title: Thracians

text: When the Greeks defeated a second invasion attempt by the Persian Empire in 479 BC, they started attacking the satrapy of , which was resisted by both the Thracians and the Persian forces. The Thracians kept on sending supplies to the governor of Eion when the Greeks besieged it. When the city fell to the Greeks in 475 BC, Cimon gave its land to Athens for colonisation. Although Athens was now in control of the Aegean Sea and the Hellespont following the defeat of the Persian invasion, the Persians were still able to control the southern coast of Thrace from a base in central Thrace and with the support of the Thracians. Thanks to the Thracians co-operating with the Persians by sending supplies and military reinforcements down the Hebrus river route, Achaemenid authority in central Thrace lasted until around 465 BC, and the governor Mascames managed to resist many Greek attacks in Doriscus until then.


title: Thracians

text: Around this time, Teres I, the king of the Odrysae tribe, in whose territory the Hebrus flowed, was starting to organise the rise of his kingdom into a powerful state. With the end of Achaemenid power in the Balkans, the Thracian Odrysian kingdom, the kingdom of Macedonia, and the Athenian thalassocracy filled the ensuing power vacuum and formed their own spheres of influence in the area.


title: Thracians

text: The Odrysian Kingdom was a state union of over 40 Thracian tribes and 22 kingdoms that existed between the 5th century BC and the 1st century AD. It consisted mainly of present-day Bulgaria, spreading to parts of Southeastern Romania (Northern Dobruja), parts of Northern Greece and parts of modern-day European Turkey.


title: Thracians

text: By the fifth century BC, the Thracian population was large enough that Herodotus called them the second-most numerous people in the part of the world known by him (after the Indians), and potentially the most powerful, if not for their lack of unity. The Thracians in classical times were broken up into a large number of groups and tribes, though a number of powerful Thracian states were organized, the most important being the Odrysian kingdom of Thrace, and also the short lived Dacian kingdom of Burebista. The "peltast", a type of soldier of this period, probably originated in Thrace.


title: Thracians

text: During this period, a subculture of celibate ascetics called the "ctistae" lived in Thrace, where they served as philosophers, priests and prophets.


title: Thracians

text: After the Persians withdrew from Europe and before the expansion of the Kingdom of Macedon, Thrace was divided into three regions (east, central, and west). A notable ruler of the East Thracians was Cersobleptes, who attempted to expand his authority over many of the Thracian tribes. He was eventually defeated by the Macedonians.


title: Thracians

text: The conquest of the southern part of Thrace by Philip II of Macedon in the fourth century BC made the Odrysian kingdom extinct for several years. After the kingdom was reestablished, it was a vassal state of Macedon for several decades under generals such as Lysimachus of the Diadochi.


title: Thracians

text: In 279 BC, Celtic Gauls advanced into Macedonia, southern Greece and Thrace. They were soon forced out of Macedonia and southern Greece, but they remained in Thrace until the end of the third century BC. From Thrace, three Celtic tribes advanced into Anatolia and established the kingdom of Galatia.


title: Thracians

text: In western parts of Moesia, Celts (Scordisci) and Thracians lived alongside each other, as evident from the archaeological findings of pits and treasures, spanning from the third century BC to the first century BC.


title: Thracians

text: During the Macedonian Wars, conflict between Rome and Thrace was unavoidable. The rulers of Macedonia were weak, and Thracian tribal authority resurged. But after the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC, Roman authority over Macedonia seemed inevitable, and the governance of Thrace passed to Rome.


title: Thracians

text: Initially, Thracians and Macedonians revolted against Roman rule. For example, the revolt of Andriscus, in 149 BC, drew the bulk of its support from Thrace. Incursions by local tribes into Macedonia continued for many years, though a few tribes, such as the Deneletae and the Bessi, willingly allied with Rome.


title: Thracians

text: After the Third Macedonian War, Thrace acknowledged Roman authority. The client state of Thracia comprised several tribes.


title: Thracians

text: The next century and a half saw the slow development of Thracia into a permanent Roman client state. The Sapaei tribe came to the forefront initially under the rule of Rhascuporis. He was known to have granted assistance to both Pompey and Caesar, and later supported the Republican armies against Mark Antony and Octavian in the final days of the Republic.


title: Thracians

text: The heirs of Rhascuporis became as deeply enmeshed in political scandal and murder as were their Roman masters. A series of royal assassinations altered the ruling landscape for several years in the early Roman imperial period. Various factions took control with the support of the Roman Emperor. The turmoil would eventually end with one final assassination.


title: Thracians

text: After Rhoemetalces III of the Thracian Kingdom of Sapes was murdered in AD 46 by his wife, Thracia was incorporated as an official Roman province to be governed by Procurators, and later Praetorian prefects. The central governing authority of Rome was in Perinthus, but regions within the province were under the command of military subordinates to the governor. The lack of large urban centers made Thracia a difficult place to manage, but eventually the province flourished under Roman rule. However, Romanization was not attempted in the province of Thracia. The "Balkan Sprachbund" does not support Hellenization.


title: Thracians

text: Roman authority in Thracia rested mainly with the legions stationed in Moesia. The rural nature of Thracia's populations, and distance from Roman authority, certainly inspired local troops to support Moesia's legions. Over the next few centuries, the province was periodically and increasingly attacked by migrating Germanic tribes. The reign of Justinian saw the construction of over 100 legionary fortresses to supplement the defense.


title: Thracians

text: Thracians were regarded by other peoples as warlike, ferocious, bloodthirsty, and barbarian. They were seen as "barbarians" by ancient Greeks and Romans. Plato in his "Republic" groups them with the Scythians, calling them extravagant and high spirited; and his "Laws" portrays them as a warlike nation, grouping them with Celts, Persians, Scythians, Iberians and Carthaginians. Polybius wrote of Cotys's sober and gentle character being unlike that of most Thracians. Tacitus in his "Annals" writes of them being wild, savage and impatient, disobedient even to their own kings. The Thracians have been said to have "tattooed their bodies, obtained their wives by purchase, and often sold their children." Victor Duruy further notes that they "considered husbandry unworthy of a warrior, and knew no source of gain but war and theft," and that they practiced human sacrifice, which has been confirmed by archaeological evidence.


title: Thracians

text: Polyaenus and Strabo write how the Thracians broke their pacts of truce with trickery. The Thracians struck their weapons against each other before battle, "in the Thracian manner," as Polyaneus testifies. Diegylis was considered one of the most bloodthirsty chieftains by Diodorus Siculus. An Athenian club for lawless youths was named after the Triballi.


title: Thracians

text: According to ancient Roman sources, the Dii were responsible for the worst atrocities of the Peloponnesian War, killing every living thing, including children and dogs in Tanagra and Mycalessos. Thracians would impale Roman heads on their spears and rhomphaias such as in the Kallinikos skirmish at 171 BC.


title: Thracians

text: Herodotus writes that "they sell their children and let their maidens commerce with whatever men they please".


title: Thracians

text: The accuracy and impartiality of these descriptions have been called into question in modern times, given the seeming embellishments in Herodotus's histories, for one. Strabo treated the Thracians as barbarians, and held that they spoke the same language as the Getae. Archaeologists have attempted to piece together a fuller understanding of Thracian culture through study of their artifacts.


title: Thracians

text: The ancient languages of these people and their cultural influence were highly reduced due to the repeated invasions of the Balkans by Romans, Celts, Huns, Goths, Scythians, Sarmatians and Slavs, accompanied by, hellenization, romanization and later slavicisation. However, the Thracians as a group only disappeared in the Early Middle Ages. Towards the end of the 4th century, Nicetas the Bishop of Remesiana brought the gospel to "those mountain wolves", the Bessi. Reportedly his mission was successful, and the worship of Dionysus and other Thracian gods was eventually replaced by Christianity. In 570, Antoninus Placentius said that in the valleys of Mount Sinai there was a monastery in which the monks spoke Greek, Latin, Syriac, Egyptian and Bessian. The origin of the monasteries is explained in a medieval hagiography written by Simeon Metaphrastes, in Vita Sancti Theodosii Coenobiarchae in which he wrote that Theodosius the Cenobiarch founded on the shore of the Dead Sea a monastery with four churches, in each being spoken a different language, among which Bessian was found. The place where the monasteries were founded was called "Cutila", which may be a Thracian name. The further fate of the Thracians is a matter of dispute. Gottfried Schramm derived the Albanians from the Christian Bessi, or Bessians, an early Thracian people who were pushed westwards into Albania. However, from a linguistic point of view it emerges that the Thracian-Bessian hypothesis of the origin of Albanian should be rejected, since only very little comparative linguistic material is available (the Thracian is attested only marginally, while the Bessian is completely unknown), but at the same time the individual phonetic history of Albanian and Thracian clearly indicates a very different sound development that cannot be considered as the result of one language. Furthermore, the Christian vocabulary of Albanian is mainly Latin, which speaks against the construct of a "Thracian-Bessian church language". Most probably the remnants of the Thracians were assimilated into the Roman and later in the Byzantine society and became part of the ancestral groups of the modern Southeastern Europeans.


title: Thracians

text: One notable cult that existed in Thrace, Moesia and Scythia Minor was that of the "Thracian horseman", also known as the "Thracian Heros", at Odessos (near Varna) known by a Thracian name as Heros "Karabazmos", a god of the underworld, who was usually depicted on funeral statues as a horseman slaying a beast with a spear. Dacians had a monotheistic religion based on the god Zalmoxis. The supreme Balkan thunder god Perkon was part of the Thracian pantheon, although cults of Orpheus and Zalmoxis likely overshadowed his.


title: Thracians

text: The Thracians were polygamous. Menander puts it: ""All Thracians, especially us and the Getae, are not much abstaining, because no one takes less than ten, eleven, twelve wives, some even more. If one dies and has only four or five wives he is called ill-fated, unhappy and unmarried."" According to Herodotus virginity among women was not valued, and unmarried Thracian women could have sex with any man they wished to. There were men perceived as holy Thracians, who lived without women and were called "ktisti". In myth Orpheus became attracted to men after the death of Eurydice and is thought of as the establisher of homosexuality among Thracian men. Because he advocated love between men and turning away from loving women he was killed by the Bistones women.


