title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: However, the simplest Runge–Kutta method is the (forward) Euler method, given by the formula formula_53. This is the only consistent explicit Runge–Kutta method with one stage. The corresponding tableau is


title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: The midpoint method is not the only second-order Runge–Kutta method with two stages; there is a family of such methods, parameterized by α and given by the formula


title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: In this family, formula_56 gives the midpoint method, formula_57 is Heun's method, and formula_58 is Ralston's method.


title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: As an example, consider the two-stage second-order Runge–Kutta method with α = 2/3, also known as Ralston method. It is given by the tableau


title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: Adaptive methods are designed to produce an estimate of the local truncation error of a single Runge–Kutta step. This is done by having two methods, one with order formula_44 and one with order formula_62. These methods are interwoven, i.e., they have common intermediate steps. Thanks to this, estimating the error has little or negligible computational cost compared to a step with the higher-order method.


title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: During the integration, the step size is adapted such that the estimated error stays below a user-defined threshold: If the error is too high, a step is repeated with a lower step size; if the error is much smaller, the step size is increased to save time. This results in an (almost) optimal step size, which saves computation time. Moreover, the user does not have to spend time on finding an appropriate step size.


title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: However, the simplest adaptive Runge–Kutta method involves combining Heun's method, which is order 2, with the Euler method, which is order 1. Its extended Butcher tableau is:


title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: Other adaptive Runge–Kutta methods are the Bogacki–Shampine method (orders 3 and 2), the Cash–Karp method and the Dormand–Prince method (both with orders 5 and 4).


title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: Runge–Kutta–Nyström methods are specialized Runge-Kutta methods that are optimized for second-order differential equations of the following form:


title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: All Runge–Kutta methods mentioned up to now are explicit methods. Explicit Runge–Kutta methods are generally unsuitable for the solution of stiff equations because their region of absolute stability is small; in particular, it is bounded.


title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: The instability of explicit Runge–Kutta methods motivates the development of implicit methods. An implicit Runge–Kutta method has the form


title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: The difference with an explicit method is that in an explicit method, the sum over "j" only goes up to "i" − 1. This also shows up in the Butcher tableau: the coefficient matrix formula_72 of an explicit method is lower triangular. In an implicit method, the sum over "j" goes up to "s" and the coefficient matrix is not triangular, yielding a Butcher tableau of the form


title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: The consequence of this difference is that at every step, a system of algebraic equations has to be solved. This increases the computational cost considerably. If a method with "s" stages is used to solve a differential equation with "m" components, then the system of algebraic equations has "ms" components. This can be contrasted with implicit linear multistep methods (the other big family of methods for ODEs): an implicit "s"-step linear multistep method needs to solve a system of algebraic equations with only "m" components, so the size of the system does not increase as the number of steps increases.


title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: The trapezoidal rule is a collocation method (as discussed in that article). All collocation methods are implicit Runge–Kutta methods, but not all implicit Runge–Kutta methods are collocation methods.


title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: The Gauss–Legendre methods form a family of collocation methods based on Gauss quadrature. A Gauss–Legendre method with "s" stages has order 2"s" (thus, methods with arbitrarily high order can be constructed). The method with two stages (and thus order four) has Butcher tableau:


title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: The advantage of implicit Runge–Kutta methods over explicit ones is their greater stability, especially when applied to stiff equations. Consider the linear test equation formula_80. A Runge–Kutta method applied to this equation reduces to the iteration formula_81, with "r" given by


title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: where "e" stands for the vector of ones. The function "r" is called the "stability function". It follows from the formula that "r" is the quotient of two polynomials of degree "s" if the method has "s" stages. Explicit methods have a strictly lower triangular matrix "A", which implies that det("I" − "zA") = 1 and that the stability function is a polynomial.


title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: The numerical solution to the linear test equation decays to zero if | "r"("z") | < 1 with "z" = "h"λ. The set of such "z" is called the "domain of absolute stability". In particular, the method is said to be absolute stable if all "z" with Re("z") < 0 are in the domain of absolute stability. The stability function of an explicit Runge–Kutta method is a polynomial, so explicit Runge–Kutta methods can never be A-stable.


title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: If the method has order "p", then the stability function satisfies formula_83 as formula_84. Thus, it is of interest to study quotients of polynomials of given degrees that approximate the exponential function the best. These are known as Padé approximants. A Padé approximant with numerator of degree "m" and denominator of degree "n" is A-stable if and only if "m" ≤ "n" ≤ "m" + 2.


title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: The Gauss–Legendre method with "s" stages has order 2"s", so its stability function is the Padé approximant with "m" = "n" = "s". It follows that the method is A-stable. This shows that A-stable Runge–Kutta can have arbitrarily high order. In contrast, the order of A-stable linear multistep methods cannot exceed two.


title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: The "A-stability" concept for the solution of differential equations is related to the linear autonomous equation formula_85. Dahlquist proposed the investigation of stability of numerical schemes when applied to nonlinear systems that satisfy a monotonicity condition. The corresponding concepts were defined as "G-stability" for multistep methods (and the related one-leg methods) and "B-stability" (Butcher, 1975) for Runge–Kutta methods. A Runge–Kutta method applied to the non-linear system formula_86, which verifies formula_87, is called "B-stable", if this condition implies formula_88 for two numerical solutions.


title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: A Runge–Kutta method is said to be "algebraically stable" if the matrices formula_89 and formula_90 are both non-negative definite. A sufficient condition for "B-stability" is: formula_89 and formula_91 are non-negative definite.


title: Runge–Kutta methods

text: We develop the derivation for the Runge–Kutta fourth-order method using the general formula with formula_103 evaluated, as explained above, at the starting point, the midpoint and the end point of any interval formula_104; thus, we choose:


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Jean-Paul Charles Belmondo (; 9 April 19336 September 2021) was a French actor and producer. Initially associated with the New Wave of the 1960s, he was a major French film star for several decades from the 1960s onward. His best known credits include "Breathless" (1960), "That Man from Rio" (1964), "Pierrot le Fou" (1965), "Borsalino" (1970), and "The Professional" (1981). He was most notable for portraying police officers in action thriller films and became known for his unwillingness to appear in English-language films, despite being heavily courted by Hollywood. An undisputed box-office champion like Louis de Funès and Alain Delon of the same period, Belmondo attracted nearly 160 million spectators in his 50-year career. Between 1969 and 1982, he played four times in the most popular films of the year in France: "The Brain" (1969), "Fear Over the City" (1975), "Animal" (1977), "Ace of Aces" (1982), being surpassed on this point only by Louis de Funès.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: During his career, he was called the French counterpart of actors such as James Dean, Marlon Brando, and Humphrey Bogart. Described as an icon and national treasure of France, Belmondo was seen as an influential actor of French cinema and an important figure in shaping European cinema. In 1989, Belmondo won the César Award for Best Actor for his performance in "Itinéraire d'un enfant gâté". He was nominated for two BAFTA Awards throughout his career. In 2011 and then in 2017, he received a lifetime achievement honor: the Palme d'honneur during the Cannes Film Festival and a César d'honneur 42nd César Awards.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Jean-Paul Belmondo was born in Neuilly-sur-Seine, a suburb of Paris, on 9 April 1933. Belmondo's father, Paul Belmondo, was a "Pied-Noir" sculptor who was born in Algeria of Italian descent, whose parents were of Sicilian and Piedmontese origin. His mother,


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Sarah Madeleine Rainaud-Richard, was a painter. As a boy, he was more interested in sport than school, developing a particular interest in boxing and soccer.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Belmondo made his amateur boxing debut on 10 May 1949 in Paris when he knocked out René Desmarais in one round. Belmondo's boxing career was undefeated, but brief. He won three straight first-round knockout victories from 1949 to 1950. "I stopped when the face I saw in the mirror began to change", he later said.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: He did his National Service in French North Africa where he hit himself with a rifle butt to end his military service.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Belmondo was interested in acting. His late teenage years were spent at a private drama school, and he began performing comedy sketches in the provinces. He studied under Raymond Giraud and then attended the Conservatoire of Dramatic Arts when he was twenty. He studied there for three years. He would probably have won the prize for best actor, but participated in a sketch mocking the school, which offended the jury; this resulted in his only getting an honourable mention, "which nearly set off a riot among his incensed fellow students" in August 1956, according to one report. The incident made front-page news.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Belmondo's acting career properly began in 1953, with two performances at the Théâtre de l'Atelier in Paris in Jean Anouilh's "Médée" and Georges Neveux's "Zamore". Belmondo began touring the provinces with friends including Annie Girardot and Guy Bedos.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Belmondo first appeared in the short "Moliere" (1956). His first film role was a scene with Jean-Pierre Cassel in "On Foot, on Horse, and on Wheels" (1957), which was cut from the final film; however he had a bigger part in the follow up "A Dog, a Mouse, and a Sputnik" (1958).


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Belmondo had a small role in the comedy "Be Beautiful But Shut Up" (1958), appearing with Alain Delon, followed by a role as a gangster in "Young Sinners" (1958), directed by Marcel Carné.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Belmondo supported Bourvil and Arletty in "Sunday Encounter" (1958). Jean-Luc Godard directed him in a short, "Charlotte and Her Boyfriend" (1958), where Belmondo's voice was dubbed by Godard after Belmondo was conscripted into the army. As part of his compulsory military service, he served in Algeria as a private for six months.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Belmondo's first lead role was in "Les Copains du dimanche" (1958). He later had a supporting part in "An Angel on Wheels" (1959) with Romy Schneider then appeared in "Web of Passion" (1959) for Claude Chabrol. He played D'Artagnan in "The Three Musketeers" (1959) for French television.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Belmondo starred in "Consider All Risks" (1960), a gangster story with Lino Ventura. He then played the lead role in Jean-Luc Godard's "Breathless" ("À Bout de Souffle", 1960), which made him a major figure in the French New Wave.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: "Breathless" was a major success in France and overseas and launched Belmondo internationally and as the face of the New Wave – even though, as he said "I don't know what they mean" when people used that term. In the words of "The New York Times" it led to his having "more acting assignments than he can handle."


