title: Dunkirk

text: The area remained much disputed between the Kingdom of Spain, the United Netherlands, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France. At the beginning of the Eighty Years' War, Dunkirk was briefly in the hands of the Dutch rebels, from 1577. Spanish forces under Duke Alexander Farnese of Parma re-established Spanish rule in 1583 and it became a base for the notorious "Dunkirkers". The Dunkirkers briefly lost their home port when the city was conquered by the French in 1646 but Spanish forces recaptured the city in 1652. In 1658, as a result of the long war between France and Spain, it was captured after a siege by Franco-English forces following the battle of the Dunes. The city along with Fort-Mardyck was awarded to England in the peace the following year as agreed in the Franco-English alliance against Spain. The English governors were Sir William Lockhart (1658–60), Sir Edward Harley (1660–61) and Lord Rutherford (1661–62).


title: Dunkirk

text: On 17 October 1662, Dunkirk was sold to France by Charles II of England for £320,000. The French government developed the town as a fortified port. The town's existing defences were adapted to create ten bastions. The port was expanded in the 1670s by the construction of a basin that could hold up to thirty warships with a double lock system to maintain water levels at low tide. The basin was linked to the sea by a channel dug through coastal sandbanks secured by two jetties. This work was completed by 1678. The jetties were defended a few years later by the construction of five forts, Château d'Espérance, Château Vert, Grand Risban, Château Gaillard, and Fort de Revers. An additional fort was built in 1701 called Fort Blanc.


title: Dunkirk

text: During the reign of Louis XIV, a large number of commerce raiders and pirates once again made their base at Dunkirk, the most famous of whom was Jean Bart. The main character (and possible real prisoner) in the famous novel Man in the Iron Mask by Alexandre Dumas was arrested at Dunkirk. The eighteenth-century Swedish privateers and pirates Lars Gathenhielm and his wife Ingela Hammar are known to have sold their gains in Dunkirk.


title: Dunkirk

text: As France and Great Britain became commercial and military rivals, the British grew concerned about Dunkirk being used as an invasion base to cross the English Channel. The jetties, their forts, and the port facilities were demolished in 1713 under the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht.


title: Dunkirk

text: The Treaty of Paris of 1763, which concluded the Seven Years' War, included a clause restricting French rights to fortify Dunkirk. This clause was overturned in the subsequent Treaty of Versailles of 1783.


title: Dunkirk

text: Dunkirk's port was used extensively during the war by British forces who brought in dock workers from, among other places, Egypt and China.


title: Dunkirk

text: From 1915, the city experienced severe bombardment, including from the largest gun in the world in 1917, the German 'Lange Max'. On a regular basis, heavy shells weighing approximately 750 kg were fired from Koekelare, about 45–50 km away. The bombardment killed nearly 600 people and wounded another 1,100, both civilian and military, while 400 buildings were destroyed and 2,400 damaged. The city's population, which had been 39,000 in 1914, reduced to fewer than 15,000 in July 1916 and 7,000 in the autumn of 1917.


title: Dunkirk

text: In January, 1916, a spy scare took place in Dunkirk. The writer Robert W. Service, then a war correspondent for the "Toronto Star", was mistakenly arrested as a spy and narrowly avoided being executed out of hand. On 1 January 1918, the United States Navy established a naval air station to operate seaplanes. The base closed shortly after the Armistice of 11 November 1918.


title: Dunkirk

text: In October 1917, to mark the gallant behaviour of its inhabitants during the war, the City of Dunkirk was awarded the Croix de Guerre and, in 1919, the Legion of Honour and the British Distinguished Service Cross. These decorations now appear in the city's coat of arms.


title: Dunkirk

text: During the Second World War, in the May 1940 Battle of France, the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), while aiding the French and Belgian armies, were forced to retreat in the face of the overpowering German Panzer attacks. Fighting in Belgium and France, the BEF and a portion of the French Army became outflanked by the Germans and retreated to the area around the port of Dunkirk. More than 400,000 soldiers were trapped in the pocket as the German Army closed in for the kill. Unexpectedly, the German Panzer attack halted for several days at a critical juncture. For years, it was assumed that Adolf Hitler ordered the German Army to suspend the attack, favouring bombardment by the Luftwaffe. However, according to the Official War Diary of Army Group A, its commander, "Generaloberst" Gerd von Rundstedt, ordered the halt to allow maintenance on his tanks, half of which were out of service, and to protect his flanks which were exposed and, he thought, vulnerable. Hitler merely validated the order several hours later. This lull gave the British and French a few days to fortify their defences. The Allied position was complicated by Belgian King Leopold III's surrender on 27 May, which was postponed until 28 May. The gap left by the Belgian Army stretched from Ypres to Dixmude. Nevertheless, a collapse was prevented, making it possible to launch an evacuation by sea, across the English Channel, codenamed Operation Dynamo. Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister, ordered any ship or boat available, large or small, to collect the stranded soldiers. 338,226 men (including 123,000 French soldiers) were evacuated – the "miracle of Dunkirk", as Churchill called it. It took over 900 vessels to evacuate the BEF, with two-thirds of those rescued embarking via the harbour, and over 100,000 taken off the beaches. More than 40,000 vehicles as well as massive amounts of other military equipment and supplies were left behind. Forty thousand Allied soldiers (some who carried on fighting after the official evacuation) were captured or forced to make their own way home through a variety of routes including via neutral Spain. Many wounded who were unable to walk were abandoned.


title: Dunkirk

text: Dunkirk was again contested in 1944, with the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division attempting to liberate the city in September, as Allied forces surged northeast after their victory in the Battle of Normandy. However, German forces refused to relinquish their control of the city, which had been converted into a fortress. To seize the now strategically insignificant town would consume too many Allied resources which were needed elsewhere. The town was by-passed masking the German garrison with Allied troops, notably the 1st Czechoslovak Armoured Brigade. During the German occupation, Dunkirk was largely destroyed by Allied bombing. The artillery siege of Dunkirk was directed on the final day of the war by pilots from No. 652 Squadron RAF, and No. 665 Squadron RCAF. The fortress, under the command of German Admiral Friedrich Frisius, eventually unconditionally surrendered to the commander of the Czechoslovak forces, Brigade General Alois Liška, on 9 May 1945.


title: Dunkirk

text: On 14 December 2002, the Norwegian car carrier collided with the Bahamian-registered "Kariba" and sank off Dunkirk Harbour, causing a hazard to navigation in the English Channel.


title: Dunkirk

text: The population data in the table and graph below refer to the commune of Dunkirk proper, in its geography at the given years. The commune of Dunkirk absorbed the former commune of Malo-les-Bains in 1969, Rosendaël and Petite-Synthe in 1971, Mardyck in 1979 and Fort-Mardyck and Saint-Pol-sur-Mer in 2010.


title: Dunkirk

text: Dunkirk is part of Nord's 13th constituency, The current Member of Parliament is Christine Decodts of the miscellaneous centre.


title: Dunkirk

text: Dunkirk has the third-largest harbour in France, after those of Le Havre and Marseille. As an industrial city, it depends heavily on the steel, food processing, oil-refining, ship-building and chemical industries.


title: Dunkirk

text: The cuisine of Dunkirk closely resembles Flemish cuisine; perhaps one of the best known dishes is "coq à la bière" – chicken in a creamy beer sauce.


title: Dunkirk

text: In June 1792 the French astronomers Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre and Pierre François André Méchain set out to measure the meridian arc distance from Dunkirk to Barcelona, two cities lying on approximately the same longitude as each other and also the longitude through Paris. The belfry was chosen as the reference point in Dunkirk.


title: Dunkirk

text: Using this measurement and the latitudes of the two cities they could calculate the distance between the North Pole and the Equator in classical French units of length and hence produce the first prototype metre which was defined as being one ten millionth of that distance. The definitive metre bar, manufactured from platinum, was presented to the French legislative assembly on 22 June 1799.


title: Dunkirk

text: Dunkirk was the most easterly cross-channel measuring point for the Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790), which used triangulation to calculate the precise distance between the Paris Observatory and the Royal Greenwich Observatory. Sightings were made of signal lights at Dover Castle from the Dunkirk Belfry, and vice versa.


title: Dunkirk

text: Two belfries in Dunkirk (the belfry near the Church of Saint-Éloi and the one at the town hall) are part of a group of belfries of Belgium and France, inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2005 in recognition of their civic architecture and importance in the rise of municipal power in Europe.


title: Dunkirk

text: The 63 meter high Dunkirk Lighthouse, also known as the Risban Light, was built between 1838 to 1843 as part of early efforts to place lights around the coast of France. At the time of its construction it was one of only two first order lighthouses (the other being Calais) to be set up in a port. Automated since 1985, the light can be seen 28 nautical miles (48 km) away. In 2010 it was listed as an historical monument.


title: Dunkirk

text: Dunkirk has a ferry route to Dover that is run by DFDS, which serves as an alternative to the route to the service to nearby Calais. The Dover-Dunkirk ferry route takes two hours compared to Dover-Calais' 1 hour 30 minutes, is run by three vessels and runs every two hours from Dunkirk. Another DFDS route connects Dunkirk to Rosslare Europort in the Republic of Ireland and carries truck freight as well as a limited number of private car passengers. The Dunkirk-Rosslare route take 24 hours and is run by the MF "Regina Seaways".


title: Dunkirk

text: The Gare de Dunkerque railway station offers connections to Gare de Calais-Ville, Gare de Lille Flandres, Arras and Paris, and several regional destinations in France. The railway line from Dunkirk to De Panne and Adinkerke, Belgium, is closed and has been dismantled in places.


title: Dunkirk

text: In September 2018, Dunkirk's public transit service introduced free public transport, thereby becoming the largest city in Europe to do so. Several weeks after the scheme had been introduced, the city's mayor, Patrice Vergriete, reported that there had been 50% increase in passenger numbers on some routes, and up to 85% on others. As part of the transition towards offering free bus services, the city's fleet was expanded from 100 to 140 buses, including new vehicles which run on natural gas. As of August 2019, approximately 5% of 2000 people surveyed had used the free bus service to completely replace their cars.