title: Thracians

text: The Thracians were a warrior people, known as both horsemen and lightly armed skirmishers with javelins. Thracian peltasts had a notable influence in Ancient Greece.


title: Thracians

text: The history of Thracian warfare spans from c. 10th century BC up to the 1st century AD in the region defined by Ancient Greek and Latin historians as Thrace. It concerns the armed conflicts of the Thracian tribes and their kingdoms in the Balkans and in the Dacian territories. Emperor Traianus, also known as Trajan, conquered Dacia after two wars in the 2nd century AD. The wars ended with the occupation of the fortress of Sarmisegetusa and the death of the king Decebalus. Besides conflicts between Thracians and neighboring nations and tribes, numerous wars were recorded among Thracian tribes too.


title: Thracians

text: Several Thracian graves or tombstones have the name "Rufus" inscribed on them, meaning "redhead" – a common name given to people with red hair which led to associating the name with slaves when the Romans enslaved this particular group. Ancient Greek artwork often depicts Thracians as redheads. Rhesus of Thrace, a mythological Thracian king, was so named because of his red hair and is depicted on Greek pottery as having red hair and a red beard.


title: Thracians

text: Ancient Greek writers also described the Thracians as red-haired. A fragment by the Greek poet Xenophanes describes the Thracians as blue-eyed and red haired:


title: Thracians

text: Bacchylides described Theseus as wearing a hat with red hair, which classicists believe was Thracian in origin. Other ancient writers who described the hair of the Thracians as red include Hecataeus of Miletus, Galen, Clement of Alexandria, and Julius Firmicus Maternus.


title: Thracians

text: Nevertheless, academic studies have concluded that people often had different physical features from those described by primary sources. Ancient authors described as red-haired several groups of people. They claimed that all Slavs had red hair, and likewise described the Scythians as red haired. According to Beth Cohen, Thracians had "the same dark hair and the same facial features as the Ancient Greeks." However, Aris N. Poulianos states that Thracians, like modern Bulgarians, belonged mainly to the Aegean anthropological type.


title: Thracians

text: This is a list of historically important personalities being entirely or partly of Thracian ancestry:


title: Thracians

text: The branch of science that studies the ancient Thracians and Thrace is called Thracology. Archaeological research on the Thracian culture started in the 20th century, especially after World War II, mainly in


title: Thracians

text: southern Bulgaria. As a result of intensive excavations in the 1960s and 1970s a number of Thracian tombs and sanctuaries were discovered. Most significant among them are: the Tomb of Sveshtari, the Tomb of Kazanlak, Tatul, Seuthopolis, Perperikon the Tomb of Aleksandrovo in Bulgaria and Sarmizegetusa in Romania and others.


title: Thracians

text: Also a large number of elaborately crafted gold and silver treasure sets from the 5th and 4th century BC were unearthed. In the following decades, those were exhibited in museums around the world, thus calling attention to ancient Thracian culture. Since the year 2000, Bulgarian archaeologist Georgi Kitov has made discoveries in Central Bulgaria, in an area now known as "The Valley of the Thracian Kings". The residence of the Odrysian kings was found in Starosel in the Sredna Gora mountains. A 1922 Bulgarian study claimed that there were at least 6,269 necropolises in Bulgaria.


title: Thracians

text: A genetic study published in "Scientific Reports" in April 2019 examined the mtDNA of 25 Thracian remains in Bulgaria from the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. They were found to harbor a mixture of ancestry from Western Steppe Herders (WSHs) and Early European Farmers (EEFs), supporting the idea that the Balkan region was a link between Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean.


title: Moon Zappa

text: Moon Unit Zappa (born September 28, 1967) is an American actress, singer, and author. She is the daughter of musician Frank Zappa.


title: Moon Zappa

text: Moon Zappa was born in New York City, the eldest child of Gail (née Sloatman) and musician Frank Zappa. She has three younger siblings: Dweezil, Ahmet, and Diva. Zappa's father was of Sicilian, Greek-Arab, and French ancestry, and her mother was of German and Portuguese descent. Zappa attended Oakwood School in North Hollywood, California.


title: Moon Zappa

text: Zappa first came to public attention in 1982 at the age of 14, when she appeared on her father's hit single "Valley Girl." The song featured Moon's monologue in "valleyspeak", slang terms popular with teenage girls in the San Fernando Valley, Los Angeles. "Valley Girl" was Frank Zappa's biggest hit in the United States, and popularized phrases from the lyric such as "grody to the max" and "gag me with a spoon." The song appeared on her father's 1982 album "Ship Arriving Too Late to Save a Drowning Witch".


title: Moon Zappa

text: She sang on Dweezil's songs "My Mother Is a Space Cadet" b/w "Crunchy Water" in 1982 and "Let's Talk About It" from the album "Havin' a Bad Day" in 1986.


title: Moon Zappa

text: As a teenager, Zappa acted in the television series "CHiPs", "The Facts of Life", and the film "Nightmares". While still 18, she was a technical consultant and appeared in several episodes of "Fast Times." As an adult, she has worked as a stand-up comic, magazine writer, and actress, appearing in the films "National Lampoon's European Vacation" and "Spirit of '76", the television sitcom "Normal Life", and "The Super Mario Bros. Super Show".


title: Moon Zappa

text: Zappa appeared as a niqab-clad Muslim woman in an episode of "Curb Your Enthusiasm", as Ted Mosby's cousin Stacy in an episode of "How I Met Your Mother", and on an episode ("Pampered to a Pulp") of "Roseanne". In 2013, Zappa was the voice of Mrs. Lamber on FOX Broadcasting's Animation Domination High-Def series "High School USA!".


title: Moon Zappa

text: In 2000, Zappa appeared as guest vocalist on Kip Winger's third solo album "Songs from the Ocean Floor". She is the author of the novel "America, the Beautiful", published in 2001. She has also written for "The New York Times". In a 2016 interview with the "Los Angeles Times", Zappa said she was working on a book about growing up in her "crazy house."


title: Moon Zappa

text: She married Paul Doucette, drummer and rhythm guitarist for American pop group Matchbox Twenty, in June 2002. They have one child, Mathilda Plum Doucette. They divorced in 2014.


title: Moon Zappa

text: Following the death of Zappa's mother, Gail, in October 2015, it was revealed that her siblings Ahmet and Diva were given control of the Zappa family trust with shares of 30% each, while Moon and her brother Dweezil were given smaller shares of 20% each. Speaking to the "Los Angeles Times" in 2016, Zappa called it "the most hideous shock of [her] life." As beneficiaries only, Moon and Dweezil will not reportedly receive any distributions from the trust until it is profitable, in 2016, it was "millions of dollars in debt", and must seek permission from Ahmet, the trustee, to make money from their father's music or merchandise bearing his name.


title: Moon Zappa

text: In more recent times, the Zappa siblings have legally reconciled their differences with Dweezil noting "It may be a bumpy road at times – we are a passionate Italian family – but we have decided to work toward privately discussing issues rather than using public forums and lawyers."


title: Idiom

text: An idiom is a phrase or expression that typically presents a figurative, non-literal meaning attached to the phrase; but some phrases become figurative idioms while retaining the literal meaning of the phrase. Categorized as formulaic language, an idiom's figurative meaning is different from the literal meaning. Idioms occur frequently in all languages; in English alone there are an estimated twenty-five million idiomatic expressions.


title: Idiom

text: Many idiomatic expressions were meant literally in their original use, but sometimes the attribution of the literal meaning changed and the phrase itself grew away from its original roots—typically leading to a folk etymology. For instance, the phrase "spill the beans" (meaning to reveal a secret) is first attested in 1919, but has been said to originate from an ancient method of voting by depositing beans in jars, which could be spilled, prematurely revealing the results.


title: Idiom

text: Other idioms are deliberately figurative. For example, "break a leg" is an ironic expression to wish a person good luck just prior to their giving a performance or presentation. It may have arisen from the superstition that one ought not utter the words "good luck" to an actor because it is believed that doing so will cause the opposite result.


title: Idiom

text: In linguistics, idioms are usually presumed to be figures of speech contradicting the principle of compositionality. That compositionality is the key notion for the analysis of idioms is emphasized in most accounts of idioms. This principle states that the meaning of a whole should be constructed from the meanings of the parts that make up the whole. In other words, one should be in a position to understand the whole if one understands the meanings of each of the parts that make up the whole. The following example is widely employed to illustrate the point:


title: Idiom

text: Understood compositionally, Fred has literally kicked an actual, physical bucket. The much more likely idiomatic reading, however, is non-compositional: Fred is understood to have died. Arriving at the idiomatic reading from the literal reading is unlikely for most speakers. What this means is that the idiomatic reading is, rather, stored as a single lexical item that is now largely independent of the literal reading.


title: Idiom

text: In phraseology, idioms are defined as a sub-type of , the meaning of which is not the regular sum of the meanings of its component parts. John Saeed defines an idiom as collocated words that became affixed to each other until metamorphosing into a fossilised term. This collocation of words redefines each component word in the word-group and becomes an "idiomatic expression". Idioms usually do not translate well; in some cases, when an idiom is translated directly word-for-word into another language, either its meaning is changed or it is meaningless.


title: Idiom

text: When two or three words are conventionally used together in a particular sequence, they form an irreversible binomial. For example, a person may be left "high and dry", but never "dry and high". Not all irreversible binomials are idioms, however: "chips and dip" is irreversible, but its meaning is straightforwardly derived from its components.


title: Idiom

text: Idioms possess varying degrees of mobility. Whereas some idioms are used only in a routine form, others can undergo syntactic modifications such as passivization, raising constructions, and clefting, demonstrating separable constituencies within the idiom. "Mobile idioms", allowing such movement, maintain their idiomatic meaning where "fixed idioms" do not:


title: Idiom

text: Many fixed idioms lack "semantic composition", meaning that the idiom contains the semantic role of a verb, but not of any object. This is true of "kick the bucket", which means "die". By contrast, the semantically composite idiom "spill the beans", meaning "reveal a secret", contains both a semantic verb and object, "reveal" and "secret". Semantically composite idioms have a syntactic similarity between their surface and semantic forms.


