title: Dian Fossey

text: Although Fossey had broken her ankle while visiting the Leakeys, by October 16, she was staying in Walter Baumgartel's small hotel in Uganda, the Travellers Rest. Baumgartel, an advocate of gorilla conservation, was among the first to see the benefits that tourism could bring to the area, and he introduced Fossey to Kenyan wildlife photographers Joan and Alan Root. The couple agreed to allow Fossey and Alexander to camp behind their own camp, and it was during these few days that Fossey first encountered wild mountain gorillas. After staying with friends in Rhodesia, Fossey returned home to Louisville to repay her loans. She published three articles in "The Courier-Journal" newspaper, detailing her visit to Africa.


title: Dian Fossey

text: When Leakey made an appearance in Louisville while on a nationwide lecture tour, Fossey took the color supplements that had appeared about her African trip in "The Courier-Journal" to show to Leakey, who remembered her and her interest in mountain gorillas. Three years after the original safari, Leakey suggested that Fossey could undertake a long-term study of the gorillas in the same manner as Jane Goodall had with chimpanzees in Tanzania. Leakey lined up funding for Fossey to research mountain gorillas, and Fossey left her job to relocate to Africa.


title: Dian Fossey

text: After studying Swahili and auditing a class on primatology during the eight months it took to get her visa and funding, Fossey arrived in Nairobi in December 1966. With the help of Joan Root and Leakey, Fossey acquired the necessary provisions and an old canvas-topped Land Rover which she named "Lily". On the way to the Congo, Fossey visited the Gombe Stream Research Centre to meet Goodall and observe her research methods with chimpanzees. Accompanied by photographer Alan Root, who helped her obtain work permits for the Virunga Mountains, Fossey began her field study at Kabara, in the Congo in early 1967, in the same meadow where Schaller had made his camp seven years earlier. Root taught her basic gorilla tracking, and his tracker Sanwekwe later helped in Fossey's camp. Living in tents on mainly tinned produce, once a month Fossey would hike down the mountain to "Lily" and make the two-hour drive to the village of Kikumba to restock.


title: Dian Fossey

text: Fossey identified three distinct groups in her study area, but could not get close to them. She eventually found that mimicking their actions and making grunting sounds assured them, together with submissive behavior and eating of the local celery plant. She later attributed her success with habituating gorillas to her experience working as an occupational therapist with children with autism. Like George Schaller, Fossey relied greatly on individual "noseprints" for identification, initially via sketching and later by camera.


title: Dian Fossey

text: Fossey had arrived in the Congo in locally turbulent times. Known as the Belgian Congo until its independence in June 1960, unrest and rebellion plagued the new government until 1965, when Lieutenant General Joseph-Désiré Mobutu, by then commander-in-chief of the national army, seized control of the country and declared himself president for five years during what is now called the Congo Crisis. During the political upheaval, a rebellion and battles took place in the Kivu Province. On July 9, 1967, soldiers arrived at the camp to escort Fossey and her research workers down, and she was detained at Rumangabo for two weeks. Fossey eventually escaped through bribery to Walter Baumgärtel's Travellers Rest Hotel in Kisoro, where her escort was arrested by the Ugandan military.


title: Dian Fossey

text: Advised by the Ugandan authorities not to return to Congo, after meeting Leakey in Nairobi, Fossey agreed with him against US Embassy advice to restart her study on the Rwandan side of the Virungas. In Rwanda, Fossey had met local American expatriate Rosamond Carr, who introduced her to Belgian local Alyette DeMunck; DeMunck had a local's knowledge of Rwanda and offered to find Fossey a suitable site for study.


title: Dian Fossey

text: On September 24, 1967, Fossey founded the Karisoke Research Center, a remote rainforest camp nestled in Ruhengeri province in the saddle of two volcanoes. For the research center's name, Fossey used "Kari" for the first four letters of Mount Karisimbi that overlooked her camp from the south, and "soke" for the last four letters of Mount Bisoke, the slopes of which rose to the north, directly behind camp. Established up Mount Bisoke, the defined study area covered . She became known by locals as Nyirmachabelli, or Nyiramacibiri, roughly translated as "The woman who lives alone on the mountain."


title: Dian Fossey

text: Unlike the gorillas from the Congo side of the Virungas, the Karisoke area gorillas had never been partially habituated by Schaller's study; they knew humans only as poachers, and it took longer for Fossey to be able to study the Karisoke gorillas at a close distance. Fossey attempted to habituate the gorillas by copying their actions. Over time the gorillas became accustomed to Fossey. As she explained to the BBC in 1984: "I'm an inhibited persona and I felt that the gorillas were somewhat inhibited as well, so I imitated their natural, normal behaviour like feeding, munching on celery stalks or scratching myself."


title: Dian Fossey

text: Fossey made discoveries about gorillas including how females transfer from group to group over the decades, gorilla vocalization, hierarchies and social relationships among groups, rare infanticide, gorilla diet, and how gorillas recycle nutrients. Fossey's research was funded by the Wilkie Foundation and the Leakey Home, with primary funding from the National Geographic Society.


title: Dian Fossey

text: In 1970, she appeared on the cover of National Geographic Magazine, which brought tremendous attention to her work.


title: Dian Fossey

text: Fossey was often hostile to Africans who entered into the protected area, even shooting roaming cattle.


title: Dian Fossey

text: By 1980, Fossey, who had obtained her PhD at Cambridge University in the UK, was recognized as the world's leading authority on the physiology and behavior of mountain gorillas, defining gorillas as being "dignified, highly social, gentle giants, with individual personalities, and strong family relationships." Fossey lectured as professor at Cornell University in 1981–83. Her bestselling book "Gorillas in the Mist" was praised by Nikolaas Tinbergen, the Dutch ethologist and ornithologist who won the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Her book remains the best-selling book about gorillas.


title: Dian Fossey

text: Many research students left after not being able to cope with the cold, dark, and extremely muddy conditions around Karisoke on the slopes of the Virunga Volcanoes, where paths usually had to be cut through six-foot-tall grass with a machete.


title: Dian Fossey

text: While hunting had been illegal in the national park of the Virunga Volcanoes in Rwanda since the 1920s, the law was rarely enforced by park conservators, who were often bribed by poachers and paid a salary less than Fossey's own African staff. On three occasions, Fossey wrote that she witnessed the aftermath of the capture of infant gorillas at the behest of the park conservators for zoos; since gorillas will fight to the death to protect their young, the kidnappings would often result in up to 10 adult gorillas' deaths. Through the Digit Fund, Fossey financed patrols to destroy poachers' traps in the Karisoke study area. In four months in 1979, the Fossey patrol, consisting of four African staffers, destroyed 987 poachers' traps in the research area's vicinity. The official Rwandan national park guards, consisting of 24 staffers, did not eradicate any poachers' traps during the same period. In the eastern portion of the park not patrolled by Fossey, poachers virtually eradicated all the park's elephants for ivory and killed more than a dozen gorillas.


title: Dian Fossey

text: In 1978, Fossey attempted to prevent the export of two young gorillas, Coco and Pucker, from Rwanda to the zoo in Cologne, Germany. During the capture of the infants at the behest of the Cologne Zoo and Rwandan park conservator, 20 adult gorillas had been killed. The infant gorillas were given to Fossey by the park conservator of the Virunga Volcanoes for treatment of injuries suffered during their capture and captivity. With considerable effort, she restored them to a semblance of health. Over Fossey's objections, the gorillas were shipped to Cologne, where they lived nine years in captivity, both dying in the same month. She viewed the holding of animals in "prison" (zoos) for the entertainment of people as unethical.


title: Dian Fossey

text: While gorillas from rival groups on the mountains that were not part of Fossey's study had often been found poached five to ten at a time, and had spurred Fossey to conduct her own anti-poaching patrols, Fossey's study groups had not been direct victims of poaching until Fossey's favorite gorilla, Digit, was killed in 1978. Later that year, the silverback of Digit's Group 4, named for Fossey's Uncle Bert, was shot in the heart while trying to save his son, Kweli, from being seized by poachers cooperating with the Rwandan park conservator. Kweli's mother, Macho, was also killed in the raid, but, as a result of Uncle Bert's intervention, Kweli was not captured; however, three-year-old Kweli died, slowly and painfully, of gangrene, from being brushed by a poacher's bullet.


title: Dian Fossey

text: According to Fossey's letters, ORTPN (the Rwandan national park system), the World Wildlife Fund, African Wildlife Foundation, Fauna Preservation Society, the Mountain Gorilla Project and some of her former students tried to wrest control of the Karisoke research center from her for the purpose of tourism, by portraying her as unstable. In her last two years, Fossey claimed not to have lost any gorillas to poachers; however, the Mountain Gorilla Project, which was supposed to patrol the Mount Sabyinyo area, tried to cover up gorilla deaths caused by poaching and diseases transmitted through tourists. Nevertheless, these organizations received most of the public donations directed toward gorilla conservation. The public often believed their money would go to Fossey, who was struggling to finance her anti-poaching and anti-bushmeat hunting patrols, while organizations collecting in her name put it into tourism projects and, as she put it, "to pay the airfare of so-called conservationists who will never go on anti-poaching patrols in their life." Fossey described the two philosophies as her own "active conservation" or the international conservation groups' "theoretical conservation."


title: Dian Fossey

text: Sometime during the day on New Year's Eve 1977, Fossey's favorite gorilla, Digit, was killed by poachers. As the sentry of study group 4, he defended the group against six poachers and their dogs, who ran across the gorilla study group while checking antelope traplines. Digit took five spear wounds in ferocious self-defense and managed to kill one of the poachers' dogs, allowing the other 13 members of his group to escape. Digit was decapitated, and his hands cut off for ashtrays. He was twelve years old. After his mutilated body was discovered by research assistant Ian Redmond, Fossey's group captured one of the killers. He revealed the names of his five accomplices, three of whom were later imprisoned. Fossey later described Digit's killing as the "saddest event in all my years of sharing the daily lives of mountain gorilla."


title: Dian Fossey

text: The event plunged Fossey into depression. She isolated herself in her cabin, consuming large amounts of alcohol and cigarettes.