title: Dunkirk

text: Dunkirk has an oceanic climate, with cool winters and warm summers. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Dunkirk has a marine west coast climate, abbreviated "Cfb" on climate maps. Summer high temperatures average around , being significantly influenced by the marine currents.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: The 2022 Revolution was the third annual Revolution professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by All Elite Wrestling (AEW). It took place on March 6, 2022, at the Addition Financial Arena in Orlando, Florida. The event aired through traditional PPV providers, as well as Bleacher Report in the United States and FITE TV internationally. It was the culmination of a three-day event, which began with an episode of "Rampage" on March 4 and then a fan fest on March 5, both held at the same venue as Revolution.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: Twelve matches were contested at the event, including three on The Buy In pre-show. In the main event, "Hangman" Adam Page defeated Adam Cole to retain the AEW World Championship. In other prominent matches, CM Punk defeated MJF in a Dog Collar match, Jon Moxley defeated Bryan Danielson, and Wardlow won the Face of the Revolution ladder match.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: The event was met with positive reviews from critics, and featured the AEW debuts of Swerve Strickland and William Regal.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: Revolution is a pay-per-view (PPV) held annually in late February–early March by All Elite Wrestling (AEW) since 2020. It is one of AEW's "Big Four" PPVs, which also includes Double or Nothing, All Out, and Full Gear, their four biggest shows produced quarterly. During the December 8, 2021, episode of "Wednesday Night Dynamite", AEW announced that the third Revolution event would take place on March 6, 2022, at the Addition Financial Arena in Orlando, Florida. Additionally, the go-home episode of "Friday Night Rampage" on March 4 as well as a fanfest on March 5—which included a concert featuring songs from the recently released AEW music album "Who We Are: A Celebration of Excellence, Volume 1"—were all held at the same venue, with the three-day event being promoted as a "weekend spectacular." Tickets went on sale on December 17, 2021, with a limited number of combo packages for the three-day event also available.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: AEW partnered with Joe Hand Promotions to screen Revolution live across North America in select movie theaters. Immediately following the March 4 episode of "Rampage", TNT aired a thirty-minute television special called "Countdown to Revolution" that previewed the event.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: Revolution featured professional wrestling matches that involved different wrestlers from pre-existing feuds and storylines. Wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Storylines were produced on AEW's weekly television programs, "Dynamite" and "Rampage", the supplementary online streaming shows, "Dark" and "", and The Young Bucks' YouTube series "Being The Elite".


title: Revolution (2022)

text: On the February 9 episode of "Dynamite", after successfully defending the AEW World Championship, "Hangman" Adam Page was confronted by Adam Cole, who indicated his intentions to challenge Page for the championship as he had reached the top of the rankings to become the number one contender. The following week, the match was made official for Revolution.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: During "Dynamite"s debut episode on TBS on January 5, 2022, Jurassic Express (Jungle Boy and Luchasaurus) defeated The Lucha Brothers (Penta El Zero Miedo and Rey Fénix) to win the AEW World Tag Team Championship. After numerous title defenses, it was announced on the February 16 episode that Jurassic Express would defend the title in a three-way tag team match at Revolution. Their opponents would be determined by a tag team battle royal on the February 23 episode and a Casino Tag Team Royale on the March 2 episode. reDRagon (Bobby Fish and Kyle O'Reilly) and The Young Bucks (Matt Jackson and Nick Jackson) won the respective matches.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: On the November 17, 2021, episode of "Dynamite", CM Punk began feuding with MJF. After Punk defeated all of the other members of MJF's stable The Pinnacle over the next few weeks, the two finally faced each other on the February 2, 2022, episode where MJF won thanks to assistance from Wardlow, giving Punk his first loss in AEW, which was also in Punk's hometown of Chicago. On the February 9 episode, Punk demanded a rematch, which MJF would grant if Punk found a partner to defeat FTR (Cash Wheeler and Dax Harwood) in a tag team match that night. Jon Moxley was revealed as Punk's partner and they were victorious. The following week, Punk revealed the rematch against MJF would be a Dog Collar match at Revolution.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: After remaining undefeated for months, Thunder Rosa became the number one contender to Dr. Britt Baker, D.M.D.'s AEW Women's World Championship, reigniting an old feud between the two. The title match was made official for Revolution on the February 16 episode of "Dynamite".


title: Revolution (2022)

text: On the February 23 episode of "Dynamite", after Jade Cargill retained the TBS Championship against The Bunny, she touted her undefeated record of 28–0 and issued an open challenge for the title. Tay Conti came out to accept the challenge, and the match was made official for Revolution.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: At the 2021 Revolution, AEW held the Face of the Revolution ladder match, with the winner receiving a match for the TNT Championship. A second match was scheduled for the 2022 event, thus establishing the match as an annual tradition at Revolution. Keith Lee, making his AEW debut, qualified first by defeating Isiah Kassidy on the February 9 episode of "Dynamite". The remaining spots were filled over the next couple of weeks, with Wardlow, Powerhouse Hobbs, Ricky Starks, Orange Cassidy, and Christian Cage each qualifying by defeating Max Caster, Dante Martin, The Dark Order's Preston "10" Vance, Anthony Bowens, and Ethan Page, respectively.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: Chris Jericho and Eddie Kingston began feuding after Kingston began insinuating to his friends (and Jericho's Inner Circle teammates) Proud and Powerful (Santana and Ortiz) that they were being held back from their full potential and should branch out on their own, which Jericho took offense to. After confronting each other on the February 23 episode of "Dynamite", a match between the two was scheduled for Revolution.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: On the January 19 episode of "Dynamite", Jon Moxley returned after taking time off to battle alcoholism. In the following weeks, Moxley would be approached by Bryan Danielson about teaming up to "run" AEW and mentor the younger generation of wrestlers. On the February 16 episode, Moxley responded that he had never defeated Danielson regardless of what promotion they were both in and that he would only consider teaming up if they "bled together" first, indicating that he wanted a match. The following week, after Moxley saved Danielson from an attack by 2point0 (Jeff Parker and Matt Lee) and Daniel Garcia, Danielson agreed to the match at Revolution.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: On The Buy-In pre-show, three matches were contested. In the opener, Leyla Hirsch faced Kris Statlander. The match ended when, unbeknownst to the referee, Hirsch struck Statlander over the head with a spare turnbuckle from under the ring and then followed up with a moonsault press to win the match.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: Next, commentator Tony Schiavone announced that he had a special guest. Schiavone introduced Kenny Omega but instead, Don Callis came out and stated that it was going to be a great night for The Elite and that Adam Cole would be a "great transitional champion" until Omega returns.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: After that, Hook faced Q. T. Marshall. During the match, Marshall raked Hook's eyes and suplexed him. Marshall then attempted for a Diamond Cutter, but Hook countered and applied the Redrum on Marshall for the submission victory.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: In the final match of the pre-show, The House of Black (Malakai Black, Brody King, and Buddy Matthews) faced Death Triangle (Pac and Penta Oscuro) (accompanied by Alex Abrahantes) and Erick Redbeard. In the end, Redbeard attempted a double chokeslam, but Black countered and spit black mist into his eyes, followed by Matthews then hitting a knee strike, and King following with an inverted piledriver, before Black pinned Redbeard to secure the victory.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: The pay-per-view opened with Chris Jericho facing Eddie Kingston. At the start of the match, Kingston performed a half and half suplex on Jericho. Jericho suplexed Kingston off the ring apron. Back in the ring, Jericho performed back to back German suplexes on Kingston. Jericho placed Kingston in the Walls of Jericho, who grabbed the rope to avoid the submission. Kingston dropped Jericho with a spinning back fist for a nearfall. Jericho performed a Codebreaker for a nearfall. As Jericho went for the Judas Effect, Kingston ducked it and performed another spinning back fist and applied the Stretch Plum submission on Jericho for the submission victory. After the match, Kingston attempted to shake the hand of Jericho (who stated before the match he would do so if Kingston defeated him), but Jericho instead refused and left the ring.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: Next, Jurassic Express (Jungle Boy and Luchasaurus) defended the AEW World Tag Team Championship against reDRagon (Bobby Fish and Kyle O'Reilly) and The Young Bucks (Matt Jackson and Nick Jackson) (accompanied by Brandon Cutler). During the match, O'Reilly hit Jungle Boy with the title belt for a nearfall. reDRagon performed the high-low combination on Jungle Boy, but Luchasaurus broke up the pin. The Young Bucks delivered the BTE Trigger on Jungle Boy, but O'Reilly broke up the pin. Jungle Boy and Luchasaurus performed the Thoracic Express on Matt. Boy pinned Matt to retain the titles before Nick could break it up.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: After that was the Face of the Revolution ladder match, with the winner receiving a match for the TNT Championship on the March 16 episode of "Dynamite". The match participants were Keith Lee, Wardlow, Powerhouse Hobbs, Ricky Starks, Orange Cassidy, and Christian Cage. Late in the match, Danhausen appeared and cursed Starks. As Cage ascended the ladder, Wardlow stopped Cage and performed a powerbomb on him. As Starks ascended the ladder, Wardlow jumped up and performed a powerbomb on Starks off the ladder that was over the ropes. Wardlow then grabbed the giant brass ring to win the match.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: Following this, Tony Schiavone stood on the stage with a contract as Shane "Swerve" Strickland made his unannounced AEW debut and signed the contract, officially joining AEW. Strickland was formerly known as Isaiah "Swerve" Scott in WWE.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: In the fourth match, Jade Cargill (accompanied by "Smart" Mark Sterling) defended the TBS Championship against Tay Conti (accompanied by Anna Jay). Cargill kissed Conti at the start of the match to taunt her. Later, Conti kissed Cargill back and performed a DDTay for a nearfall. In the end, Cargill performed the Jaded on Conti, retaining the title and improving her undefeated record to 29–0.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: Next, CM Punk faced MJF in a Dog Collar match. MJF entered first after teasing Punk's "Cult of Personality" theme song, followed by Punk, who came out to his former Ring of Honor (ROH) theme, "Miseria Cantare" by AFI. During the match, MJF wrapped the chain around his fist and struck Punk with it, making Punk bloodied. Punk went for the Go to Sleep, but MJF gouged Punk's eyes and applied the Salt of the Earth armbar. Punk escaped and put MJF into the Anaconda Vice, but MJF pulled Punk's hair into a pin attempt, forcing him to break the hold. Punk wrapped the chain around his right knee and delivered a shining wizard with the chain to MJF. MJF attempted a Tombstone Piledriver on the ring apron, but Punk hit him with the move instead. Back in the ring, MJF superplexed Punk onto the thumbtacks for a nearfall. MJF signaled for Wardlow and he walked toward ringside. Wardlow checked his pockets and acted like he could not find the Dynamite Diamond Ring. Punk pulled MJF with the chain and performed the Go to Sleep on MJF. Wardlow then pulled out the ring and placed it on the apron, turning face and departing from The Pinnacle. Punk grabbed the ring and hit MJF with it to win the match.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: Afterward, Dr. Britt Baker D.M.D. (accompanied by Rebel and Jamie Hayter) defended the AEW Women's World Championship against Thunder Rosa. Baker came out with a new design of the title. Rosa performed a Tombstone Piledriver on Baker but the referee was distracted by Rebel. Hayter gave Baker the title and Baker then performed a Curb Stomp on Rosa on the title for a nearfall. Baker placed Rosa in the Lockjaw, but Rosa fought out of it and applied the Lockjaw on Baker, Baker tapped out but the referee was distracted by Rebel again. Rosa speared Rebel off the ring apron and clotheslined Hayter. Rosa went back into the ring and Baker performed another Curb Stomp to retain the title.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: Next, Bryan Danielson faced Jon Moxley. Danielson blasted Moxley with a kick and applied a guillotine choke. Moxley escaped and threw Danielson out to ringside. Danielson came back into the ring and attempted a suicide dive, but Moxley caught Danielson and the two fought outside. Both men were bleeding when they were back in the ring, as Danielson performed a belly to back suplex on Moxley off the top rope for a nearfall. Danielson applied a dragon sleeper on Moxley, but Moxley placed his foot on the bottom rope to break the hold. In the closing moments, Danielson applied the triangle choke on Moxley, who countered and pinned Danielson to win the match while Danielson was holding onto the submission. Post-match, Danielson was furious about his loss, and kicked Moxley which led to a brawl. They were interrupted by former WWE NXT official William Regal, who made his unannounced AEW debut, and ordered Danielson and Moxley to shake hands. Danielson and Moxley listened and shook hands in front of Regal, leading to the formation of The Blackpool Combat Club.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: In the penultimate match, Darby Allin, Sammy Guevara, and Sting faced The Andrade-Hardy Family Office (Andrade El Idolo, Matt Hardy, and Isiah Kassidy) in a six-man tornado tag team match. Guevara performed a Spanish Fly on Kassidy off the platform through multiple tables. Sting jumped off a balcony and hit a splash on Andrade through three tables. In the end, Allin performed a Scorpion Death Drop on Hardy onto a chair, and followed with a Coffin Drop to win the match.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: In the main event, "Hangman" Adam Page defended the AEW World Championship against Adam Cole. During the match, Page attempted a moonsault on Cole, who countered into a superkick. Cole attempted another superkick, but Page countered into a Dead Eye. reDRagon (Bobby Fish and Kyle O'Reilly) came out and interfered, and Cole then performed a Panama Sunrise off the ring apron on Page. Back in the ring, Cole covered Page and scored a nearfall. reDRagon served another distraction, allowing Cole to hit a low blow. Then Cole performed a second Panama Sunrise and The Boom on Page for a nearfall. Page performed a Dead Eye on Cole off the ring apron through a table. In the final moments, Page performed a Buckshot Lariat on Cole, but Cole got his right hand on the bottom rope. Page tied Cole to the ropes and delivered multiple superkicks, Cole came back with a superkick and freed himself, but Page hit him with another superkick. Page performed The Boom on Cole and a second Buckshot Lariat to retain the championship.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: Revolution received positive reviews from critics. For "CBSSports.com", Brent Brookhouse wrote that the event was "near-perfect" and featured "something for everyone, from brutal grudge matches to thrilling championship clashes." Kingston-Jericho was a "brutal war" and the "best kind of wrestling", the tag team championship three-way between Jurassic Express, reDRagon and The Young Bucks was "a great spectacle", Cargill-Conti was "solid", Punk-MJF was "a near-perfect old-school dog collar match", Baker-Rosa never "really hit its stride" and was "quite disappointing", Moxley-Danielson was "pretty brutal" despite a "lackluster middle section", and the main event was "thrilling" and a "fun ride".