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: He followed it with "Trapped by Fear" (1960), then the Italian film "Letters By a Novice" (1960). With Jeanne Moreau and director Peter Brook he made "Seven Days... Seven Nights" (1961) which he later called "very boring."


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Belmondo appeared as a gigolo in the anthology film "Love and the Frenchwoman" (1960). Then he made two Italian films, supporting Sophia Loren in "Two Women" (1961) as a bespectacled country boy ("It may disappoint those who've got me typed" said Belmondo. "But so much the better."), then opposite Claudia Cardinale in "The Lovemakers" (1961).


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: "Two Women" and "Breathless" were widely seen in the United States and the UK. In 1961, "The New York Times" called him "the most impressive young French actor since the advent of the late Gérard Philipe".


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: He was reunited with Godard for "A Woman Is a Woman" (1961) and made another all-star anthology comedy, "Famous Love Affairs" (1961).


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Later, he acted in Jean-Pierre Melville's philosophical movie "Léon Morin, Priest" (1961), playing a priest. He was a retired gangster in "A Man Named Rocca" (1962), then had a massive hit with the swashbuckler "Cartouche" (1962), directed by Philippe de Broca. Also popular was "A Monkey in Winter" (1962), a comedy where he and Jean Gabin played alcoholics.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: François Truffaut wanted Belmondo to play the lead in an adaptation of "Fahrenheit 451". This did not happen (the film was made several years later with Oskar Werner); instead Belmondo made two movies with Jean-Pierre Melville: the film noir crime film "The Fingerman" ("Le Doulos", 1963) and "Magnet of Doom" (1963). He co-starred with Gina Lollobrigida in "Mad Sea" (1963) and appeared in another comedy anthology, "Sweet and Sour" (1963). There was some controversy when he was arrested for insulting a policeman, when the policeman was charged with assaulting Belmondo.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: "Banana Peel" (1963), with Jeanne Moreau, was a popular comedy. Even more successful was the action-adventure tale "That Man from Rio" (1964), directed by Philippe de Broca - a massive hit in France, and popular overseas as well. A 1965 profile compared him to Humphrey Bogart and James Dean. It stated Belmondo was:


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: A later manifestation of youthful rejection... His disengagement from a society his parents made is total. He accepts corruption with a cynical smile, not even bothering to struggle. He is out entirely for himself, to get whatever he can, while he can. The Belmondo type is capable of anything. He knows he is defeated anyway... He represents something tough yet vulnerable, laconic but intense, notably lacking in neuroses or the stumbling insecurities of homus Americanus. He is the man of the moment, completely capable of taking care of himself - and ready to take on the girl of the moment too.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Belmondo's own tastes ran to Tintin comics, sports magazines, and detective novels. He said he preferred "making adventure films like "Rio" to the intellectual movies of Alain Resnais or Alain Robbe-Grillet. But with François Truffaut I'd be willing to try." His fee was said to be between US$150,000-$200,000 per film. Belmondo said he was open to making Hollywood films but he wanted to play an American rather than a Frenchman and was interested in Cary Grant type roles instead of James Dean/Bogart ones.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Belmondo made "Greed in the Sun" (1964) with Lino Ventura for director Henri Verneuil, who said Belmondo was "one of the few young actors in France who is young and manly." "Backfire" (1964) reunited him with Jean Seberg, his "Breathless" co-star. After a role in "Male Hunt" (1964) he played the lead in "Weekend at Dunkirk" (1965), another big hit in France.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Belmondo dominated the French box office for 1964 – "That Man from Rio" was the fourth most popular movie in the country, "Greed in the Sun" was seventh, "Weekend at Dunkirk" ninth, and "Backfire" 19th.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: "Crime on a Summer Morning" (1965) was less successful, though it still performed well on the strength of Belmondo's name. "Up to His Ears" (1965) was an attempt to repeat the popularity of "That Man Rio", from the same director, but did less well.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: There were Hollywood offers, but Belmondo turned them down. "He won't make films outside of France", said director Mark Robson, who wanted him for "Lost Command" (1966). "He has scripts stacked up and he doesn't see why he should jeopardise his great success by speaking English instead of French."


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Belmondo was reunited with Godard for "Pierrot le Fou" (1965) then made a comedy, "Tender Scoundrel" (1966). He had small roles in two predominantly English speaking films, "Is Paris Burning?" (1966) and "Casino Royale" (1967).


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: After making "The Thief of Paris" (1967) for Louis Malle, Belmondo took an acting hiatus for over a year. "One day it seemed that life was passing me by", he said. "I didn't want to work. So I stopped. Then one day I felt like starting again. So I started."


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Belmondo spent three months of that time off in Hollywood but did not accept any offers. He did not want to learn English and appear in English-language films:


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Every Frenchman dreams of making a Western, of course but America has plenty of good actors. I'm not being falsely modest but why would they need me? I prefer a national film to an international film. Something is lost. Look at what happened to Italy when they went international.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Belmondo returned to filmmaking with the crime movie, "Ho!" (1968), then had a massive hit with a comedy co-starring David Niven, "The Brain" (1969). He later appeared in "Mississippi Mermaid" (1969) for François Truffaut with Catherine Deneuve and the romantic drama "Love Is a Funny Thing" (1969).


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Belmondo starred alongside Alain Delon in "Borsalino" (1970), a successful gangster film. The latter produced the film and Belmondo ended up suing Delon over billing.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: "The Married Couple of the Year Two" (1971) was also popular; even more so was "The Burglars" (1971).


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Inspired by the success Alain Delon had producing his own films, Belmondo formed his own production company, Cerito Films (named after his grandmother, Rosina Cerrito), to develop movies for Belmondo. The first Cerito film was the black comedy "Dr. Popaul" (1972), with Mia Farrow, the biggest hit to date for director Claude Chabrol.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: "La scoumoune" (1972) was a new version of "A Man Named Rocca" (1961). "The Inheritor" (1973) was an action film; "Le Magnifique" (1974), a satiric action romance reunited him with Philippe de Broca.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: He produced as well as starred in "Stavisky" (1974). Then he made a series of purely commercial films: "Incorrigible" (1974), "Fear Over the City" (1975; one of Belmondo's biggest hits of the decade and the first time he played a policeman on screen), "Hunter Will Get You" (1976), and "Body of My Enemy" (1977). "Animal" (1977) cast him as a stuntman opposite Raquel Welch and he starred as a policeman in "Cop or Hood" (1979).


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: In 1980, Belmondo starred in another comedy, "Le Guignolo". He was a secret service agent in "The Professional" (1981) and a pilot in "Ace of Aces" (1982).


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: "What intellectuals don't like is success", said Belmondo. "Success in France is always looked down on, not by the public, but by intellectuals. If I'm nude in a film, that's fine for the intellectuals. But if I jump from a helicopter, they think it's terrible."


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Belmondo kept to commercial films: "Le Marginal" (1983) as a policeman, "Les Morfalous" (1984) as a sergeant in the French Foreign Legion, "Hold-Up" (1985) as a bank robber, and "Le Solitaire" (1987), again playing another policeman in the last one, the latter one was a big box office disappointment and Belmondo returned to theatre shortly afterwards.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: In 1987, he returned to the theatre after a 26-year absence in a production of "Kean", adapted by Jean-Paul Sartre from the novel by Alexandre Dumas. "I did theatre for 10 years before going into movies and every year I planned to go back", he recalled. "I returned before I became an old man."


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: For Claude Lelouch, Belmondo starred in and co-produced "Itinerary of a Spoiled Child" (1988). For his performance in the film, also titled as " Itineraire d'un Enfant Gate", he won a César.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Belmondo claimed there were "several reasons" why he made fewer films in the 1980s. "I'm now a producer so it takes time to organise things", he said. "But it's also difficult to find good screenplays in France. We have serious writing problems here. And I'd prefer to do theatre for a long time than take on a mediocre film."


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: In 1990, he played the title role in "Cyrano de Bergerac" on the stage in Paris, another highly successful production. He had a small role in "One Hundred and One Nights" (1995) then the lead in Lelouch's version of "Les Misérables" (1995). He also appeared in the comedy "Désiré" (1996), "Une chance sur deux" (1998), and in the science fiction comedy "Peut-être" (1999).


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: In 2009, Belmondo starred in "A Man and His Dog" ("Un homme et son chien"), his final film role. Despite his difficulty in walking and speaking, he played a character who had the same disability. Following this film he was forced into retirement in 2011 having earlier suffered a stroke in 2001.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: In 1989, Belmondo won the César Award for Best Actor for his performance in "Itinéraire d'un enfant gâté".


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Belmondo was made a "Chevalier" (Knight) of the Ordre National du Mérite, promoted to "Officier" (Officer) in 1986 and promoted to "Commandeur" (Commander) in 1994. He was also made a "Chevalier" (Knight) of the Ordre National de la Légion d'Honneur, promoted "Officier" (Officer) in 1991, and promoted to "Commandeur" (Commander) in 2007.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Belmondo received several honorary awards – Palme d'Or at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival, Golden Lion at the 2016 Venice Film Festival, and César in 2017. In 2009, the Los Angeles Film Critics Association gave him a career achievement award.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: In 2017, he was received a lifetime achievement honor at the 42nd César Awards accompanied by a two-minute standing ovation.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: On 4 December 1952, Belmondo married Élodie Constantin, with whom he had three children: Patricia (1953–1993), who was killed in a fire, Florence (born 1958), and Paul (born 1963). Belmondo and Constantin separated in 1965. She filed for divorce in September 1966, and it was finalised on 5 January 1968.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: He had relationships with Ursula Andress from 1965 to 1972, Laura Antonelli from 1972 to 1980, Brazilian actress and singer Maria Carlos Sotto Mayor from 1980 to 1987, and Barbara Gandolfi from 2008 to 2012.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: In 1989, Belmondo was in his mid-50s when he met 24-year-old dancer Natty Tardivel. The couple lived together for over a decade before marrying in 2002. On 13 August 2003, Tardivel gave birth to then 70-year-old Belmondo's fourth child, Stella Eva Angelina. Belmondo and Tardivel divorced in 2008.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Belmondo died on 6 September 2021 at his home in Paris, aged 88. He had been in failing health since he suffered a stroke a decade before. A national tribute was held on 9 September in Hôtel des Invalides. President Emmanuel Macron called Belmondo a "national hero". The last tribute melody was "Chi Mai" by Ennio Morricone (from The 1981 film "The Professional"). The next day, 10 September, his funeral took place at the Saint-Germain-des-Prés church in the presence of relatives and family. The actors Alain and Anthony Delon also were present. His remains were cremated at the Père Lachaise Cemetery, and his ashes are buried alongside his father, the sculptor Paul Belmondo, at the Montparnasse Cemetery.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Throughout his career, he was called the French counterpart of actors such as James Dean, Marlon Brando, and Humphrey Bogart. On the day of his death, television channels in France altered their schedules to add screenings of his films, which drew over 6.5 million viewers cumulatively. For his performances as a police officer in many films, the National Police said that "Even if it was just cinema you were in a way one of us, Mr. Belmondo". Throughout his career, he was regarded as an influential French actor and was often seen as the face of the French New Wave. Belmondo was described as the "figurehead" of the French New Wave, with his acting techniques often seen as capturing the style and imagination of France in the 1960s.


