title: Jayne Marie Mansfield

text: Mansfield is the first Playboy nude model whose mother was featured nude as well. Her 7-page pictorial in the magazine's July 1976 issue, titled "Jayne's Girl", was photographed by Dwight Hooker. Hooker made the pictorial in a vintage Southern context, including monochromatic images. The accompanying text makes a comparison to her mother and the differences between the two, though Jayne Marie said in an interview that she is "not capitalizing on her bosom as (my) mother did" for the pictorial. In describing her, art historian Anthony W. Lee together with photographer Diane Arbus wrote, "Jayne Marie Mansfield has her mother's rounded features and mysterious eyes."


title: Gawain

text: Gawain (), also known in many other forms and spellings, is a character in Arthurian legend, in which he is King Arthur's nephew and a Knight of the Round Table. The prototype of Gawain is mentioned under the name Gwalchmei in the earliest Welsh sources. He has subsequently appeared in many Arthurian stories in Welsh, Latin, French, English, Scottish, Dutch, German, Spanish, and Italian, notably as the protagonist of the famous Middle English poem "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight". Other tales featuring Gawain as the central character include "De Ortu Waluuanii", "Diu Crône", "Ywain and Gawain", "Golagros and Gawane", "Sir Gawain and the Carle of Carlisle", "L'âtre périlleux", "La Mule sans frein", "La Vengeance Raguidel", "Le Chevalier à l'épée", "The Awntyrs off Arthure", "The Greene Knight", and "The Weddynge of Syr Gawen and Dame Ragnell".


title: Gawain

text: In Arthurian chivalric romance literature, Gawain is usually depicted as King Arthur's closest companion and an integral member of the elite Round Table. In the best-known versions of the legend, he is the son of Arthur's sister Morgause and King Lot of Orkney and Lothian. His younger brothers (or half-brothers) are Agravain, Gaheris, Gareth, and the infamous Mordred. However, his familial relations and upbringing are recorded differently in various accounts. They often involve Gawain unknowingly being raised in foster care in Rome before returning to Britain to reunite happily with his biological relatives. His many children from his numerous wives and lovers include the "Fair Unknown" Gingalain, himself a popular hero of Arthurian romance.


title: Gawain

text: In the early Welsh texts, Gawain is portrayed as a formidable but courteous and compassionate warrior, fiercely loyal to his king and his family. He is known as a friend to young knights, a defender of the poor and the unfortunate, and as the "Maidens' Knight", a rescuer of women as well—in more than one variant of the Castle of Maidens theme. Other notable recurring motifs include his learned healing skills, his special swords that may include the famed Caliburn (Excalibur), and his mighty warhorse named Gringolet. In the later version of his legend, he possesses superhuman strength connected to a day and night cycle, adding to his already outstanding martial prowess and making him an invincible swordsman around noon, when the sun is at its height.


title: Gawain

text: However, Gawain's glowing portrayal diminishes in the Vulgate Cycle, which favours Lancelot and, especially, Galahad. His character turns markedly ignoble in the Post-Vulgate Cycle, and even outright villainous in the Prose "Tristan", resulting in his conflicting characterization in "Le Morte d'Arthur". While he was originally known for his religious piety, here he becomes a symbol of secular knighthood and thus a major object of criticism by the authors of French prose cycles. Two important plotlines shed light on Gawain's redefined characterization: his being a leader in the family blood feud against the clan of King Pellinore and his initially close friendship with another great knight, Sir Lancelot, which becomes a bitter rivalry when he seeks vengeance for the death of his brothers. In this tradition, featured in "Le Morte d'Arthur", Gawain's sinful ways and his unforgiving nature inadvertently lead to the fall of Arthur and the Round Table, and ultimately his own death by Lancelot's hand.


title: Gawain

text: Gawain is known by different names and variants in different languages. The character corresponds to the Welsh Gwalchmei ap Gwyar (meaning "son of Gwyar"), or Gwalchmai, and thorough the Middle Ages was known in Latin as Galvaginus, Gualgunus ("Gualguanus", "Gualguinus"), Gualgwinus, Walwanus ("Walwanius"), Waluanus, Walwen, etc.; in Old French (and sometimes English) primarily as Gavain ("Gavaine") and also as Gauvain ("Gauvaine"), Gauvan ("Gauvayn"), Gauven ("Gauvein"/"Gauveyn"), Gavan ("Gavane") or


title: Gawain

text: Gavayn ("Gavayne"); in Middle High German as Gâwein or Gâwân; in Italian dialects as Galvagin or Galvano; in Old Spanish as Galván; in Old Portuguese as Galvam or Galvão; and in Middle English also as Gawaine, Gawan ("Gawane"), Gawayn ("Gawayne"), Gawein ("Gaweine"),


title: Gawain

text: Gaweyn ("Gaweyne"), Gauwein ("Gauweine"), Gauweyn ("Gauweyne") or Wawen ("Wowen"), among many other forms and spellings. The later forms are generally assumed to derive from the Welsh "Gwalchmei".