title: Dian Fossey

text: Fossey subsequently created the Digit Fund (now the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International in the US) to raise money for anti-poaching patrols. In addition, a consortium of international gorilla funds arose to accept donations in light of Digit's death and increased attention on poaching. Fossey mostly opposed the efforts of the international organizations, which she felt inefficiently directed their funds towards more equipment for Rwandan park officials, some of whom were alleged to have ordered some of the gorilla poachings in the first place.


title: Dian Fossey

text: The deaths of some of her most studied gorillas caused Fossey to devote more of her attention to preventing poaching and less on scientific publishing and research. Fossey became more intense in protecting the gorillas and began to employ more direct tactics: she and her staff cut animal traps almost as soon as they were set; frightened, captured and humiliated the poachers; held their cattle for ransom; burnt their hunting camps and even burnt the mats from their houses.


title: Dian Fossey

text: Fossey was reported to have captured and held Rwandans she suspected of poaching. She allegedly beat a poacher's testicles with stinging nettles. In a letter to a friend, she wrote, "We stripped him and spread eagled him and lashed the holy blue sweat out of him with nettle stalks and leaves…" She even reportedly kidnapped and held for ransom the child of a suspected poacher. After her murder, Fossey's "National Geographic" editor, Mary Smith, told Shlachter that on visits to the United States, Fossey would "load up on firecrackers, cheap toys and magic tricks as part of her method to mystify the (Africans) in order to hold them at bay." She wore face-masks and pretended to practice black magic to scare away poachers.


title: Dian Fossey

text: Writing in "The Wall Street Journal" in 2002, the journalist Tunku Varadarajan described Fossey at the end of her life as colorful, controversial, and "a racist alcoholic who regarded her gorillas as better than the African people who lived around them".


title: Dian Fossey

text: In the early morning of December 27, 1985, Fossey was discovered murdered in the bedroom of her cabin located at the far edge of the camp in the Virunga Mountains, Rwanda. Her body was found face-up near the two beds where she slept, roughly away from a hole that her assailant(s) had apparently cut in the wall of the cabin. Wayne Richard McGuire, Fossey's last research assistant at Karisoke, was summoned to the scene by Fossey's house servant and found her bludgeoned to death, reporting that "when I reached down to check her vital signs, I saw her face had been split, diagonally, with one machete blow." The cabin was littered with broken glass and overturned furniture, with a 9mm handgun and ammunition beside her on the floor. Her cabin had been ransacked. However, robbery was not believed to be the motive for the crime, as Fossey's valuables were still in the cabin, including her passport, handguns, and thousands of dollars in U.S. bills and traveler's checks.


title: Dian Fossey

text: Fossey is buried at Karisoke, in a site that she herself had constructed for her deceased gorilla friends. She was buried in the gorilla graveyard next to Digit, and near many gorillas killed by poachers. Memorial services were also held in New York City, Washington, D.C. and California.


title: Dian Fossey

text: After Fossey's death, her entire staff was arrested. This included Rwandan Emmanuel Rwelekana, a tracker who had been fired from his job after he allegedly tried to kill Fossey with a machete, according to the government's account of McGuire's trial. All were later released, except Rwelekana, who was later found dead in prison, allegedly having hanged himself.


title: Dian Fossey

text: Rwandan courts later tried and convicted Wayne McGuire "in absentia" for her murder. The alleged motive was that McGuire murdered Fossey in order to steal the manuscript of the sequel to her 1983 book, "Gorillas in the Mist". At the trial, investigators said McGuire was not happy with his own research and wanted to use "any dishonest means possible" to complete his work. McGuire had returned to the United States in July 1987, and because no extradition treaty exists between the U.S. and Rwanda, McGuire did not return to Rwanda. His penalty was death by shooting.


title: Dian Fossey

text: Following his return to the U.S., McGuire gave a brief statement at a news conference in Century City, Los Angeles, saying Fossey had been his "friend and mentor", calling her death "tragic" and the charges "outrageous". Thereafter, McGuire was largely absent from public notice until 2005, when news broke that he had been accepted for a job with the Health and Human Services division of the State of Nebraska. The job offer was revoked upon discovery of his relation to the Fossey case.


title: Dian Fossey

text: Several subsequent books, including Farley Mowat's biography of Fossey, "Woman in the Mists" (New York, NY: Warner Books, 1987), have suggested alternative theories regarding her murder, including intimations that she may have been killed by financial interests linked to tourism or illicit trade. It has been alleged that Fossey had potentially damning evidence of gold-smugglers, hence the ransacked cabin.


title: Dian Fossey

text: A will purporting to be Fossey's bequeathed all of her estate (including the proceeds from the film "Gorillas in the Mist") to the Digit Fund to underwrite anti-poaching patrols. Fossey did not mention her family in the will, which was unsigned. Her mother, Hazel Fossey Price, successfully challenged the will. New York State Supreme Court Justice Swartwood threw out the will and awarded the estate to her mother, including about $4.9 million in royalties from a recent book and upcoming movie, stating that the document "was simply a draft of her purported will and not a will at all." Price said she was working on a project to preserve the work her daughter had done for the mountain gorillas in Rwanda.


title: Dian Fossey

text: During her African safari, Fossey met Alexie Forrester, the brother of a Rhodesian she had been dating in Louisville; Fossey and Forrester later became engaged. In her later years, Fossey became involved with "National Geographic" photographer Bob Campbell after a year of working together at Karisoke, with Campbell promising to leave his wife. Eventually the pair grew apart through her dedication to the gorillas and Karisoke, along with his need to work further afield and on his marriage. In 1970, studying for her Ph.D. at Darwin College, University of Cambridge, she discovered she was pregnant and had an abortion, later commenting that "you can't be a cover girl for "National Geographic" magazine and be pregnant." She graduated with a Doctor of Philosophy in Zoology in 1976. Fossey had other relationships throughout the years and always had a love for children. Since Fossey would rescue any abused or abandoned animal she saw in Africa or near Karisoke, she acquired a menagerie in the camp, including a monkey who lived in her cabin, Kima, and a dog, Cindy. Fossey held Christmas parties every year for her researchers, staffers, and their families, and she developed a genuine friendship with Jane Goodall.


title: Dian Fossey

text: Fossey had been plagued by lung problems from an early age and, later in her life, suffered from advanced emphysema brought on by years of heavy cigarette smoking. As the debilitating disease progressed—further aggravated by the high mountain elevation and damp climate—Fossey found it increasingly difficult to conduct field research, frequently suffering from shortness of breath and requiring the help of an oxygen tank when climbing or hiking long distances.


title: Dian Fossey

text: Fossey strongly opposed wildlife tourism, as gorillas are susceptible to human anthroponotic diseases like influenza from which they have limited immunity. Fossey reported several cases in which gorillas died because of diseases spread by tourists. She also viewed tourism as an interference into their natural wild behavior. Fossey also criticized tourist programs, often paid for by international conservation organizations, for interfering with both her research and the peace of the mountain gorillas' habitat, and was concerned that Jane Goodall was inappropriately changing her study of chimpanzees' behavior.


title: Dian Fossey

text: , the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International promotes tourism, which they say helps to create a stable and sustainable local community dedicated to protecting the gorillas and their habitat.


title: Dian Fossey

text: After her death, Fossey's Digit Fund in the US was renamed the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International. The Karisoke Research Center is operated by the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International, and continues the daily gorilla monitoring and protection that she started.


title: Dian Fossey

text: Fossey is generally credited with reversing the downward trend in the mountain gorilla population. Due to poaching, gorilla populations declined from 450 in 1960 to just 250 in 1981. However, Fossey's "war on poaching" saw the final confirmed killing of a gorilla in 1983. By the late 1980s, the population had risen to 280. It continues to rise, as of 1987. Fossey's research, and the following publicity, spawned "gorilla tourism".


title: Dian Fossey

text: Between Fossey's death and the 1994 Rwandan genocide, Karisoke was directed by former students, some of whom had opposed her. During the genocide and subsequent period of insecurity, the camp was completely looted and destroyed. Today only remnants are left of her cabin. During the civil war, the Virunga National Park was filled with refugees, and illegal logging destroyed vast areas.


title: Dian Fossey

text: Universal Studios bought the film rights to "Gorillas in the Mist" from Fossey in 1985, and Warner Bros. Studios bought the rights to "the Dark Romance of Dian Fossey", a work by Harold T. P. Hayes, despite its having been severely criticized by Rosamond Carr. As a result of a legal battle between the two studios, a co-production was arranged. Portions of the story and the Hayes article were adapted for the film "Gorillas in the Mist", starring Sigourney Weaver, Bryan Brown, and John Omirah Miluwi. The book covers Fossey's scientific career in great detail and omits material on her personal life, such as her affair with photographer Bob Campbell. In the film, the affair with Campbell (played by Bryan Brown) forms a major subplot. The Hayes article preceding the movie portrayed Fossey as a woman obsessed with gorillas, who would stop at nothing to protect them. The film includes scenes of Fossey's ruthless dealings with poachers, including a scene in which she sets fire to a poacher's home.


title: Dian Fossey

text: Fossey is considered a saint by the God's Gardeners, a fictional religious sect that is the focus of Margaret Atwood's 2009 novel "The Year of the Flood".


title: Dian Fossey

text: In December 2017, "Dian Fossey: Secrets in the Mist", a three-hour series, aired on the National Geographic Channel. The series tells the story of Fossey's life, work, murder and legacy, using archive footage and still images, interviews with people who knew and worked with her, specially shot footage, and reconstruction.


title: Dian Fossey

text: In "A Forest in the Clouds: My Year Among the Mountain Gorillas in the Remote Enclave of Dian Fossey" (Pegasus Books, 2018) John Fowler describes Fossey's remote mountain gorilla camp, Karisoke Research Center, a few years prior to her murder, telling the story of the unraveling of Fossey's Rwandan facility as pressures mount in an effort to extricate Fossey from her domain. Fowler represents Fossey as a chain-smoking, hard-drinking woman who bullied her staff and students in her efforts to hold onto to her reputation as scientist and savior of the mountain gorillas.


title: Nuclear submarine

text: A nuclear submarine is a submarine powered by a nuclear reactor, but not necessarily nuclear-armed. Nuclear submarines have considerable performance advantages over "conventional" (typically diesel-electric) submarines. Nuclear propulsion, being completely independent of air, frees the submarine from the need to surface frequently, as is necessary for conventional submarines. The large amount of power generated by a nuclear reactor allows nuclear submarines to operate at high speed for long periods, and the long interval between refuelings grants a range virtually unlimited, making the only limits on voyage times being imposed by such factors as the need to restock food or other consumables.