title: Idiom

text: The types of movement allowed for certain idioms also relate to the degree to which the literal reading of the idiom has a connection to its idiomatic meaning. This is referred to as "motivation" or "transparency". While most idioms that do not display semantic composition generally do not allow non-adjectival modification, those that are also motivated allow lexical substitution. For example, "oil the wheels" and "grease the wheels" allow variation for nouns that elicit a similar literal meaning. These types of changes can occur only when speakers can easily recognize a connection between what the idiom is meant to express and its literal meaning, thus an idiom like "kick the bucket" cannot occur as "kick the pot".


title: Idiom

text: From the perspective of dependency grammar, idioms are represented as a catena which cannot be interrupted by non-idiomatic content. Although syntactic modifications introduce disruptions to the idiomatic structure, this continuity is only required for idioms as lexical entries.


title: Idiom

text: Certain idioms, allowing unrestricted syntactic modification, can be said to be metaphors. Expressions such as "jump on the bandwagon", "pull strings", and "draw the line" all represent their meaning independently in their verbs and objects, making them compositional. In the idiom "jump on the bandwagon", "jump on" involves joining something and a 'bandwagon' can refer to a collective cause, regardless of context.


title: Idiom

text: A word-by-word translation of an opaque idiom will most likely not convey the same meaning in other languages. The English idiom "kick the bucket" has a variety of equivalents in other languages, such as "kopnąć w kalendarz" ("kick the calendar") in Polish, "casser sa pipe" ("to break his pipe") in French and "tirare le cuoia" ("pulling the leathers") in Italian.


title: Idiom

text: Some idioms are transparent. Much of their meaning gets through if they are taken (or translated) literally. For example, "lay one's cards on the table" meaning to reveal previously unknown intentions or to reveal a secret. Transparency is a matter of degree; "spill the beans" (to let secret information become known) and "leave no stone unturned" (to do everything possible in order to achieve or find something) are not entirely literally interpretable but involve only a slight metaphorical broadening. Another category of idioms is a word having several meanings, sometimes simultaneously, sometimes discerned from the context of its usage. This is seen in the (mostly uninflected) English language in polysemes, the common use of the same word for an activity, for those engaged in it, for the product used, for the place or time of an activity, and sometimes for a verb.


title: Idiom

text: Idioms tend to confuse those unfamiliar with them; students of a new language must learn its idiomatic expressions as vocabulary. Many natural language words have "idiomatic origins" but are assimilated and so lose their figurative senses. For example, in Portuguese, the expression "saber de coração" 'to know by heart', with the same meaning as in English, was shortened to 'saber de cor', and, later, to the verb "decorar", meaning "memorize".


title: Idiom

text: In 2015, TED collected 40 examples of bizarre idioms that cannot be translated literally. They include the Swedish saying "to slide in on a shrimp sandwich", which refers those who did not have to work to get where they are.


title: Idiom

text: Conversely, idioms may be shared between multiple languages. For example, the Arabic phrase في نفس المركب ("fi nafs al-markab") is translated as "in the same boat," and it carries the same figurative meaning as the equivalent idiom in English.


title: Idiom

text: According to the German linguist Elizabeth Piirainen, the idiom "to get on one's nerves" has the same figurative meaning in 57 European languages. She also says that the phrase "to shed crocodile tears," meaning to express insincere sorrow, is similarly widespread in European languages but is also used in Arabic, Swahili, Persian, Chinese, Mongolian, and several others.


title: Idiom

text: The origin of cross-language idioms is uncertain. One theory is that cross-language idioms are a language contact phenomenon, resulting from a word-for-word translation called a calque. Piirainen says that may happen as a result of lingua franca usage in which speakers incorporate expressions from their own native tongue, which exposes them to speakers of other languages. Other theories suggest they come from a shared ancestor language or that humans are naturally predisposed to develop certain metaphors.


title: Idiom

text: The non-compositionality of meaning of idioms challenges theories of syntax. The fixed words of many idioms do not qualify as constituents in any sense. For example:


title: Idiom

text: The fixed words of this idiom (in bold) do not form a constituent in any theory's analysis of syntactic structure because the object of the preposition (here "this situation") is not part of the idiom (but rather it is an argument of the idiom). One can know that it is not part of the idiom because it is variable; for example, "How do we get to the bottom of this situation / the claim / the phenomenon / her statement /" etc. What this means is that theories of syntax that take the constituent to be the fundamental unit of syntactic analysis are challenged. The manner in which units of meaning are assigned to units of syntax remains unclear. This problem has motivated a tremendous amount of discussion and debate in linguistics circles and it is a primary motivator behind the Construction Grammar framework.


title: Idiom

text: A relatively recent development in the syntactic analysis of idioms departs from a constituent-based account of syntactic structure, preferring instead the catena-based account. The catena unit was introduced to linguistics by William O'Grady in 1998. Any word or any combination of words that are linked together by dependencies qualifies as a catena. The words constituting idioms are stored as catenae in the lexicon, and as such, they are concrete units of syntax. The dependency grammar trees of a few sentences containing non-constituent idioms illustrate the point:


title: Idiom

text: The fixed words of the idiom (in orange) in each case are linked together by dependencies; they form a catena. The material that is outside of the idiom (in normal black script) is not part of the idiom. The following two trees illustrate proverbs:


title: Idiom

text: The fixed words of the proverbs (in orange) again form a catena each time. The adjective "nitty-gritty" and the adverb "always" are not part of the respective proverb and their appearance does not interrupt the fixed words of the proverb. A caveat concerning the catena-based analysis of idioms concerns their status in the lexicon. Idioms are lexical items, which means they are stored as catenae in the lexicon. In the actual syntax, however, some idioms can be broken up by various functional constructions.


title: Idiom

text: The catena-based analysis of idioms provides a basis for an understanding of meaning compositionality. The Principle of Compositionality can in fact be maintained. Units of meaning are being assigned to catenae, whereby many of these catenae are not constituents.


title: Idiom

text: Various studies have investigated methods to develop the ability to interpret idioms in children with various diagnoses including Autism, Moderate Learning Difficulties, Developmental Language Disorder and typically developing weak readers.


title: Idiom

text: A multiword expression is "lexical units larger than a word that can bear both idiomatic and compositional meanings. (...) the term multi-word expression is used as a pre-theoretical label to include the range of phenomena that goes from collocations to fixed expressions." It is a problem in natural language processing when trying to translate lexical units such as idioms.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: David Lombardo (born February 16, 1965) is a Cuban-American drummer, best known as a co-founding member of American thrash metal band Slayer. He is currently playing drums with Testament, Fantômas, Suicidal Tendencies, Dead Cross, Mr. Bungle, and the Misfits.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Lombardo previously played drums on nine Slayer albums, including "Reign in Blood" (1986) and "Christ Illusion" (2006). His music career has spanned over 40 years, during which he has been involved in the production of 35 commercial recordings covering a number of genres. He has performed with numerous other bands, including Grip Inc., Philm and Fantômas, in addition to Slayer.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Lombardo is widely known as an aggressive heavy metal drummer. His drumming has been praised as "astonishingly innovative". Drummerworld named him "The Godfather of Double Bass". He has had a significant influence on the metal scene and inspired modern metal drummers, particularly extreme metal drummers.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Lombardo was born in Havana, Cuba, on February 16, 1965, where his father owned three meat markets.<ref name="PHILM/EX-SLAYER CUBA, - I DEMOCRACY, VIOLENCE"></ref> He is of Italian descent through his paternal great-grandfather, who relocated to Cuba in the 19th century. Lombardo moved with his family to South Gate, California, when he was two years old, and still speaks Spanish. He has two older brothers and an older sister; his brothers had previously emigrated to the US via Operation Peter Pan.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: His musical interests were fueled by his first musical performance when he was eight years old; he played bongos to Santana's "Everybody's Everything". Lombardo joined his school's band and played the marching drum. After noticing his son's persistent interest in music, Lombardo's father bought him a five-piece Pearl Maxwin drum set for $350 when Lombardo was ten years old. Lombardo bought his first record, "Alive!" by Kiss, to play along with. He learned to play Kiss' "100,000 Years" by repeatedly listening to the record until he could play the drum solo perfectly.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Lombardo asked his parents for drum lessons. Although they agreed, the lessons were short-lived. Lombardo grew bored because the lessons were repetitive and did not challenge him. Lombardo's friends introduced him to disco, which appealed to his affinity for funk, Latin and soul. He became a temporary DJ for a mobile disc jockey under the name A Touch of Class. Unimpressed with their son coming home at 4:00am, Lombardo's parents pressured him into quitting the DJ gig or face military school.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Lombardo returned to playing rock music in 1978 and befriended several like-minded musicians around South Gate. Lombardo moved to Pius X High School after eighth grade. He performed Chuck Berry's "Johnny B. Goode" with a guitarist named Peter Fashing during the school's talent show. "I'll never forget the roar of the crowd during the drum solo. We brought the house down," said Lombardo, who became known as "David the Drummer" the following day. Lombardo soon formed a band named Escape with two guitarists. Lombardo found a vocalist to join the band after he transferred to South Gate High School in 1979. The band performed at several events under the name Sabotage, but the band was short-lived.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Lombardo's parents convinced him to quit the band because he was withdrawing from everything except music. Knowing her son was set on pursuing a life on the stage, Lombardo's mother asked him to at least graduate high school. He honored her wish and graduated from South Gate High School in June 1983. Immediately following, Lombardo was recommended by his Technical Drafting teacher to Diesel Energy Systems Company. Impressed with his skill, Lombardo was hired on the spot. Around this time, Lombardo's musical career was ready to take off.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: When he was 16, Lombardo's friends told him about a guitar player, Kerry King, who lived a few blocks away. Lombardo dropped by King's house to meet him. Lombardo introduced himself, mentioned he played drums and shared that he wanted to start a band. King jammed with Lombardo and later showed Lombardo his guitar collection. The two quickly realized they shared some of the same musical interests. After rehearsing in Lombardo's garage several times, King introduced the drummer to another guitarist named Jeff Hanneman. The three rehearsed several times before they decided they needed a singer and bass player. King had previously played with Tom Araya in a band called Quits and decided to introduce Araya to Lombardo and Hanneman.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: With Slayer's line-up now complete, Lombardo stabbed out the now iconic logo and the band began to develop their groundbreaking sound. Slayer recorded their debut album "Show No Mercy" soon after. Lombardo enlisted producer Rick Rubin for their third album "Reign in Blood" (1986). Lombardo left the band during their tour to promote "Reign in Blood", stating, "I wasn't making any money. I figured if we were gonna be doing this professionally, on a major label, I wanted my rent and utilities paid." Tony Scaglione of Whiplash was enlisted to replace Lombardo. Unhappy with the change, Rick Rubin repeatedly called Lombardo asking his return. Lombardo initially refused before eventually returning to the band in 1987.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Lombardo recorded drums on the Slayer albums "South of Heaven" (1988) and "Seasons in the Abyss" (1990). He left the band again in 1992. Lombardo left Slayer because he wanted to be present for his first child's birth. Lombardo told his bandmates at the beginning of the pregnancy, stating he would be unable to tour the last two weeks of September. He got a phone call from Slayer's manager, Rick Sales, stating that they were booking a festival in September. Lombardo, however, was firm in his decision and insisted he would not miss his child's birth.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Ten years after leaving Slayer, Lombardo got a phone call from the band in 2001, asking if he would like to perform a few shows. Jeff was eager for Dave to return, but Kerry was less enthusiastic. King thought Dave was not up to snuff, but was "blown away" by Dave's performance in rehearsals. Kerry later said, "He's got the feet and he's got the hands, he's not missing a step."