title: Gawain

text: The element "Gwalch" means hawk, and is a typical epithet in medieval Welsh poetry. The meaning of "mei" is uncertain. It has been suggested that it refers to the month of May ("Mai" in Modern Welsh), rendering "Hawk of May", although Rachel Bromwich considers this unlikely. Kenneth Jackson suggests the name evolved from an early Common Brittonic name *"Ualcos Magesos", meaning "Hawk of the Plain". Not all scholars accept the "gwalch" derivation. John Koch suggests the name could be derived from a Brythonic original "*Wolcos Magesos", "Wolf/Errant Warrior of the Plain."


title: Gawain

text: Others argue that the continental forms do not ultimately derive from "Gwalchmei". Roger Sherman Loomis suggests a derivation from the epithet "Gwallt Avwyn", found in the list of heroes in "Culhwch and Olwen", which he translates as "hair like reins" or "bright hair". Lauran Toorians proposes that the Dutch name Walewein (attested in Flanders and France c. 1100) was earliest, suggesting it entered Britain during the large settlement of Flemings in Wales in the early 12th century. However, most scholarship supports a derivation from Gwalchmei, variants of which are well attested in Wales and Brittany. Bromwich, Joseph Loth, and Heinrich Zimmer all trace the etymology of the continental versions to a corruption of the Breton form of this name, Walcmoei.


title: Gawain

text: Gawain's precursor, Gwalchmei son of Gwyar, was a hero of Welsh mythology and clearly a major figure of the now largely lost oral tradition. His popularity greatly increased after foreign versions, particularly those derived from Geoffrey of Monmouth's "Historia Regum Britanniae", became known in Wales. The "Gwyar" (meaning "gore" or "spilled blood/bloodshed") in Gwalchmei ap Gwyar is likely the name of Gwalchmei's mother, rather than his father, as is the standard in the Welsh Triads. Gwyar appears as a daughter of Amlawdd Wledig in one version of the hagiographical genealogy "Bonedd y Saint". The 14th-century fragment "Birth of Arthur", a Welsh text that adapts scenes from Geoffrey, substitutes Gwyar for Anna, Geoffrey's name for Gawain's mother, the Queen of Orkney. His father is named as "Emyr Llydaw" (Emperor of Brittany), that is Budic II of Brittany. There, Gwalchmei is given three sisters: Gracia, Graeria, and Dioneta, the last of which being a counterpart of Morgan.


title: Gawain

text: Early references to Gwalchmei include the Welsh Triads; the "Englynion y Beddau" ("Stanzas of the Graves"), which lists the site of his grave; the "Trioedd y Meirch" ("Triads of the Horses"), which praises his horse named Keincaled (known as Gringolet in the works of medieval French authors); and Cynddelw's elegy for Owain Gwynedd, which compares Owain's boldness to that of Gwalchmei. In the Welsh Triads, Triad 4 lists him as one of the "Three Well-Endowed Men of the Isle of Britain" (probably referring to his inheritance); Triad 75 describes him as one of the "Three Men of the Island of Britain who were Most Courteous to Guests and Strangers"; and Triad 91 praises his fearlessness. Some versions of Triads 42 and 46 also praise his horse Keincaled, echoing the "Triads of the Horses". The singling out of Gwalchmei as Most Courteous evokes his role in the "Mabinogion", where he regularly serves as an intermediary between King Arthur's court and stranger knights.


title: Gawain

text: An early Welsh romance "Culhwch and Olwen", composed in the 11th century (though not recorded until the 14th), and eventually associated with the "Mabinogion", ascribes to Gwalchmei the same relationship with Arthur that Gawain is later given: he is the son of Arthur's sister and one of his leading warriors. However, he is mentioned only twice in the text, once in the extensive list of Arthur's court towards the beginning of the story, and again as one of the "Six Helpers" whom Arthur sends with the protagonist Culhwch on his journey to find his love Olwen. Unlike the other helpers, he takes no further part in the action. This suggests he was added to the romance later, likely under the influence of the Welsh versions of Geoffrey's "Historia". He also appears in "Peredur fab Efrawg" ("Peredur son of Efrawg"), part of the "Mabinogion", where he aids the hero Peredur in the final battle against the nine witches of Caer Loyw. A similar motif was mentioned by the 16th-century Welsh scholar Sion Dafydd Rhys in an unrecorded oral tale in which Gwalchmei destroyed three evil witch-sisters, wives of the giants previously slain by Arthur, killing them within their castles through his cunning, as they could not be defeated otherwise, due to their powers. Gwalchmei himself appears as a giant in Welsh folklore.