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: Many of his film roles, especially as Michel Poiccard, were regarded as "legendary" and highly influential. Despite his reluctance to learn English, many often believed had he accepted offers from Hollywood, his success there would have been comparable to that of French actors Charles Boyer or Maurice Chevalier. In an obituary for "The Guardian", they hailed Belmondo as an "integral part of the history of French cinema, and France itself". He was described as the "epitome of cool".


title: Jean-Paul Belmondo

text: American film director Quentin Tarantino cited Belmondo as an influence and called Belmondo "a verb that represents vitality, charisma, a force of will, it represents super coolness". English director Edgar Wright said that "cinema will never be quite as cool again" following Belmondo's death. He was described as an icon of French cinema and being influential in shaping modern European cinema.


title: Maned wolf

text: The maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus) is a large canine of South America. It is found in Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, and Paraguay, and is almost extinct in Uruguay. Its markings resemble those of foxes, but it is neither a fox nor a wolf. It is the only species in the genus Chrysocyon (meaning "golden dog").


title: Maned wolf

text: It is the largest canine in South America, weighing and up to at the withers. Its long, thin legs and dense reddish coat give it an unmistakable appearance. The maned wolf is a crepuscular and omnivorous animal adapted to the open environments of the South American savanna, with an important role in the seed dispersal of fruits, especially the wolf apple ("Solanum lycocarpum"). The maned wolf is a solitary animal. It communicates primarily by scent marking, but also gives a loud call known as "roar-barking".


title: Maned wolf

text: This mammal lives in open and semi-open habitats, especially grasslands with scattered bushes and trees, in the Cerrado of south, central-west, and southeastern Brazil; Paraguay; northern Argentina; and Bolivia east and north of the Andes, and far southeastern Peru (Pampas del Heath only). It is very rare in Uruguay, possibly being displaced completely through loss of habitat. The International Union for Conservation of Nature lists it as near threatened, while it is considered a vulnerable species by the Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources. In 2011, a female maned wolf, run over by a truck, underwent stem cell treatment at the , this being the first recorded case of the use of stem cells to heal injuries in a wild animal.


title: Maned wolf

text: The term maned wolf is an allusion to the mane of the nape. It is known locally as (meaning "large fox") in the Guarani language, or "kalak" in the Toba Qom language, , , or in Spanish, and in Portuguese. The term "lobo", "wolf", originates from the Latin . "Guará "and "aguará" originated from tupi-guarani "agoa'rá", "by the fuzz". It also is called "borochi" in Bolivia.


title: Maned wolf

text: Although the maned wolf displays many fox-like characteristics, it is not closely related to foxes. It lacks the elliptical pupils found distinctively in foxes. The maned wolf's evolutionary relationship to the other members of the canid family makes it a unique animal.


title: Maned wolf

text: Electrophoretic studies did not link "Chrysocyon" with any of the other living canids studied. One conclusion of this study is that the maned wolf is the only species among the large South American canids that survived the late Pleistocene extinction. Fossils of the maned wolf from the Holocene and the late Pleistocene have been excavated from the Brazilian Highlands.


title: Maned wolf

text: A 2003 study on the brain anatomy of several canids placed the maned wolf together with the Falkland Islands wolf and with pseudo-foxes of the genus "Pseudalopex". One study based on DNA evidence showed that the extinct genus "Dusicyon", comprising the Falkland Islands wolf and its mainland relative, was the most closely related species to the maned wolf in historical times, and that about seven million years ago it shared a common ancestor with that genus. A 2015 study reported genetic signatures in maned wolves that are indicative of population expansion followed by contraction that took place during Pleistocene interglaciations about 24,000 years before present.


title: Maned wolf

text: The maned wolf is not closely related to canids found outside South America. It is not a fox, wolf, coyote or jackal, but a distinct canid; though, based only on morphological similarities, it previously had been placed in the "Canis" and "Vulpes" genera. Its closest living relative is the bush dog (genus "Speothos"), and it has a more distant relationship to other South American canines (the short-eared dog, the crab-eating fox, and the zorros or "Lycalopex").


title: Maned wolf

text: The species was described in 1815 by Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger, initially as "Canis brachyurus". Lorenz Oken classified it as "Vulpes cancosa", and only in 1839 did Charles Hamilton Smith describe the genus "Chrysocyon". Other authors later considered it as a member of the "Canis "genus. Fossils of "Chrysocyon" dated from the Late Pleistocene and Holocene epochs were collected in one of Peter Wilheim Lund expeditions to Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais (Brazil). The specimen is kept in the South American Collection of the Zoologisk Museum in Denmark. Since no other record exists of fossils in other areas, the species is suggested to have evolved in this geographic region.


title: Maned wolf

text: The maned wolf bears minor similarities to the red fox, although it belongs to a different genus. The average adult weighs and stands tall at the shoulder, and has a head-body length of , with the tail adding another . Its ears are large and long .


title: Maned wolf

text: The maned wolf is the tallest of the wild canids; its long legs are likely an adaptation to the tall grasslands of its native habitat. Fur of the maned wolf may be reddish-brown to golden orange on the sides with long, black legs, and a distinctive black mane. The coat is marked further with a whitish tuft at the tip of the tail and a white "bib" beneath the throat. The mane is erectile and typically is used to enlarge the wolf's profile when threatened or when displaying aggression. Melanistic maned wolves do exist, but are rare. The first photograph of a black adult maned wolf was taken by a camera trap in northern Minas Gerais in Brazil in 2013.


title: Maned wolf

text: The skull can be identified by its reduced carnassials, small upper incisors, and long canine teeth. Like other canids, it has 42 teeth with the dental formula . The maned wolf's rhinarium extends to the upper lip, similar to the bush dog, but its vibrissae are longer. The skull also features a prominent sagittal crest.


title: Maned wolf

text: The maned wolf's footprints are similar to those of the dog, but have disproportionately small plantar pads when compared to the well-opened digit marks. The dog has pads up to 3 times larger than the maned wolf's footprint. These pillows have a triangular shape. The front footprints are long and wide, and those of the hind feet are long and wide. One feature that differentiates the maned wolf's footprint from those of other South American canids is the proximal union of the third and fourth digits.


title: Maned wolf

text: The maned wolf also is known for the distinctive cannabis-like odor of its territory markings, which has earned it the nickname "skunk wolf".


title: Maned wolf

text: Genetically, the maned wolf has 37 pairs of autosomes within diploid genes, with a karyotype similar to that of other canids. It has 76 chromosomes, so cannot interbreed with other canids. Evidence suggests that 15,000 years ago, the species suffered a reduction in its genetic diversity, called the bottleneck effect. However, its diversity is still greater than that of other canids.


title: Maned wolf

text: The maned wolf is a twilight animal, but its activity pattern is more related to the relative humidity and temperature, similar to that observed with the bush dog ("Speothos venaticus"). Peak activity occurs between 8 and 10 am, and 8 and 10 pm. On cold or cloudy days, they can be active all day. The species is likely to use open fields for foraging and more closed areas, such as riparian forests, to rest, especially on warmer days.


title: Maned wolf

text: Unlike most large canids (such as the gray wolf, the African hunting dog, or the dhole), the maned wolf is a solitary animal and does not form packs. It typically hunts alone, usually between sundown and midnight, rotating its large ears to listen for prey animals in the grass. It taps the ground with a front foot to flush out the prey and pounce to catch it. It kills prey by biting on the neck or back, and shaking the prey violently if necessary.


title: Maned wolf

text: Monogamous pairs may defend a shared territory around , although outside of mating, the individuals may meet only rarely. The territory is crisscrossed by paths that they create as they patrol at night. Several adults may congregate in the presence of a plentiful food source, for example, a fire-cleared patch of grassland that would leave small vertebrate prey exposed while foraging.


title: Maned wolf

text: Both female and male maned wolves use their urine to communicate, e.g. to mark their hunting paths or the places where they have buried hunted prey. The urine has a very distinctive odor, which some people liken to hops or cannabis. The responsible substance very likely is a pyrazine, which also occurs in both plants. At the Rotterdam Zoo, this smell once set the police on a hunt for cannabis smokers. The preferred habitat of the maned wolf includes grasslands, scrub prairies, and forests.


title: Maned wolf

text: Their mating season ranges from November to April. Gestation lasts 60 to 65 days, and a litter may have from two to six black-furred pups, each weighing roughly . Pups are fully grown when one year old. During that first year, the pups rely on their parents for food.


title: Maned wolf

text: Data on the maned wolf's estrus and reproductive cycle mainly come from captive animals, particularly about breeding endocrinology. Hormonal changes of maned wolves in the wild follow the same variation pattern of those in captivity. Females ovulate spontaneously, but some authors suggest that the presence of a male is important for estrus induction.


title: Maned wolf

text: Captive animals in the Northern Hemisphere breed between October and February and in the Southern Hemisphere between August and October. This indicates that photoperiod plays an important role in maned wolf reproduction, mainly due to the production of semen. Generally, one estrus occurs per year. The amount of sperm produced by the maned wolf is lower compared to those of other canids.