title: Revolution (2022)

text: Justin Barrasso of "Sports Illustrated" opined that although Revolution "wasn't a perfect show", it was still "an outstanding night of pro wrestling". Barasso thought the main event match was "superb", the Punk-MJF match was a "masterpiece", Moxley-Danielson was "physical" and "grisly", and Kingston-Jericho was "fantastic". He was however disappointed by the women's championship match between Britt Baker and Thunder Rosa which he felt "ran too long" and suffered from an "abundance of interference".


title: Revolution (2022)

text: Professional wrestling journalist Bryan Alvarez wrote that the event was "wonderfully varied" and featured five matches that could be plausibly considered the best of the night, with those being Kingston-Jericho, the three-way tag championship match, Punk-MJF, Moxley-Danielson and Page-Cole.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: Combat sports journalist Dave Meltzer assigned star ratings to the event, with Kingston-Jericho, the three-way tag match, Punk-MJF and Moxley-Danielson all receiving a rating of 4 stars out of 5. Elsewhere on the card, the main event received 4 stars, the pre-show six-man tag team was assigned 4 stars, and the six-man tornado tag match received 4 stars. The lowest rated match on the show was Cargill-Conti, which was given 2 stars.


title: Revolution (2022)

text: Orange Cassidy suffered an arm injury during the Face of the Revolution ladder match after he was thrown out of the ring by Keith Lee.


title: Peter Jones (entrepreneur)

text: Peter David Jones (born 18 March 1966) is a British entrepreneur, and reality television personality with interests in mobile phones, television, media, leisure, retail, and property. He is the last remaining original investor on the BBC One show "Dragons' Den" and on the American television series "American Inventor".


title: Peter Jones (entrepreneur)

text: He was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2009 New Year Honours. According to the Sunday Times Rich List in 2021, Jones is worth an estimated £1.157bn.


title: Peter Jones (entrepreneur)

text: Jones grew up in Langley, Berkshire, before moving to Maidenhead when he was seven, and attended Desborough School and, subsequently, The Windsor Boys' School.


title: Peter Jones (entrepreneur)

text: He set up a business in which he made personal computers under his own brand when he was only 16 years old. However, he lost £200,000 after deciding to sell it to IBM. In an interview with "The Times", Jones once said his computer business failed when he was in his twenties; he was forced to give up his three-bedroom home in Bray and his cars, and had to move back in with his parents. He then joined Siemens Nixdorf.


title: Peter Jones (entrepreneur)

text: In the summer of 2005, Jones, together with Theo Paphitis, a fellow panellist on "Dragons' Den", bought gift experience company Red Letter Days from another fellow panellist Rachel Elnaugh, under whose ownership it had collapsed.


title: Peter Jones (entrepreneur)

text: Jones founded other businesses between 2004 and 2008, including Wines4Business.com, an online retailer specialising in the sale of wine and champagne to corporate clients, and Celsius Resourcing – a specialist recruitment business aiming mostly in biotechnologists.


title: Peter Jones (entrepreneur)

text: On 1 July 2005, he founded The Peter Jones Foundation, a charity to support the advancement of education in young women, particularly through teachings of enterprise and entrepreneurship.


title: Peter Jones (entrepreneur)

text: In 2009, Jones founded the Peter Jones Enterprise Academy (PJEA, formerly NEA) to teach entrepreneurial capabilities within the UK. PJEA has several campuses throughout the UK including Amersham, Sheffield, Manchester, Southend and Oxford. In November 2013, it was reported that a new Peter Jones Enterprise Academy was to be opened in Leamington through Warwickshire College. Pupils were to be taught how to enhance a company or key skills in becoming a successful entrepreneur. The academy was to offer the BTEC Level 3 Enterprise and Entrepreneurship at both its Leamington and Rugby campuses.


title: Peter Jones (entrepreneur)

text: According to his website, some of his investments in businesses that have appeared on "Dragons' Den" include luxury lifestyle and culture "Wonderland" magazine, Square Mile International, which provides data services for marinas and was later sold to BT, contemporary circus company The Generating Company, Concentrate Design, which makes products claimed to help pupils concentrate at school, Synthetic Genomics, iTeddy and Reggae Reggae Sauce.


title: Peter Jones (entrepreneur)

text: He owns a TV production company called Peter Jones TV, and has several property investments (his nine properties include a Portuguese villa that he bought from DJ Chris Evans and a property in Beverly Hills, California).


title: Peter Jones (entrepreneur)

text: Jones sold part of Phones International Group, Wireless Logic, for £38 million in 2011, retaining the Data Select part.


title: Peter Jones (entrepreneur)

text: On 6 August 2017, it was announced that Jones and his "Dragon's Den" and Red Letter Days partner Theo Paphitis were almost scammed by an accountant who forged cheques over a two-month period. Judge Joanna Greenberg QC warned the accountant at Wood Green Court that "this was a serious offence, a breach of trust over considerable time. Custody is the most likely outcome".


title: Peter Jones (entrepreneur)

text: Jones is the sole remaining original Dragon on the BBC's "Dragons' Den", which started in January 2005 and has produced nineteen series to date; the current series began in January 2022. Jones had regular conflicts in the Den with former Dragon Duncan Bannatyne, who starred on the show from 2005 to 2014.


title: Peter Jones (entrepreneur)

text: He sold his television show idea called "The Inventor" to the American Broadcasting Company. "American Inventor", which was co-produced by Fremantle, Simon Cowell and Peter Jones Television, and aired in March 2006. The first episode of "Inventor" put ABC ahead of rival networks with a 7.8 average rating and a 13 share. Jones was a judge on the show, broadcast in 2007.