title: Nuclear submarine

text: The limited energy stored in electric batteries means that even the most advanced conventional submarine can only remain submerged for a few days at slow speed, and only a few hours at top speed, though recent advances in air-independent propulsion have somewhat ameliorated this disadvantage. The high cost of nuclear technology means that relatively few of the world's military powers have fielded nuclear submarines. Radiation incidents have occurred within the Soviet submarines including serious nuclear and radiation accidents but American naval reactors starting with the S1W and iterations of designs have operated without incidents since USS "Nautilus" (SSN-571) launched in 1954.


title: Nuclear submarine

text: The idea for a nuclear-powered submarine was first proposed in the United States Navy by the Naval Research Laboratory's physicist Ross Gunn in 1939. The Royal Navy began researching designs for nuclear propulsion plants in 1946.


title: Nuclear submarine

text: Construction of the world's first nuclear-powered submarine was made possible by the successful development of a nuclear propulsion plant by a group of scientists and engineers in the United States at the Naval Reactors Branch of the Bureau of Ships and the Atomic Energy Commission. In July 1951, the U.S. Congress authorized construction of the first nuclear-powered submarine, "Nautilus", under the leadership of Captain Hyman G. Rickover, USN (sharing a name with Captain Nemo's fictional submarine in Jules Verne's "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea", and another that served with distinction in World War II).


title: Nuclear submarine

text: The Westinghouse Corporation was assigned to build its reactor. After the submarine was completed at the Electric Boat Company, First Lady Mamie Eisenhower broke the traditional bottle of champagne on "Nautilus" bow, and the submarine was commissioned , on 30 September 1954. On 17 January 1955, she departed Groton, Connecticut, to begin sea trials. The submarine was long and cost about $55 million. Recognizing the utility of such vessels, the British Admiralty formed plans to build nuclear-powered submarines.


title: Nuclear submarine

text: The Soviet Union soon followed the United States in developing nuclear-powered submarines in the 1950s. Stimulated by the U.S. development of "Nautilus", Soviets began work on nuclear propulsion reactors in the early 1950s at the Institute of Physics and Power Engineering, in Obninsk, under Anatoliy P. Alexandrov, later to become head of the Kurchatov Institute. In 1956, the first Soviet propulsion reactor designed by his team began operational testing. Meanwhile, a design team under Vladimir N. Peregudov worked on the vessel that would house the reactor. After overcoming many obstacles, including steam generation problems, radiation leaks, and other difficulties, the first nuclear submarine based on these combined efforts, K-3 "Leninskiy Komsomol" of the Project 627 "Kit" class, called a by NATO, entered service in the Soviet Navy in 1958.


title: Nuclear submarine

text: The United Kingdom's first nuclear-powered submarine was fitted with an American S5W reactor, provided to Britain under the 1958 US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement. The hull and combat systems of "Dreadnought" were of British design and construction, although the hull form and construction practices were influenced by access to American designs. During "Dreadnought"s construction, Rolls-Royce, in collaboration with the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority at the Admiralty Research Station, HMS "Vulcan", at Dounreay, developed a completely new British nuclear propulsion system. In 1960, the UK's second nuclear-powered submarine was ordered from Vickers Armstrong and, fitted with Rolls-Royce's PWR1 nuclear plant, was the first all-British nuclear submarine. Further technology transfers from the United States made Rolls-Royce entirely self-sufficient in reactor design in exchange for a "considerable amount" of information regarding submarine design and quietening techniques transferred from the United Kingdom to the United States. The rafting system for the "Valiant" class provided the Royal Navy with an advantage in submarine silencing that the United States Navy did not introduce until considerably later.


title: Nuclear submarine

text: Nuclear power proved ideal for the propulsion of strategic ballistic missile submarines (SSB), greatly improving their ability to remain submerged and undetected. The world's first operational nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN) was with 16 Polaris A-1 missiles, which conducted the first SSBN deterrent patrol November 1960 – January 1961. The Soviets already had several SSBs of the Project 629 (Golf class) and were only a year behind the US with their first SSBN, ill-fated "K-19" of Project 658 (Hotel class), commissioned in November 1960. However, this class carried the same three-missile armament as the Golfs. The first Soviet SSBN with 16 missiles was the Project 667A (Yankee class), the first of which entered service in 1967, by which time the US had commissioned 41 SSBNs, nicknamed the "41 for Freedom".


title: Nuclear submarine

text: At the height of the Cold War, approximately five to ten nuclear submarines were being commissioned from each of the four Soviet submarine yards (Sevmash in Severodvinsk, Admiralteyskiye Verfi in St.Petersburg, Krasnoye Sormovo in Nizhny Novgorod, and Amurskiy Zavod in Komsomolsk-on-Amur).


title: Nuclear submarine

text: From the late 1950s through the end of 1997, the Soviet Union, and later Russia, built a total of 245 nuclear submarines, more than all other nations combined.


title: Nuclear submarine

text: Today, six countries deploy some form of nuclear-powered strategic submarines: the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, China, and India. Several other countries including Brazil and Australia have ongoing projects in different phases to build nuclear-powered submarines.


title: Nuclear submarine

text: In the United Kingdom, all former and current nuclear submarines of the British Royal Navy (with the exception of three: , and ) have been constructed in Barrow-in-Furness (at BAE Systems Submarine Solutions or its predecessor VSEL) where construction of nuclear submarines continues. "Conqueror" the only nuclear-powered submarine in the world ever to have engaged an enemy ship with torpedoes, sinking the cruiser with two Mark 8 torpedoes during the 1982 Falklands War.


title: Nuclear submarine

text: The main difference between conventional submarines and nuclear submarines is the power generation system. Nuclear submarines employ nuclear reactors for this task. They either generate electricity that powers electric motors connected to the propeller shaft or rely on the reactor heat to produce steam that drives steam turbines (cf. nuclear marine propulsion). Reactors used in submarines typically use highly enriched fuel (often greater than 20%) to enable them to deliver a large amount of power from a smaller reactor and operate longer between refuelings – which are difficult due to the reactor's position within the submarine's pressure hull.


title: Nuclear submarine

text: The nuclear reactor also supplies power to the submarine's other subsystems, such as for maintenance of air quality, fresh water production by distilling salt water from the ocean, temperature regulation, etc. All naval nuclear reactors currently in use are operated with diesel generators as a backup power system. These engines are able to provide emergency electrical power for reactor decay heat removal, as well as enough electric power to supply an emergency propulsion mechanism. Submarines may carry nuclear fuel for up to 30 years of operation. The only resource that limits the time underwater is the food supply for the crew and maintenance of the vessel.


title: Nuclear submarine

text: The stealth technology weakness of nuclear submarines is the need to cool the reactor even when the submarine is not moving; about 70% of the reactor output heat is dissipated into the sea water. This leaves a "thermal wake", a plume of warm water of lower density which ascends to the sea surface and creates a "thermal scar" that is observable by thermal imaging systems, e.g., FLIR. Another problem is that the reactor is always running, creating steam noise, which can be heard on sonar, and the reactor pump (used to circulate reactor coolant), also creates noise, as opposed to a conventional submarine, which can move about on almost silent electric motors.


title: Nuclear submarine

text: Under the AUKUS agreement, announced in September 2021, the United Kingdom and the United States will assist the Royal Australian Navy in acquiring nuclear-powered submarines.


title: Nuclear submarine

text: Some of the most serious nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll in the world have involved nuclear submarine mishaps. To date, all of these were units of the former Soviet Union. Reactor accidents that resulted in core damage and release of radioactivity from nuclear-powered submarines include:


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: The Killing is an American crime drama television series that premiered on April 3, 2011, on AMC, based on the Danish television series "Forbrydelsen" ('The Crime'). The American version was developed by Veena Sud and produced by Fox Television Studios and Fuse Entertainment. Set in Seattle, Washington, the series follows the various murder investigations by homicide detectives Sarah Linden (Mireille Enos) and Stephen Holder (Joel Kinnaman).


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: AMC announced the series's cancellation in July 2012, but picked it up for a third season after a renegotiation with Fox Television Studios and Netflix. "The Killing" was again cancelled by AMC in September 2013, but Netflix announced in November 2013 that it had ordered a fourth season consisting of six episodes to conclude the series. The complete fourth season was released on Netflix on August 1, 2014.


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: The first season covers the first two weeks of the investigation of the murder of local teenager Rosie Larsen and has three main storylines: the police investigation into Rosie's murder, the Larsen family's attempts to deal with their grief, and the fluctuating electoral fortunes of a political campaign that becomes embroiled in the case.


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: The season resumes the investigation into the murder and reveals secrets about the Larsen family as well as a possible conspiracy within the campaign race and the Seattle police department. The Larsen murder case gets closed with the discovery of those involved in it.


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: A year after the Rosie Larsen case, Stephen Holder searches for a runaway girl and uncovers a string of murders connected to one of Sarah Linden's previous murder investigations. Linden, no longer a detective, must return to both a career and a case she had put behind her.


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: The fourth season features detectives Sarah Linden and Stephen Holder handling the fallout of their actions from the previous season while investigating the murder of a family whose only survivor is a member of an all-boys military academy.


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: The pilot was ordered by AMC in January 2010 and then was picked up for a full series order in August 2010. The series is filmed in Vancouver, British Columbia, with some scenes in season two filmed in Coquitlam, British Columbia, at Riverview Hospital. Production began on the pilot episode on December 2, 2010. The pilot is written by series creator and executive producer Veena Sud and is directed by Patty Jenkins.


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: In contrast to the original Danish series, executive producer Veena Sud explained, "We're creating our own world. We are using the Danish series as a blueprint, but we are kind of diverging and creating our own world, our world of suspects and, potentially, ultimately who killed Rosie Larsen." Sud describes the series as "slow-burn storytelling in a sense that every moment that we don't have to prettify or gloss over or make something necessarily easy to digest, that we're able to go to all sorts of places that are honest, and dark, and beautiful and tragic, in a way that is how a story should be told."