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Lombardo decided to resume drumming duties. His first show was at Toad's Place in New Haven, Connecticut on January 24, 2002. At the beginning of the band's show at The 7 Flags Event Center near Des Moines, Iowa on February 2, 2002, Araya welcomed Lombardo's return and dedicated the show to Exodus vocalist Paul Baloff, who had died earlier that day. Lombardo toured with Slayer as part of Ozzfest, H82k2, Summer Tour, and the 2004 Download Festival. While preparing for the Download Festival in England, Metallica drummer Lars Ulrich was hospitalized for a mysterious illness. Metallica's vocalist James Hetfield searched for volunteers to replace Ulrich; Slipknot drummer Joey Jordison, Flemming Larsen (Ulrich's drum technician) and Lombardo volunteered. Lombardo performed the songs "Battery" and "The Four Horsemen", while Jordison and Larsen performed the rest of the songs.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Lombardo recorded drums on Slayer's 2006 release "Christ Illusion", promoting the album on The Unholy Alliance tour. King said Lombardo was a major attraction for the fans, and one of the reasons for their surge in popularity. King and other band members preferred Lombardo on drums. Araya said, "It's kind of right back where we started. He's an amazing performer. We took off right where we left off, you know? It's like he was never gone. He's working with Kerry on his tunes. He's helped out a lot actually!"


title: Dave Lombardo

text: "Christ Illusion" received generally favorable reviews with critics praising Lombardo's return. Chris Steffen of "Rolling Stone" wrote, ""Christ Illusion" is "God Hates Us All" without the memorable riffs, at least their awesome drummer Dave Lombardo shows off some chops, particularly on the raging 'Supremist.'" Don Kaye of "Blabbermouth" gave the album a favorable review and praised Lombardo. Kaye wrote, "One thing's for sure: Lombardo's influence on this band is absolutely undeniable. He is simply essential to the Slayer sound. He is one of metal's all-around best drummers, perhaps the very best in the field of thrash/speed metal, and his power, style, and chops – not to mention his intangible chemistry with the rest of the group and those amazing flying feet – bring Slayer's overall performance, intensity and music to a higher level."


title: Dave Lombardo

text: He left the band once again in February 2013 shortly before the band was due to play Australia's Soundwave festival. He left following a contract and pay dispute with band members.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Slayer's final concert was held on November 30, 2019. Lombardo stated that he had no interest in attending their final performances because he was busy with his own musical projects.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: In 2022, he listed "Captor of Sin," "Ghosts of War," and "Beauty Through Order" as his favorite Slayer songs.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: After the birth of his first child in 1993, Lombardo formed Grip Inc. with Voodoocult guitarist Waldemar Sorychta. The pair recruited bassist Jason VieBrooks and vocalist Gus Chambers to complete the line-up. An early five-piece line-up briefly featured former Overkill guitarist Bobby Gustafson who claims to have come up with the name Grip which Lombardo expanded to Grip Inc. after Gustafson's departure in order to avoid a potential lawsuit. Grip Inc.'s debut record was released in 1995. The album, titled Power of Inner Strength, was distributed via California-based label Metal Blade Records. All-music reviewer Vincent Jeffries singled out Lombardo for praise on the album, saying Slayer fans would "enjoy the drummer's double bass work and overall aggression throughout the disc." Sorychta claimed critics and music fans always spot mistakes in their music, because of Lombardo's popularity with Slayer—they expect the band to sound like Slayer and complain. However, when Lombardo uses the double bass drum, Sorychta said people complain "now Grip Inc. sound exactly like Slayer."[7]


title: Dave Lombardo

text: The band released "Nemesis" in 1997. Jeffries praised Lombardo's "crushing drum work" which takes center stage on the album. Bassist VieBrooks left the band in 1999; he was replaced by Stuart Carruthers. The band released "Solidify" later that year. The album was described as a step towards "progressive and exotic rhythms, structures, and instrumentation, while never compromising intensity". Lombardo was once again praised for his drumming on the album by Jeffries, who stated his style is "expressive and technically excellent tom work on cuts like 'Bug Juice' and 'Lockdown.'" Lombardo is proud of Grip Inc. and believes it made him more creative as a musician.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Lombardo recorded his final album with Grip Inc., "Incorporated", in 2004. He said the band is on the "back burner" because of time taken up touring with Slayer.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: In 1997, Lombardo began collaborating with vocalist/guitarist Gerry Nestler and bassist Juan Perez after the demise of their former band, Civil Defiance. Initially called Letter Bomb, the experimental trio later changed the name to Philm. The group played shows in the LA area and worked on material at Lombardo's home studio until Lombardo returned to Slayer in 2001. Nestler and Perez kept going with new drummer George Hernandez, releasing the "M" album under the name Kkleq Muzzil in 2002. Lombardo and Nestler both guested on DJ Spooky's 2005 album, "Drums of Death", and eventually reformed Philm in early 2010 after a jam at the famous Rainbow Bar and Grill in West Hollywood, CA, recruiting War's Francisco 'Pancho' Tomaselli on bass.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: The band initially recorded a three-song demo with producer Piers Baron; The first release came in August 2010 in the form of a 7" single, a cover of the Black Sabbath classic "Symptom of the Universe". It was issued by Volcom Entertainment as part of the Volcom Vinyl Club in translucent blue vinyl, limited to 500 copies. Philm would play a run of U.S. dates as openers for Halford in late 2010 and signed with Mike Patton's Ipecac label for the release of their 2012 debut album, 'Harmonic', which included updated versions of the songs "Amoniac", "Dome" and "Meditation", written by the original Philm line-up and first released by Kkleq Muzzil on the "M" album.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: In October 2013, Lombardo, Nestler and stand-in bass player Dan Lutz performed the world live premier of composer Christopher Young's Suite from "Ghost Rider" with the Golden State Pops Orchestra at the Warner Grand Theatre in Los Angeles, CA as part of an evening of horror movie scores performed with a 75-piece orchestra.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: In July 2014, Philm announced a new partnership with German-based company UDR Records for the release of the group's sophomore effort, 'Fire From the Evening Sun'. The album was supported with a European tour in late 2014. In a September 2015 interview, Lombardo talked about plans for the next Philm release, a 19-song double album recorded in New York City. "It's called 'Philm Noir', and that's piano, bass and drums. Gerry (Paul Nestler, guitar/vocals) plays piano really, really, really well, and Pancho (Francisco Tomaselli), obviously, on bass and myself. I tone it down and play with brushes. So, I would say 'Fire From the Evening Sun' is the extreme side of Philm, but then we also have a very avant-garde, jazz and ambient side of Philm, which is 'Philm Noir'."


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Lombardo left the group a couple of months later and proclaimed its demise in early 2016. However, Nestler and Tomaselli carried on with a new drummer and released a third album, 'Time Burner', in early 2021.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: In 1998, Lombardo joined a side project called Fantômas with Faith No More vocalist Mike Patton and Melvins' guitarist Buzz Osborne. The band formed when Lombardo was approached by Patton at a Faith No More concert; Patton asked Lombardo about his "fusion" project (Grip Inc.). Patton called Lombardo several months after Faith No More broke up and asked if Lombardo wanted to join Patton's fusion project. Lombardo enthusiastically agreed, "Fuck yeah!"