title: Peter Jones (entrepreneur)

text: After signing "Golden Handcuffs" deal with ITV to appear as their new "face" of business programming, on 21 September 2006 Jones appeared on "GMTV" to talk about "Dragons' Den" and his new ITV show "Tycoon", produced by the Peter Jones Television company. The viewing figures were 2.1 million viewers, which was more than the UK premiere of "The Apprentice" and "Dragons' Den" when they both broadcast in 2005. The series returned on Monday, 9 July 2007 as a 30-minute format for the 10 pm slot. "Tycoon" also inspired Tycoon in Schools, which has now entered its third year of running.


title: Peter Jones (entrepreneur)

text: In January 2010, Jones appeared alongside his "Dragons' Den" co-stars Duncan Bannatyne and Deborah Meaden in the fifth episode of the sixth series of "Hustle". Jones appeared in ITV2's "Celebrity Juice" in May 2010, and "James Corden's World Cup Live" in June. In November 2010, Jones was a guest panellist in BBC Quiz Show "Never Mind the Buzzcocks", and in "The Magicians" in January 2011. Jones has twice participated in the "Star in a Reasonably-Priced Car" segment of "Top Gear", once on his own and once with fellow "Dragons' Den" judge Theo Paphitis.


title: Peter Jones (entrepreneur)

text: Jones took over from Gordon Ramsay as the face of BT Business in 2008. Jones is also the Ambition Ambassador for the business software company Sage Group and appears in their television advertising as well as being a customer of the company.


title: Peter Jones (entrepreneur)

text: He is separated from his first wife Caroline, with whom he had two children; Annabelle and William. He lives in Buckinghamshire with his partner, Tara, and has three children.


title: Peter Jones (entrepreneur)

text: A car enthusiast, Jones's first car was an Alfa Romeo Alfasud. He owns several classic and luxury sports cars.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Morganatic marriage, sometimes called a left-handed marriage, is a marriage between people of unequal social rank, which in the context of royalty or other inherited title prevents the principal's position or privileges being passed to the spouse, or any children born of the marriage. The concept is most prevalent in German-speaking territories and countries most influenced by the customs of the German-speaking realms.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Generally, this is a marriage between a man of high birth (such as from a reigning, deposed or mediatised dynasty) and a woman of lesser status (such as a daughter of a low-ranked noble family or a commoner). Usually, neither the bride nor any children of the marriage have a claim on the bridegroom's succession rights, titles, precedence, or entailed property. The children are considered legitimate for all other purposes and the prohibition against bigamy applies. In some countries, a woman could also marry a man of lower rank morganatically. As a result of the above, a king deciding to enter into a morganatic marriage who does not have children from a previous marriage thereby gives up the chance of being succeeded by his own children and accepts that succession would pass to his other relatives.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: After World War I, the heads of both ruling and formerly reigning German dynasties initially continued the practice of rejecting dynastic titles and/or rights for descendants of "morganatic" unions, but gradually allowed them, sometimes retroactively, effectively de-morganatizing the wives and children. This was accommodated by Perthes' "Almanach de Gotha" (which categorised German princely families by rank until it ceased publication after 1944) by inserting the offspring of such marriages in a third section of the almanac under entries denoted by a symbol (a dot within a circle) that "signifies some princely houses which, possessing no specific princely patent, have passed from the first part, A, or from the second part into the third part in virtue of special agreements." The "Fürstliche Häuser" ("Princely Houses") series of the "Genealogisches Handbuch des Adels" ("Genealogical Manual of the Nobility") has followed this lead, likewise enrolling some issue of unapproved marriages in its third section, "III B", with a similar explanation: "Families in this section, although verified, received no specific decree, but have been included by special agreement in the 1st and 2nd sections".


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Variations of morganatic marriage were also practised by non-European dynasties, such as the Royal Family of Thailand, the polygamous Mongols as to their non-principal wives, and other families of Africa and Asia.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: "Morganatic", already in use in English by 1727 (according to the "Oxford English Dictionary"), is derived from the medieval Latin "morganaticus" from the Late Latin phrase "matrimonium ad morganaticam" and refers to the gift given by the groom to the bride on the morning after the wedding, the morning gift, i.e., dower. The Latin term, applied to a Germanic custom, was adopted from the Old High German term "*morgangeba" (modern German "Morgengabe"), corresponding to Early English "morgengifu". The literal meaning is explained in a 16th-century passage quoted by Du Cange as, "a marriage by which the wife and the children that may be born are entitled to no share in the husband's possessions beyond the 'morning-gift'".


title: Morganatic marriage

text: The "morning gift" has been a customary property arrangement for marriage found first in early medieval German cultures (such as the Lombards) and also among ancient Germanic tribes, and the church drove its adoption into other countries in order to improve the wife's security by this "additional" benefit. The bride received property from the bridegroom's clan. It was intended to ensure her livelihood in widowhood, and it was to be kept separate as the wife's discrete possession. However, when a marriage contract is made wherein the bride and the children of the marriage will not receive anything else (other than the dower) from the bridegroom or from his inheritance or clan, that sort of marriage was dubbed as "marriage with only the dower and no other inheritance", i.e., "matrimonium morganaticum".


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Succession to the Danish throne followed the specifications of the "Lex Regia" until the Danish Act of Succession was passed in 1953. Prominent morganatic marriages include the 1615 marriage of King Christian IV of Denmark to noblewoman Kirsten Munk. Kirsten was titled "Countess of Schleswig-Holstein" and bore the King 12 children, all styled "Count/Countess of Schleswig-Holstein". King Frederick VII married the ballerina Louise Rasmussen, who was raised to the rank of "Countess Danner" in 1850. There were no children of this marriage. When Christian IX of Denmark's brother, Prince Julius of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg married Elisabeth von Ziegesar in 1883, the king granted her the title "Countess af Røst".


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Until 1971, Danish princes who married women who did not belong to a royal or noble family were refused the sovereign's authorization, renouncing their right of succession to the throne and royal title (Prince Aage of Denmark morganatically eloped with Matilda Calvi, daughter of Count Carlo Giorgio di Bergolo, in January 1914 but renounced his dynastic rights and titles subsequently). They were granted the non-royal prefix of "Prince" and their descendants bear the title Count af Rosenborg in the Danish nobility.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Neither of the children of Queen Margrethe II has married a person of either royal birth or of the titled aristocracy. Members of the Royal Family may still lose their place in the line of succession for themselves and their descendants if they marry without the monarch's permission.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Morganatic marriage was not recognized as a concept in French law. Since the law did not distinguish, for marital purposes, between ruler and subjects, marriages between royalty and the noble heiresses to great fiefs became the norm through the 16th century, helping to aggrandize the House of Capet while gradually diminishing the number of large domains held in theoretical vassalage by nobles who were, in practice, virtually independent of the French crown: by the marriage of Catherine de' Medici to the future King Henry II in 1533, the last of these provinces, the county of Auvergne, came to the crown of France.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Antiquity of nobility in the legitimate male line, not noble quarterings, was the main criterion of rank in the "ancien régime". Unlike the status of a British peer's wife and descendants (yet typical of the nobility of every continental European country), the legitimate children and male-line descendants of any French nobleman (whether titled or not, whether possessing a French peerage or not) were also legally noble "ad infinitum". Rank was not based on hereditary titles, which were often assumed or acquired by purchase of a noble estate rather than granted by the Crown. Rather, the main determinant of relative rank among the French nobility was how far back the nobility of a family's male line could be verifiably traced. Other factors influencing rank included the family's history of military command, high-ranking offices held at court and marriages into other high-ranking families. A specific exception was made for bearers of the title of duke who, regardless of their origin, outranked all other nobles. But the ducal title in post-medieval France (even when embellished with the still higher status of "peer") ranked its holder and his family among France's nobility and not, as in Germany and Scandinavia (and, occasionally, Italy, viz. Savoy, Medici, Este, della Rovere, Farnese and Cybo-Malaspina) among Europe's reigning dynasties which habitually intermarried with one another.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Once the Bourbons inherited the throne of France from the House of Valois in 1589, their dynasts married daughters of even the oldest ducal families of France — let alone noblewomen of lower rank — quite rarely (viz., Anne de Montafié in 1601, Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency in 1609 and, in exile from revolutionary France, Maria Caterina Brignole in 1798). Exceptions were made for equal royal intermarriage with the "princes étrangers" and, by royal command, with the so-called "princes légitimés" (i.e., out-of-wedlock but legitimised descendants of Henry IV and Louis XIV), as well as with the nieces of Cardinal-prime ministers (i.e., Richelieu, Mazarin). Just as the French king could authorize a royal marriage that would otherwise have been deemed unsuitable, by 1635 it had been established by Louis XIII that the king could also legally void the canonically valid, equal marriage of a French dynast to which he had not given consent (e.g., Marguerite of Lorraine, Duchess of Orléans).


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Moreover, there was a French practice, legally distinct from morganatic marriage but used in similar situations of inequality in status between a member of the royal family and a spouse of lower rank: an "openly secret" marriage. French kings authorized such marriages only when the bride was past child-bearing or the marrying prince already had dynastic heirs by a previous spouse of royal descent. The marriage ceremony took place without banns, in private (with only a priest, the bride and groom, and a few legal witnesses present), and the marriage was never officially acknowledged (although sometimes widely known). Thus, the wife never publicly shared in her husband's titles, rank, or coat of arms. The lower-ranked spouse, male or female, could only receive from the royal spouse what property the king allowed.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: In secret marriage, Louis XIV wed his second wife, Madame de Maintenon, in 1683 (she was nearly 50, so no children were likely); Louis the Grand Dauphin wed Marie Émilie de Joly de Choin in 1695; Anne Marie d'Orléans ("La Grande Mademoiselle") wed Antoine, Duke de Lauzun in 1682; and Louis Philippe I, Duke of Orléans wed the Marquise de Montesson in 1773. The mechanism of the "secret marriage" rendered it unnecessary for France to legislate the morganatic marriage "per se". Within post-monarchical dynasties, until the end of the 20th century the heads of the Spanish and Italian Bourbon branches, the Orléans of both France and Brazil, and the Imperial Bonapartes have, in exile, exercised claimed authority to exclude from their dynasty descendants born of unapproved marriages — albeit without calling these marriages "morganatic".


title: Morganatic marriage

text: The practice of morganatic marriage was most common in the German-speaking parts of Europe, where equality of birth ("Ebenbürtigkeit") between the spouses was considered an important principle among the reigning houses and high nobility. The German name was "Ehe zur linken Hand" ("marriage by the left hand") and the husband gave his left hand during the wedding ceremony instead of the right.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Perhaps the most famous example in modern times was the 1900 marriage of the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and Bohemian aristocrat Countess Sophie Chotek von Chotkowa. The marriage was initially resisted by Emperor Franz Joseph I, but after pressure from family members and other European rulers, he relented in 1899 (but did not attend the wedding himself). The bride was made Princess (later Duchess) of Hohenberg, their children took their mother's new name and rank, but were excluded from the imperial succession. The Sarajevo assassination in 1914, killing both the Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie, triggered the First World War.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Although the issue of morganatic marriages were ineligible to succeed to their families' respective thrones, children of morganatic marriages have gone on to achieve dynastic success elsewhere in Europe. Descendants of the 1851 marriage of Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine to the German-Polish noblewoman Countess Julia von Hauke (created Princess of Battenberg) include Alexander, sovereign prince of Bulgaria, queen-consorts of Spain (Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg) and of Sweden (Louise Mountbatten), and, in the female line, Charles III (through his paternal grandmother, Alice of Battenberg).