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: AMC announced on July 27, 2012 that the series would not be renewed for a third season. However, Fox Television Studios announced that they were attempting to shop the show to other networks. In August 2012, it was revealed that Fox Television Studios was in talks with both DirecTV and Netflix in an attempt to revive the series. In November 2012, it was confirmed that Fox Television Studios was in final negotiations with Netflix to continue the series for a third season. AMC, which had originally canceled the show, was also included in the deal, which would gain the network the privilege of airing the new episodes before being hosted by Netflix, in return for sharing any associated production costs with Netflix. "Variety" reported on November 30, 2012, that the show would be returning to AMC, planning for a May 2013 debut, with production set to begin months before that. Cast members Mireille Enos and Joel Kinnaman were confirmed to return, with Veena Sud as showrunner and returning writers including executive producers Dawn Prestwich and Nicole Yorkin. On December 12, 2012, it was confirmed that cast members Billy Campbell, Michelle Forbes, and Brent Sexton would not return for the third season.


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: On January 15, 2013, AMC and Fox Television Studios announced that the series had been renewed for a 12-episode third season. Production started on February 25, 2013, in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, and ended on June 25, 2013.


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: AMC ultimately canceled the series after the third season in September 2013. However, in November 2013, two months after its cancellation, Netflix announced it had picked up "The Killing" for a fourth and final season consisting of six episodes. Cast members Mireille Enos and Joel Kinnaman returned, with Veena Sud as showrunner, and executive producers Dawn Prestwich and Nicole Yorkin returning as writers.


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: Reviewers and fans of the first three seasons noted similarities and borrowed elements from David Lynch's TV series "Twin Peaks" and the follow-up film "", and compared and contrasted Sud and Lynch's works.


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: The series premiere was praised by most critics. Metacritic gave it a score of 84/100 based on reviews from 29 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Rotten Tomatoes gave it a 94% approval rating with an average rating of 8.5/10, based on 36 critic reviews; the website's critics consensus reads, ""The Killing" is a slow burning mystery with an eerie, mutli-dimensional story propelled by thoughtful writing, believable characters, and realistic horror, even if its season finale was unsatisfying."


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: Tim Goodman of "The Hollywood Reporter" gave the series a very positive review, calling it "excellent, absorbing and addictive. When each episode ends, you long for the next—a hallmark of great dramas." Goodman also praised Mireille Enos's performance as the lead character Sarah, saying, "It's not until you watch Enos play Sarah for a while that it sinks in—there hasn't been a female American character like her probably ever."


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: "Entertainment Weekly"s Ken Tucker gave it a B+, saying, "The acting is strikingly good" and that "[s]ome viewers may find "The Killing" a little too cold and deliberate, but give it time. Its intensity builds steadily, giving the series unexpected power." Alex Strachan of "The Vancouver Sun" said the series "is soaked in atmosphere and steeped in the stark realism of Scandinavian crime novelists Henning Mankell and Stieg Larsson" and that it "is not as much about a young girl's murder as it is a psychological study of what happens afterward, how a tight-knit community tries to recover and how a dead child's mother, father and siblings learn to deal with their pain in their own private ways." Matt Roush of "TV Guide" applauded the series, calling the acting "tremendous" and saying that he "was instantly hooked by the moody atmosphere of this season-long murder mystery set in Seattle." He went on to say, "What really stands out for me, in this age of cookie-cutter procedurals, is how "The Killing" dramatizes the devastation a violent death has on a family, a community, on the people involved in the investigation. Nothing about this show is routine."


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: Subsequent episodes were met with lesser praise by some critics, criticizing the show's reliance upon increasingly implausible red herrings to drive each episode and the withholding of details about each character's background, especially Rosie's, thus making them difficult to relate to or empathize with.


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: The first-season finale was met with negative reviews from some critics. The "Los Angeles Times" called it "one of the most frustrating finales in TV history," with Alan Sepinwall of HitFix.com calling the end "insulting." Finally, Maureen Ryan of AOL TV said that the finale "killed off any interest I had in ever watching the show again." "[The show] began last spring looking like the smartest, most stylish pilot in years," complained Heather Havrilevsky in "The New York Times Magazine". "Fast-forward to the finale, in which we learn that what we've been watching is actually a 26-hour-long episode of "Law & Order", and we're only halfway through it."


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: The early seasonal episodes received generally favorable reviews from critics, with Metacritic giving it a score of 68/100 based on reviews from 23 critics. Rotten Tomatoes gave it a 67% approval rating with an average rating of 7.0/10, based on 30 critic reviews; the website's critics consensus reads, ""The Killing" second season feels a bit tedious and unsure of where it wants to go, but it succeeds in keeping the audience on its toes, thanks to consistently fantastic acting and some strategic storytelling."


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: Lori Rackl of the "Chicago Sun-Times" stated: "Few television shows are as addictive as this pensive, wonderfully paced suspenser." "The Washington Post"'s Hank Stuever stated: "My own enjoyment of "The Killing" begins and ends with the gloom so brilliantly conveyed by its pace and performances." Brian Lowry of "Variety" stated the series remained "compelling," adding that "the writers... are adept at overcoming the stodgy pace by dangling tantalizing clues near each hour's end, creating a strong pull to see what transpires next." HitFix's Alan Sepinwall compared this season to the first and called it "better." He added: "The performances are still good, and now the characterization is a bit better. When you add that to the fine atmosphere... and you view the mystery itself as a kind of necessary evil that allows you to see the parts of the show that do work, then it's not bad."


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: The season finale, "What I Know," received mixed reviews. Sepinwall stated: "I'd like to say that season 2 of "The Killing" was an improvement on season 1, and in some ways, it probably was. The second season certainly did a better job of doing what Veena Sud claimed to be doing last year, in that it took advantage of the extra time to sketch in some of the characters... I honestly feel like any kinder feelings I have for the second season came from the complete lack of investment I had in it." Sean McKenna of TV Fanatic rated the finale 4.7 out of 5 stars, but, upon first viewing, "wasn't sure what to feel. I wasn't elated. I wasn't excited" but after watching it again was "sucked into the world, mesmerized not by the victory of our hero cops... but by the gut-wrenching moments that unfolded." CraveOnline's William Bibbiani called the finale "an odd duck." After citing Jamie's early revelation as "melodramatic silliness," Bibbiani added: "The rest of the episode gets its job done, with one major, glaring flaw. The characters end up more or less where they need to be, but some nearly ridiculous loose ends remain." Brandon Nowalk of "The A.V. Club" rated this finale a C−, calling it "so unconvincing," adding "I couldn't believe how little all this resolution affected me after "The Killing" so thrillingly took my grudging engagement for a ride a few weeks ago. This is the same show that delivered Richmond’s hospital nightmare, the hunt for Holder, the anti-Western standoff "Sayonara, Hiawatha," and the crazy train of the last two weeks? No, this is the full-circle episode, the one that takes the show back to its roots. Wah wah."


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: Rotten Tomatoes gave it a 67% approval rating with an average rating of 7.3/10, based on 30 critic reviews; the website's critics consensus reads, "Though "The Killing"s third season doesn't do anything much differently than before, it continues to benefit from strong acting, and new viewers should be able to jump right in with ease." On Metacritic, the season has a score of 69/100 based on 22 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: Rotten Tomatoes gave it a 47% approval rating with an average rating of 6.5/10, based on 19 critic reviews; the website's critics consensus reads, "While its characters still intrigue and its atmosphere remains absorbingly dark, "The Killing" succumbs to silliness in its fourth season, straying into distractingly overwrought territory." On Metacritic, the season has a score of 53/100 based on 13 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: When it premiered, the pilot was AMC's second-highest original series premiere, following "The Walking Dead". The premiere drew 2.7 million viewers and a 2 household rating. The two encores of the premiere episode brought the ratings of the premiere up to a total of 4.6 million total viewers and a 3.7 household rating. The UK premiere on Channel 4 brought in 2.2 million viewers. In the second season, the viewership and ratings dipped to a series low 1.59 million viewers and 0.6 rating with adults aged 18–49.


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: In March 2013, Netflix closed negotiations with Fox Television Studios with a deal to be the exclusive subscription service for the series' third season. Netflix streamed the season approximately three months after its finale. It already provided the first two seasons. In November 2013, Netflix announced it picked up the series for a fourth and final season after AMC had canceled it. By July 2018, it was reported that the first three seasons would be removed from Netflix on August 1, 2018. However, all four seasons were removed from the service in several countries on that date, with only Australia and New Zealand still hosting the complete series and Japan hosting the fourth season.


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: , the complete series is streaming in the United States on both Hulu and Amazon Prime Video, with none of the seasons hosted on Netflix.


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: Season-one promotion on AMC's "The Killing" website included "Rosie's Room", a virtual simulation of murder victim Rosie Larsen's bedroom that users could explore in order to learn more about Rosie's life and search for secrets and clues that could help lead to the discovery of who is responsible for her untimely death. Users could peek inside Rosie's dresser, look under her bed, listen to her answering machine messages, flip through her vinyl record collection, and explore her laptop computer to access her social networking profile, vlogs, photos, and emails. Season-one promotion also included an interactive application called the "Suspect Tracker" whereby users could vote each week for who they think is the prime suspect in the murder investigation and discuss their theories about the case and its suspects with other fans. A personality quiz titled "How Would You Be Cast in a Crime Thriller?" telling users what part they would be cast in on "The Killing" based on their reactions to various crime-related situations was also released prior to season one. AMC's "The Killing" website also featured exclusive sneak-peek and behind-the-scenes videos, trivia games, numerous photo galleries, episode and character guides, a blog, and a community forum.


title: The Killing (American TV series)

text: For season two's promotion, AMC's "The Killing" website added the "Rosie Larsen Interactive Case File," which gave a glimpse into the suspects, evidence, crime scene photographs, and documents related to the case.


title: Aidy Bryant

text: Aidan Mackenzy Bryant (born May 7, 1987) is an American actress and comedian. She was a cast member on the late-night variety series "Saturday Night Live" (2012–2022), beginning in season 38, and leaving at the end of season 47. For her work on the series, she has been nominated for three Primetime Emmy Awards, including two nominations for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series. Her other work includes a voice role in the animated series "Danger & Eggs" (2017) and the Netflix adult animated series "Human Resources". She played a starring role in the sitcom "Shrill" (2019–2021); for the latter, she also served as writer and executive producer and was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series.