title: Maned wolf

text: Copulation occurs during the four-day estrus period, and is followed by up to 15 minutes of sexual intercourse. Courtship is similar to that of other canids, characterized by frequent approaches and anogenital investigation.


title: Maned wolf

text: Gestation lasts 60 to 65 days and a litter may have from two to six pups. One litter of seven has been recorded. Birthing has been observed in May in the Canastra Mountains, but data from captive animals suggest that births are concentrated between June and September. The maned wolf reproduces with difficulty in the wild, with a high rate of infant mortality. Females can go up to two years without breeding. Breeding in captivity is even more difficult, especially in temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere.


title: Maned wolf

text: Pups are born weighing between 340 and 430 grams. They begin their lives with black fur, becoming red after 10 weeks. The eyes open at about 9 days of age. They are nursed up to 4 months. Afterwards, they are fed by their parents by regurgitation, starting on the third week of age and lasting up to 10 months. Three-month-old pups begin to accompany their mother while she forages. Males and females both engage in parental care, but it is primarily done by the females. Data on male parental care have been collected from captive animals, and little is known whether this occurs frequently in the wild. Maned wolves reach sexual maturity at 1 year of age, when they leave their birth territory.


title: Maned wolf

text: The maned wolf's longevity in the wild is unknown, but estimates in captivity are between 12 and 15 years. A report was made of an individual at the São Paulo Zoo that lived to be 22 years old.


title: Maned wolf

text: The maned wolf is omnivorous. It specialises in preying on small and medium-sized animals, including small mammals (typically rodents and rabbits), birds, and even fish, but a large portion of its diet (more than 50%, according to some studies) is vegetable matter, including sugarcane, tubers, and fruit. Up to 301 food items have been recorded in the maned wolf's diet, including 116 plants and 178 animal species.


title: Maned wolf

text: The maned wolf hunts by chasing its prey, digging holes, and jumping to catch birds in flight. About 21% of hunts are successful. Some authors have recorded active pursuits of the Pampas deer. They were also observed feeding on carcasses of run down animals. Fecal analysis has shown consumption of the giant anteater, bush dog, and collared peccary, but whether these animals are actively hunted or scavenged is not known. Armadillos are also commonly consumed. Animals are more often consumed in the dry season.


title: Maned wolf

text: The wolf apple ("Solanum lycocarpum"), a tomato-like fruit, is the maned wolf's most common food item. With some exceptions, these fruits make up between 40 and 90% of the maned wolf's diet. The wolf apple is actively sought by the maned wolf, and is consumed throughout the year, unlike other fruits that can only be eaten in abundance during the rainy season. It can consume several fruits at a time and disperse intact seeds by defecating, making it an excellent disperser of the wolf apple plant.


title: Maned wolf

text: Despite their preferred habitat, maned wolves are ecologically flexible and can survive in disturbed habitats, from burned areas to places with high human influences. Burned areas have some small mammals, such as hairy-tailed bolo mouse ("Necromys lasiurus") and vesper mouse ("Calomys" spp.) that they can hunt and survive on.


title: Maned wolf

text: Historically, captive maned wolves were fed meat-heavy diets, but that caused them to develop bladder stones. Zoo diets for them now feature fruits and vegetables, as well as meat and specialized extruded diet formulated for maned wolves to be low in stone-causing compounds (i.e. cystine).


title: Maned wolf

text: The maned wolf participates in symbiotic relationships. It contributes to the propagation and dissemination of the plants on which it feeds, through excretion. Often, maned wolves defecate on the nests of leafcutter ants. The ants then use the dung to fertilize their fungus gardens, but they discard the seeds contained in the dung onto refuse piles just outside their nests. This process significantly increases the germination rate of the seeds.


title: Maned wolf

text: Maned wolves suffer from ticks, mainly of the genus "Amblyomma", and by flies such as "Cochliomyia hominivorax" usually on the ears. Interestingly, the maned wolf is poorly parasitized by fleas. The sharing of territory with domestic dogs results in a number of diseases, such as rabies virus, parvovirus, distemper virus, canine adenovirus, protozoan "Toxoplasma gondii", bacterium "Leptospira interrogans", and nematode "Dirofilaria immitis". The maned wolf is particularly susceptible to potentially fatal infection by the giant kidney worm. Ingestion of the wolf apple could prevent maned wolves from contracting this nematode, but such a hypothesis has been questioned by several authors.


title: Maned wolf

text: Its predators are mainly large cats, such as the puma ("Puma concolor") and the jaguar ("Panthera onca"), but it is most often preyed upon by the jaguar.


title: Maned wolf

text: Generally, the maned wolf is shy and flees when alarmed, so it poses little direct threat to humans. Popularly, the maned wolf is thought to have the potential of being a chicken thief. It once was considered a similar threat to cattle and sheep, although this now is known to be false.


title: Maned wolf

text: Historically, in a few parts of Brazil, these animals were hunted for some body parts, notably the eyes, that were believed to be good-luck charms.


title: Maned wolf

text: Since its classification as a vulnerable species by the Brazilian government, it has received greater consideration and protection.


title: Maned wolf

text: They are threatened by habitat loss and being run over by automobiles. Feral and domestic dogs pass on diseases to them, and have been known to attack them.


title: Maned wolf

text: The species occurs in several protected areas, including the national parks of Caraça and Emas in Brazil. The maned wolf is well represented in captivity, and has been bred successfully at many zoos, particularly in Argentina, North America (part of a Species Survival Plan) and Europe (part of a European Endangered Species Programme). In 2012, a total of 3,288 maned wolves were kept at more than 300 institutions worldwide. The Smithsonian National Zoo Park has been working to protect maned wolves for nearly 30 years, and coordinates the collaborative, interzoo maned wolf Species Survival Plan of North America, which includes breeding maned wolves, studying them in the wild, protecting their habitat, and educating people about them.


title: Maned wolf

text: The maned wolf is not considered an endangered species by the IUCN because of its wide geographical distribution and adaptability to man-made environments. However, due to declining populations, it is classified as a near-threatened species. This decline is mostly due to human activities such as deforestation, increasing traffic in highways resulting in roadkill, and urban growth. Due to the decrease in their habitat, the wolves often migrate to urban regions looking for easier access to food. This increases their contact with domestic animals, as well as the risk of infectious and parasitic diseases amongst the wolves which can lead to death.


title: Maned wolf

text: Until 1996 the maned wolf was a vulnerable species by the IUCN. It is also listed in CITES Appendix II, which regulates international trade in the species. The ICMBio list in Brazil that follows the same IUCN criteria considers the wolf to be a vulnerable species. By these same criteria, the Brazilian state lists also consider it more problematic: it is a vulnerable species in the lists of São Paulo and Minas Gerais, while in the lists of Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul the maned wolf is considered as "endangered" and "critically endangered" respectively. In Uruguay, although there is no such list as Brazil and IUCN, it is regarded as a species with "priority" for conservation. In Argentina it is not considered to be in critical danger, but it is recognized that its populations are declining and fragmented. The situation of the maned wolf in Bolivia and Paraguay is uncertain. Even with these uncertainties the maned wolf is protected against hunting in all countries.


title: Maned wolf

text: In Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay it is forbidden by law to hunt the maned wolf. Conservationists are also taking other steps to ensure its survival, especially as urbanization continues to spread in its natural habitat.


title: Maned wolf

text: Human attitudes and opinions about the maned wolf vary across populations, ranging from fear and tolerance to aversion. In some regions of Brazil, parts of the animal's body are believed to help cure bronchitis, kidney disease, and even snake bites. It is also believed to bring good luck. These parts can be teeth, the heart, ears, and even dry stools. In Bolivia, mounting a saddle made of maned wolf leather is believed to protect from bad luck. Despite these superstitions, no large-scale use of parts of this animal occurs.


title: Maned wolf

text: In urban societies in Brazil, people tend to be sympathetic to the maned wolf, seeing no value in it as a hunting animal or pest. They often consider its preservation to be important, and although these societies associate it with force and ferocity, they do not consider it a dangerous animal. Although popular in some places and common in many zoos, it can go unnoticed. Studies in zoos in Brazil showed that up to 30% of respondents were either unaware or unable to recognize a maned wolf.


title: Maned wolf

text: It was considered a common animal by the Guarani people, and the first names used by Europeans, such as the Spanish Jesuit missionary Joseph of Anchieta, were the same used by the native peoples ("yaguaraçú"). Spanish naturalist Felix de Azara also used the Guarani name to refer to it and was one of the first to describe the biology of the species and consider it an important part of Paraguay's fauna. Much of the negative view of the maned wolf as a poultry predator stems from European ethnocentrism, where peasants often had problems with wolves and foxes.


title: Maned wolf

text: The maned wolf rarely causes antipathy in the human populations of the places in which it lives, so it has been used as a flag species for the preservation of the Brazilian cerrado. It is represented on the 200-reais banknote, released in September 2020. It has also been represented on the 100-cruzeiros reais coin, which circulated in Brazil between 1993 and 1994.


title: Eliza Scanlen

text: Eliza Jane Scanlen (born 6 January 1999) is an Australian actress. She rose to prominence portraying Tabitha Ford in the Australian soap opera "Home and Away" (2016), before receiving critical acclaim by playing a troubled teenager in the HBO miniseries "Sharp Objects" (2018). In 2022, she starred in the Showtime series "The First Lady" as young Eleanor Roosevelt.


title: Eliza Scanlen

text: She made her film debut in 2019, with starring roles in the drama "Babyteeth" and Greta Gerwig’s period drama "Little Women".


title: Eliza Scanlen

text: Scanlen was born in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, and has a fraternal twin sister named Annabel. She learned the piano when she was about 7 years old, but stopped playing when she was thirteen years old. In preparation for her role as Beth March in the 2019 film adaptation of "Little Women", she started practising the piano again.