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Likewise, from the morganatic marriage of Duke Alexander of Württemberg and Countess Claudine Rhédey von Kis-Rhéde (created Countess von Hohenstein) descends Mary of Teck, who became Britain's queen in 1911 as the consort of King George V.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Occasionally, children of morganatic marriages have overcome their non-dynastic origins and succeeded to their family's realms. Margrave Leopold inherited the throne of Baden, despite being born of a morganatic marriage, after all dynastic males of the House of Zähringen died out. The son of Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden, by his second wife Louise Caroline Geyer von Geyersberg, who belonged to the minor nobility, Leopold became a prince in 1817, at the age of 27, as the result of a new law of succession. Baden's grand-ducal family faced extinction, so Leopold was enfranchised by international treaty and married to a princess, ascending the throne in 1830. His descendants ruled the grand duchy until the abolition of the monarchy in 1918.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Other reigning German families adopted similar approaches when facing a lack of male heirs. In 1896 the Princely House of Schwarzburg, with the Sondershausen branch numbering two elderly childless princes and Rudolstadt just one childless prince, recognised Prince Sizzo von Leutenberg, morganatic son of Friedrich Günther, Prince of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, as a Prince of Schwarzburg and heir to the two principalities.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: The senior line of the dynasty ruling the Principality of Lippe was bordering on extinction as the 20th century approached, prompting a succession dispute between the Lippe-Biesterfeld and Schaumburg-Lippe branches of the dynasty which evoked international intervention and troop movements. It centered on whether some ancestresses of the Biesterfeld branch had been legally dynastic; if so, that line stood next to inherit the princely crown according to primogeniture. If not, the Biesterfelds would be deemed morganatic and the Schaumburg-Lippes would inherit the throne. Lippe's Parliament was blocked from voting on the matter by the German Empire's "Reichstag", which instead created a panel of jurists selected by the King of Saxony to evaluate the evidence concerning the historical marital rules of the House of Lippe and render a decision in the matter, all parties agreeing to abide by their judgment. In 1897 and 1905 panels ruled in favour of the dynasticity of the challenged ancestresses and their descendants, largely because, although neither had been of dynastic rank, the Lippes had historically accepted such marriages for the junior lines when approved by the Head of House.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a few families considered in Germany to be morganatic were considered for crowns elsewhere, constituting unexpected rehabilitation of their status. The first of these was Prince Alexander of Battenberg, who in 1877 was agreed upon by the Great Powers as the best candidate for the new throne of Bulgaria. He was, however, unable to hold onto his crown, and was also unable to obtain the hand in marriage of Princess Viktoria of Prussia despite the efforts of her imperial mother and grandmother.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Wilhelm, Duke of Urach (1864–1928), whose father was the morganatic son of a Württemberg prince, had the distinction of being under consideration for the crowns of five realms at different times: that of the Kingdom of Württemberg in the 1890s, as the senior agnate by primogeniture when it became likely that King William II would die without male descendants, leaving as heir Duke Albrecht of Württemberg, a more distantly related, albeit dynastic, royal kinsman; the Principality of Albania in 1913; the Principality of Monaco at turn of the 20th century, as the next heir by proximity of blood following the Hereditary Prince Louis, until the Monaco succession crisis of 1918 was resolved as the First World War ended; the prospective Grand Duchy of Alsace-Lorraine in 1917; and his abortive election by the "Taryba" as King Mindaugas II of Lithuania in July 1918. In the event, Duke Wilhelm obtained none of these thrones.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Relying upon the "Almanach de Gotha" to gazette dynastic events, Germany's deposed heads of state continued to notify its editors of changes in family members' status and traditional titles. In 1919 the morganatic wife and children of Prince Oskar of Prussia, the counts and countesses von Ruppin, were upgraded to princes and princesses of Prussia by the exiled Kaiser Wilhelm II. In 1928 Georg, Count von Carlow, morganatic son of Duke George Alexander of Mecklenburg and commoner Natalia Vanljarskaya, became a duke of Mecklenburg and heir to his uncle Duke Charles Michael. In 1949, and again in 1999, various morganatic members of the Bavarian Royal House were recognised as princes and princesses of Bavaria, with the current head of the house, Franz, Duke of Bavaria, being among the beneficiaries of his father's ruling, having been born of a marriage initially deemed morganatic.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: In the former Royal Family of Saxony Maria Emanuel, Margrave of Meissen adopted and designated as his heir his nephew Alexander de Afif, thus bypassing his agnatic cousin's morganatic son, Prince Rüdiger of Saxony, and his three sons.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: When the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg found itself without a male heir at the beginning of the 20th century, the morganatic counts von Merenberg proposed themselves as heirs, being the last legitimate descendants in the male line of the House of Nassau. Grand Duke William IV, however, chose to confirm the law of succession stipulated in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna to allow a female descendant in the Nassau male line to become successor to the throne (his own daughter Marie-Adélaïde) instead.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Paul I of Russia promulgated a strict new house law for Russia in 1797, eliminating the sovereign's right to designate the heir to the throne, but requiring that dynasts be born of authorized marriages. In 1820 a new law also stipulated that only children of Romanovs born of marriages with persons of equal status, i.e., members of a "royal or sovereign family", could transmit succession rights and titles to descendants. Alexander III forbade Romanov morganatic marriages altogether by issuance of "ukase" #5868 on 24 March 1889 amending article #63 of the Statute on the Imperial Family in the Pauline laws. By "ukase" #35731, dated 11 August 1911, Nicholas II amended the amendment, reducing application of this restriction from all members of the Imperial Family to grand dukes and grand duchesses only. This decree allowed marriages of the princes and princesses of the Blood Imperial with non-royal spouses, on the conditions that the emperor's consent be obtained, that the dynast renounce his or her personal succession rights, and that the Pauline laws restricting succession rights to those born of equal marriages continue in force.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: An early victim of the Pauline laws was Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich, grandson of Catherine the Great, and viceroy of Poland. On 20 March 1820 his marriage to Princess Juliane of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld was annulled to allow him to morganatically wed his longtime mistress, Countess Joanna Grudna-Grudzińska, in Warsaw on 24 May 1820, who was elevated to the title "Princess Łowicza" upon marriage, which produced no children.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: One emperor, Alexander II, married morganatically in 1880. Princess Ekaterina Mihailovna Dolgorukova, Alexander's second bride, had previously been his long-term mistress and the mother of his three legitimised children, the princes and princesses Yurievsky.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Beginning a novel tradition, one of that couple's daughters, Princess Olga Aleksandrovna Yurievskaya (1873–1925), in 1895 married the child of an 1868 morganatic marriage in the House of Nassau, George, Count von Merenberg (1871–1965). His mother was a daughter of renowned author Alexander Pushkin but, despite being of noble birth, she could not in 1868 dynastically marry the younger brother of a then-exiled Duke of Nassau. The count filed a futile suit to establish that his morganatic status in Germany should not exclude him from succession to the throne of Luxembourg after the last male of the House of Orange, King William III of the Netherlands, died in 1890 and it became apparent that the House of Nassau faced the imminent extinction of its male members, as well, upon the eventual death of Grand Duke William IV. Olga's brother, Prince George Aleksandrovich Yurievsky (1872–1913), in 1900 wed Countess Alexandra von Zarnekau (1883–1957), daughter of the morganatic marriage of the Russo-German Duke Constantine Petrovich of Oldenburg with Agrafena Djaparidize. Merenberg's sister, Sophia (1868–1927), likewise contracted a morganatic marriage in 1891, with Grand Duke Michael Mikhailovich of Russia, whose cousin, Emperor Nicholas II banished them to England, unwittingly saving the couple from the maelstrom of the Russian Revolution which proved fatal to so many Romanovs. She and her children were made "counts de Torby", her younger daughter, Countess Nada (1896–1963) marrying, in 1916 Prince George of Battenberg, future Marquess of Milford Haven and scion of the House of Battenberg, a morganatic branch of the grandducal House of Hesse which had settled in England and inter-married with descendants of Queen Victoria.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Less fortunate among the Romanovs was Grand Duke Paul Aleksandrovich, who went into exile in Paris to marry a commoner, Olga Valerianovna Karnovich in 1902. Paul returned to serve in the Russian army during the First World War, and Nicholas II rewarded his uncle's loyalty by elevating Olga and her children as Princess and Princes Paley in 1915. Paul's patriotism, however, sealed his fate, and he died at the hands of Russia's revolutionaries in 1919. One of his daughters, Princess Irene Pavlovna Paley (1903–1990), was married while in exile in 1923, to her cousin, Prince Theodor Aleksandrovich of Russia, (1898-1968).