title: Aidy Bryant

text: Bryant was born in Phoenix, the daughter of Georganne (née Vinall) and Tom Bryant. Her mother owns a boutique called Shop Frances in Phoenix. Bryant is of English, Irish, and German descent. She has one brother. She graduated from Xavier College Preparatory in 2005. Her parents took her to improv workshops at the now-defunct Arizona Jewish Theatre Company.


title: Aidy Bryant

text: She graduated from Columbia College in Chicago with a BA in 2009. At Columbia College, she participated in the college's comedy studies program, developed by the Theatre Department and The Second City.


title: Aidy Bryant

text: After Bryant graduated from Columbia College, she toured with the musical improv group Baby Wants Candy and was approached by Second City. She has performed with iO Chicago, The Second City and the Annoyance Theatre. She was a writer and ensemble member for both "Sky's the Limit, Weather Permitting" and "We're All In This Room Together" on the Second City e.t.c. Stage.


title: Aidy Bryant

text: Bryant made her debut as a featured player on "Saturday Night Live" on September 15, 2012. She was promoted to a repertory player during her second season on the show.


title: Aidy Bryant

text: In 2013, Bryant appeared with a recurring role in the second season of IFC's "Comedy Bang! Bang!", playing the show's segment producer. Bryant also made an uncredited cameo appearance in "The Amazing Spider-Man 2". She has made guest appearances on programs such as "Broad City", "Documentary Now!", "The Awesomes", and "Girls". In 2014, Bryant, Eli Bruggemann, Chris Kelly, Sarah Schneider, and Kate McKinnon were nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award in the category of Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics for the "Home for the Holiday (Twin Bed)". The music video sketch aired on December 21, 2013. She won the award for Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series at the 2015 EWwy awards which honor performances that were snubbed by the Emmys.


title: Aidy Bryant

text: In 2016, Bryant had a recurring role as Alice in the Louis C.K. series "Horace and Pete". In 2017, Bryant provided the voice of main character D.D. Danger on the animated series "Danger & Eggs". In 2018, Bryant received a nomination at the 70th Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series.


title: Aidy Bryant

text: In 2019, Bryant starred in the Hulu series "Shrill". After Bryant became involved with "Shrill", as a co-writer, co-executive producer and as the main character, there was a question of whether she would return for the 2019–20 season of "Saturday Night Live" although Lorne Michaels encouraged her to work on both shows. Bryant stated that she would work 12-hour days on "Shrill" and then at "SNL" afterward, making for 22-hour days. "Shrill" would run for three seasons ending in May 2021, and Bryant was told that its third season would be the last one after it was shot. Bryant planned to exit "SNL" after its 45th season, however the COVID-19 pandemic caused her to reconsider leaving after "one last normal year" that concluded with the 2021-2022 47th season.


title: Aidy Bryant

text: In 2021, Bryant had signed an overall deal with Universal Television. She currently voices Emmy on the adult animated series "Human Resources", a spin-off of "Big Mouth" which premiered on March 18, 2022.


title: Aidy Bryant

text: Throughout her adolescence, Bryant dealt with self-esteem issues related to her weight. Acting and performing improv allowed her to become more confident as a person and as an actress.


title: Aidy Bryant

text: On April 28, 2018, Bryant married comedian Conner O'Malley, who was a writer on "Late Night with Seth Meyers". They met in 2008 as performers at the Annoyance Theatre in Chicago, and became engaged in 2016.


title: General of the Armies

text: General of the Armies of the United States, more commonly referred to as General of the Armies, is the highest military rank in the United States Army. The rank has been conferred only twice: to John J. Pershing in 1919, as a personal accolade for his command of the American Expeditionary Forces during World War I; and to George Washington in 1976, as a posthumous honor during the United States Bicentennial celebrations.


title: General of the Armies

text: The grade is sometimes speculated to be a six-star general, as being senior to the five-star grade of General of the Army, but no six-star insignia was ever officially created and Pershing, the only person to be General of the Armies during his own lifetime, never wore more than four stars. Whether Pershing's grade should rank as four, five, or six stars has been a subject of debate ever since the five-star grades were created in 1944. To make Washington unambiguously the highest ranking Army officer in 1976, Congress specified that his new grade of General of the Armies ranked above all other grades of the Army, past or present.


title: General of the Armies

text: The General of the Armies enjoyed several privileges not afforded to other generals, including a much higher salary and the right to retire at full pay and allowances. Even in retirement, Pershing was the second-highest-paid official in the federal government, after only the President of the United States.


title: General of the Armies

text: The office of "General of the Armies of the United States" was created by an Act of Congress on March 3, 1799, which stated:


title: General of the Armies

text: The law was intended to elevate George Washington, who was then a lieutenant general commanding the provisional army being organized to fight the Quasi-War against France, but President John Adams never made the appointment, thinking it would infringe on his constitutional functions. Washington died on December 14, 1799, and the grade lapsed on March 16, 1802, when not mentioned in the law that defined the peacetime military establishment.


title: General of the Armies

text: After the American Civil War, Congress honored Ulysses S. Grant for his successful command of the Union Army by authorizing his promotion to the grade of general under the Act of July 25, 1866, which stated:


title: General of the Armies

text: Despite being titled "General of the Army" instead of "General of the Armies", the Comptroller General of the United States would rule in 1924 that the grade revived in 1866 for Grant (and later William T. Sherman and Philip H. Sheridan) was the same grade that had been created for Washington in 1799 and revived for Pershing in 1919.


title: General of the Armies

text: Pershing would inherit several of his unique perquisites as General of the Armies through this legislative continuity with the Grant, Sherman, and Sheridan grade, including a much higher salary than other generals and the right to retire at full pay instead of three-quarters pay.


title: General of the Armies

text: During World War I, Congress authorized the "ex officio" grade of general for the chief of staff of the Army and the commander of the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) in France, but only during the wartime emergency. Unlike the 1866 grade, which was a permanent personal appointment, the 1917 grade was only held while occupying a specific office. Army chief of staff Tasker H. Bliss and AEF commander John J. Pershing were commissioned emergency generals on October 8, 1917, with Peyton C. March succeeding Bliss as chief of staff and emergency general on May 20, 1918.


title: General of the Armies

text: When the war ended, Pershing and March were due to lose their emergency grades and revert to major general, so on June 18, 1919, President Woodrow Wilson asked Congress to promote both men to permanent general in a way that gave Pershing precedence over March. Six weeks later, the House Military Affairs Committee reported out two bills authorizing Pershing and March to each be appointed General of the Armies. To ensure that Pershing would outrank March, Pershing's bill also repealed the 1917 law that gave the Army chief of staff precedence over all other Army officers.


title: General of the Armies

text: Congress and Pershing both opposed March's promotion, having clashed with him during the war, so March's bill did not pass and he reverted to major general. He was later advanced to general on the retired list.


title: General of the Armies

text: The bill had been rushed through Congress in only two days so that Secretary of War Newton D. Baker could hand Pershing his new commission as soon as he arrived from France on September 8, when his emergency grade would expire.


title: General of the Armies

text: In the haste to promote Pershing, Wilson accidentally nominated him to be a general in the Army instead of a General of the Armies, a difference that could have cost Pershing half his income when he retired.


title: General of the Armies

text: Official Army publications subsequently took care to spell out Pershing's title as General of the Armies, as distinct from the emergency generals of 1917 and the rank of general that was held by the chief of staff of the Army after 1929. In 1928, Secretary of War Dwight F. Davis even increased the 17-gun salute authorized for a General of the Armies to the 19 guns of a European field marshal.


title: General of the Armies

text: Pershing transferred to the retired list on September 12, 1924, but continued to draw full pay and allowances, a privilege not granted to other generals.


title: General of the Armies

text: Even after retiring, the General of the Armies maintained a spacious office in the old State, War, and Navy Building until it was relocated to the Pentagon in 1947, years after ill health had permanently confined Pershing to Walter Reed General Hospital. In 1939, Congress created the office of military secretary to the General of the Armies with the rank of colonel so Pershing's longtime aide, Captain George E. Adamson, could continue to manage Pershing's affairs after his own retirement.


title: General of the Armies

text: There were several attempts to appoint senior World War II officers as Generals of the Armies, but none came to fruition.


title: General of the Armies

text: In August 1943, Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) Ernest J. King increased his efforts to create a grade higher than four stars after being outranked by his British counterpart at the First Quebec Conference. The Navy could even be outranked by the Army if Pershing died and Army chief of staff George C. Marshall inherited his title of General of the Armies with its "de facto" five-star rank, as retired CNO William V. Pratt warned King in January 1944.


title: General of the Armies

text: Marshall opposed any higher grade, saying he did not need one. King and Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson both suspected that as Pershing's longtime protégé, Marshall would resist any rank equivalent to General of the Armies while his mentor was still alive. Stimson did ask President Franklin D. Roosevelt to appoint Marshall as General of the Armies in September 1943 so he could command the planned invasion of France while remaining chief of staff, but Roosevelt ultimately gave the command to Dwight D. Eisenhower instead.


title: General of the Armies

text: In February 1944, King's lobbying led both houses of Congress to submit bills reviving the grades of General of the Armies and Admiral of the Navy. King wanted the American Joint Chiefs of Staff to rank with the British field marshals on the Combined Chiefs of Staff, raising both Marshall and Army Air Forces commander Henry H. Arnold to five-star General of the Armies. However, House Naval Affairs Committee chairman Carl Vinson wanted King and Marshall to have even higher rank, so the House bills inserted a five-star fleet admiral below a six-star Admiral of the Navy, which the Army was expected to match with its own five-star grade and a six-star General of the Armies. Even King thought six stars was too much, and public opposition convinced supporters of higher grades to defer legislation until after a successful landing in Europe.


title: General of the Armies

text: With the invasion of Europe well underway by September 1944, the War Department finally gave its blessing to a five-star grade on condition that it not be called General of the Armies, a title reserved for the higher rank held by Pershing. In a press conference on September 14, 1944, Stimson said:


title: General of the Armies

text: On December 14, 1944, established the five-star grade of General of the Army, preserving Pershing's status as the only General of the Armies and further stating that nothing would change about the 1919 law that had promoted him:


title: General of the Armies

text: By specifying that nothing about the General of the Armies would be changed by the law that created the five-star grades, Congress intended Pershing to remain the highest-ranking officer in the Army. This sparked a long-running debate over whether Pershing was now a six-star general; the senior five-star general; or even just a four-star general, as later argued by an influential pair of articles by Frederick Bernays Wiener, who pointed out that the 1919 law that revived his office did not actually say that the General of the Armies outranked all other Army officers, but merely repealed a 1917 law that would have let the Army chief of staff outrank him.