title: Eliza Scanlen

text: While in high school, Scanlen was cast in the recurring role of Tabitha Ford on television soap opera "Home and Away". Scanlen starred as the titular character in the 2018 short film "Grace". She then achieved recognition for her portrayal of Amma Crellin in the HBO psychological thriller miniseries "Sharp Objects", in which she stars alongside Amy Adams.


title: Eliza Scanlen

text: Scanlen made her professional theatre debut in Sydney Theatre Company's 2019 production of "Lord of the Flies", directed by Kip Williams. She played the role of Eric for the play's run. She made her feature film debut as Milla Finlay in Shannon Murphy's "Babyteeth", which premiered in competition at Venice Film Festival. In 2019, she portrayed Beth March in Greta Gerwig's adaptation of Louisa May Alcott's novel "Little Women", co-starring alongside Saoirse Ronan, Emma Watson, Florence Pugh, Laura Dern, Timothée Chalamet, and Meryl Streep.


title: Eliza Scanlen

text: In 2020, Scanlen portrayed Lenora in Antonio Campos thriller "The Devil All the Time", based on "Donald Ray Pollock" book. In the same year she made her directional debut with the Australian short film Mukbang which received much controversy, she also wrote the screen play. In 2021, Scanlen co-starred in M. Night Shyamalan's thriller "Old", which was released on July 23.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: Wendy Carlos (born Walter Carlos, November 14, 1939) is an American musician and composer best known for her electronic music and film scores. Born and raised in Rhode Island, Carlos studied physics and music at Brown University before moving to New York City in 1962 to study music composition at Columbia University. Studying and working with various electronic musicians and technicians at the city's Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center, she helped in the development of the Moog synthesizer, Robert Moog's first commercially available keyboard instrument.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: Carlos came to prominence with "Switched-On Bach" (1968), an album of music by Johann Sebastian Bach performed on a Moog synthesizer, which helped popularize its use in the 1970s and won her three Grammy Awards. Its commercial success led to several more albums, including further synthesized classical music adaptations, and experimental and ambient music. She composed the score to two Stanley Kubrick films – "A Clockwork Orange" (1971) and "The Shining" (1980) – and "Tron" (1982) for Walt Disney Productions.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: In 1979, Carlos raised public awareness of transgender issues by disclosing she had been living as a woman since at least 1968, and in 1972 had undergone sex reassignment surgery.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: , much of Carlos's discography is out of print, and has not been licensed for digital distribution to streaming or download platforms.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: Carlos was born in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, the first of two children born to working-class parents. Her mother played the piano and sang; one uncle played the trombone and another played the trumpet and drums. She began piano lessons at six years of age, and wrote her first composition, "A Trio for Clarinet, Accordion, and Piano," at 10. Carlos attended St. Raphael Academy, a Catholic high school in Pawtucket. In 1953, at fourteen, Carlos won a scholarship for building a computer presented at the Westinghouse Science Fair, a science competition for high-school students. From 1958 to 1962, Carlos studied at Brown University and graduated with a degree in music and physics, during which she taught lessons in electronic music at informal sessions.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: In 1965, Carlos graduated from Columbia University with a master's degree in music composition, and assisted Leonard Bernstein in presenting an evening of electronic music at the Philharmonic Hall. Carlos studied with Vladimir Ussachevsky and Otto Luening, two pioneers of electronic music in the 1960s; they were based in the Columbia–Princeton Electronic Music Center in New York City, the first of its kind in the United States. After Ussachevsky suggested to Carlos that she work in a recording studio to support herself, Carlos began working as a recording and mastering engineer at Gotham Recording Studios in New York City; she worked in this position until 1968. She called it "a really lovely occupation" and found it a useful learning experience.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: During her time at Columbia, Carlos met Robert Moog at the annual Audio Engineering Society show, which began a partnership; Carlos gave advice and technical assistance in the development of the Moog synthesizer, Moog's new electronic keyboard instrument, convincing Moog to add a touch-sensitive device for greater musical dynamics, among other improvements. By 1966, Carlos owned a small Moog synthesizer, which she used to record sound effects and jingles for television commercials, which earned her "anywhere from $100 to $1000.” In 1967, Carlos befriended Rachel Elkind, a former singer who had a musical theatre background and worked as a secretary for Goddard Lieberson, then-president of Columbia Records. The two shared a home, studio, and business premises in a brownstone building in the West Side of Manhattan in New York City.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: Carlos recorded several compositions in the 1960s as a student at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center. Two of them were re-recorded and released on "By Request" (1975), "Dialogues for Piano and Two Loudspeakers" (1963) and "Episodes for Piano and Electronic Sound" (1964), both featuring Phillip Ramey on piano. A third, "Variations for Flute and Electronic Sounds" (1964, featuring John Heiss on flute) was recorded and released in 1965 on a Turnabout Records "Electronic Music" compilation. Other known, but unreleased student compositions include "Episodes for Piano and Tape" (1964), "Pomposities for Narrator and Tape" (1965), and "Noah" (1965), a two-hour opera blending electronics with an orchestra. Carlos's first commercial release was "Moog 900 Series – Electronic Music Systems" (1967), an introduction to the technical aspects of the Moog synthesizer released as a nine-minute single-sided mono LP and narrated by Ed Stokes. Part of her compensation for making the recording was in Moog equipment.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: Carlos's music career began with "Switched-On Bach", an album formed of several pieces by Johann Sebastian Bach performed on a Moog modular synthesizer. The idea came about around 1967, when Carlos asked Elkind to listen to some recordings by Carlos and musicologist Benjamin Folkman made up to ten years prior at the Electronic Music Center, one of them being Bach's Two-Part Invention in F major, which Elkind took a liking to. Plans for an album of several Bach compositions developed from there, leading to a recording contract with Columbia Masterworks through Elkind's contacts, a deal that lasted until 1986. The label had launched an album sales campaign named "Bach to Rock,” though it had no album of Bach's works in a contemporary context in its catalogue. With a $2,500 advance, Columbia granted Carlos and Elkind artistic freedom to produce and release the album. Carlos performs with additional synthesizers played by Folkman and with Elkind as producer. Recording was a dragged-out and time-consuming process as the instrument could only be played one note at a time.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: Released in October 1968, "Switched-On Bach" became an unexpected commercial and critical success and helped to draw attention to the synthesizer as a genuine musical instrument. "Newsweek" dedicated a full page to Carlos with the caption "Plugging into the Steinway of the future.” It peaked at No. 10 on the US "Billboard" 200 chart and was No. 1 on its Classical Albums chart from January 1969 to January 1972. It was the second classical album to sell over one million copies and was certified Gold in 1969 and Platinum in 1986 by the Recording Industry Association of America. Carlos performed selections from the album on stage with a synthesizer with the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra, the first of two live performances since her days as a student (the other being with the Kurzweil Baroque Ensemble for "Bach at the Beacon" in 1997). In 1970, the album won a Grammy Award for Best Classical Album, Best Classical Performance – Instrumental Soloist or Soloists (With or Without Orchestra), and Best Engineered Classical Recording. Carlos released a follow-up, "The Well-Tempered Synthesizer", with synthesized pieces from multiple composers. Released in November 1969, the album reached No. 199 on the "Billboard" 200 and received two Grammy nominations. The success of both albums allowed Carlos to move into Elkind's more spacious New York City home in 1971.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: After the release of "Switched-On Bach", Carlos was invited to compose the soundtrack of two science fiction films, "Marooned" (1969), directed by John Sturges, and "A Clockwork Orange" (1971) by Stanley Kubrick. When the directors of "Marooned" changed their minds about including a soundtrack, Carlos chose to work with Kubrick, as she and Elkind were fans of his previous films, adding: "We finally wound up talking with someone who had a close connection to Stanley Kubrick's lawyer. We suddenly got an invitation to fly to London." Before Carlos knew about the offer, she read the book and began writing a piece based on it named "Timesteps". A soundtrack containing only the film cuts of the score was released as "Stanley Kubrick's Clockwork Orange" in 1972, combining synthesized and classical music by Henry Purcell, Beethoven and Gioacchino Rossini with an early use of a vocoder. The album peaked on the "Billboard" 200 chart at No. 146. Later that year, Carlos released an album of music not included in the final score titled "Walter Carlos' Clockwork Orange". Carlos later described the project as "a lot of fun ... a pleasurable venture".


title: Wendy Carlos

text: Carlos experimented with ambient music on her third studio album "Sonic Seasonings", released as a double album in 1972, with one side-long track dedicated to each of the four seasons. Recorded as early as 1970 and finished in mid-1971, before the "A Clockwork Orange" project was complete, Carlos wished to produce music that did not require "lengthy concentrated listening", but more than a collection of ambient noises to portray an environment. It combined field recordings of animals and nature with synthesized sounds, occasionally employing melodies, to create soundscapes. It reached No. 168 in the "Billboard" 200 and influenced other artists who went on to pursue the ambient and new-age genres in later years.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: By 1973, Columbia/CBS Records had received a considerable number of requests for Carlos to produce another album of synthesized classical music. She agreed to the request, opting to produce a sequel to "Switched-On Bach", which began with her and Elkind seeking compositions that were most suitable for the synthesizer; the two picked selections from Suite No. 2 in B minor, Two-Part Inventions in A minor and major, Suite from Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach, and Brandenburg Concerto No. 5 in D major. The latter features a Yamaha E-5 Electone organ for certain passages, as a reliable polyphonic keyboard had not been developed. The result, "Switched-On Bach II", was released in 1973 and sold over 70,000 copies in the US during the first five weeks of its release.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: Following "Switched-On Bach II", Carlos changed musical directions once more. In 1971, she and Elkind had asked Columbia Records to attach a pre-paid business reply card in each new pressing of her albums, which resulted in a considerable amount of suggestions from the public regarding the subject of her future releases. The ideas received were divided; some asked for more classical adaptations, while others wanted more of Carlos's original compositions. Carlos decided, "If I was going to spend months for mere minutes of music, I certainly wasn't going to be pigeonholed into only retreading existing music", and so began a process of "re-directing new ideas, reworking old ones". By mid-1974, Carlos and Elkind had selected tracks of varying styles to record on the Moog synthesizer, which Carlos found liberating, as it demonstrated the flexibility of the instrument. Released as "By Request" in 1975, the album includes pieces from Bach, Wagner, Tchaikovsky, two of Carlos's compositions from the 1960s, and renditions of "Eleanor Rigby" by The Beatles and "What's New Pussycat?", originally sung by Tom Jones. The final track, entitled "Pompous Circumstances," a "witty and serious" set of variations based on themes by Edward Elgar, was replaced by CBS with tracks from "The Well-Tempered Synthesizer" on UK pressings after members of Elgar's estate refused to have his music presented in this style, which "devastated" Carlos. Between 1974 and 1980 she scored several short films for producer Dick Young for UNICEF (seven of which were released in 2005 on "Rediscovering Lost Scores, Vol.1").