title: Gawain

text: The first known references to Gawain outside Wales began to appear in the first half of the 12th century. For instance, William of Malmesbury writes, in his "Gesta Regum Anglorum" of around 1125, that "Walwen's" grave had been uncovered in Pembrokeshire hundreds of years after his death, following the 11th-century Norman conquest of England. William recounts how Arthur's nephew, a renowned Post-Roman Briton soldier celebrated for his bravery, tirelessly fought against the Saxons led by Hengest's brother: "He deservedly shared in his uncle's praising, because he prevented the fall of his collapsing country for many years." William also noted uncertainty regarding the manner of his death: "There, as certain people claim, he [Walwen] was wounded by his enemies, and cast forth from a shipwreck; by others, it is said that he was killed by his fellow citizens at a public feast. Therefore, knowledge of the truth falls in doubt, although neither of these stories would fail in defense of his fame." He also describes Walwen as a former ruler of Galloway, which he says was still called Walweitha centuries later in his times.


title: Gawain

text: However, it was Geoffrey of Monmouth's version of Gawain in the "Historia Regum Britanniae", written around 1136, that brought the character to a wider audience. As in the Welsh tradition, Geoffrey's Gawain (Gualguanus) is the son of Arthur's sister, here named Anna, and her husband is Lot (Loth), the prince of Lothian and one of Arthur's key supporters. Geoffrey mentions that Gawain was twelve years old at the time when King Lot and Arthur began a war with Norway, and that he had previously served Pope Sulpicius in Rome. Gawain later plays a major role as one of the leaders in Arthur's victorious war against the Romans, having personally started this great conflict by killing the Roman envoy Caius (Gaius Quintilianus) who had insulted him and Arthur. Geoffrey's Gawain is depicted as a supreme warrior (even calling him and Hoel the two "warriors than whom no better had ever been born") and potential heir to the throne until he is tragically struck down by the forces of his traitorous brother Mordred (Modredus) at Richborough, during an attempted sea landing that turned into a disaster.


title: Gawain

text: Geoffrey's work was immensely popular and was adapted into many languages. The Norman version by Wace, the "Roman de Brut", ascribes to Gawain the chivalric aspect he would take in later literature, wherein he favours courtliness and love over martial valor. Several later works expand on Geoffrey's mention of Gawain's boyhood spent in Rome, the most important of which is the anonymous Medieval Latin "De Ortu Waluuanii Nepotis Arturi" ("The Rise of Gawain, Nephew of Arthur"), which describes his birth, boyhood, and early adventures leading up to his knighting by his uncle.


title: Gawain

text: Beginning with the five works of Chrétien de Troyes in the second half of the 12th century, Gawain became a very popular figure in Old French chivalric romances. Chrétien features Gawain as a major character and establishes some characteristics that pervade later depictions, including his unparalleled courteousness and his way with women. His romances set the pattern often followed in later works in which Gawain serves as an ally to the protagonist and a model of knighthood to whom others are compared. However, in Chrétien's later romances, especially "Lancelot, le Chevalier de la Charrette" ("Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart") and "Perceval ou le Conte du Graal" ("Perceval, the Story of the Grail"), the eponymous heroes Lancelot and Percival prove morally superior to Gawain, who follows the rules of courtliness to the letter rather than the spirit. Chrétien's story of Gawain's cousin Yvain, "Yvain ou le Chevalier au Lion" ("Yvain, the Knight of the Lion"), was translated into Middle English as "Ywain and Gawain". Gawain is also prominent in the continuations of "Perceval", in particular the First Continuation and "Perlesvaus".


title: Gawain

text: An influx of romances written in French appeared in Chrétien's wake. While Gawain stands out as the most popular character of all Arthurian knights in the entire genre, their authors characterise him variously. In some of these "Gawain romances", such as "La Vengeance Raguidel" (or "Messire Gauvain") and "La Mule sans frein" (perhaps also written by Chrétien himself), he is the hero. In others, such as "Meraugis de Portlesguez" and ', he aids the hero. Sometimes he is also the subject of burlesque humor, as in the parody "Le Chevalier à l'épée" ("The Knight with the Sword"). In the variants of the "Bel Inconnu" (Fair Unknown) story, he is the father of the hero. ', also known as "Le Chevalier aux deux épées" ("The Knight of Two Swords"), contrasts the adventures of Gawain with these of the eponymous Mériadeuc, his former squire. Another notable squire of Gawain is the also eponymous protagonist of "".


title: Gawain

text: For the English and the Scottish, Gawain remained a respectable and heroic figure, becoming the subject of several romances (a dozen in English, besides the likes of the Anglo-Norman "Romanz du reis Yder") and lyrics in the dialects of their nations, such as the Middle Scots poem "Golagros and Gawane". Important Gawain romances in English include "The Awntyrs off Arthure" ("The Adventures of Arthur"), "Syre Gawene and the Carle of Carlyle" ("Sir Gawain and the Carle of Carlisle"), and "The Avowyng of Arthur" ("The Avowing of Arthur"). The Middle Dutch romances by Penninc and Pieter Vostaert, the "" ("Story of Gawain") and "Walewein ende Keye" ("Gawain and Kay"), are both dedicated primarily to Gawain. The Middle High German romance "Diu Crône" ("The Crown") by Heinrich von dem Türlin, in which Gawain is the protagonist who achieves the Grail and heals the Fisher King, also features a minor character of "the other Gawain": his lookalike, Aamanz.