title: General of the Armies

text: For the rest of Pershing's life, official publications consistently treated the General of the Armies as being one grade higher than a five-star general. As late as 1951, Army regulations specified 19 guns to salute the General of the Armies, and only 17 guns for a General of the Army.


title: General of the Armies

text: Pershing himself never wore more than four stars. Army regulations let the General of the Armies design his own uniform, but by the time the five-star grade was created in 1944, Pershing was too infirm to consider updating his insignia. When Pershing died on July 15, 1948, a proposal to bury him in a uniform bearing six stars was rejected in favor of the four stars he had always worn.


title: General of the Armies

text: In January 1955, Congressional supporters of General of the Army Douglas MacArthur introduced legislation to appoint him General of the Armies, backdated to his 75th birthday on January 26. The proposal stalled in the House Armed Services Committee after the Defense Department opposed it on the grounds that promoting only MacArthur would downgrade all other five-star officers and "arouse interservice, intraservice and popular misunderstanding and controversies." Another attempt was still pending in Congress when MacArthur died on April 5, 1964.


title: General of the Armies

text: In September 1953, the "New York Times" reported that because George Washington had never been appointed General of the Armies in 1799, he remained a lieutenant general who was now outranked by 45 other generals, living and dead. Citing this low rank, Senator Edward Martin introduced a bill in April 1954 to appoint Washington posthumously as General of the Armies.


title: General of the Armies

text: Twenty-three years later, a veterans group in the district of Representative Mario Biaggi observed that Washington had still not been promoted, prompting Biaggi to sponsor a joint resolution to elevate Washington to General of the Armies as part of the United States Bicentennial celebration in 1976.


title: General of the Armies

text: When the House Armed Services Committee met to consider the resolution, a committee counsel acknowledged that it was still debatable whether Pershing was ever more than a four-star general, but Representative F. Edward Hébert asserted that the language of this resolution did make Washington a six-star general, saying, "We have three grades—general, General of the Army, and this is General of the Armies of the United States."


title: General of the Armies

text: Representative Lucien N. Nedzi objected that Washington's stature was already so high that giving him a modern Army rank just made Congress look ridiculous. "It's like having the Pope offer to make Christ a cardinal."


title: General of the Armies

text: Deeming it "fitting and proper that no officer of the United States Army should outrank Lieutenant General George Washington on the Army list," declared that:


title: General of the Armies

text: Although President Gerald Ford signed the law on October 11, 1976, no further action was taken to promote Washington until February 1978, when a military driver studying for a promotion board asked his passenger, General Donn A. Starry, whether Washington now outranked Pershing. The specialist five's question to a four-star general triggered a chain of inquiries that caused the Department of the Army to issue on March 13, 1978, posthumously promoting Washington to the grade of General of the Armies of the United States, effective from the 200th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1976. When the question was asked again in 1992, the U.S. Army Institute of Heraldry considered Pershing's rank to be equivalent to five stars and junior to Washington.


title: General of the Armies

text: In September 2021, joint resolutions authorizing the President to appoint Ulysses S. Grant posthumously to the grade of General of the Armies of the United States were introduced in the House and Senate by a bipartisan Congressional delegation from his home states of Ohio, Missouri, and New York. In a letter to the secretary of defense, three of the bill's sponsors argued that by reestablishing the General of the Armies grade with "precedence over all other grades of the Army, past or present," the 1976 law authorizing Washington's promotion had effectively lowered the grade to which Grant was appointed in 1866.


title: General of the Armies

text: Supporters of Grant's promotion hoped the law would pass in time for his 200th birthday on April 27, 2022, the date of rank specified in the bill, which was titled the "Ulysses S. Grant Bicentennial Recognition Act". The joint resolutions were referred to the House Armed Services Committee and Senate Judiciary Committee, neither of which took any action. On December 7, 2022, the proposal was included in the draft text of Section 583 of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2023 and awaits further action.


title: General of the Armies

text: No insignia was ever officially specified for the General of the Armies, who was allowed to define it for himself.


title: General of the Armies

text: Upon being appointed General of the Armies in 1919, Pershing continued to wear the four silver stars and gold collar eagle that he had selected for his insignia as a general in 1917, when Army regulations authorized generals to prescribe their own shoulder and collar insignia. Pershing and Generals Tasker H. Bliss and Peyton C. March all chose to wear four silver stars on their shoulders, instead of the previous insignia of two silver stars and a gold eagle. Pershing and Bliss also replaced the regulation bronze "U.S." insignia on their collars with a gold eagle representing the Great Seal of the United States.


title: General of the Armies

text: In 1937, Pershing created a custom full dress uniform to attend the coronation of George VI and Elizabeth, denoting his rank with four gold stars embroidered on each sleeve. Full dress uniforms for other general officers used silver stars, including the custom uniform that Army chief of staff Malin Craig designed for himself the following year.


title: General of the Armies

text: Because the General of the Armies prescribed his own insignia, later tradition held that Pershing could have worn as many stars as he wanted. Claimed one expert in 1976, "if a General of the Armies wants to wear six stars, he can. Or seven. Or 10, I guess." The creation of the five-star grades in 1944 led to suggestions that Pershing clarify his seniority by adopting a six-star insignia, but by then he was too ill. When Pershing died in 1948, funeral planners considered affixing a six-star insignia to his uniform, but instead buried him with the four stars he wore in life.


title: General of the Armies

text: As General of the Armies, Pershing was paid much more than other generals. The 1919 law that promoted Pershing gave the General of the Armies the same annual pay of that was set in 1870 for General William T. Sherman, plus in allowances.


title: General of the Armies

text: All other generals fell under the Joint Service Pay Readjustment Act of 1922, which set the pay for a major general at . Higher ranks had the same pay as a major general plus a personal money allowance of for a lieutenant general, for a general, or for a general of the Army. Including food and housing, the annual compensation for a general of the Army in December 1944 was , versus for the General of the Armies (respectively equivalent to $ and $ in ).


title: General of the Armies

text: The General of the Armies retired with full pay and allowances, another benefit created for Sherman and inherited by Pershing, who continued to receive $21,500 for the rest of his life. Even in retirement, he drew a higher annual compensation than any other official in the federal government except the President of the United States.


title: General of the Armies

text: Other generals retired at three-quarters pay and no allowances. When Army chief of staff Charles P. Summerall retired in 1931, his annual compensation fell to only $6,000, three-quarters of a major general's pay.


title: General of the Armies

text: Starting in 1933, the General of the Armies was allowed to design his own uniform, as were current and former Army chiefs of staff. Pershing used this authority to create the unique uniform he wore to the 1937 coronation of George VI and Elizabeth, styled after the full dress uniform that had been introduced by the Army in 1902 but discontinued in 1917. Whereas the 1902 uniform portrayed the rank of a general officer by embroidering silver stars on each sleeve, Pershing's 1937 uniform sleeves bore four gold stars. When Army chief of staff Malin Craig designed his own custom uniform in 1938, he returned to the usual silver stars.


title: General of the Armies

text: Pershing's estate donated his General of the Armies uniforms to the Smithsonian Institution, including the 1921 service coat with four silver stars that he wore as Army chief of staff and the 1937 full dress coat with four gold stars that he wore to the coronation.


title: General of the Armies

text: On March 2, 1899, Congress created the grade of Admiral of the Navy to honor George Dewey for his victory at the Battle of Manila Bay. Only Dewey ever held this grade, which is often treated as the United States Navy equivalent of General of the Armies, although the two grades never overlapped since Dewey died on January 16, 1917, two years before Pershing's appointment.


title: General of the Armies

text: Admiral of the Navy and General of the Armies were permanent grades awarded as personal accolades for past service, unlike the later "ex officio" ranks of admiral and general. Both grades carried the same annual pay of $13,500 for life, and the proposal to create more Admirals of the Navy in 1944 continued to tie their compensation to the General of the Armies.


title: General of the Armies

text: After Dewey was mistakenly nominated to be an admiral in the Navy instead of Admiral of the Navy in 1899 and had to be renominated in 1903, the Navy carefully distinguished between Dewey's grade and the rank of admiral that was held by the three fleet commanders from 1915, and the Chief of Naval Operations from 1916. The Army took similar care to distinguish between Pershing's grade and the rank of general held by the chief of staff of the Army from 1929, after Pershing was mistakenly nominated to be a general in the Army instead of General of the Armies in 1919.


title: General of the Armies

text: Because Dewey and Pershing were both treated as if they held grades higher than admiral or general, before World War II they were sometimes thought to be on par with a British admiral of the fleet or field marshal. When the five-star grades were created in 1944, the initial legislation called them Admiral of the Navy and General of the Armies. However, House Naval Affairs Committee chairman Carl Vinson inserted a five-star fleet admiral below Admiral of the Navy, which he wanted to be a six-star grade. Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson then required that the five-star Army grade not be called General of the Armies, which he thought was also a higher rank.


title: General of the Armies

text: Although the 1944 proposal to create six-star grades was dropped, Army and Navy regulations in 1951 still authorized only 17 guns to salute a five-star officer, and 19 guns for an Admiral of the Navy or General of the Armies.


title: Cytomegalovirus

text: Cytomegalovirus (CMV) (from "cyto-" 'cell' via Greek - 'container' + 'big, megalo-' + -"virus" via Latin 'poison') is a genus of viruses in the order "Herpesvirales", in the family "Herpesviridae", in the subfamily "Betaherpesvirinae". Humans and other primates serve as natural hosts. The 11 species in this genus include "human betaherpesvirus 5" (HCMV, human cytomegalovirus, HHV-5), which is the species that infects humans. Diseases associated with HHV-5 include mononucleosis and pneumonia. In the medical literature, most mentions of CMV without further specification refer implicitly to human CMV. Human CMV is the most studied of all cytomegaloviruses.


title: Cytomegalovirus

text: MX2/MXB was identified as a restriction factor for herpesviruses, which acts at a very early stage of the replication cycle and MX2/MXB restriction of herpesvirus requires GTPase activity.


