird, whose firm, John Aird & Co., was the main contractor. Capital and financing were furnished by Ernest Cassel. When initially constructed between 1899 and 1902, nothing of its scale had ever before been attempted; on completion, it was the largest masonry dam in the world.


title: Dam

text: The Hoover Dam is a massive concrete arch-gravity dam, constructed in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River, on the border between the US states of Arizona and Nevada between 1931 and 1936 during the Great Depression. In 1928, Congress authorized the project to build a dam that would control floods, provide irrigation water and produce hydroelectric power. The winning bid to build the dam was submitted by a consortium called Six Companies, Inc. Such a large concrete structure had never been built before, and some of the techniques were unproven. The torrid summer weather and the lack of facilities near the site also presented difficulties. Nevertheless, Six Companies turned over the dam to the federal government on 1 March 1936, more than two years ahead of schedule.


title: Dam

text: By 1997, there were an estimated 800,000 dams worldwide, some 40,000 of them over high. In 2014, scholars from the University of Oxford published a study of the cost of large dams – based on the largest existing dataset – documenting significant cost overruns for a majority of dams and questioning whether benefits typically offset costs for such dams.


title: Dam

text: Dams can be formed by human agency, natural causes, or even by the intervention of wildlife such as beavers. Man-made dams are typically classified according to their size (height), intended purpose or structure.


title: Dam

text: Based on structure and material used, dams are classified as easily created without materials, arch-gravity dams, embankment dams or masonry dams, with several subtypes.


title: Dam

text: In the arch dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity action. If the upstream face is vertical the entire weight of the dam must be carried to the foundation by gravity, while the distribution of the normal hydrostatic pressure between vertical cantilever and arch action will depend upon the stiffness of the dam in a vertical and horizontal direction. When the upstream face is sloped the distribution is more complicated. The normal component of the weight of the arch ring may be taken by the arch action, while the normal hydrostatic pressure will be distributed as described above. For this type of dam, firm reliable supports at the abutments (either buttress or canyon side wall) are more important. The most desirable place for an arch dam is a narrow canyon with steep side walls composed of sound rock. The safety of an arch dam is dependent on the strength of the side wall abutments, hence not only should the arch be well seated on the side walls but also the character of the rock should be carefully inspected.


title: Dam

text: Two types of single-arch dams are in use, namely the constant-angle and the constant-radius dam. The constant-radius type employs the same face radius at all elevations of the dam, which means that as the channel grows narrower towards the bottom of the dam the central angle subtended by the face of the dam becomes smaller. Jones Falls Dam, in Canada, is a constant radius dam. In a constant-angle dam, also known as a variable radius dam, this subtended angle is kept constant and the variation in distance between the abutments at various levels is taken care of by varying the radii. Constant-radius dams are much less common than constant-angle dams. Parker Dam on the Colorado River is a constant-angle arch dam.


title: Dam

text: A similar type is the double-curvature or thin-shell dam. Wildhorse Dam near Mountain City, Nevada, in the United States is an example of the type. This method of construction minimizes the amount of concrete necessary for construction but transmits large loads to the foundation and abutments. The appearance is similar to a single-arch dam but with a distinct vertical curvature to it as well lending it the vague appearance of a concave lens as viewed from downstream.


title: Dam

text: The multiple-arch dam consists of a number of single-arch dams with concrete buttresses as the supporting abutments, as for example the Daniel-Johnson Dam, Québec, Canada. The multiple-arch dam does not require as many buttresses as the hollow gravity type but requires a good rock foundation because the buttress loads are heavy.


title: Dam

text: In a gravity dam, the force that holds the dam in place against the push from the water is Earth's gravity pulling down on the mass of the dam. The water presses laterally (downstream) on the dam, tending to overturn the dam by rotating about its toe (a point at the bottom downstream side of the dam). The dam's weight counteracts that force, tending to rotate the dam the other way about its toe. The designer ensures that the dam is heavy enough that the dam's weight wins that contest. In engineering terms, that is true whenever the resultant of the forces of gravity acting on the dam and water pressure on the dam acts in a line that passes upstream of the toe of the dam. The designer tries to shape the dam so if one were to consider the part of the dam above any particular height to be a whole dam itself, that dam also would be held in place by gravity, i.e., there is no tension in the upstream face of the dam holding the top of the dam down. The designer does this because it is usually more practical to make a dam of material essentially just piled up than to make the material stick together against vertical tension. The shape that prevents tension in the upstream face also eliminates a balancing compression stress in the downstream face, providing additional economy.