title: Gawain

text: Gawain is notably the hero of one of the greatest works of Middle English literature, the alliterative poem "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight", where he is portrayed as an excellent, but human, knight. Here, Gawain strongly resembles the Irish mythological hero Cuchulainn. In the poem, he must go to the titular Green Knight to, presumably, be killed by the Knight. Gawain does this as it pertains to a deal made between the two without knowing that it is all a test by the Knight. He is cited in Robert Laneham's letter describing the entertainments at Kenilworth in 1575, and the recopying of earlier works such as "The Greene Knight" suggests that a popular English tradition of Gawain continued. Different variants of the Green Knight story include "The Turke and Sir Gawain". In possibly Thomas Malory's "The Weddynge of Syr Gawen and Dame Ragnell" ("The Wedding of Sir Gawain and Dame Ragnelle"), his wits, virtue, and respect for women frees his wife, a loathly lady, from her curse of ugliness. The Child Ballads include a preserved legend in a positive light: "The Marriage of Sir Gawain", a fragmentary version of the story of "The Wedding of Sir Gawain and Dame Ragnelle".


title: Gawain

text: The "Lancelot-Grail" (Vulgate Cycle) depicts Gawain as a proud and worldly knight and the leader of his siblings, who demonstrates through his failures the danger of neglecting the spiritual in favor of the material world. On the grand Grail Quest, his intentions are always the purest, but he is unable to use God's grace to see the error of his ways. Later, when his brothers Mordred and Agravain plot to destroy Lancelot and Queen Guinevere by exposing their love affair, Gawain tries to stop them. When Guinevere is sentenced to burn at the stake and Arthur deploys his best knights to guard the execution, Gawain nobly refuses to take part in the deed, even though his brothers will be there. But when Lancelot returns to rescue Guinevere, a battle between Lancelot's and Arthur's knights ensues, and Gawain's brothers Gareth and Gaheris are killed (Agravain, too, is killed by Lancelot, either on this occasion or in a previous encounter). This turns his friendship with Lancelot into hatred, and his desire for vengeance causes him to draw Arthur into a war with Lancelot in France. In the king's absence, Mordred usurps the throne, and the Britons must return to save Britain. Meanwhile, Gawain is mortally wounded by Lancelot himself after a long duel. The Vulgate "Mort Artu" has Gawain's dead body carried to Camelot, where he is placed in the tomb of his dear brother Gaheriet (Gaheris).


title: Gawain

text: Gawain's death in a battle against Mordred is described in detail in the English Alliterative "Morte Arthure". Upon reaching land after returning to Britain from the continent, Gawain wreaks great slaughter on his enemies, killing the king of Gothland among others, before being surrounded on a hill. Breaking out, he pushes forward on a horse towards Mordred himself, and the two strike one another down from their horses with their lances. Gawain then attempts to cut Mordred's throat, but Mordred stabs him through the helmet. (As Mordred is portrayed there more sympathetically than in most other works, he later gives a sorrowful eulogy to his dead brother, calling him the best and most glorious of knights.) In the French verse "Mort Artu" attachment to "", Gawain attempts to disembark during the sea landing at Dover when one of Mordred's Saxon allies fatally strikes him in the head through an unlaced helmet; a similar account is told in the English Stanzaic "Morte Arthur". In the Italian romance "La Tavola Ritonda", having been defeated in his duel with Lancelot, Gawain takes part in resisting an attack by Lancelot's friend and ally, Sir Turinoro of Cartagina, when he is struck on his head in the same place where Lancelot had wounded him and falls dead during a single combat with a knight named Turinoro, who also dies.


title: Gawain

text: Thomas Malory's English compilation work "Le Morte d'Arthur" is based mainly, but not exclusively, on French works from the Vulgate and Post-Vulgate Cycles. Here Gawain partly retains the negative characteristics attributed to him by the later French authors, and partly retains his earlier positive representations, creating a character seen by some as inconsistent, and by others as a believably flawed hero. Gawain is the first to declare that he "shall laboure in the Queste of the Sankgreall" but really embarks on the Grail quest in order to gain more magical meals and drinks ("metys and drynkes") from it rather than from a religious zeal or to save the Fisher King's kingdom. One of Malory's other French sources was "L'âtre périlleux" ("The Perilious Cemetery"), a poem about Gawain's rescue of a woman from a demon.