title: Wendy Carlos

text: "By Request" was followed by "Switched-On Brandenburgs", a double album containing all six of Bach's "Brandenburg Concertos" played on a synthesizer, in 1980.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: Carlos reunited with Kubrick to compose the score for his psychological horror film "The Shining" (1980). Before filming began, Carlos and Elkind read the book, as per Kubrick's suggestion, for musical inspiration. Carlos recorded a considerable amount of music, but Kubrick ended up using existing music by several avant-garde composers he had used as guide tracks in the final version. "The Shining (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)", released in 1980 on Warner Bros. Records, features two tracks credited to Carlos and Elkind: the main title theme and "Rocky Mountains", the former a reinterpretation of the "Dies Irae" section of "Symphonie fantastique" by Hector Berlioz. Some of Carlos's music had some legal issues regarding its release, but much of it was made available in 2005 as part of her two-volume compilation album "Rediscovering Lost Scores".


title: Wendy Carlos

text: With work on "The Shining" complete, Elkind ended her long-time collaboration with Carlos when she moved to France with her husband in 1980. Carlos remained in New York City, sharing a converted loft in Greenwich Village with her new business partner Annemarie Franklin. It housed her new, remodelled studio, which was enclosed in a Faraday cage to shield the equipment from white noise and outside interference from radio and television signals.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: Carlos's first project with Franklin began around 1980, when The Walt Disney Company asked her to record the soundtrack to its science fiction feature "Tron" (1982). Carlos agreed, but was not interested in composing solely with electronic music, as she wished to incorporate an orchestra with her musical ideas. She recalled their demands were "tightly specified ... there wasn't a lot of elbow room, and that made it fun". The score incorporated Carlos's analog and digital synthesizers with the London Philharmonic Orchestra, the UCLA Chorus, and the Royal Albert Hall Organ. "Tron: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack" was released in 1982 and reached No. 135 on the "Billboard" 200. Carlos intended to release her scores on her own album, but Columbia/CBS showed a lack of interest in the prospect.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: Three studio albums from Carlos were released in the 1980s. The first was "Digital Moonscapes" in 1984, Carlos's first to only feature digital synthesizers. She wrote the album's tracks for orchestra "or orchestra replica", inspired by various astronomical subjects, which used some leftover material from her score to "Tron". Soon after, Carlos secured a deal with Audion Records, a smaller label, as she wished to "get away from that kind of big, monolithic government-like aspect that [she] had dealt with for so many years". In 1986, Audion released "Beauty in the Beast", which saw Carlos experiment with just intonation, Balinese scales, and four new microtonal scales she devised for the album: Harmonic, Alpha, Beta, and Gamma. The album features the first instance of a 35-note octave. Carlos considers the album as the most important of her career. She followed the album with "Secrets of Synthesis" in 1987, her final album for CBS/Columbia, featuring several introductions and demonstrations of synthesized music from Carlos with audio examples from her previous albums.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: In 1988, CBS Records asked Carlos to collaborate with comical musician "Weird Al" Yankovic to release a parody of "Peter and the Wolf" by Sergei Prokofiev. Carlos agreed to the project, as she felt it presented a chance "to let your sense of humor out of the cage". Yankovic adapted and narrated its story, while Carlos rearranged the music with a "MIDI orchestra", her first venture using the digital interface. The album's second side also contains a humorous adaptation of "The Carnival of the Animals" by Camille Saint-Saëns titled "The Carnival of the Animals–Part II", with Yankovic providing funny poems for each of the featured animals in the style of poet Ogden Nash, who did similar for the original. Released in October 1988, "Peter and the Wolf/Carnival of the Animals–Part II" was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Album for Children in 1989.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: To mark the 25th anniversary of "Switched-On Bach", Carlos re-recorded the album with her set of digital instruments and recording techniques. Released in 1992 on Telarc Records, "Switched-On Bach 2000" took roughly one and a half years to produce; Carlos estimated around 3,000 hours were invested in the project, which involved using several digital audio workstation software packages, including Pro Tools. A Moog synthesizer is only used once on the record; the rest is performed on 13 modern synthesizers. The album also marked her first venture into mixing in Dolby Surround sound.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: Carlos wrote the soundtrack to the British film "Brand New World" (1998), also known as "Woundings", directed by Roberta Hanley and based on a play by Jeff Noon. Carlos explained the style of her music: "I was given fairly large carte blanche to do some horrific things and also some inside-psyche mood paintings, and that's what the film became".


title: Wendy Carlos

text: In 1998, Carlos released her most recent studio album, "Tales from Heaven and Hell", for the East Side Digital label.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: Beginning in 1998, Carlos digitally remastered her studio albums, culminating in the "Switched-On Box Set" released in 1999 featuring her four synthesized classical albums.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: In 2005, the two-volume set "Rediscovering Lost Scores" was released, featuring previously out-of-print material, including the unreleased soundtrack to "Woundings" and music recorded for "A Clockwork Orange", "The Shining", and "Tron" that was not used in the films.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: Carlos became aware of her gender dysphoria at an early age, recalling: "I was about five or six[...] I remember being convinced I was a little girl, much preferring long hair and girls' clothes, and not knowing why my parents didn't see it clearly". While at Brown, she went on a date with a girl and felt "so jealous of her I was beside myself". Sometime after entering graduate school at Columbia University in the fall of 1962 she encountered studies of transgender issues for the first time, which explained to her what she was feeling. In the summer of 1966 New York sexologist and pioneering transgender advocate Harry Benjamin published his landmark book "The Transsexual Phenomenon," and in the fall of 1967 Carlos began counseling with him (well before "Switched-On Bach"). By early 1968 Carlos had begun hormone replacement treatments under Benjamin's care, which began altering her appearance. This created some problems for Carlos when "Switched-On Bach" became an unexpected hit after its release in October 1968. Prior to a live performance of excerpts from the album with the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra, Carlos felt terrified to appear in public. She cried in her hotel room and left wearing fake sideburns and a man's wig, and drew facial hair on her face with an eyebrow pencil to appear more like a man. Carlos did the same thing when she met Kubrick and for an appearance on "The Dick Cavett Show" in 1970. Finally, the commercial success of "Switched-On Bach" allowed Carlos to undergo sex reassignment surgery in May 1972, although for marketing reasons she released two more albums as Walter Carlos (1973's "Switched-On Bach II" and 1975's "By Request".)


title: Wendy Carlos

text: Carlos disclosed her transgender status in a series of interviews with Arthur Bell held between December 1978 and January 1979 and published in the May 1979 issue of "Playboy" magazine. She explained in "Playboy" that she had "always been concerned with liberation, and [I was] anxious to liberate myself". In 1985, Carlos spoke about the reaction to her transition: "The public turned out to be amazingly tolerant or, if you wish, indifferent[...] There had never been any need of this charade to have taken place. It had proven a monstrous waste of years of my life." The first album released after the "Playboy" interview, "Switched-On Brandenburgs" (1980) and all subsequent releases and re-releases have been issued under the name Wendy Carlos.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: In 1998, Carlos sued the songwriter/artist Momus for $22 million regarding the song "Walter Carlos" (from the album "The Little Red Songbook", released that year), which postulated that after the sex reassignment surgery Wendy could travel back in time to marry her pre-transition self, Walter. The case was settled out of court, with Momus agreeing to remove the song from subsequent editions of the CD and owing $30,000 in legal fees.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: A biography by musicologist Amanda Sewell, "Wendy Carlos: A Biography", was published by Oxford University Press in 2020. Although the author was unable to secure on-the-record interviews with the artist or anyone close to her, it was positively received by critics. On her personal website, Carlos describes the work as "fiction" that mischaracterizes her life and deceased parents.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: In 2005, Carlos was the recipient of the SEAMUS Lifetime Achievement Award "in recognition of lifetime achievement and contribution to the art and craft of electro-acoustic music" by the Society for Electro-Acoustic Music in the United States.


title: Wendy Carlos

text: Carlos contributed a review of the then-available synthesizers to the June 1971 edition of the "Whole Earth Catalog", contrasting the Moog, Buchla and Tonus (aka ARP) systems. She was dismissive of smaller systems like the EMS Putney and the Minimoog as "toys" and "cash-ins".


title: Wendy Carlos

text: Carlos is also an accomplished solar eclipse photographer. Her work has been published online by NASA and has appeared on the cover of "Sky & Telescope". She has developed various techniques for the extension of dynamic range in eclipse photography by the use of darkroom techniques and digital composites.


title: Parapsychology

text: Parapsychology is the study of alleged psychic phenomena (extrasensory perception, telepathy, precognition, clairvoyance, psychokinesis (also called telekinesis), and psychometry) and other paranormal claims, for example, those related to near-death experiences, synchronicity, apparitional experiences, etc. Criticized as being a pseudoscience, the majority of mainstream scientists reject it. Parapsychology has also been criticised by mainstream critics for many of its practitioners claiming that their studies are plausible in spite of there being no convincing evidence for the existence of any psychic phenomena after more than a century of research.


title: Parapsychology

text: Parapsychology research rarely appears in mainstream scientific journals; instead, most papers about parapsychology are published in a small number of niche journals.


title: Parapsychology

text: The term "parapsychology" was coined in 1889 by philosopher Max Dessoir as the German . It was adopted by J. B. Rhine in the 1930s as a replacement for the term "psychical research" in order to indicate a significant shift toward experimental methodology and academic discipline. The term originates from the meaning "alongside", and psychology.