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Nicholas II forbade his brother, Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich of Russia, from marrying twice-divorced noblewoman Natalya Sergeyevna Wulfert ("née" Sheremetevskaya), but the couple eloped abroad in 1911. The Tsar refused his brother's request to grant the bride or their son, George Mikhailovich (1910–1931) a title, but legitimated George and incorporated him into the Russian nobility under the surname "Brassov" in 1915: nonetheless he and his mother used the comital title from 1915, only being granted a princely prefix in exile by Cyril Vladimirovich, Grand Duke of Russia in 1928. In the throes of the First World War, Nicholas II allowed his sister Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia to end her loveless marriage to her social equal, Duke Peter Alexandrovich of Oldenburg, and quietly marry commoner Colonel Nikolai Alexandrovich Kulikovsky. Both Michael's and Olga's descendants from these marriages were excluded from the succession.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: After the murder of Nicholas II and his children, the Imperial Family's morganatic marriages restricted the number of possible claimants. Grand Duke Cyril Vladimirovich, Nicholas's cousin, proclaimed himself as Emperor in exile. Controversy accompanied the marriage of his son Grand Duke Vladimir Cyrillovich to Princess Leonida Georgievna Bagration-Mukhransky, a descendant of the deposed Royal House of Georgia. After the annexation of Georgia in 1801, Leonida's family were deemed ordinary nobility in Imperial Russia rather than royalty, leading to claims that her 1948 marriage to Vladimir (who, however, also belonged to a deposed dynasty by then) was unequal and should be considered morganatic. As a result, some factions within Russia's monarchist movement did not support the couple's daughter, Grand Duchess Maria Vladimirovna, as the rightful heir to the Romanov dynasty.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Standards of social classification and marital rules resembling the traditions of dynastic Europe can also be found in a number of sovereign nations in Africa. Here, a number of its constituent sovereign nations have legalized traditional authority as manifested in the recognized hereditary transmission of chieftaincy in historically relevant regions of the continent (e.g., the Asantehene of Ghana).


title: Morganatic marriage

text: An example of the form that morganatic unions tend to take amongst African royalty can be found in the biography of Nelson Mandela, the late leader of South Africa. Mandela, a nobleman by birth of the Xhosa Thembus that reside in the Transkei region of the Cape coast, was nevertheless unable to ascend the throne of the "Kumkani" (or king) of the entire Thembu tribe, even though he descended in the legitimate, male line from the holders of this title. Nearly two centuries ago, Ngubengcuka (d. 1832), who ruled as the "Kumkani" of the Thembu people, married and subsequently left a son named Mandela, who became Nelson's grandfather and the source of his surname. However, because Mandela was only the Inkosi's child by a wife of the "Ixhiba" lineage, a so-called "Left-Hand House", the descendants of his cadet branch of the Thembu royal family remain ineligible to succeed to the Thembu throne, which is itself one of the several traditional seats that are still officially recognized by South Africa's government. Instead, the Mandelas were given the chiefdom of Mvezo and made hereditary counsellors to the "Kumkani" (i.e., privy counsellors) in deference to their royal ancestry. Following the loss of this chiefdom (which has since been restored to the family) in the Apartheid era, the Mandelas retained their positions as nobles of the Transkei. This status entailed, however, a degree of subjugation to the head of the dynasty, in particular in the matter of marital selection, which proved so onerous an issue to Nelson Mandela that it prompted the departure to Johannesburg that eventually led to his political career. Like the House of Battenberg in Europe, Mandela's family has since rehabilitated its dynastic status to some extent: Mandela was still in prison when his daughter Zenani was married to Prince Thumbumuzi Dlamini in 1973, elder brother of both King Mswati III of Swaziland and Queen Mantfombi, Great Wife of Goodwill Zwelithini, King of the Zulus.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: In the erstwhile princely state of Travancore, in India, the male members of the Travancore Royal Family were, under the existing matrilineal Marumakkathayam system of inheritance and family, permitted to contract marriages with women of the Nair caste only. These were morganatic marriages called Sambandhams wherein the children gained their mother's caste and family name, due to Marumakkathayam. Although they could not inherit the throne, they did receive a title of nobility, Thampi (son of the Maharajah) and Kochamma (daughter of the Maharajah). These were the members of the Ammaveedus and their titles ensured a comfortable lifestyle and all other luxuries. The descendants of these Ammaveedu members were simply called Thampi and Thankachi and they didn't get any other distinguishing privileges.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: The Cochin Royal family also followed the system of Marumakkatayam. Traditionally the female members of the family married Namboodiri Brahmins while male members marry ladies of the Nair caste. These wives of the male members are not royalty or didn't receive any royal titles or power, per the matrilineal system but instead get the title of Nethyar Amma. Their position ceases when the Maharaja dies. The children born to Neytharammas will be known by their mother's caste and hold no key royal titles. Currently the family marries mostly within the Kerala Kshatriya class.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: The concept of morganatic marriage has never clearly existed in any part of the United Kingdom, and historically the English crown descended through marriages with commoners as late as the 17th century. Only two of the six marriages Henry VIII made to secure an heir were with royal brides, and Elizabeth Woodville, queen of Edward IV of England, was also a commoner.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Another link in the English succession involving marriage with a commoner was between John of Gaunt and Katherine Swynford. When they married after co-habiting for several years all children born previously were subsequently legitimated by Act of Parliament. King Henry IV later declared that they could not inherit the crown, but it is not clear that he had the right to do this. This marriage was important, as King Henry VII was descended from it, but Parliament still declared that he was king, so some issues remained unresolved.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: The marriage of George IV as Prince of Wales to Maria Fitzherbert in 1785 is frequently referred to as morganatic: it was in fact doubly in breach of law, as a marriage to a Catholic and one not having been sanctioned by the king.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: As in nearly all European monarchies extant in the 21st century, most approved marriages in the British royal family are with untitled commoners and have been for several generations. In 1923, the future George VI (then second in line to the throne as Duke of York), was the first future British monarch to marry a non-princess or prince since 1659 when the future James VII & II eloped with Anne Hyde. Wives of British peers are entitled to use the feminine form of their husbands' peerages under English common law, while wives of royal princes share their husbands' styles by custom unless the Sovereign formally objects.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: For example, Catherine Middleton, a commoner, became the Duchess of Cambridge upon her marriage on 29 April 2011 to Prince William, who had been created Duke of Cambridge that morning. Camilla Parker Bowles, second wife of Charles, Prince of Wales (as he was at the time), legally held the title "Princess of Wales" but at the time that the engagement was announced it was declared that she would be known by the title "Duchess of Cornwall" and, in Scotland, Duchess of Rothesay (derived from other titles her husband holds as heir apparent) in deference, it has been reported, to public feelings about the title's previous holder, the Prince's first wife Lady Diana Spencer. It was simultaneously stated that at such time, if any, that her husband accedes to the throne, she will be known as "Princess Consort" rather than "Queen", although as the king's wife she would legally be queen. However in her 2022 Accession Day message, Queen Elizabeth II stated that it was her "sincere wish" for Camilla to be “known as Queen Consort” upon Charles's accession to the throne.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: On 16 November 1936 Edward VIII informed Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin that he intended to marry the American divorcée Wallis Simpson, proposing that he be allowed to do so morganatically and remain king. Baldwin expressed his belief that Mrs. Simpson would be unacceptable to the British people as queen due to her status as a divorcee, which contradicted Church of England doctrine at the time, but agreed to take further soundings. The prospect of the marriage was rejected by the British Cabinet. The other Dominion governments were consulted pursuant to the Statute of Westminster 1931, which provided in part that "any alteration in the law touching the Succession to the Throne or the Royal Style and Titles shall hereafter require the assent as well of the Parliaments of all the Dominions as of the Parliament of the United Kingdom." Baldwin suggested three options to the prime ministers of the five Dominions of which Edward was also king: Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and the Irish Free State. The options were:


title: Morganatic marriage

text: The second option had European precedents, including Edward's own maternal great-grandfather, Duke Alexander of Württemberg, but no unambiguous parallel in British constitutional history. William Lyon Mackenzie King (Prime Minister of Canada), Joseph Lyons (Prime Minister of Australia) and J. B. M. Hertzog (Prime Minister of South Africa) opposed options 1 and 2. Michael Joseph Savage (Prime Minister of New Zealand) rejected option 1 but thought that option 2 "might be possible ... if some solution along these lines were found to be practicable" but "would be guided by the decision of the Home government". Thus the majority of the Commonwealth's prime ministers agreed that there was "no alternative to course (3)". On 24 November, Baldwin consulted the three leading opposition politicians in Britain: Leader of the Opposition Clement Attlee, Liberal leader Sir Archibald Sinclair and Winston Churchill. Sinclair and Attlee agreed that options 1 and 2 were unacceptable and Churchill pledged to support the government.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: The letters and diaries of working-class people and ex-servicemen generally demonstrate support for the King, while those from the middle and upper classes tend to express indignation and distaste. "The Times", "The Morning Post", the "Daily Herald", and newspapers owned by Lord Kemsley, such as "The Daily Telegraph", opposed the marriage. On the other hand, the "Express" and "Mail" newspapers, owned by Lord Beaverbrook and Lord Rothermere, respectively, appeared to support a morganatic marriage. The King estimated that the newspapers in favour had a circulation of 12.5 million, and those against had 8.5 million.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Backed by Churchill and Beaverbrook, Edward proposed to broadcast a speech indicating his desire to remain on the throne or to be recalled to it if forced to abdicate, while marrying Mrs Simpson morganatically. In one section, Edward proposed to say:


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Baldwin and the British Cabinet blocked the speech, saying that it would shock many people and would be a grave breach of constitutional principles.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: Ultimately, Edward decided to give up the throne for "the woman I love," whereupon he and his descendants were deprived of all right to the Crown by Parliament's passage of His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936. He was created Duke of Windsor on 8 March 1937 by his brother, the new George VI. He would marry Wallis Simpson in France on 3 June 1937, after her second divorce became final. In the meantime, however, letters patent dated 27 May 1937, which re-conferred upon the Duke of Windsor the "title, style, or attribute of Royal Highness", specifically stated that "his wife and descendants, if any, shall not hold said title or attribute". This decree was issued by the new king and unanimously supported by the Dominion governments. The king's authority to withhold from the lawful wife of a prince the attribute hitherto accorded to the wives of other modern British princes was addressed by the Crown's legal authorities: On 14 April 1937, Attorney General Sir Donald Somervell submitted to Home Secretary Sir John Simon a memorandum summarising the views of Lord Advocate T. M. Cooper, Parliamentary Counsel Sir Granville Ram, and himself:


title: Morganatic marriage

text: The new King's firm view, that the Duchess should not be given a royal title, was shared by Queen Mary and George's wife, Queen Elizabeth. The Duchess bitterly resented the denial of the royal title and the refusal of the Duke's relatives to accept her as part of the family. In the early days of George VI's reign the Duke telephoned daily, importuning for money and urging that the Duchess be granted the style of Royal Highness, until the harassed King ordered that the calls not be put through. However, within the household of the Duke and Duchess, the style "Her Royal Highness" was used by those who were close to the couple.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: The Royal Marriages Act of 1772 made it illegal for all persons born into the British royal family to marry without the permission of the sovereign, and any marriage contracted without the sovereign's consent was considered invalid. This led to several prominent cases of British princes who had gone through marriage ceremonies, and who cohabited with their partners as if married, but whose relationships were not legally recognised. As a result, their partners and children (which would be considered illegitimate) held no titles, and had no succession rights. This differs from morganatic marriages, which are considered legally valid.