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Lombardo later described Fantômas as the hardest music he has played: "Slayer doesn't even come close. Slayer was hard in a physical way, this is physically demanding and requires 'feeling'. (The kind of connectedness that demands) no clicking of sticks." The drummer described Fantômas' sound by stating "[I]f Picasso was a musician, this would be his music." Lombardo recorded four albums with the band.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Lombardo revealed the formation of yet another new musical project, Dead Cross, in November 2015. With ruthless, hardcore punk music, Rolling Stone described the band as a "vicious statement of renewed intent from Lombardo, the most influential drummer of the past 30 years." Dead Cross announced on December 12, 2016, that Mike Patton would front the band. Mike Patton Joins Dave Lombardo's Hardcore Supergroup Dead Cross as Lead Singer Produced by Ross Robinson and Dead Cross, the band released their eponymous debut album in August 2017.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Lombardo joined crossover thrash band Suicidal Tendencies in February 2016 and toured with the band for their spring tour with Megadeth and summer European dates. Fans speculated Lombardo was only playing with the band as a fill-in drummer. Those rumors were dispelled, however, when the band posted a video to their Instagram account on May 15, 2016. The video showed Lombardo recording drums for a new album, "World Gone Mad." The album was released on September 30, 2016.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: In August 2016, the Misfits announced Lombardo as their drummer for their reunion shows. Due to the success of the shows, the Misfits announced in August 2017 that they would do two more. Lombardo would again be on drums.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Lombardo performed two shows - one on December 28, 2017, at MGM Grand Garden Arena, Las Vegas and December 30, 2017, at the Forum, Los Angeles, California, in which all 16,000 tickets for the show were sold out in less than one minute.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: In 2019, Lombardo was announced as the drummer for the seven upcoming Mr. Bungle reunion shows in 2020 in which the band performed their 1986 Demo "The Raging Wrath of The Easter Bunny". In 2020, the band rerecorded the demo, with Lombardo on drums. It was released on October 30, 2020.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: In 1999, Lombardo performed drum work on the Testament album "The Gathering", rounding off a veritable "supergroup" with Steve Di Giorgio and James Murphy. However, he left the band right before the album's world tour in 1999-2000.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: On March 1, 2022, it was announced that Lombardo had rejoined Testament as the replacement of Gene Hoglan, who had left the band nearly two months earlier. His return to Testament occurred just one month before the start of his first major tour with the band, and they also plan to record a new album with him.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: In 1999, Lombardo collaborated with Italian classical musician "Lorenzo Arruga" to record "Vivaldi – The Meeting". The seven-track album had drum improvisations on Vivaldi's work including two pieces from "The Four Seasons" composition. In 2000, Lombardo released a book titled "Dave Lombardo:Power Grooves". The book and video contained warm ups, eight, sixteen, and double bass grooves, riding the toms and more.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: He has appeared on two albums by John Zorn: "Taboo and Exile" (1999) and "Xu Feng" (2000) performing with Zorn, Bill Laswell, Fred Frith, William Winant and others. He also played in Paris with Zorn, Laswell and Frith in an improvisatonal quartet project called Blade Runner.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: 1999 also saw the release of avant-garde sculptor/filmmaker Matthew Barney's "Cremaster 2", inspired by the life of Gary Gilmore. Lombardo played an epic drum solo accompanied by a swarm of angry bees on the track "The Man in Black".


title: Dave Lombardo

text: In 2005, Lombardo recorded "Drums of Death" with DJ Spooky. Spooky played some records with Lombardo playing along and interpreting his own rhythms. Spooky recorded the session and took the tapes to his New York recording studio, downloaded it onto his computer, and mixed the beats and drums incorporating scratching and other DJ techniques. Scott Peace-Miller of "Glide Magazine" noted, "Lombardo's influence is front and center in the driving, up tempo "Quantum Cyborg Drum Machine," and the almost straight-up thrash of Kultur Krieg."


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Lombardo recorded six tracks with the Finnish cello metal group Apocalyptica on their 2003 album "Reflections". Members of Apocalyptica had approached Lombardo in 1998 at a drum clinic in the Netherlands titled "Headbangers fest", and asked if Lombardo would like to do a duo with the band, which he agreed to. Both Lombardo and Apocalyptica enjoyed playing a duo and Lombardo said to Apocalyptica, "Whenever you need a drummer, call me!". The band sent the recording tapes of "Reflections" to his home studio in California where he recorded the drums. Lombardo's later Apocalyptica contributions have consisted of playing the drums for the track "Betrayal/Forgiveness" on the 2005 album "Apocalyptica" for the track "Last Hope" on the 2007 album "Worlds Collide" and for the track "2010" on the 2010 album "7th Symphony".


title: Dave Lombardo

text: In October 2009, it was announced that he had recorded a cover of "Stand by Me", featuring Lemmy on vocals and bass, and produced by DJ and producer Baron. The song was made for legendary pro skateboarder Geoff Rowley.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Lombardo has contributed to television and film scores including "Dawn of the Dead", "", and the seventh season of the Showtime series "Californication".


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Lombardo named Bill Ward, Mitch Mitchell, John Bonham, Ian Paice, Ginger Baker and Keith Moon as main influences at early age.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: He is known for his fast, aggressive style of play utilizing the double bass technique which has earned him the title "the godfather of double bass" by Drummerworld. Lombardo states his reasons for using two bass drums: "when you hit the bass drum the head is still resonating. When you hit it in the same place right after that you kinda get a 'slapback' from the bass drum head hitting the other pedal. You're not letting them breathe." In an interview with Guitar Center in the spring of 2012 he said: "I don't like a double pedal because when the beater hits, I immediately come back with the other pedal. And that head is resonating, which creates a momentum that isn't helpful. It throws me off balance. With two bass drums, I don't have any problems. It's just a feel thing." When playing the double bass, Lombardo uses the 'heel-up' technique and places his pedals at an angle. As well as considering him an influence, Arch Enemy drummer Daniel Erlandsson feels Lombardo is "really tasteful in his playing, and doesn't overplay. He's gifted with a groove that not many speed metal, or metal drummers generally, have."


title: Dave Lombardo

text: In response to an interview question, "How talented is Dave Lombardo?" King responded, "Have you ever seen the movie "The Natural"? That's Dave. He doesn't have to try to be good. He comes into the venue 10 or 15 minutes before we hit the stage and he doesn't warm up. He just goes and does it, after me and Jeff [Hanneman, guitarist] have been warming up for like an hour." In an interview with "Modern Drummer", Lombardo has stated that when he plays drum beats on the bass drums, he always begins with his left foot.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: German newspaper "Die Zeit" named Slayer's "Reign in Blood" #79 on their list of 100 Classics of Modern Music, with critic Matthias Schönebäumer writing:


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Lombardo's work has been an influence on many rock and heavy metal drummers. Per Möller Jensen of The Haunted cites Lombardo as a major influence, having grown up listening to Slayer; the band was a big influence on his style and The Haunted's. Suffocation drummer Mike Smith also cites Lombardo as an influence. Rocky Gray, former member of the alternative metal band Evanescence was influenced by Lombardo's choice of equipment; "All those old school guys are all TAMA guys. Where I'm from, if you're in the big time, you get a TAMA drum set. You have to be good if you've got a TAMA set."


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Richard Christy, former member of Death was "blown away" by Lombardo's performance and double bass on the album "Reign in Blood", as was Cannibal Corpse drummer Paul Mazurkiewicz. Raymond Herrera of the band Fear Factory cites Lombardo as one of his major influences, as do Pete Sandoval (Morbid Angel), Igor Cavalera (Sepultura, Cavalera Conspiracy), Chris Pennie (The Dillinger Escape Plan), Adrian Erlandsson (Paradise Lost, Cradle of Filth, Brujeria), George Kollias (Nile, Nightfall), Joey Jordison (Slipknot), Dirk Verbeuren (Soilwork), Derek Roddy (Aurora Borealis, Nile, Hate Eternal), Mike Portnoy (Dream Theater, Adrenaline Mob), James Sullivan (Avenged Sevenfold), Steve Asheim (Deicide), Michael "Moose" Thomas (Bullet for My Valentine), Tony Laureano (Dimmu Borgir, Nile, Angelcorpse, Malevolent Creation), Dave Witte (Municipal Waste, Burnt by the Sun, Black Army Jacket), Max Kolesne (Krisiun), Patrick Grün (Caliban), Nicholas Barker (Cradle of Filth, Dimmu Borgir) and Jason Bittner (Shadows Fall).


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Lombardo endorses and uses Tama Drums, Promark Drumsticks, Paiste Cymbals and Remo Drumheads. Lombardo is left handed, but drums right handed and plays a right handed kit.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: Lombardo began the creation of his first art collection, "Rhythm Mysterium" in early 2014. To execute the project, Lombardo worked with art team Scene Four in Los Angeles, California.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: The art collection is titled "RHYTHM MYSTERIUM". Containing 13 works, the collection is built from the new medium of rhythm-on-canvas.