title: Gawain

text: Malory's version of Gawain's demise follows the Vulgate. Gawain's two sons and his brothers, except for Mordred, end up slain by Lancelot and his followers. Their death unleashes the vindictive hostility of Gawain towards his former friend, drawing Arthur himself into a war with Lancelot, first in Britain and then in France. Gawain's rage is so great that he refuses to cease fighting even after the Pope steps in and issues a bull to end the violence between Arthur's and Lancelot's factions. Following Mordred's betrayal, Gawain wages two wars against both Mordred and Lancelot. He twice challenges Lancelot to a duel, but each time loses and asks Lancelot to kill him. Lancelot refuses and grants him mercy before leaving. The mortally injured Gawain later writes to Lancelot, repenting of his bitterness, asking for his help against Mordred, and for forgiveness for splitting the Round Table. Following his death, Gawain also appears in Arthur's dream vision to tell him to wait thirty days for the reconciled Lancelot to return to Britain before fighting Mordred. Consequently, Arthur sends Lucan and Bedivere to make a temporary peace treaty, but the bloody final conflict ensues anyway. Upon his eventual arrival, Lancelot weeps at Gawain's tomb for two nights. In his editorial preface to Malory's "Le Morte d'Arthur", William Caxton wrote that those visiting Dover Castle can still "see the skull of [Sir Gawaine], and the same wound is seen that Sir Launcelot gave him in battle."


title: Gawain

text: Finally, there are versions in which Gawain does not die. In Jean des Preis's Belgian "Ly Myreur des Histors", Arthur, defeated and wounded in his last battle with Mordrech (Mordred), goes with Gawain in a boat to the magic isle of Avalon for them to be healed there by the king's sister Morgaine (Morgan). The surviving Gawain also features in the earlier French epic poem "", appearing together with Arthur and Morgan in Avalon, where they are all still alive hundreds of years later.


title: Gawain

text: "Les Enfances Gauvain", based in part on "De Ortu Waluuanii", tells of how Arthur's sister Morcades (Morgause) becomes pregnant by Lot, at this point a mere page in King Arthur's court. She and Lot secretly give the child to a knight named Gawain the Brown ("Gauvain li Brun") who baptises the infant with his own name, puts the infant Gawain in a cask with a letter explaining who the child is, and sets him adrift on the sea. The cask is found by a fisherman and his wife. Sometime after Gawain is ten years of age, his foster-father vows to make a pilgrimage to Rome if he recovers from his severe illness. When he undertakes the pilgrimage, he takes his foster-child with him to Rome. There a clerk reads the knight's letter, understands that the boy is of high birth, and the Pope takes Gawain as his own foster-son. Accounts similar to this can be found in "Perlesvaus", the "Gesta Romanorum", and many other texts.


title: Gawain

text: In "De Ortu Waluuani", the young Gawain, trained as a Roman cavalry officer, undertakes a duel to determine whether Rome or Persia should possess Jerusalem. On his way, Gawain and his men defeat the pirate king Milocrates and his brother Buzafarnam, rescuing the Roman Emperor's niece whom Milocrates has abducted. In Jerusalem, he fights the giant Persian champion Gormund and slays him after three days of single combat. He is then sent to King Arthur with the proof of his birth. Arthur's queen, here named Gwendoloena and possessing prophetic powers, warns Arthur of the coming of a knight of Rome who is more powerful than him; Arthur and Kay meet Gawain on his way but he unhorses them both. Gawain then arrives at Arthur's court, but the king rejects him despite learning of the knight being his nephew. In response, Gawain vows that he will do what Arthur's entire army could not do. The occasion comes when the Lady of the Castle of Maidens sends to Arthur for aid, having been abducted by a pagan king who wants to force marriage on her. Arthur and his forces go to fight the pagan army but lose, yet Gawain single-handedly succeeds and returns with the Lady and with the pagan king's head. Arthur is finally forced to publicly accept the knight's worth, and Lot and Anna formally acknowledge Gawain as their son.


title: Gawain

text: Similar to this tale are the stories of the Castle of Wonders, found in "Diu Crône", Chrétien's "Perceval", Wolfram von Eschenbach's "Parzival", and the Norse "Valvens þáttr" ("The Tale of Gawain"), wherein Gawain comes to the castle where, unknown to him, live his grandmother (King Arthur's mother), his own mother, and his sister. Gawain becomes the castle's lord, and it would be likely that he would unknowingly marry either his mother or his sister, but Gawain discovers who the women are. In a variant included in the "Gesta Romanorum", a Gawain-like character named Gregory comes to a castle where his mother dwells, besieged by the Duke of Burgundy. Gregory enters the lady's service and succeeds in winning back her lands, after which he unwittingly marries his own mother.