title: Parapsychology

text: In parapsychology, psi is the unknown factor in extrasensory perception and psychokinesis experiences that is not explained by known physical or biological mechanisms. The term is derived from the Greek ψ "psi," 23rd letter of the Greek alphabet and the initial letter of the , "mind, soul". The term was coined by biologist Bertold Wiesner, and first used by psychologist Robert Thouless in a 1942 article published in the "British Journal of Psychology".


title: Parapsychology

text: The Parapsychological Association divides psi into two main categories: psi-gamma for extrasensory perception and psi-kappa for psychokinesis. In popular culture, "psi" has become more and more synonymous with special psychic, mental, and "psionic" abilities and powers.


title: Parapsychology

text: In 1853, chemist Robert Hare conducted experiments with mediums and reported positive results. Other researchers such as Frank Podmore highlighted flaws in his experiments, such as lack of controls to prevent trickery. Agenor de Gasparin conducted early experiments into table-tipping. Over a period of five months in 1853 he declared the experiments a success being the result of an "ectenic force". Critics noted that the conditions were insufficient to prevent trickery. For example, the knees of the sitters may have been employed to move the table and no experimenter was watching above and below the table simultaneously.


title: Parapsychology

text: The German astrophysicist Johann Karl Friedrich Zöllner tested the medium Henry Slade in 1877. According to Zöllner some of the experiments were a success. However, flaws in the experiments were discovered and critics have suggested that Slade was a fraud who performed trickery in the experiments.


title: Parapsychology

text: The Society for Psychical Research (SPR) was founded in London in 1882. Its formation was the first systematic effort to organize scientists and scholars to investigate paranormal phenomena. Early membership included philosophers, scholars, scientists, educators and politicians, such as Henry Sidgwick, Arthur Balfour, William Crookes, Rufus Osgood Mason and Nobel Laureate Charles Richet. Presidents of the Society included, in addition to Richet, Eleanor Sidgwick and William James, and subsequently Nobel Laureates Henri Bergson and Lord Rayleigh, and philosopher C. D. Broad.


title: Parapsychology

text: Areas of study included telepathy, hypnotism, Reichenbach's phenomena, apparitions, hauntings, and the physical aspects of Spiritualism such as table-tilting, materialization and apportation. In the 1880s, the Society investigated apparitional experiences and hallucinations in the sane. Among the first important works was the two-volume publication in 1886, "Phantasms of the Living" which was largely criticized by scholars. In 1894, the "Census of Hallucinations" was published which sampled 17,000 people. Out of these, 1,684 persons admitted to having experienced a hallucination of an apparition. The SPR became the model for similar societies in other European countries and the United States during the late 19th century.


title: Parapsychology

text: Early clairvoyance experiments were reported in 1884 by Charles Richet. Playing cards were enclosed in envelopes and a subject put under hypnosis attempted to identify them. The subject was reported to have been successful in a series of 133 trials but the results dropped to chance level when performed before a group of scientists in Cambridge. J. M. Peirce and E. C. Pickering reported a similar experiment in which they tested 36 subjects over 23,384 trials which did not obtain above chance scores.


title: Parapsychology

text: In 1881, Eleanor Sidgwick revealed the fraudulent methods that spirit photographers such as Édouard Isidore Buguet, Frederic Hudson and William H. Mumler had utilized. During the late nineteenth century many fraudulent mediums were exposed by SPR investigators.


title: Parapsychology

text: Largely due to the support of psychologist William James, the American Society for Psychical Research (ASPR) opened its doors in Boston in 1885, moving to New York City in 1905 under the leadership of James H. Hyslop. Notable cases investigated by Walter Franklin Prince of the ASPR in the early 20th century included Pierre L. O. A. Keeler, the Great Amherst Mystery and Patience Worth.


title: Parapsychology

text: In 1911, Stanford University became the first academic institution in the United States to study extrasensory perception (ESP) and psychokinesis (PK) in a laboratory setting. The effort was headed by psychologist John Edgar Coover, and was supported by funds donated by Thomas Welton Stanford, brother of the university's founder. After conducting approximately 10,000 experiments, Coover concluded "statistical treatments of the data fail to reveal any cause beyond chance."


title: Parapsychology

text: In 1930, Duke University became the second major U.S. academic institution to engage in the critical study of ESP and psychokinesis in the laboratory. Under the guidance of psychologist William McDougall, and with the help of others in the department—including psychologists Karl Zener, Joseph B. Rhine, and Louisa E. Rhine—laboratory ESP experiments using volunteer subjects from the undergraduate student body began. As opposed to the approaches of psychical research, which generally sought qualitative evidence for paranormal phenomena, the experiments at Duke University proffered a quantitative, statistical approach using cards and dice. As a consequence of the ESP experiments at Duke, standard laboratory procedures for the testing of ESP developed and came to be adopted by interested researchers throughout the world.


title: Parapsychology

text: George Estabrooks conducted an ESP experiment using cards in 1927. Harvard students were used as the subjects. Estabrooks acted as the sender with the guesser in an adjoining room. In total 2,300 trials were conducted. When the subjects were sent to a distant room with insulation the scores dropped to chance level. Attempts to repeat the experiment also failed.


title: Parapsychology

text: The publication of J. B. Rhine's book, "New Frontiers of the Mind" (1937) brought the laboratory's findings to the general public. In his book, Rhine popularized the word "parapsychology", which psychologist Max Dessoir had coined over 40 years earlier, to describe the research conducted at Duke. Rhine also founded an autonomous Parapsychology Laboratory within Duke and started the "Journal of Parapsychology", which he co-edited with McDougall.


title: Parapsychology

text: Rhine, along with associate Karl Zener, had developed a statistical system of testing for ESP that involved subjects guessing what symbol, out of five possible symbols, would appear when going through a special deck of cards designed for this purpose. A percentage of correct guesses (or hits) significantly above 20% was perceived as higher than chance and indicative of psychic ability. Rhine stated in his first book, "Extrasensory Perception" (1934), that after 90,000 trials, he felt ESP is "an actual and demonstrable occurrence".


title: Parapsychology

text: Irish medium and parapsychologist, Eileen J. Garrett, was tested by Rhine at Duke University in 1933 with Zener cards. Certain symbols that were placed on the cards and sealed in an envelope, and she was asked to guess their contents. She performed poorly and later criticized the tests by claiming the cards lacked a psychic energy called "energy stimulus" and that she could not perform clairvoyance to order. The parapsychologist Samuel Soal and his colleagues tested Garrett in May 1937. Most of the experiments were carried out in the Psychological Laboratory at University College London. A total of over 12,000 guesses were recorded but Garrett failed to produce above chance level. In his report Soal wrote "In the case of Mrs. Eileen Garrett we fail to find the slightest confirmation of J. B. Rhine's remarkable claims relating to her alleged powers of extra-sensory perception. Not only did she fail when I took charge of the experiments, but she failed equally when four other carefully trained experimenters took my place."


title: Parapsychology

text: The parapsychology experiments at Duke evoked much criticism from academics and others who challenged the concepts and evidence of ESP. A number of psychological departments attempted to repeat Rhine's experiments with failure. W. S. Cox (1936) from Princeton University with 132 subjects produced 25,064 trials in a playing card ESP experiment. Cox concluded "There is no evidence of extrasensory perception either in the 'average man' or of the group investigated or in any particular individual of that group. The discrepancy between these results and those obtained by Rhine is due either to uncontrollable factors in experimental procedure or to the difference in the subjects." Four other psychological departments failed to replicate Rhine's results. After thousands of card runs, James Charles Crumbaugh failed to duplicate the results of Rhine.


title: Parapsychology

text: In 1938, the psychologist Joseph Jastrow wrote that much of the evidence for extrasensory perception collected by Rhine and other parapsychologists was anecdotal, biased, dubious and the result of "faulty observation and familiar human frailties". Rhine's experiments were discredited due to the discovery that sensory leakage or cheating could account for all his results such as the subject being able to read the symbols from the back of the cards and being able to see and hear the experimenter to note subtle clues.


title: Parapsychology

text: Illusionist Milbourne Christopher wrote years later that he felt "there are at least a dozen ways a subject who wished to cheat under the conditions Rhine described could deceive the investigator". When Rhine took precautions in response to criticisms of his methods, he was unable to find any high-scoring subjects. Another criticism, made by chemist Irving Langmuir, among others, was one of selective reporting. Langmuir stated that Rhine did not report scores of subjects that he suspected were intentionally guessing wrong, and that this, he felt, biased the statistical results higher than they should have been.


title: Parapsychology

text: Rhine and his colleagues attempted to address these criticisms through new experiments described in the book "Extrasensory Perception After Sixty Years" (1940). Rhine described three experiments the Pearce-Pratt experiment, the Pratt-Woodruff experiment and the Ownbey-Zirkle series which he believed demonstrated ESP. However, C. E. M. Hansel wrote "it is now known that each experiment contained serious flaws that escaped notice in the examination made by the authors of "Extra-Sensory Perception After Sixty Years"". Joseph Gaither Pratt was the co-experimenter in the Pearce-Pratt and Pratt-Woodruff experiments at the Duke campus. Hansel visited the campus where the experiments took place and discovered the results could have originated through the use of a trick so could not be regarded as supplying evidence for ESP.


title: Parapsychology

text: In 1957, Rhine and Joseph Gaither Pratt wrote "". Because of the methodological problems, parapsychologists no longer utilize card-guessing studies. Rhine's experiments into psychokinesis (PK) were also criticized. John Sladek wrote:


title: Parapsychology

text: His research used dice, with subjects 'willing' them to fall a certain way. Not only can dice be drilled, shaved, falsely numbered and manipulated, but even straight dice often show bias in the long run. Casinos for this reason retire dice often, but at Duke, subjects continued to try for the same effect on the same dice over long experimental runs. Not surprisingly, PK appeared at Duke and nowhere else.