title: Dave Lombardo

text: In 2015, Lombardo released "LOMBARDO", a book-and-vinyl set. Ex-SLAYER Drummer DAVE LOMBARDO: Audio Preview Of Book And Vinyl Package Showcasing His Artwork The book is a comprehensive look at Dave Lombardo's artwork built from rhythm, and the vinyl contains Lombardo's improvised drum interpretations for each art piece within the book.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: Bethesda () is an unincorporated, census-designated place in southern Montgomery County, Maryland. It is located just northwest of Washington, D.C. It takes its name from a local church, the Bethesda Meeting House (1820, rebuilt 1849), which in turn took its name from Jerusalem's Pool of Bethesda. The National Institutes of Health's main campus and the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center are in Bethesda, in addition to a number of corporate and government headquarters.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: As an unincorporated community, Bethesda has no official boundaries. According to the 2020 U.S. census, the community had a total population of 68,056.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: Bethesda is located in a region that was populated by the Piscataway and Nacotchtank tribes at the time of European colonization. Fur trader Henry Fleet became the first European to visit the area, reaching it by sailing up the Potomac River. He stayed with the Piscataway tribe from 1623 to 1627, either as a guest or prisoner (historical accounts differ). Fleet eventually secured funding for another expedition to the region and was later granted proprietary rights to 2,000 acres of land in the nascent colony and became a member of Maryland’s colonial legislature. Raids from the Senecas and Susquehannock resulted in the creation of the Maryland division of Rangers in 1694 to patrol the frontier.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: Most settlers in colonial Maryland were tenant farmers who paid their rent in tobacco, and colonists continued to expand farther north in search of fertile land. Henry Darnall (1645–1711) surveyed a area in 1694 which became the first land grant in Bethesda. Tobacco farming was the primary way of life in Bethesda throughout the 1700s. The city avoided seeing action during the Revolutionary War, although it became a supply region for the fledgling Continental Navy. The establishment of Washington, D.C. in 1790 deprived Montgomery County of its economic center at Georgetown, although the event had little effect on the small farmers throughout Bethesda.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: Between 1805 and 1821, Bethesda became a rural way station after the development of the Washington and Rockville Turnpike, which carried tobacco and other products between Georgetown and Rockville, and north to Frederick. A small settlement grew around a store and tollhouse along the turnpike by 1862 known as "Darcy's Store", named after the store's owner William E. Darcy. The settlement was renamed in 1871 by postmaster Robert Franck after the Bethesda Meeting House, a Presbyterian church built in 1820. The church burned in 1849 and was rebuilt the same year about south, and its former location became the Cemetery of the Bethesda Meeting House.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: Bethesda did not develop beyond a small crossroads village through the 19th century. It consisted of a blacksmith shop, a church and school, and a few houses and stores. In 1852, the postmaster general established a post office in Bethesda and appointed Rev. A. R. Smith its first postmaster. A streetcar line was established in 1890 and suburbanization increased in the early 1900s, and Bethesda grew in population. Communities situated near railroad lines had grown the fastest during the 19th century. Still, mass production of the automobile ended that dependency and Bethesda planners grew the community with the transportation revolution in mind. This included becoming a key stopping point for the B & O railroad on their Georgetown Branch line completed around 1910 that ran from Silver Spring to Georgetown, passing through Bethesda on the way. The branch had a storage yard there and multiple sidings that served the industries in Bethesda in the early 20th century. B & O successor CSX ceased train service on the line in 1985, so the county transformed it into a trail in the rails-to-trails movement. The tracks were removed in 1994, and the first part of the trail was opened in 1998; it has become the most used rail-trail in the United States, averaging over one million users per year.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: Subdivisions began to appear on old farmland in the late 19th century, becoming the neighborhoods of Drummond, Woodmont, Edgemoor, and Battery Park. Farther north, several wealthy men made Rockville Pike famous for its mansions. These included Brainard W. Parker ("Cedarcroft", 1892), James Oyster ("Strathmore", 1899), George E. Hamilton ("Hamilton House", 1904; now the Stone Ridge School), Luke I. Wilson ("Tree Tops", 1926), Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor ("Wild Acres", 1928–29), and George Freeland Peter ("Stone House", 1930). In 1930, Dr Armistead Peter's pioneering manor house "Winona" (1873) became the clubhouse of the Woodmont Country Club on land that is now part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) campus. Merle Thorpe's mansion "Pook's Hill" (1927, razed 1948) became the home-in-exile of the Norwegian Royal Family during World War II.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: World War II and the subsequent expansion of government further fed the rapid growth of Bethesda. Both the National Naval Medical Center (1940–42) and the NIH complex (1948) were built just to the north of the developing downtown, and this drew government contractors, medical professionals, and other businesses to the area. In recent years, Bethesda has become the major urban core and employment center of southwestern Montgomery County. This recent vigorous growth has followed the 1984 expansion of Metrorail with a station in Bethesda. Alan Kay built the Bethesda Metro Center over the Red line metro rail, which opened up further commercial and residential development in the immediate vicinity. In the 2000s, the strict height limits on construction in the District of Columbia led to the development of mid-and high-rise office and residential towers around the Bethesda Metro stop, effectively creating a major urban center.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of , of which is land and (0.38%) is water. The main commercial corridor that passes through Bethesda is Maryland Route 355 (known as Wisconsin Avenue in Bethesda and as Rockville Pike and Hungerford Drive in more northern communities), which, to the north, connects Bethesda with the communities of North Bethesda and Rockville, ending, after several name changes, in Frederick. Toward the South, Rockville Pike becomes Wisconsin Avenue near the NIH Campus and continues beyond Bethesda through Chevy Chase, Friendship Heights and into Washington, D.C., ending in Georgetown.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: The area commonly known as Downtown Bethesda is centered at the intersection of Wisconsin Avenue, Old Georgetown Road and East-West Highway. This intersection is approximately two and one-half miles from Washington, DC's western boundary, making Bethesda a close-in suburb of Washington. Other focal points of downtown Bethesda include the Woodmont Triangle, bordered by Old Georgetown Road (Maryland Route 187), Woodmont and Rugby Avenues, and the Bethesda Row, centered at the intersection of Woodmont Avenue and Bethesda Avenue. Much of the dense construction in that area followed the opening of the Bethesda station on the Red Line of the Washington Metro rapid transit system, also located at this intersection and the centerpiece of the Bethesda Metro Center development. The Medical Center Metro stop lies approximately 0.7 miles north of the Bethesda stop, Medical Center, which serves the NIH Campus, the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, and the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 55,277 people, 23,659 households, and 14,455 families residing in the CDP. The population density was . There were 24,368 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the CDP was 85.86% White, 2.67% Black or African American, 0.17% Native American, 7.92% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 1.23% from other races, and 2.11% from two or more races. 5.43% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: There were 23,659 households, out of which 28.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.4% were married couples living together, 6.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.9% were non-families. 32.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30, and the average family size was 2.92.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 21.8% under the age of 18, 4.6% from 18 to 24, 29.2% from 25 to 44, 27.1% from 45 to 64, and 17.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.0 males.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: Bethesda is a very wealthy and well-educated area. According to the 2000 Census, Bethesda was the best-educated city in the United States of America, with a population of 50,000 or more. 79% of residents 25 or older have bachelor's degrees, and 49% have graduate or professional degrees. According to a 2007 estimate, the median income for a household in the CDP was $117,723, and the median income for a family was $168,385. Males had a median income of $84,797 versus $57,569 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $58,479. About 1.7% of families and 3.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.8% of those under age 18 and 4.1% of those age 65 or over. Many commute to Washington, D.C. for work. The average price of a four-bedroom, two-bath home in Bethesda in 2010 was $806,817 (which ranks it as the twentieth most expensive community in America).


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: Bethesda is often associated with its neighboring communities, Potomac, Chevy Chase, Great Falls, Virginia, and McLean, Virginia, for their similar demographics.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: Important medical institutions located in Bethesda include the National Institutes of Health campus, Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, and the adjoining Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, as well as a number of other military medical and research institutions. Other federal institutions include the Consumer Product Safety Commission and the Naval Surface Warfare Center Carderock Division.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: The headquarters of defense conglomerate Lockheed Martin, managed health care company Coventry Health Care and hotel and resort chains Marriott International and Host Hotels & Resorts, Inc. are located in Bethesda. Software company Bethesda Softworks was originally located in Bethesda but moved to Rockville in 1990. The Discovery Channel also had its headquarters in Bethesda before relocating to Silver Spring in 2004. On the professional services side, numerous banks (PNC, Capital One Bank) brokerage firms (MorganStanley, Merrill Lynch, Charles Schwab, Fidelity) and law firms (Ballard Spahr, JDKatz, Paley Rothman, Lerch Early & Brewer) maintain offices in Bethesda. Bethesda has two farmers markets, the Montgomery Farm Woman's Cooperative Market and the Bethesda Central Farmer's Market. In the summer of 2021, Fox Television Stations relocated the broadcast facilities of its Washington-area television stations, WTTG and WDCA, to Bethesda.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: Bethesda is the home of Congressional Country Club, which is recognized as one of the world's most prestigious private country clubs. Congressional has hosted four major golf championships, including the 2011 U.S. Open, won by Rory McIlroy. The AT&T National, hosted by Tiger Woods, has been played at Congressional four times. Bethesda is also home of the exclusive Burning Tree Club, Bethesda Country Club, and the Bethesda Big Train, a summer collegiate baseball team.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: A number of ambassador residences are in Bethesda, including Bangladesh, Haiti, Cape Verde, Guyana, Honduras, Lesotho, Morocco, Nicaragua, Uruguay, and Zimbabwe.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: Also located in downtown Bethesda is one of the "Madonna of the Trail" monuments, erected by the National Old Trails Association working in concert with the Daughters of the American Revolution; President Harry S Truman presided over the dedication of the Bethesda monument, on April 19, 1929. Nearby is the Bethesda Post Office. Also starting in the heart of downtown Bethesda is the Capital Crescent Trail which follows the old tracks of the B&O Railroad stretching from Georgetown, Washington, D.C., to Silver Spring, MD. Walter Reed Medical Center and the Bethesda Theater are two important Art Deco architectural structures in the suburbs surrounding Washington, D.C.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: Federal Realty Investment Trust has developed much of the west side of downtown Bethesda into an area called Bethesda Row, incorporating principles of new urbanism and a mixed-use district including residential apartments and condos (100,000 ft), retail (300,000 ft), dining, office space (100,000 ft), hotels, entertainment, public art and fountains, forming the new core of the revitalized Downtown. Retail stores include an Apple Store, Amazon Books, Anthropologie, and popular bagel store Bethesda Bagels.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: Bethesda is also home to a federally funded and operated health science university, the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences (USU). The primary mission of USU is to prepare graduates for service in the Medical Corps of the U.S. Army, Navy, Air Force, and Public Health Service. The university consists of the F. Edward Hebert School of Medicine, a medical school, and the Graduate School of Nursing, a nursing school. National Intelligence University is also in Bethesda.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: The Washington Japanese Language School (WJLS, ワシントン日本語学校 "Washington Nihongo Gakkō"), a supplementary weekend Japanese school, holds its classes at the Stone Ridge School of the Sacred Heart in Bethesda. The WJLS maintains its school office in North Bethesda, adjacent to Garrett Park. The institution, giving supplemental education to Japanese-speaking children in the Washington, D.C. area, was founded in 1958, making it the oldest Japanese government-sponsored supplementary school in the U.S.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: The Writer's Center in Bethesda publishes "Poet Lore", the longest continuously running poetry journal in the United States.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: Downtown Bethesda is managed by the Bethesda Urban Partnership, a non-profit organization established in 1994 by Montgomery County.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: Washington Metro's Red Line services two primary locations in Bethesda: the downtown area at the Bethesda station, and the area near the National Institutes of Health and the Walter Reed Medical Center at the Medical Center station. The Maryland Transit Administration's Purple Line, a light rail line currently under construction, will provide a direct connection from Bethesda to Silver Spring, the University of Maryland, College Park, and New Carrollton. The Purple Line will allow riders from Bethesda to move between the Red, Green, and Orange lines of the Washington Metro transportation system, as well as to MARC and Amtrak trains, without needing to ride into central Washington, D.C.


title: Bethesda, Maryland

text: Long-distance buses include Vamoose Bus and Tripper Bus, both of which provide service from downtown Bethesda to the proximity of Penn Station in Midtown Manhattan, New York City.


title: Darlie Routier

text: Darlie Lynn Peck Routier (born January 4, 1970) is an American woman from Rowlett, Texas, who was convicted and sentenced to death for the murder of her five-year-old son Damon in 1996. She has also been charged with capital murder in the death of her six-year-old son, Devon, who was murdered at the same time as Damon. To date, Routier has not been tried for Devon’s murder.