title: Gawain

text: Later romances, however, abandon the motif of Gawain being brought up, unknown, in Rome. In the "Suite du Merlin" attributed to Robert de Boron, a marriage between King Lot and a daughter of Ygerne (Igraine, Arthur's mother) is part of the negotiations arranging for Arthur's father Uther Pendragon's marriage to Ygerne; Gawain must be thus about the same age as Arthur, or even older. In the Vulgate "Merlin", he first appears as a young squire in his father's kingdom. Gawain, his brother Gaheris, and a number of other squires, most of them sons or kindred of the kings who at this time are rebelling against King Arthur, come together and defend the land of Logres against the Saxons while Arthur is away aiding King Leodegan (Leodegrance) against King Rion (Rience), after which Arthur knights the squires. During this time, Gawain notably saves their mother Belisent (Morgause) and the infant Mordred from being kidnapped by the Saxon king Taurus. This account is revised in the later Post-Vulgate "Merlin", where King Lot fights against Arthur but his forces are defeated and he himself is killed by King Pellinor (Pellinore), one of King Arthur's allies. Gawain first appears as an eleven-year-old boy at Lot's funeral and swears to avenge his father's death on Pellinor, praying that he may never be known for knightly deeds until he has taken vengeance. The story of the feud between Gawain and Pellinor and his sons is very important in the Post-Vulgate Cycle and the Prose "Tristan", but not a trace of it is found in the Lancelot-Grail Cycle or in any earlier known tale, some of which picture Lot as still alive long after Gawain becomes a knight.


title: Gawain

text: In many works outside the "Lancelot-Grail"-derived tradition in which Gawain has only his now-familiar four brothers (among whom he is the eldest and is explicitly described as the most handsome of them by the Vulgate "Lancelot"), Gawain also has sisters in different settings. These include an unnamed sister whom he rescues (along with her unnamed husband and children) from a giant in Chrétien's "Yvain"; two sisters named Soredamors (Cligés' mother) and Clarissant in Chrétien's "Cligés"; an unnamed sister abducted by Gorvain Cadru in "Hunbaut"; and Elainne in the Modena manuscript of the Didot "Perceval". In "Parzival", he has two sisters named Cundriê and Itonjê and a sole younger brother named Beacurs (the King of Norway and a Knight of the Round Table who marries King Bagdemagus's niece Antonie). In some Welsh adaptations of "Historia Regum Britanniae" and in "The Birth of Arthur", King Hoel is his half-brother from their mother's first marriage. Mordred is Gawain's younger brother (by Lot, originally) or half-brother (by Arthur, later) in almost every text in which he figures since Geoffrey of Monmouth.


title: Gawain

text: Traditionally, Gawain, of all Arthur's knights, is known for his courteousness, compassion, and humility. In "Gawain: His Reputation, His Courtesy and His Appearance in Chaucer's Squire's Tale", B.J. Whiting collected quantitative evidence of these qualities being stronger in Gawain than in any of the other Knights of the Round Table, counting the words "courteous", "courtesy", and "courteously" being used in reference to Arthur's nephew as 178 times in total, more than for all the other knights in Arthurian literature. The Prose "Lancelot" describes Gawain as the most handsome of his brothers and notably gracious towards poor people and to societal outcasts such as lepers; the one time when he fails to properly greet an unknown maiden (Viviane) while on a quest to learn the fate of Merlin in the Vulgate "Merlin Continuation", she curses him with a spell that turns him into a hideous dwarf, but later restores him to his real form after he passes a test to save her from an apparent rape in an arranged "damsel in distress"-style scenario. In some versions of the legend, Gawain would have been the true and rightful heir to the throne of Camelot, after the reign of King Arthur.


title: Gawain

text: The Vulgate "Mort Artu" says Gawain had been baptised as an infant by a miracle-working holy man, also named Gawain, who named the boy after himself, and who announced the following day that every day at noon, at the hour of the baptism, his power and strength would increase. The Post-Vulgate tells how, in great part due to his supernatural strength, there have been only six knights whom Gawain failed to defeat in a sword fight: Lancelot, Hector, Bors, his own brother Gaheris (replaced with Percival by Malory), Tristan, and Morholt. In "Perceval" and some other later stories, he is the other wielder of Arthur's magic sword Excalibur; in the Alliterative "Morte Arthure", he has a sword named Galuth, which bears the name Galatine in Malory's version of the Roman War episode. His knowledge of herbs also makes him a great healer, as shown in Chrétien's "Perceval", "Valvens Þáttr", "Parzival", "Walewein", and the Dutch Lancelot Compilation (in the stories "Moriaen", "Die Riddere metter Morwen", "Walewein ende Keye", and "Lancelot en het Hert met de Witte Voet").