title: Cytomegalovirus

text: Within the "Herpesviridae", CMV belongs to the "Betaherpesvirinae" subfamily, which also includes the genera "Muromegalovirus" and "Roseolovirus" (human herpesvirus 6 and "human betaherpesvirus 7"). It is also related to other herpesviruses within the "Alphaherpesvirinae" subfamily, which includes herpes simplex viruses 1 and 2 and varicella-zoster virus, and the "Gammaherpesvirinae" subfamily, which includes Epstein–Barr virus and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus.


title: Cytomegalovirus

text: Several species of "Cytomegalovirus" have been identified and classified for different mammals. The most studied is "Human cytomegalovirus" (HCMV), which is also known as "Human betaherpesvirus 5" (HHV-5). Other primate CMV species include "Chimpanzee cytomegalovirus" (CCMV) that infects chimpanzees and orangutans, and "Simian cytomegalovirus" (SCCMV) and "Rhesus cytomegalovirus" (RhCMV) that infect macaques; CCMV is known as both "Panine beta herpesvirus 2" (PaHV-2) and "Pongine betaherpesvirus 4" (PoHV-4). SCCMV is called "cercopithecine betaherpesvirus 5" (CeHV-5) and RhCMV, "Cercopithecine betaherpesvirus 8" (CeHV-8). A further two viruses found in the night monkey are tentatively placed in the genus "Cytomegalovirus", and are called "Herpesvirus aotus 1" and "Herpesvirus aotus 3". Rodents also have viruses previously called cytomegaloviruses that are now reclassified under the genus "Muromegalovirus"; this genus contains "Mouse cytomegalovirus" (MCMV) is also known as "Murid betaherpesvirus 1" (MuHV-1) and the closely related "Murid betaherpesvirus 2" (MuHV-2) that is found in rats.


title: Cytomegalovirus

text: Viruses in "Cytomegalovirus" are enveloped, with icosahedral, spherical to pleomorphic, and round geometries, and T=16 symmetry. The diameter is around 150–200 nm. Genomes are linear and nonsegmented, around 200 kb in length.


title: Cytomegalovirus

text: Herpesviruses have some of the largest genomes among human viruses, often encoding hundreds of proteins. For instance, the double‑stranded DNA (dsDNA) genome of wild-type HCMV strains has a size of around 235 kb and encodes at least 208 proteins. It is thus longer than all other human herpesviruses and one of the longest genomes of all human viruses in general. It has the characteristic herpesvirus class E genome architecture, consisting of two unique regions (unique long UL and unique short US), both flanked by a pair of inverted repeats (terminal/internal repeat long TRL/IRL and internal/terminal repeat short IRS/TRS). Both sets of repeats share a region of a few hundred bps, the so-called "a sequence"; the other regions of the repeats are sometimes referred to as "b sequence" and "c sequence".


title: Cytomegalovirus

text: Viral replication is nuclear and lysogenic. Entry into the host cell is achieved by attachment of the viral glycoproteins to host receptors, which mediates endocytosis. Replication follows the dsDNA bidirectional replication model. DNA templated transcription, with some alternative splicing mechanism is the method of transcription. Translation takes place by leaky scanning. The virus exits the host cell by nuclear egress, and budding. Humans and monkeys serve as the natural hosts. Transmission routes are dependent on coming into contact with bodily fluids (such as saliva, urine, and genital secretions) from an infected individual.


title: Cytomegalovirus

text: All herpesviruses share a characteristic ability to remain latent within the body over long periods. Although they may be found throughout the body, CMV infections are frequently associated with the salivary glands in humans and other mammals.


title: Cytomegalovirus

text: The CMV promoter is commonly included in vectors used in genetic engineering work conducted in mammalian cells, as it is a strong promoter and drives constitutive expression of genes under its control.


title: Cytomegalovirus

text: "Cytomegalovirus" was first observed by German pathologist Hugo Ribbert in 1881 when he noticed enlarged cells with enlarged nuclei present in the cells of an infant. Years later, between 1956 and 1957, Thomas Huckle Weller together with Smith and Rowe independently isolated the virus, known thereafter as "cytomegalovirus". In 1990, the first draft of human cytomegalovirus genome was published, the biggest contiguous genome sequenced at that time.


title: Kiss discography

text: American hard rock band Kiss has released twenty studio albums and sixty singles. The group, formed in New York City in 1973, first consisted of bassist Gene Simmons, rhythm guitarist Paul Stanley, lead guitarist Ace Frehley, and drummer Peter Criss. It is the most recognizable and successful line-up, which lasted until Criss' departure in 1980. The band is known for its make-up and on-stage antics, which influenced many artists who later used similar effects in their concerts.


title: Kiss discography

text: The band's eponymous debut album was released in 1974. The album did not have a hit single and rose only as high as 87 on "Billboard", despite significant touring and promotion. The follow-up album, "Hotter Than Hell" (1974), was a bigger disappointment, peaking at 100 and quickly dropping off the charts. "Dressed To Kill", released in 1975, was a much bigger success, breaking into Top-40, but the band's record label, Casablanca Records, was close to bankruptcy and needed a commercial breakthrough. This would later be achieved with both Kiss' and Casablanca's first Top-10 album, the double-live album "Alive!", which featured the number 12 hit "Rock and Roll All Nite". The next three albums, "Destroyer", "Rock and Roll Over", and "Love Gun" were successful, achieving Platinum status and spawning Top-20 singles (including the number 7 ballad "Beth", the band's highest-charting single in the US).


title: Kiss discography

text: Their seventh studio release, "Dynasty", while being a musical departure, was a global success, thanks largely to the worldwide hit, "I Was Made for Lovin' You". The next three albums, "Unmasked", "Music From "The Elder"" and "Creatures of the Night", were domestic commercial failures, even as the band maintained popularity in many other parts of the world. "Lick It Up" was the first album featuring the band without make-up and was certified gold. Their next studio releases ("Animalize"; "Asylum"; "Crazy Nights"; "Smashes, Thrashes & Hits") were more successful and Kiss recaptured some of their earlier glory (though not to the level of their 1970s heyday). "Hot in the Shade" was the lowest charting album of the unmasked era in the US, despite the success of the top 10 power ballad "Forever".


title: Kiss discography

text: With their 16th studio release, "Revenge", Kiss attempted to modernize their sound for the 1990s with heavier songs. The album initially charted at #6 on the "Billboard" 200, and quickly reached Gold status in the US. 1997's "" was released after the reunion tour and did not receive much promotion. It has yet to be certified Gold in the US despite the album's lone single "Jungle" reaching number 8 on the US Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks. Followed by a highly successful reunion, in 1998 "Psycho Circus" was released and was a moderate success. Their first album in 11 years, "Sonic Boom", was released in 2009. The band released their 20th studio album, "Monster", on October 9, 2012. To date, Kiss has had 25 million copies certified by the RIAA in the United States. The band has 30 gold albums as of July 2015.


title: Kiss discography

text: The Kiss discography also includes a large number of unofficial releases - bootlegs. Most of them are live performances - audience recordings, radio broadcasts or soundboard recordings - but there are also unofficial releases featuring unreleased studio recordings. Some bootlegs are known to include fake "Kiss" songs recorded by other bands.


title: Beta Israel

text: The Beta Israel (, "Bēteʾ Yīsrāʾēl"; , , modern "Bēte 'Isrā'ēl", EAE: "Betä Ǝsraʾel", "House of Israel" or "Community of Israel"), also known as Ethiopian Jews (: "Yehudey Etyopyah;" Ge'ez: የኢትዮጵያ አይሁድዊ, "ye-Ityoppya Ayhudi"), are a Jewish community that developed and lived for centuries in the area of the Kingdom of Aksum and the Ethiopian Empire, which is currently divided between the modern-day Amhara and Tigray regions of Ethiopia. Most of the Beta Israel community immigrated to Israel in the late 20th century.


title: Beta Israel

text: The Beta Israel lived in northern and northwestern Ethiopia, in more than 500 small villages which were spread over a wide territory, alongside populations that were Muslim and predominantly Christian. Most of them were concentrated mainly on what are today North Gondar Zone, Shire Inda Selassie, Wolqayit, Tselemti, Dembia, Segelt, Quara, and Belesa. They practice a non-Talmudic form of Judaism that is similar in some respects to Karaite Judaism. In Israel, this form of Judaism is referred to as Haymanot. Beta Israel appear to have been isolated from mainstream Jewish communities for at least a millennium. They suffered religious persecution and a significant portion of the community were forced into Christianity during the 19th and 20th centuries; those converted to Christianity came to be known as the Falash Mura. The larger Beta Abraham Christian community is also considered to have historical links to the Beta Israel.


title: Beta Israel

text: The Beta Israel made contact with other Jewish communities in the later 20th century. Following this, a rabbinic debate ensued over whether or not the Beta Israel were Jews. After "halakhic" (Jewish law) and constitutional discussions, Israeli officials decided, in 1977, that the Israeli Law of Return was to be applied to the Beta Israel. The Israeli and American governments mounted "aliyah" (immigration to Israel) transport operations. These activities included Operation Brothers in Sudan between 1979 and 1990 (this includes the major Operation Moses and Operation Joshua), and in the 1990s from Addis Ababa (which includes Operation Solomon).


title: Beta Israel

text: By the end of 2008, there were 119,300 people of Ethiopian descent in Israel, including nearly 81,000 people born in Ethiopia and about 38,500 native-born Israelis (about 32 percent of the community) with at least one parent born in Ethiopia or Eritrea (formerly part of Ethiopia). At the end of 2019, there were 155,300 people of Ethiopian descent in Israel. Approximately 87,500 were born in Ethiopia, and 67,800 were Israeli-born with fathers born in Ethiopia.


title: Beta Israel

text: The Ethiopian Jewish community in Israel is mostly composed of Beta Israel (practicing both Haymanot and Rabbinic Judaism) and to a smaller extent of Falash Mura who converted from Christianity to Rabbinic Judaism upon their arrival to Israel.


title: Beta Israel

text: Throughout its history, the community has been referred to by numerous names. According to late tradition the (literally, 'house of Israel' in Ge'ez) had their origins in the 4th century CE, when it is claimed that the community refused to convert to Christianity during the rule of Abreha and Atsbeha (identified with Se'azana and Ezana), the monarchs of the Kingdom of Aksum who embraced Christianity.