title: Darlie Routier

text: Damon and Devon were stabbed to death with a large kitchen knife in Routier's home, while Routier sustained knife wounds to her throat and arm. Routier told authorities that the crime was perpetrated by an unidentified intruder. During the trial, the prosecution argued that Routier's injuries were self-inflicted, that the crime scene had been staged, and that she murdered her sons because of the family's financial difficulties; the defense argued that there was no reason Routier would have killed her children, and that the case did not have a motive, a confession, or any witnesses. In February 1997, the jury found Routier guilty of the murder of Damon, and sentenced her to death by lethal injection.


title: Darlie Routier

text: Two appeals filed by Routier, who maintains her innocence, based on allegations of irregularities during the trial were denied.


title: Darlie Routier

text: Since at least 2018, DNA tests have been ordered multiple times after technology has advanced. As of 2022, the results of these tests are still pending.


title: Darlie Routier

text: On June 6, 1996, at 2:31 am, 9-1-1 dispatchers in Rowlett, Texas, received a call from the Routier residence at 5801 Eagle Drive. Routier told the operator that her home had been broken in to and that an intruder had stabbed her children, six-year-old Devon and five-year-old Damon, and cut her throat. Police arrived within three minutes of the 9-1-1 call. They discovered a window screen in the garage had been cut, which indicated a possible entry point for an intruder. A search of the house and grounds did not locate an intruder. Having thus secured the site, police permitted paramedics to attend to the victims.


title: Darlie Routier

text: Routier told the police that she had fallen asleep on the couch with her two boys while watching television, only to wake up later and discover an unknown man in her house. She stated that as she approached him, the man fled, dropping the knife in a utility room as he ran. After picking up the knife and chasing him away, Routier said she realized that she and her children had been wounded and that she called 9-1-1. Police found it highly suspicious that Routier and her sons had been severely wounded by an armed intruder without waking her until after the attack had occurred.


title: Darlie Routier

text: Routier told police that the assailant escaped through the garage. Investigators said that the garage contained no blood drops, and added that indications were that no one had run through there at all. The window sills in the garage had untouched layers of dust, including the window that had been cut, implying that no one had actually climbed through it, and the mulch in the flower beds between the garage and the backyard gate was undisturbed. However, an unknown fingerprint was found on the windowsill that did not belong to anyone in the family. 75 yards away from the house, a bloody sock was discovered. Lab tests revealed it had blood from both of Routier's sons on it.


title: Darlie Routier

text: Both Damon and Devon sustained fatal injuries. Her wounds, described as superficial, came within two millimeters of her carotid artery. Routier was treated at a hospital and released two days later. Her youngest son, 7-month-old Drake, was asleep upstairs with her husband Darin at the time of the murders; both escaped harm.


title: Darlie Routier

text: Newscasts showed Routier and other family members holding a birthday party at the boys' grave to posthumously celebrate Devon's seventh birthday eight days after the murders. She was shown smiling and laughing as she sprayed Silly String on the graves in celebration, singing "Happy Birthday". Family members point out that the newscasts did not show an earlier video that depicted a solemn ceremony honoring the children. Four days later, on June 18, Routier was arrested and charged with capital murder.


title: Darlie Routier

text: Routier later commented on the video, saying, "He wanted to be seven. I did the only thing I knew to do to honor him and give him all his wishes because he wasn't here anymore. But how do you know what you're going to do when you lose two children? How do you know how you're going to act?"


title: Darlie Routier

text: Routier's trial began on January 6, 1997, in Kerrville, Texas. The prosecution suggested that Routier murdered her sons because of the family's financial difficulties, and described Routier as "...a self-centered woman, a materialistic woman, and a woman cold enough, in fact, to murder her own two children.” Jurors also saw the Silly String video. Crime scene consultant James Cron testified that evidence suggested the scene inside the Routier residence had been staged.


title: Darlie Routier

text: The prosecution also suggested there was a financial motive for the murders since both boys had a life insurance policy on them. The defense contended that this amounted to only $10,000, not enough to cover their funeral expenses. Furthermore they asked why, if she was willing to murder for money, she did not kill her husband instead as he had an $800,000 life insurance policy. The defense also questioned why, if she killed her sons to preserve her lavish lifestyle, she left her youngest son, seven-month-old Drake, alive and unharmed.


title: Darlie Routier

text: Routier was represented at trial by lawyer Douglas Mulder. Defense attorneys said that there was no reason why she would have killed her children and that the case did not have a motive, a confession or any witnesses. They asserted that it was unrealistic to accuse Routier of staging a crime scene. Her attorneys advised her not to appear on the witness stand, but she testified anyway and "withered under cross-examination by prosecutor Toby Shook."


title: Darlie Routier

text: San Antonio chief medical examiner Vincent DiMaio testified that the wound to Routier's neck came within two millimeters of her carotid artery and that it was not consistent with the self-inflicted wounds he had seen in the past. That differed from the assertions of her treating physicians, who had told police officials that the wounds might have been self-inflicted. Tom Bevel testified that cast-off blood found on the back of Routier's nightshirt indicated that she had raised the knife over her head as she withdrew it from each boy to stab again.


title: Darlie Routier

text: One crucial aspect of the defense case was the bloody sock found outside the house. While the police contended that this was merely a ruse designed to falsely implicate an intruder had fled the scene, the defense contended that it proved Routier could not have committed the crime. Damon was alive when the paramedics arrived on the scene and the medical examiner testified that the boy could only have survived approximately eight minutes after receiving his injuries. Routier was on the phone with 9-1-1 for almost six minutes. The defense argued that this did not leave enough time for Routier to cut herself, stage the crime scene, plant the sock outside the house and then return before the paramedics arrived. They also stated that, despite her injuries, Routier's blood was not found in the garage or anywhere outside the home. The prosecution countered that Routier could have planted the sock before self-inflicting her own injuries, and the medical examiner's stated survival time for Damon after he was stabbed was only an estimation.


title: Darlie Routier

text: On February 1, Routier was convicted of murdering Damon. On February 4, she was sentenced to death by lethal injection.


title: Darlie Routier

text: Defense attorneys allege numerous errors were made during Routier's trial and in the official transcript of it, as well as the investigation of the murders, especially at the crime scene. An appeals court dismissed these claims, as did a court ruling on her "habeas corpus" petition.


title: Darlie Routier

text: In June 2008, Routier was granted the right to new DNA tests. Her appeals were remanded to the state level for improved DNA testing. On January 29, 2014, Chief Judge of the Western District Fred Biery granted a request from prosecution and defense for her case for further DNA tests vital to the defense to be performed on a bloody fingerprint found in the house, a bloody sock and her nightshirt. In 2018, the Criminal District Court No. 3 ordered a third round of DNA testing with the backing of both prosecution and defense.


title: Darlie Routier

text: In June 2011, Darin Routier filed for divorce from his wife, saying that the decision was mutual and "very difficult," and that he still believes his wife is innocent. He said that they decided to divorce to end the "limbo" that they had been in since her arrest and conviction.


title: Darlie Routier

text: The 1999 book "Precious Angels: A True Story of Two Slain Children and a Mother Convicted of Murder" by Barbara Davis accounted for Routier's guilt. The author has since changed her mind and now supports Routier by donating all the income from the book to her family.


title: Darlie Routier

text: In the 2015 book "Dateline Purgatory: Examining the Case that Sentenced Darlie Routier to Death" journalist Kathy Cruz engages legal experts for their assessments on Routier's trial transgressions and highlighting the controversies of the death penalty conviction. Throughout the book Cruz collaborates with a former FBI special agent on her examination of the case.


title: Darlie Routier

text: An October 1999 episode of the TLC documentary series "Medical Detectives" titled "Invisible Intruder" , reports on how detectives discovered who the killer was by analyzing the crime scene's blood spatter, Darlie's 911 call and the offender profiling of her behavior.


title: Darlie Routier

text: "Unsolved Mysteries" with Robert Stack covered the case in Season 12 Episode 6. The case was again revisited on Unsolved Mysteries with Dennis Farina. Both episodes shared evidence from both sides of the case, including those who claim Darlie to be innocent and those pointing towards her guilt.


title: Darlie Routier

text: An episode of the CBS News series "48 Hours" titled "Precious Angels" is derived from the true-crime book of the same title, authored by Barbara Davis, which first aired August 10, 2001. CBS correspondent Bill Lagattuta interviewed Darin Routier, the incarcerated Darlie Routier and Davis about the slayings; associated public officials and defense attorneys were also interviewed.


title: Darlie Routier

text: The Investigation Discovery network aired an episode of Werner Herzog's series "On Death Row" titled "Darlie Routier" that covered the case in Season 2, Episode 2, broadcast on September 10, 2013.


title: Darlie Routier

text: An American Broadcasting Company (ABC) seven-episode documentary series, "The Last Defense" examines the death row cases of Darlie Routier and Julius Jones. The series premiered on June 12, 2018, profiling Routier's case in a four-part episode:


title: Darlie Routier

text: In 2019, ABC also aired a two-part documentary about Routier's case as part of its "20/20" newsmagazine.


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: Breathless () is a 1960 French crime drama film written and directed by Jean-Luc Godard. It stars Jean-Paul Belmondo as a wandering criminal named Michel, and Jean Seberg as his American girlfriend Patricia. The film was Godard's first feature-length work and represented Belmondo's breakthrough as an actor.


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: "Breathless" is an influential example of French New Wave ("nouvelle vague") cinema. Along with François Truffaut's "The 400 Blows" and Alain Resnais's "Hiroshima mon amour", both released a year earlier, it brought international attention to new styles of French filmmaking. At the time, "Breathless" attracted much attention for its bold visual style, which included then unconventional use of jump cuts.


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: Upon its initial release in France, the film attracted over two million viewers. It has since been considered one of the best films ever made, appearing in "Sight & Sound" magazine's decennial polls of filmmakers and critics on the subject on multiple occasions. In May 2010, a fully restored version of the film was released in the United States to coincide with the film's 50th anniversary.


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: Michel is a youthful, dangerous criminal who models himself on the film persona of Humphrey Bogart. After stealing a car in Marseille, Michel shoots and kills a policeman who has followed him onto a country road. Penniless and on the run from the police, he turns to an American love interest, Patricia, a student and aspiring journalist, who sells the "New York Herald Tribune" on the boulevards of Paris. The ambivalent Patricia unwittingly hides him in her apartment as he simultaneously tries to seduce her and call in a loan to fund their escape to Italy. Patricia says she is pregnant, probably with Michel's child. She learns that Michel is on the run when questioned by the police. Eventually she betrays him, but before the police arrive, she tells Michel what she has done. He is somewhat resigned to a life in prison, and does not try to escape at first. The police shoot him in the street, and after running along the block, he dies "à bout de souffle" ("out of breath").