title: Gawain

text: In many romances, Gawain is depicted as a model for chivalric attributes. In "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight", for example, where he is described as "this fine father of breeding", Gawain receives the kisses of Lady Bertilak with discretion, at once not wanting to insult her by refusing her advances and not wanting to betray the hospitality of her husband. Based on the bargain to give each other their respective daily gains, Gawain must give the kisses he receives from Lady Bertilak to Sir Bertilak. This allusion serves to reinforce chivalric ideals of religious, martial, and courtly love codes, especially in a masculine warrior culture, and shows the ways in which the masculine world can be subverted by female wiles. This undertone of homoeroticism between Gawain and Sir Bertilak underscores the strength of male homosocial bonds, and the fact that sex never occurs reinforces ideals of the masculine chivalric code. Gawain's character in the poem is said to be founded on a deep Christian belief in Christ and the Virgin Mary.


title: Gawain

text: Conversely, in the Vulgate "Queste del Saint Graal" he is used as a very symbol of the unfitness of secular knighthood. Here, Gawain is blamed for his irreligion and is shown to indulge in rather purposeless killing: as, for example, when he mortally wounds his relative and a fellow Knight of the Round Table, Yvain the Bastard, in one of the many random jousting duels for no particular reason (failing to even recognise him until it is too late). He is also responsible for the deaths of more of his fellow Round Table companions, including the young King Bagdemagus of Gorre, whom he accidentally kills during a tournament. The Vulgate "Mort Artu" even says Gawain had killed some of his fellow Knights of the Round Table in the grand quest for the Grail, which he turned out to be unworthy to achieve. When Gawain does reach the Grail Castle, he is unable to restore the Grail Sword, unlike his role in "Perceval", and is actually more interested in the Grail Maiden than in the holy relic, failing to even spot it there. In a symbolic later scene, it is her son and the new destined Grail hero, the blessed virgin knight Galahad, who will draw the sword in the stone at Camelot, after Gawain failed in the task. In the end, Gawain's unwillingness to forgive Lancelot leads to his own death and contributes to the downfall of Arthur's kingdom.


title: Gawain

text: In the Post-Vulgate Cycle, Gawain's character is further blackened, influenced by being portrayed as a villain in the Prose "Tristan". He is now bloodthirsty and often murderous. Among important Knights of the Round Table whom Gawain is said to have killed during and after the Grail quest are King Pellinor's son Aglovale, King Lac's son Erec, and King Esclabor's son Palamedes (resulting in Escablor's own death from grief). Earlier, Gawain and his brothers are also the slayers of King Pellinor and his sons Driant and Lamorat. Although Gawain still has a reputation for being one of the best and most courteous knights in the world, this is a sham, as he is often secretly a rapist of damsels and a killer of good knights, no better than his brother Agravain. When the mighty and holy Grail knight Perceval asks Gawain if he had killed his father Pellinor, Gawain simply lies and denies it out of fear of Perceval. The "Guiron le Courtois" section of "Palamedes" explains Gawain's many great cruelties being caused by his grief at being surpassed by other knights after not regaining his full strength following the war with Galehaut. Such a new popular image originating in the late Old French romance tradition prompted the historical audience of "The Wife of Bath's Tale" to identify the story's rapist-knight character as Gawain.


title: Gawain

text: Malory's Gawain, following the later French portrayals, also "emerges as a character composed of obvious inconsistencies of virtue and evil." According to Arthurian scholar Ryan Harper,


title: Gawain

text: Hartmann von Aue's "Erec" is the first to mention Gawain's offspring, listing one "Henec the Skillful, son of Gawain" ("Henec suctellois fil Gawin"), among the Knights of the Round Table. Thomas Malory credits Gawain with three sons through the Lady of Lys, a sister of Bran de Lys/Lis (or "Brandles" in the Middle English "The Jeaste of Syr Gawayne"); they are named Florence, Lovell, and Gingalain. Both Lovell (Lioniel) and Gingalain (Guinglain) have previously appeared in the First Continuation to Chrétien's "Perceval" and in the "Livre d'Artus". Gingalain is the only of them to play a significant role in further works, as the eponymous protagonist of Renaud de Beaujeu's Old French romance "Le Bel Inconnu" ("The Fair Unknown"), as well as of the Middle-English romance "Libeaus Desconus" and of its Middle High German version "Wigalois" (titled after Gingalain's name) by Wirnt von Grafenberg. Besides those children, the eponymous hero of "Beaudous" by Robert de Blois is the son of Gawain by the king of Wales's unnamed daughter, who is known only as the Lover ("Amie"). She might be the same as the also unnamed daughter of King Tradelmant of North Wales, a hitherto virgin who becomes pregnant by Gawain out of wedlock in the Prose "Lancelot".