title: Parapsychology

text: The Ownbey-Zirkle ESP experiment at Duke was criticized by parapsychologists and skeptics. Ownbey would attempt to send ESP symbols to Zirkle who would guess what they were. The pair were placed in adjacent rooms unable to see each other and an electric fan was used to prevent the pair communicating by sensory cues. Ownbey tapped a telegraph key to Zirkle to inform him when she was trying to send him a symbol. The door separating the two rooms was open during the experiment, and after each guess Zirkle would call out his guess to Ownbey who recorded his choice. Critics pointed out the experiment was flawed as Ownbey acted as both the sender and the experimenter, nobody was controlling the experiment so Ownbey could have cheated by communicating with Zirkle or made recording mistakes.


title: Parapsychology

text: The Turner-Ownbey long distance telepathy experiment was discovered to contain flaws. May Frances Turner positioned herself in the Duke Parapsychology Laboratory whilst Sara Ownbey claimed to receive transmissions 250 miles away. For the experiment Turner would think of a symbol and write it down whilst Ownbey would write her guesses. The scores were highly successful and both records were supposed to be sent to J. B. Rhine, however, Ownbey sent them to Turner. Critics pointed out this invalidated the results as she could have simply written her own record to agree with the other. When the experiment was repeated and the records were sent to Rhine the scores dropped to average.


title: Parapsychology

text: A famous ESP experiment at the Duke University was performed by Lucien Warner and Mildred Raible. The subject was locked in a room with a switch controlling a signal light elsewhere, which she could signal to guess the card. Ten runs with ESP packs of cards were used and she achieved 93 hits (43 more than chance). Weaknesses with the experiment were later discovered. The duration of the light signal could be varied so that the subject could call for specific symbols and certain symbols in the experiment came up far more often than others which indicated either poor shuffling or card manipulation. The experiment was not repeated.


title: Parapsychology

text: The administration of Duke grew less sympathetic to parapsychology, and after Rhine's retirement in 1965 parapsychological links with the university were broken. Rhine later established the Foundation for Research on the Nature of Man (FRNM) and the Institute for Parapsychology as a successor to the Duke laboratory. In 1995, the centenary of Rhine's birth, the FRNM was renamed the Rhine Research Center. Today, the Rhine Research Center is a parapsychology research unit, stating that it "aims to improve the human condition by creating a scientific understanding of those abilities and sensitivities that appear to transcend the ordinary limits of space and time".


title: Parapsychology

text: The Parapsychological Association (PA) was created in Durham, North Carolina, on June 19, 1957. Its formation was proposed by J. B. Rhine at a workshop on parapsychology which was held at the Parapsychology Laboratory of Duke University. Rhine proposed that the group form itself into the nucleus of an international professional society in parapsychology. The aim of the organization, as stated in its Constitution, became "to advance parapsychology as a science, to disseminate knowledge of the field, and to integrate the findings with those of other branches of science".


title: Parapsychology

text: In 1969, under the direction of anthropologist Margaret Mead, the Parapsychological Association became affiliated with the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), the largest general scientific society in the world. In 1979, physicist John A. Wheeler said that parapsychology is pseudoscientific, and that the affiliation of the PA to the AAAS needed to be reconsidered.


title: Parapsychology

text: His challenge to parapsychology's AAAS affiliation was unsuccessful. Today, the PA consists of about three hundred full, associate, and affiliated members worldwide.


title: Parapsychology

text: Beginning in the early 1950s, the CIA started extensive research into behavioral engineering. The findings from these experiments led to the formation of the Stargate Project, which handled ESP research for the U.S. federal government.


title: Parapsychology

text: The Stargate Project was terminated in 1995 with the conclusion that it was never useful in any intelligence operation. The information was vague and included a lot of irrelevant and erroneous data. There was also reason to suspect that the research managers had adjusted their project reports to fit the known background cues.


title: Parapsychology

text: The affiliation of the Parapsychological Association (PA) with the American Association for the Advancement of Science, along with a general openness to psychic and occult phenomena in the 1970s, led to a decade of increased parapsychological research. During this period, other related organizations were also formed, including the Academy of Parapsychology and Medicine (1970), the Institute of Parascience (1971), the Academy of Religion and Psychical Research, the Institute of Noetic Sciences (1973), the International Kirlian Research Association (1975), and the Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Laboratory (1979). Parapsychological work was also conducted at the Stanford Research Institute (SRI) during this time.


title: Parapsychology

text: The scope of parapsychology expanded during these years. Psychiatrist Ian Stevenson conducted much of his research into reincarnation during the 1970s, and the second edition of his "Twenty Cases Suggestive of Reincarnation" was published in 1974. Psychologist Thelma Moss devoted time to the study of Kirlian photography at UCLA's parapsychology laboratory. The influx of spiritual teachers from Asia, and their claims of abilities produced by meditation, led to research on altered states of consciousness. American Society for Psychical Research Director of Research, Karlis Osis, conducted experiments in out of body experiences. Physicist Russell Targ coined the term remote viewing for use in some of his work at SRI in 1974.


title: Parapsychology

text: The surge in paranormal research continued into the 1980s: the Parapsychological Association reported members working in more than 30 countries. For example, research was carried out and regular conferences held in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union although the word parapsychology was discarded in favour of the term psychotronics. The main promoter of psychotronics was Czech scientist Zdeněk Rejdák, who described it as a physical science, organizing conferences and presiding over the International Association for Psychotronic Research.


title: Parapsychology

text: In 1985 a Chair of Parapsychology was established within the Department of Psychology at the University of Edinburgh and was given to Robert Morris, an experimental parapsychologist from the United States. Morris and his research associates and PhD students pursued research on topics related to parapsychology.


title: Parapsychology

text: Since the 1980s, contemporary parapsychological research has waned considerably in the United States. Early research was considered inconclusive, and parapsychologists were faced with strong opposition from their academic colleagues. Some effects thought to be paranormal, for example the effects of Kirlian photography (thought by some to represent a human aura), disappeared under more stringent controls, leaving those avenues of research at dead-ends. The bulk of parapsychology research in the US is now confined to private institutions funded by private sources. After 28 years of research, Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Laboratory (PEAR), which studied psychokinesis, closed in 2007.


title: Parapsychology

text: Two universities in the United States currently have academic parapsychology laboratories. The Division of Perceptual Studies, a unit at the University of Virginia's Department of Psychiatric Medicine, studies the possibility of survival of consciousness after bodily death, near-death experiences, and out-of-body experiences. Gary Schwartz at the University of Arizona's "Veritas Laboratory" conducted laboratory investigations of mediums, criticized by scientific skeptics. Several private institutions, including the Institute of Noetic Sciences, conduct and promote parapsychological research.


title: Parapsychology

text: Over the last two decades some new sources of funding for parapsychology in Europe have seen a "substantial increase in European parapsychological research so that the center of gravity for the field has swung from the United States to Europe". Of all nations the United Kingdom has the largest number of active parapsychologists. In the UK, researchers work in conventional psychology departments, and also do studies in mainstream psychology to "boost their credibility and show that their methods are sound". It is thought that this approach could account for the relative strength of parapsychology in Britain.


title: Parapsychology

text: As of 2007, parapsychology research is represented in some 30 countries and a number of universities worldwide continue academic parapsychology programs. Among these are the Koestler Parapsychology Unit at the University of Edinburgh; the Parapsychology Research Group at Liverpool Hope University (this closed in April 2011); the SOPHIA Project at the University of Arizona; the Consciousness and Transpersonal Psychology Research Unit of Liverpool John Moores University; the Center for the Study of Anomalous Psychological Processes at the University of Northampton; and the Anomalistic Psychology Research Unit at Goldsmiths, University of London.


title: Parapsychology

text: Research and professional organizations include the Parapsychological Association; the Society for Psychical Research, publisher of the "Journal of the Society for Psychical Research" and "Psi Encyclopedia"; the American Society for Psychical Research, publisher of the "Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research" (last published in 2004); the Rhine Research Center and Institute for Parapsychology, publisher of the "Journal of Parapsychology"; the Parapsychology Foundation, which published the "International Journal of Parapsychology" (between 1959 and 1968 and 2000–2001) and the Australian Institute of Parapsychological Research, publisher of the "Australian Journal of Parapsychology". The "European Journal of Parapsychology" ceased publishing in 2010.


title: Parapsychology

text: Parapsychological research has also included other sub-disciplines of psychology. These related fields include transpersonal psychology, which studies transcendent or spiritual aspects of the human mind, and anomalistic psychology, which examines paranormal beliefs and subjective anomalous experiences in traditional psychological terms.


title: Parapsychology

text: The definitions for the terms above may not reflect their mainstream usage, nor the opinions of all parapsychologists and their critics.


title: Parapsychology

text: According to the Parapsychological Association, parapsychologists do not study all paranormal phenomena, nor are they concerned with astrology, UFOs, cryptozoology, paganism, vampires, alchemy, or witchcraft.


title: Parapsychology

text: Journals dealing with parapsychology include the "Journal of Parapsychology", "Journal of Near-Death Studies", "Journal of Consciousness Studies", "Journal of the Society for Psychical Research", and "Journal of Scientific Exploration".


title: Parapsychology

text: The Ganzfeld (German for "whole field") is a technique used to test individuals for telepathy. The technique—a form of moderate sensory deprivation—was developed to quickly quiet mental "noise" by providing mild, unpatterned stimuli to the visual and auditory senses. The visual sense is usually isolated by creating a soft red glow which is diffused through half ping-pong balls placed over the recipient's eyes. The auditory sense is usually blocked by playing white noise, static, or similar sounds to the recipient. The subject is also seated in a reclined, comfortable position to minimize the sense of touch.


title: Parapsychology

text: In the typical Ganzfeld experiment, a "sender" and a "receiver" are isolated. The receiver is put into the Ganzfeld state, or Ganzfeld effect and the sender is shown a video clip or still picture and asked to mentally send that image to the receiver. The receiver, while in the Ganzfeld, is asked to continuously speak aloud all mental processes, including images, thoughts, and feelings. At the end of the sending period, typically about 20 to 40 minutes in length, the receiver is taken out of the Ganzfeld state and shown four images or videos, one of which is the true target and three of which are non-target decoys. The receiver attempts to select the true target, using perceptions experienced during the Ganzfeld state as clues to what the mentally "sent" image might have been.