title: Morganatic marriage

text: It has been suggested that William, Prince of Orange, expected to have a strong claim to the throne of England after the Duke of York during the reign of Charles II. In fact, the Duke's two daughters from his first marriage, Princess Mary and Princess Anne, were considered to have the stronger claim by the English establishment. William's expectation was based on the continental practice of morganatic marriage, since the mother of both princesses, Anne Hyde, was a commoner and a lady-in-waiting to William's mother, Princess Mary. It was through his mother, a sister of Charles II and the Duke of York, that William claimed the throne, because, to his mind, the son of a princess had a stronger claim than the daughter of a commoner. It was to shore up his own claim to the throne that he agreed to marry his first cousin, Princess Mary. When James II fled at the Glorious Revolution, William refused to accept the title of king consort (which Philip II of Spain had been granted under Queen Mary I in the 1550s) and insisted on being named King in his own right. The compromise solution involved naming both to the crown as had rarely happened in the past (see for example King Henry II and his son Young King Henry, who ruled England simultaneously).


title: Femur

text: The femur (; ), or thigh bone, is the proximal bone of the hindlimb in tetrapod vertebrates. The head of the femur articulates with the acetabulum in the pelvic bone forming the hip joint, while the distal part of the femur articulates with the tibia (shinbone) and patella (kneecap), forming the knee joint. By most measures the two (left and right) femurs are the strongest bones of the body, and in humans, the largest and thickest.


title: Femur

text: The femur is the only bone in the upper leg. The two femurs converge medially toward the knees, where they articulate with the proximal ends of the tibiae. The angle of convergence of the femora is a major factor in determining the femoral-tibial angle. Human females have thicker pelvic bones, causing their femora to converge more than in males.


title: Femur

text: In the condition "genu valgum" (knock knee) the femurs converge so much that the knees touch one another. The opposite extreme is "genu varum" (bow-leggedness). In the general population of people without either "genu valgum" or "genu varum", the femoral-tibial angle is about 175 degrees.


title: Femur

text: The femur is the largest and thickest bone in the human body. By some measures, it is also the strongest bone in the human body. This depends on the type of measurement taken to calculate strength. Some strength tests show the temporal bone in the skull to be the strongest bone. The femur length on average is 26.74% of a person's height, a ratio found in both men and women and most ethnic groups with only restricted variation, and is useful in anthropology because it offers a basis for a reasonable estimate of a subject's height from an incomplete skeleton.


title: Femur

text: The femur is categorised as a long bone and comprises a diaphysis (shaft or body) and two epiphyses (extremities) that articulate with adjacent bones in the hip and knee.


title: Femur

text: The upper or proximal extremity (close to the torso) contains the head, neck, the two trochanters and adjacent structures. The upper extremity is the shortest femoral extremity, the lower extremity is the thickest femoral extremity.


title: Femur

text: The head of the femur, which articulates with the acetabulum of the pelvic bone, comprises two-thirds of a sphere. It has a small groove, or fovea, connected through the round ligament to the sides of the acetabular notch. The head of the femur is connected to the shaft through the neck or "collum". The neck is 4–5 cm. long and the diameter is smallest front to back and compressed at its middle. The collum forms an angle with the shaft in about 130 degrees. This angle is highly variant. In the infant it is about 150 degrees and in old age reduced to 120 degrees on average. An abnormal increase in the angle is known as coxa valga and an abnormal reduction is called coxa vara. Both the head and neck of the femur is vastly embedded in the hip musculature and can not be directly palpated. In skinny people with the thigh laterally rotated, the head of the femur can be felt deep as a resistance profound (deep) for the femoral artery.


title: Femur

text: The transition area between the head and neck is quite rough due to attachment of muscles and the hip joint capsule. Here the two trochanters, greater and lesser trochanter, are found. The greater trochanter is almost box-shaped and is the most lateral prominent of the femur. The highest point of the greater trochanter is located higher than the collum and reaches the midpoint of the hip joint. The greater trochanter can easily be felt. The trochanteric fossa is a deep depression bounded posteriorly by the intertrochanteric crest on the medial surface of the greater trochanter.


title: Femur

text: The lesser trochanter is a cone-shaped extension of the lowest part of the femur neck. The two trochanters are joined by the intertrochanteric crest on the back side and by the intertrochanteric line on the front.


title: Femur

text: A slight ridge is sometimes seen commencing about the middle of the intertrochanteric crest, and reaching vertically downward for about 5 cm. along the back part of the body: it is called the linea quadrata (or quadrate line).


title: Femur

text: About the junction of the upper one-third and lower two-thirds on the intertrochanteric crest is the quadrate tubercle located. The size of the tubercle varies and it is not always located on the intertrochanteric crest and that also adjacent areas can be part of the quadrate tubercle, such as the posterior surface of the greater trochanter or the neck of the femur. In a small anatomical study it was shown that the epiphyseal line passes directly through the quadrate tubercle.


title: Femur

text: The body of the femur (or shaft) is large, thick and almost cylindrical in form. It is a little broader above than in the center, broadest and somewhat flattened from before backward below. It is slightly arched, so as to be convex in front, and concave behind, where it is strengthened by a prominent longitudinal ridge, the linea aspera which diverges proximally and distal as the medial and lateral ridge. Proximally the lateral ridge of the linea aspera becomes the gluteal tuberosity while the medial ridge continues as the pectineal line. Besides the linea aspera the shaft has two other bordes; a lateral and medial border. These three bordes separates the shaft into three surfaces: One anterior, one medial and one lateral. Due to the vast musculature of the thigh the shaft can not be palpated.


title: Femur

text: The third trochanter is a bony projection occasionally present on the proximal femur near the superior border of the gluteal tuberosity. When present, it is oblong, rounded, or conical in shape and sometimes continuous with the gluteal ridge. A structure of minor importance in humans, the incidence of the third trochanter varies from 17–72% between ethnic groups and it is frequently reported as more common in females than in males.


title: Femur

text: The lower extremity of the femur (or distal extremity) is the thickest femoral extremity, the upper extremity is the shortest femoral extremity. It is somewhat cuboid in form, but its transverse diameter is greater than its antero-posterior (front to back). It consists of two oblong eminences known as the condyles.


title: Femur

text: Anteriorly, the condyles are slightly prominent and are separated by a smooth shallow articular depression called the patellar surface. Posteriorly, they project considerably and a deep notch, the Intercondylar fossa of femur, is present between them. The lateral condyle is the more prominent and is the broader both in its antero-posterior and transverse diameters. The medial condyle is the longer and, when the femur is held with its body perpendicular, projects to a lower level. When, however, the femur is in its natural oblique position the lower surfaces of the two condyles lie practically in the same horizontal plane. The condyles are not quite parallel with one another; the long axis of the lateral is almost directly antero-posterior, but that of the medial runs backward and medialward. Their opposed surfaces are small, rough, and concave, and form the walls of the intercondyloid fossa. This fossa is limited above by a ridge, the intercondyloid line, and below by the central part of the posterior margin of the patellar surface. The posterior cruciate ligament of the knee joint is attached to the lower and front part of the medial wall of the fossa and the anterior cruciate ligament to an impression on the upper and back part of its lateral wall.


title: Femur

text: The articular surface of the lower end of the femur occupies the anterior, inferior, and posterior surfaces of the condyles. Its front part is named the patellar surface and articulates with the patella; it presents a median groove which extends downward to the intercondyloid fossa and two convexities, the lateral of which is broader, more prominent, and extends farther upward than the medial.


title: Femur

text: Each condyle is surmounted by an elevation, the epicondyle. The medial epicondyle is a large convex eminence to which the tibial collateral ligament of the knee-joint is attached. At its upper part is the adductor tubercle and behind it is a rough impression which gives origin to the medial head of the gastrocnemius. The lateral epicondyle which is smaller and less prominent than the medial, gives attachment to the fibular collateral ligament of the knee-joint.


title: Femur

text: The femur develops from the limb buds as a result of interactions between the ectoderm and the underlying mesoderm, formation occurs roughly around the fourth week of development.


title: Femur

text: By the sixth week of development, the first hyaline cartilage model of the femur is formed by chondrocytes. Endochondral ossification begins by the end of the embryonic period and primary ossification centers are present in all long bones of the limbs, including the femur, by the 12th week of development. The hindlimb development lags behind forelimb development by 1–2 days.


title: Femur

text: As the femur is the only bone in the thigh, it serves as an attachment point for all the muscles that exert their force over the hip and knee joints. Some biarticular muscles – which cross two joints, like the gastrocnemius and plantaris muscles – also originate from the femur. In all, 23 individual muscles either originate from or insert onto the femur.


title: Femur

text: In cross-section, the thigh is divided up into three separate fascial compartments divided by fascia, each containing muscles. These compartments use the femur as an axis, and are separated by tough connective tissue membranes (or septa). Each of these compartments has its own blood and nerve supply, and contains a different group of muscles. These compartments are named the anterior, medial and posterior fascial compartments.


title: Femur

text: A femoral fracture that involves the femoral head, femoral neck or the shaft of the femur immediately below the lesser trochanter may be classified as a hip fracture, especially when associated with osteoporosis. Femur fractures can be managed in a pre-hospital setting with the use of a traction splint.