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: The film's final lines of dialogue cause some confusion for English-speaking audiences. The original French is ambiguous; it is unclear whether Michel is condemning Patricia or condemning the world in general; it is unclear if the Police Inspector Vital is intentionally twisting Michel's meaning. It is also unclear whether Patricia is questioning Michel's scorn, questioning the meaning of a French word as elsewhere in the film, or unable to understand the concept of what Michel is saying as it is translated to her by Vital when the two catch up with the dying Michel.


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: In French, "dégueulasse" also has the connotation of "nauseating", or making one want to throw up; in reference to a person, it can be loosely translated as a "disgusting person", i.e. a "louse" or "scumbag".


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: In the English captioning of the 2001 Fox-Lorber Region One DVD, ""dégueulasse" is translated as "scumbag", producing the following dialogue:


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: American philosopher Hubert Dreyfus saw the film as exemplifying Friedrich Nietzsche's conception of ("active" versus "passive") nihilism. On this reading, Michel and Patricia are attracted to each other because both live life as essentially meaningless. As an active nihilist, Michel responds to this condition with "cheerfulness, intensity, and style" (modelled on Bogart, whose humorous gestures he adopts), throwing himself fully into momentary engagements, including reckless crime and his love for Patricia. Patricia, as a passive nihilist, however, rejects all engagements, dissatisfied with and afraid of the very meaninglessness that Michel enjoys. In the end, she turns him in to the police so that he will be forced to leave and the love affair will end; but he instead throws himself into death with undiminished gusto. Her puzzled reaction to his final performance leaves its impact on her attitude open.


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: "Breathless" was based loosely on a newspaper article that François Truffaut read in "The News in Brief". The character of Michel Poiccard is based on real-life Michel Portail and his American girlfriend and journalist Beverly Lynette. In November 1952, Portail stole a car to visit his sick mother in Le Havre and ended up killing a motorcycle cop named Grimberg.


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: Truffaut worked on a treatment for the story with Claude Chabrol, but they dropped the idea when they could not agree on the story structure. Godard had read and liked the treatment and wanted to make the film. While working as a press agent at 20th Century Fox, Godard met producer Georges de Beauregard and told him that his latest film was not any good. De Beauregard hired Godard to work on the script for "Pêcheur d'Islande". After six weeks, Godard became bored with the script and instead suggested making "Breathless". Chabrol and Truffaut agreed to give Godard their treatment and wrote de Beauregard a letter from the Cannes Film Festival in May 1959 agreeing to work on the film if Godard directed it. Truffaut and Chabrol had recently become star directors, and their names secured financing for the film. Truffaut was credited as the original writer and Chabrol as the technical adviser. Chabrol later claimed that he only visited the set twice and Truffaut's biggest contribution was persuading Godard to cast Liliane David in a minor role. Fellow New Wave director Jacques Rivette appears in a cameo as the dead body of a man hit by a car in the street.


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: Godard wrote the script as he went along. He told Truffaut "Roughly speaking, the subject will be the story of a boy who thinks of death and of a girl who doesn't." As well as the real-life Michel Portail, Godard based the main character on screenwriter Paul Gégauff, who was known as a swaggering seducer of women. Godard also named several characters after people he had known earlier in his life when he lived in Geneva. The film includes a couple of in-jokes as well: the young woman selling "Cahiers du Cinéma" on the street (Godard had written for the magazine), and Michel's occasional alias of Laszlo Kovacs, the name of Belmondo's character in Chabrol's 1959 film "Web of Passion".


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: Truffaut believed Godard's change to the ending was a personal one. "In my script, the film ends with the boy walking along the street as more and more people turn and stare after him, because his photo's on the front of all the newspapers...Jean-Luc chose a violent end because he was by nature sadder than I... he had need of [his] particular ending. At the end, when the police are shooting at him one of them said to his companion, 'Quick, in the spine!' I told him, 'You can't leave that in.'"


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: Jean-Paul Belmondo had appeared in a few feature films before "Breathless," but he had no name recognition outside France at the time Godard was planning the film. In order to broaden the film's commercial appeal, Godard sought a prominent leading lady who would be willing to work in his low-budget film. He came to Jean Seberg through her then-husband Francois Moreuil, with whom he had been acquainted. Seberg agreed to appear in the film on 8 June 1959 for $15,000, which was one-sixth of the film's budget. Godard ended up giving Seberg's husband a small part in the film. During the production, Seberg privately questioned Godard's style and wondered if the film would be commercially viable. After the film's success, she collaborated with Godard again on the short "Le Grand Escroc", which revived her "Breathless" character.


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: Godard initially wanted cinematographer Michel Latouche to shoot the film after having worked with him on his first short films. De Beauregard instead hired Raoul Coutard, who was under contract to him.


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: The 1958 ethno-fiction "Moi, un noir" has been credited as a key influence for Godard. This can be seen in the adoption of jump-cuts, use of real locations rather than constructed sets and the documentary, newsreel format of filming.


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: Godard envisaged "Breathless" as a "reportage" (documentary), and tasked cinematographer Raoul Coutard to shoot the entire film on a hand-held camera, with next to no lighting. In order to shoot under low-light levels, Coutard had to use Ilford HP5 film, which was not available as motion picture film stock at the time. He therefore took 18-metre lengths of HP5 film sold for 35mm still cameras and spliced them together to 120-metre rolls. During development he pushed the negative one stop from 400 ASA to 800 ASA. The size of the sprocket holes in the photographic film was different from that of motion picture film, and the Cameflex camera was the only camera that worked for the film used.


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: The production was filmed on location in Paris using an Eclair Cameflex during the months of August and September in 1959, including U.S. President Eisenhower's 2–3 September visit to Paris. Nearly the entire film had to be dubbed in post-production because of the noisiness of the Cameflex camera and because the Cameflex was incapable of synchronized sound.


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: Filming began on 17 August 1959. Godard met his crew at the Café Notre Dame near the Hôtel de Suède and shot for two hours until he ran out of ideas. Coutard has stated that the film was virtually improvised on the spot, and that Godard wrote lines of dialogue in an exercise book that no one else was allowed to see. Godard gave the lines to Belmondo and Seberg with only a few brief rehearsals of scenes before filming them. No permission was received to shoot the film in its various locations (mainly the side streets and boulevards of Paris), adding to the spontaneous feel for which Godard was aiming. However, all locations were selected before shooting began, and assistant director Pierre Rissient has described the shoot as very organized. Actor Richard Balducci has stated that shooting days ranged from 15 minutes to 12 hours, depending on how many ideas Godard had on a given day. Producer Georges de Beauregard wrote a letter to the entire crew complaining about the erratic shooting schedule. Coutard said that when de Beauregard encountered Godard at a café on a day on which Godard had called in sick, the two engaged in a fistfight.


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: Godard shot most of the film chronologically, with the exception of the first sequence, which was filmed toward the end of the shoot. Filming at the Hôtel de Suède for the lengthy bedroom scene with Michel and Patricia included a minimal crew and no lights. The location was difficult to secure, but Godard was determined to shoot there after having lived at the hotel after returning from South America in the early 1950s. Instead of renting a dolly with complicated and time-consuming tracks to lay, Godard and Coutard rented a wheelchair that Godard often pushed himself. For certain street scenes, Coutard hid in a postal cart with a hole for the lens and packages piled on top of him. Shooting lasted for 23 days and ended on 12 September 1959. The final scene in which Michel is shot in the street was filmed on the rue Campagne-Première in Paris.


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: Writing for "Combat" magazine in 1960, Pierre Marcabru observed: "It seems that, if we had footage of Godard shooting his film, we would discover a sort of accord between the dramatized world in front of the camera (Belmondo and Seberg playing a scene) and the working world behind it (Godard and Raoul Coutard shooting the scene), as if the wall between the real and projected worlds had been torn down."


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: "Breathless" was processed and edited at GTC Labs in Joinville by lead editor Cécile Decugis and assistant editor Lila Herman. Decugis has said that the film had a bad reputation before its premiere as the worst film of the year.


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: Coutard said that "there was a panache in the way it was edited that didn't match at all the way it was shot. The editing gave it a very different tone than the films we were used to seeing." The film's use of jump cuts has been called innovative. Andrew Sarris analyzed it as existentially representing "the meaninglessness of the time interval between moral decisions." Assistant director Pierre Rissient said that the jump cut style was not intended during the film's shooting or the initial stages of editing.


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: In his 2008 biography of Godard, Richard Brody wrote: "The seminal importance of the film was recognized immediately. In January 1960 – prior to the film's release – Godard won the Jean Vigo Prize, awarded 'to encourage an auteur of the future' ... "Breathless" opened in Paris ... not in an art house but at a chain of four commercial theaters, selling 259,046 tickets in four weeks. The eventual profit was substantial, rumored to be fifty times the investment. The film's success with the public corresponded to its generally ardent and astonished critical reception ... "Breathless," as a result of its extraordinary and calculated congruence with the moment, and of the fusion of its attributes with the story of its production and with the public persona of its director, was singularly identified with the media responses it generated."


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: "The New York Times" critic A. O. Scott wrote in 2010, 50 years after the release of "Breathless", that it is both "a pop artifact and a daring work of art" and even at 50, "still cool, still new, still – after all this time! – a bulletin from the future of movies." Roger Ebert included it on his "Great Movies" list in 2003, writing that "No debut film since "Citizen Kane" in 1942 has been as influential," dismissing its jump cuts as the biggest breakthrough, and instead calling revolutionary its "headlong pacing, its cool detachment, its dismissal of authority, and the way its narcissistic young heroes are obsessed with themselves and oblivious to the larger society."


title: Breathless (1960 film)

text: , the film holds a 96% approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 72 reviews, with an average rating of 8.70/10. The site's critical consensus says, ""Breathless" rewrote the rules of cinema – and more than 50 years after its arrival, Jean-Luc Godard's paradigm shifting classic remains every bit as vital."