title: Beta Israel

text: This name contrasts with (literally, 'house of Christianity', meaning 'church' in Ge'ez). Originally, it did not have any negative connotations, and the community has since used Beta Israel as its official name. Since the 1980s, it has also become the official name used in the scholarly and scientific literature to refer to the community. The term "Esra'elawi" "Israelites" – which is related to the name Beta Israel – is also used by the community to refer to its members.


title: Beta Israel

text: The name "Ayhud" ('Jews'), is rarely used in the community, as the Christians had used it as a derogatory term. The community has begun to use it only since strengthening ties with other Jewish communities in the 20th century. The term "Ibrawi" "Hebrew" was used to refer to the "chawa" ('free man') in the community, in contrast to "barya" ('slave'). The term "Oritawi" "Torah-true" was used to refer to the community members; since the 19th century, it has been used in opposition to the term "Falash Mura" (converts).


title: Beta Israel

text: The derogatory term "Falasha", which means 'landless', 'wanderers', 'associated with monks' was given to the community in the 15th century by the Emperor Yeshaq I, and today its use is avoided because its meaning is offensive. "Zagwe", referring to the Agaw people of the Zagwe dynasty, among the original inhabitants of northwest Ethiopia, is considered derogatory, since it incorrectly associates the community with the largely pagan Agaw.


title: Beta Israel

text: Haymanot (Ge'ez: ሃይማኖት) is the colloquial term for "faith" which is also used as a term for the Jewish religion by the Beta Israel community, and Ethiopian Orthodox Christians also use it as a term for their own religion.


title: Beta Israel

text: "Mäṣḥafä Kedus" (Holy Scriptures) is the name for their religious literature. The language of the writings is Geʽez, which also is the liturgical language of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. The holiest book is the Orit (meaning "law") or Octateuch: the Five Books of Moses plus Joshua, Judges and Ruth. The rest of the Bible has secondary importance. They possess the Book of Lamentations from the traditional Hebrew canon, and part of the Book of Jeremiah, as in the Orthodox Tewahedo biblical canon.


title: Beta Israel

text: Deuterocanonical books that also make up part of the canon are Sirach, Judith, Esdras 1 and 2, Meqabyan, Jubilees, Baruch 1 and 4, Tobit, Enoch, and the testaments of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Many of these books differ substantially from the similarly numbered and named texts in Koine Greek and Hebrew (such as "Maccabbees"), though some of the Ge'ez works are clearly dependent on those texts. Others appear to have other ancient literary and oral origins. All of the texts are also used by the Orthodox Christian population as well, though with varying levels of importance between the communities.


title: Beta Israel

text: Important non-Biblical writings include: "Nagara Muse" "The Conversation of Moses", "Mota Aaron" "Death of Aaron", "Mota Muse" "Death of Moses", "Te'ezaza Sanbat" "Precepts of the Sabbath", "Arde'et" "Students", Gorgorios, "Mäṣḥafä Sa'atat" "Book of Hours", "Abba Elias" "Father Elijah", "Mäṣḥafä Mäla'əkt" "Book of Angels", "Mäṣḥafä Kahan" "Book of the Priest", "Dərsanä Abrəham Wäsara Bägabs" "Homily on Abraham and Sarah in Egypt", "Gadla Sosna" "The Acts of Susanna", and "Baqadāmi Gabra Egzi'abḥēr" "In the Beginning God Created". "Zena Āyhud" and "Fālasfā"


title: Beta Israel

text: The synagogue is called the "masgid" (place of worship), it is also called the "bet maqdas" (Holy house) or the "ṣalot bet" (Prayer house).


title: Beta Israel

text: Beta Israel kashrut law is based mainly on the books of Leviticus, Deuteronomy, and Jubilees. Permitted and forbidden animals and their signs appear in Leviticus 11:3–8 and Deuteronomy 14:4–8. Forbidden birds are listed in Leviticus 11:13–23 and Deuteronomy 14:12–20. Signs of permitted fish are written on Leviticus 11:9–12 and Deuteronomy 14:9–10. Insects and larvae are forbidden according to Leviticus 11:41–42. Gid hanasheh is forbidden per Genesis 32:33. Mixtures of milk and meat are not prepared or eaten, but are not banned either: Haymanot interpreted the verses Exodus 23:19, Exodus 34:26, and Deuteronomy 14:21 "shalt not seethe a kid in its mother's milk" literally, as in Karaite Judaism; whereas, under Rabbinic Judaism, mixing dairy products with meat is banned.


title: Beta Israel

text: Ethiopian Jews were forbidden to eat the food of non-Jews. A Kahen eats only meat he has slaughtered himself, which his hosts prepare both for him and themselves. Beta Israel who broke these taboos were ostracized, and had to undergo a purification process. Purification included fasting for one or more days, eating only uncooked chickpeas provided by the Kahen, and ritual purification before entering the village.


title: Beta Israel

text: The Beta Israel calendar is a lunar calendar of 12 months, each 29 or 30 days alternately. Every four years, there is a leap year which adds a full month (30 days). The calendar is a combination of the ancient calendar of Alexandrian Jewry, Book of Jubilees, Book of Enoch, Abu Shaker, and the Ge'ez calendar. The years are counted according to the counting of Kushta: "1571 to Jesus Christ, 7071 to the Gyptians, and 6642 to the Hebrews"; according to this counting, the year 5771 () in the Rabbinical Hebrew calendar is the year 7082 in this calendar.


title: Beta Israel

text: Holidays in the "Haymanot" (religion) are divided into daily, monthly, and annually. The annual holidays by month are:


title: Beta Israel

text: Monthly holidays are mainly memorial days to the annual holiday; these are "yačaraqā ba'āl" ("new moon festival") on the first day of every month, "asärt" ("ten") on the tenth day to commemorate Yom Kippur, "'asrã hulat" ("twelve") on the twelfth day to commemorate Shavuot, "asrã ammest" ("fifteen") on the fifteenth day to commemorate Passover and Sukkot, and "ṣomä mälěya" a fast on the last day of every month. Daily holidays include the "ṣomä säňňo" (Monday fast), "ṣomä amus" (Thursday fast), "ṣomä 'arb" (Friday fast), and the very holy "Sanbat" (Sabbath).


title: Beta Israel

text: The Beta Israel once spoke Qwara and Kayla, both of which are Agaw languages. Now, they speak Tigrinya and Amharic, both Semitic languages. Their liturgical language is Geʽez, also Semitic. Since the 1950s, they have taught Hebrew in their schools. Those Beta Israel residing in the State of Israel now use Modern Hebrew as a daily language.


title: Beta Israel

text: Contemporary scholars believe that the Beta Israel emerged comparatively recently and formed a distinct ethonational group in the context of historical pressures that came to a head from the 14th to the 16th centuries.


title: Beta Israel

text: Many of the Beta Israel's accounts of their own origins state that they stem from the very ancient migration of some portion of the Tribe of Dan to Ethiopia, were led by the sons of Moses, perhaps at the time of the Exodus. Alternative timelines include the later crises in Judea, e. g., the split of the northern Kingdom of Israel from the southern Kingdom of Judah after the death of King Solomon or the Babylonian Exile. Other Beta Israel take as their basis the Christian account of Menelik's return to Ethiopia. Menelik is considered the first Solomonic Emperor of Ethiopia, and is traditionally believed to be the son of King Solomon of ancient Israel, and Makeda, ancient Queen of Sheba (in modern Ethiopia). Though all the available traditions correspond to recent interpretations, they reflect ancient convictions. According to Jon Abbink, three different versions are to be distinguished among the traditions which were recorded by the priests of the community.


title: Beta Israel

text: According to one account, the Beta Israel originated in the kingdom of Israel and they were the contemporaries rather than the descendants of King Solomon and Menelik.


title: Beta Israel

text: According to another account, the forefathers of the Beta Israel are supposed to have arrived in Ethiopia by coming from the North, independently from Menelik and his company:


title: Beta Israel

text: The Ethiopian history described in the "Kebra Nagast" relates that Ethiopians are descendants of Israelite tribes who came to Ethiopia with Menelik I, alleged to be the son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba (or Makeda, in the legend) (see and ). The legend relates that Menelik, as an adult, returned to his father in Jerusalem, and later resettled in Ethiopia. He took with him the Ark of the Covenant.


title: Beta Israel

text: In the Bible, there is no mention that the Queen of Sheba either married or had any sexual relations with King Solomon (although some identify her with the "black and beautiful" in Song of Songs 1:5). Rather, the narrative records that she was impressed with Solomon's wealth and wisdom, and they exchanged royal gifts, and then she returned to rule her people in Kush. However, the "royal gifts" are interpreted by some as sexual contact. The loss of the Ark is not mentioned in the Bible. Hezekiah later makes reference to the Ark in 2 Kings 19:15.


title: Beta Israel

text: The "Kebra Negast" asserts that the Beta Israel are descended from a battalion of men of Judah who fled southward down the Arabian coastal lands from Judea after the breakup of the Kingdom of Israel into two kingdoms in the 10th century BCE (while King Rehoboam reigned over Judah).


title: Beta Israel

text: Although the "Kebra Nagast" and some traditional Ethiopian histories have stated that Gudit (or "Yudit", Judith; another name given her was "Esato", Esther), a 10th-century usurping queen, was Jewish, some scholars consider that it is unlikely that this was the case. It is more likely, they say, that she was a pagan southerner or a usurping Christian Aksumite Queen. However, she clearly supported Jews, since she founded the Zagwe dynasty, who governed from around 937 to 1270 CE. According to the "Kebra Nagast", Jewish, Christian and pagan kings ruled in harmony at that time. Furthermore, the Zagwe dynasty claimed legitimacy (according to the "Kebra Nagast") by saying it was descended from Moses and his Ethiopian wife.


title: Beta Israel

text: Most of the Beta Israel consider the "Kebra Negast" to be legend. As its name expresses, "Glory of Kings" (meaning the Christian Aksumite kings), it was written in the 14th century in large part to delegitimize the Zagwe dynasty, to promote instead a rival "Solomonic" claim to authentic Jewish Ethiopian antecedents, and to justify the Christian overthrow of the Zagwe by the "Solomonic" Aksumite dynasty, whose rulers are glorified. The writing of this polemic shows that criticisms of the Aksumite claims of authenticity were current in the 14th century, two centuries after they came to power. Many Beta Israel believe that they are descended from the tribe of Dan. Most reject the "Solomonic" and "Queen of Sheba" legends of the Aksumites.