title: Femur

text: In primitive tetrapods, the main points of muscle attachment along the femur are the internal trochanter and third trochanter, and a ridge along the ventral surface of the femoral shaft referred to as the adductor crest. The neck of the femur is generally minimal or absent in the most primitive forms, reflecting a simple attachment to the acetabulum. The greater trochanter was present in the extinct archosaurs, as well as in modern birds and mammals, being associated with the loss of the primitive sprawling gait. The lesser trochanter is a unique development of mammals, which lack both the internal and fourth trochanters. The adductor crest is also often absent in mammals or alternatively reduced to a series of creases along the surface of the bone. Structures analogous to the third trochanter are present in mammals, including some primates.


title: Femur

text: Some species of whales, snakes, and other non-walking vertebrates have vestigial femurs. In some snakes the protruding end of a pelvic spur, a vestigial pelvis and femur remnant which is not connected to the rest of the skeleton, plays a role in mating. This role in mating is hypothesized to have possibly occurred in "Basilosauridae", an extinct family of whales with well-defined femurs, lower legs and feet. Occasionally, the genes that code for longer extremities cause a modern whale to develop miniature legs (atavism).


title: Femur

text: One of the earliest known vertebrates to have a femur is the "eusthenopteron", a prehistoric lobe-finned fish from the Late Devonian period.


title: Femur

text: A recent study revealed that bone is a much richer source of persistent DNA viruses than earlier perceived. Besides Parvovirus 19 and hepatitis B virus, ten additional ones were discovered, namely several members of the herpes- and polyomavirus families, as well as human papillomavirus 31 and torque teno virus.


title: Femur

text: In invertebrate zoology the name "femur" appears in arthropodology. The usage is not homologous with that of vertebrate anatomy; the term "femur" simply has been adopted by analogy and refers, where applicable, to the most proximal of (usually) the two longest jointed segments of the legs of the arthropoda. The two basal segments preceding the femur are the coxa and trochanter. This convention is not followed in carcinology but it applies in arachnology and entomology. In myriapodology another segment, the prefemur, connects the trochanter and femur.


title: Robert Falcon Scott

text: Captain Robert Falcon Scott, , (6 June 1868 – c. 29 March 1912) was a British Royal Navy officer and explorer who led two expeditions to the Antarctic regions: the "Discovery" expedition of 1901–1904 and the ill-fated "Terra Nova" expedition of 1910–1913. On the first expedition, he set a new southern record by marching to latitude 82°S and discovered the Antarctic Plateau, on which the South Pole is located. On the second venture, Scott led a party of five which reached the South Pole on 17 January 1912, less than five weeks after Amundsen's South Pole expedition.


title: Robert Falcon Scott

text: A planned meeting with supporting dog teams from the base camp failed, despite Scott's written instructions, and at a distance of 162 miles (261 km) from their base camp at Hut Point and approximately 12.5 miles (20 km) from the next depot, Scott and his companions died. When Scott and his party's bodies were discovered, they had in their possession the first Antarctic fossils ever discovered. The fossils were determined to be from the "Glossopteris" tree and proved that Antarctica was once forested and joined to other continents.


title: Robert Falcon Scott

text: Before his appointment to lead the "Discovery" expedition, Scott had a career as a naval officer in the Royal Navy. In 1899, he had a chance encounter with Sir Clements Markham, the president of the Royal Geographical Society, and thus learned of a planned Antarctic expedition, which he soon volunteered to lead. Having taken this step, his name became inseparably associated with the Antarctic, the field of work to which he remained committed during the final 12 years of his life.


title: Robert Falcon Scott

text: Following the news of his death, Scott became a celebrated hero, a status reflected by memorials erected across the UK. However, in the last decades of the 20th century, questions were raised about his competence and character. Commentators in the 21st century have regarded Scott more positively after assessing the temperature drop below in March 1912, and after re-discovering Scott's written orders of October 1911, in which he had instructed the dog teams to meet and assist him on the return trip.


title: Robert Falcon Scott

text: Scott was born on 6 June 1868, the third of six children and elder son of John Edward, a brewer and magistrate, and Hannah (née Cuming) Scott of Stoke Damerel, near Devonport. There were also naval and military traditions in the family, Scott's grandfather and four uncles all having served in the army or navy. John Scott's prosperity came from the ownership of a small Plymouth brewery which he had inherited from his father and subsequently sold. Scott's early childhood years were spent in comfort, but some years later, when he was establishing his naval career, the family suffered serious financial misfortune.


title: Robert Falcon Scott

text: In accordance with the family's tradition, Scott and his younger brother Archie were predestined for careers in the armed services. Scott spent four years at a local day school before being sent to Stubbington House School in Hampshire, a cramming establishment that prepared candidates for the entrance examinations to the naval training ship at Dartmouth. Having passed these exams Scott began his naval career in 1881, as a 13-year-old cadet.


title: Robert Falcon Scott

text: In July 1883, Scott passed out of "Britannia" as a midshipman, seventh overall in a class of 26. By October, he was en route to South Africa to join , the flagship of the Cape squadron, the first of several ships on which he served during his midshipman years. While stationed in St Kitts, West Indies, on , he had his first encounter with Clements Markham, then Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society, who would loom large in Scott's later career. On this occasion, 1 March 1887, Markham observed Midshipman Scott's cutter winning that morning's race across the bay. Markham's habit was to "collect" likely young naval officers with a view to their undertaking polar exploration work in the future. He was impressed by Scott's intelligence, enthusiasm and charm, and the 18-year-old midshipman was duly noted.


title: Robert Falcon Scott

text: In March 1888 Scott passed his examinations for sub-lieutenant, with four first class certificates out of five. His career progressed smoothly, with service on various ships and promotion to lieutenant in 1889. In 1891, after a long spell in foreign waters, he applied for the two-year torpedo training course on , an important career step. He graduated with first class certificates in both the theory and practical examinations. A small blot occurred in the summer of 1893 when, while commanding a torpedo boat, Scott ran it aground, a mishap which earned him a mild rebuke.


title: Robert Falcon Scott

text: During the research for his dual biography of Scott and Roald Amundsen, polar historian Roland Huntford investigated a possible scandal in Scott's early naval career, related to the period 1889–1890 when Scott was a lieutenant on . According to Huntford, Scott "disappears from naval records" for eight months, from mid-August 1889 until 26 March 1890. Huntford hints at involvement with a married American woman, a cover-up, and protection by senior officers. Biographer David Crane reduces the missing period to eleven weeks, but is unable to clarify further. He rejects the notion of protection by senior officers on the grounds that Scott was not important or well-connected enough to warrant this. Documents that may have offered explanations are missing from Admiralty records.


title: Robert Falcon Scott

text: In 1894, while serving as torpedo officer on the depot ship , Scott learned of the financial calamity that had overtaken his family. John Scott, having sold the brewery and invested the proceeds unwisely, had lost all his capital and was now virtually bankrupt. At the age of 63, and in poor health, he was forced to take a job as a brewery manager and move his family to Shepton Mallet, Somerset. Three years later, while Robert was serving with the Channel squadron flagship , John Scott died of heart disease, creating a fresh family crisis. Hannah Scott and her two unmarried daughters now relied entirely on the service pay of Scott and the salary of younger brother Archie, who had left the army for a higher-paid post in the colonial service. Archie's own death in the autumn of 1898, after contracting typhoid fever, meant that the whole financial responsibility for the family rested on Scott.


title: Robert Falcon Scott

text: Promotion, and the extra income this would bring, now became a matter of considerable concern to Scott. In the Royal Navy however, opportunities for career advancement were both limited and keenly sought after by ambitious officers. Early in June 1899, while home on leave, he had a chance encounter in a London street with Clements Markham, who was now knighted and President of the Royal Geographical Society (RGS), and learned for the first time of an impending Antarctic expedition with , under the auspices of the RGS. It was the opportunity for early command and a chance to distinguish himself, rather than any predilection for polar exploration which motivated Scott, according to Crane. What passed between them on this occasion is not recorded, but a few days later, on 11 June, Scott appeared at the Markham residence and volunteered to lead the expedition.


title: Robert Falcon Scott

text: The British National Antarctic Expedition, later known as the "Discovery" Expedition, was a joint enterprise of the RGS and the Royal Society. A long-cherished dream of Markham's, it required all of his skills and cunning to bring the expedition to fruition, under naval command and largely staffed by naval personnel. Scott may not have been Markham's first choice as leader but, having decided on him, the older man remained a constant supporter. There were committee battles over the scope of Scott's responsibilities, with the Royal Society pressing to put a scientist in charge of the expedition's programme while Scott merely commanded the ship. Eventually, however, Markham's view prevailed; Scott was given overall command, and was promoted to the rank of commander before sailed for the Antarctic on 6 August 1901. King Edward VII, who showed a keen interest in the expedition, visited the "Discovery" the day before the ship left British shores in August 1901, and during the visit appointed Scott a Member Fourth Class of the Royal Victorian Order, his personal gift.


title: Robert Falcon Scott

text: Experience of Antarctic or Arctic waters was almost entirely lacking within the 50-strong party and there was very little special training in equipment or techniques before the ship set sail. Dogs were taken, as were skis, but the dogs succumbed to disease in the first season. Nevertheless, the dogs' performance impressed Scott, and, despite moral qualms, he implemented the principle of slaughtering dogs for dog food to increase the others' range. During an early attempt at ice travel, a blizzard trapped expedition members in their tent and their decision to leave it resulted in the death of George Vince, who slipped over a precipice on 11 March 1902. The expedition also experienced problems with scurvy, which affected Scott's domestic reputation.


title: Robert Falcon Scott

text: The expedition had both scientific and exploration objectives; the latter included a long journey south, in the direction of the South Pole. This march, undertaken by Scott, Ernest Shackleton and Edward Wilson, took them to a latitude of 82°17′S, about 530 miles (853 km) from the pole. A harrowing return journey brought about Shackleton's physical collapse and his early departure from the expedition. The second year showed improvements in technique and achievement, culminating in Scott's western journey which led to the discovery of the Polar Plateau. This has been described by one writer as "one of the great polar journeys". The scientific results of the expedition included important biological, zoological and geological findings. Some of the meteorological and magnetic readings, however, were later criticised as amateurish and inaccurate.