title: Gawain

text: Since Gawain is known in multiple tales as the "Knight of Maidens" (French: "Chevalier as Damoisels"), his name is thus attached to no woman in particular. As such, he is the champion of all women, and through this reputation, he has avoided the name-pairing seen in tales of Erec (with Enide), Tristan (with Iseult), and Lancelot (with Guinevere). Nevertheless, Gawain has had wives in the course of Arthurian literature, albeit he is always introduced as yet unmarried at the beginning of any such story. In "The Wedding of Sir Gawain and Dame Ragnelle", he marries the cursed Ragnelle, and in giving her "sovereignty" in the relationship, lifts the spell laid upon her that had given her a hag-like appearance. In "Parzival", Gawain marries Orguelleuse, the widow of the Duke of Logres. (In "Perlesvaus", the mad Orguelleuse instead unsuccessfully plots to kill Gawain and then to entomb herself with him; she is called the Maiden of the Narrow Wood in "Hunbaut".) In "Mériadeuc", the Queen of the Isles swears she will marry only Gawain. In "Diu Crône", Gawain marries Amurfina, a niece of Arthur's stepfather (here named Gansguoter) who wins Gawain from her own younger sister Sgoidamur through the use of a magic bridle and a love potion.


title: Gawain

text: Repeatedly, Gawain is also often intimately associated with a supernatural female figure from the Otherworld or the Fairyland. The hero of "Le Bel Inconnu" is the progeny of Gawain and a fairy called Blanc(h)emal, and Gawain is himself rescued by the fay Lorie in "" ("Les Merveilles de Rigomer"). The mother of Gawain's son in "Wigalois" is known as Florie, likely another version of Lorie from "Rigomer"; she also appears as Floree, daughter of King Alain of Escavalon, in the "Livre d'Artus". The Italian romance "La Pulzella Gaia" has Gawain fight and defeat a giant serpent that turns out to be just a form of fairy princess, the daughter of Morgan le Fay (Fata Morgana) who then becomes his secret lover; their relationship, once revealed, makes both of them into enemies of Guinevere (who is jealous of Gawain after having been spurned), Arthur, and Morgan all at once.


title: Gawain

text: Other women of Gawain include Lady Bloisine who plots to murder Gawain in bed before genuinely falling in love with him in the Fourth Continuation of "Perceval", Ydain (Ydeine) who pledges to love him for life after he rescues her in "La Vengeance Raguidel" and the "Roman van Lancelot", and the haughty and cruel Arcade who loves Gawain but he gives her up to the young Pelleas after helping him win her over in the Prose "Lancelot". Arcade is renamed as Lady Ettarde in Malory's version with no happy end for her; his "Le Morte d'Arthur" also mentions Gawain having once been in the power of the lustful witch Hellawes. In the Prose "Lancelot", Gawain also expressed his desire to himself become the most beautiful lady so he could be loved by the mysterious Black Knight (Lancelot appearing incognito).


title: Gawain

text: Gawain features frequently in modern literature and media. Modern depictions of him are often heavily influenced by Malory, though characterizations are inconsistent. Alfred Tennyson adapted episodes from Malory to present Gawain as a worldly and faithless knight in his "Idylls of the King" (1859-1885). Similarly, T. H. White's novel "The Once and Future King" (1958) follows Malory, but presents Gawain as more churlish than Malory's torn and tragic portrayal. In contrast, Thomas Berger's "Arthur Rex" (1978) portrays Gawain as open-minded and introspective about his flaws, qualities that make him the Round Table's greatest knight. Though he usually plays a supporting role, some works feature Gawain as the main character. Vera Chapman's "The Green Knight" (1975) and Anne Crompton's "Gawain and Lady Green" (1997) offer modern retellings of "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight". Gwalchmei is the protagonist in Gillian Bradshaw's Celtic-tinged "Hawk of May" (1980) and its sequels. Gawain is a major character in "The Squire's Tales" (1998-2010) by Gerald Morris, in which he is portrayed as a skilled knight, immensely loyal to Arthur, and as intelligent, kind-hearted, and occasionally sarcastic. Morris included many legends involving Gawain in the second book, "The Squire, His Knight, and His Lady" (1999), drawing in particular from "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight". An aged Gawain is one of the central characters in Kazuo Ishiguro's novel "The Buried Giant" (2015). In the 2022 manga "Four Knights of the Apocalypse", a sequel to "Seven Deadly Sins", Gawain is a member of the eponymous Knights, portrayed as female, a hugely muscular and prideful niece of King Arthur.


title: Gawain

text: Film portrayals of Gawain, and the Arthurian legend in general, are heavily indebted to Malory; White's "The Once and Future King" also exerts a heavy influence. Gawain appears as a supporting character in films such as "Knights of the Round Table" (1953, played by Robert Urquhart) and "Excalibur" (1981, played by Liam Neeson), all of which draw on elements of Gawain's traditional characterizations. Other films give Gawain a larger role. In the 1954 adaptation of "Prince Valiant", he is a somewhat boorish, though noble and good-natured, foil for his squire and friend, Valiant. He plays his traditional part in the 1963 film "Sword of Lancelot" (played by George Baker), seeking revenge when Lancelot kills his unarmed brother Gareth, but ultimately coming to Lancelot's aid when he uncovers Mordred's responsibility. "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight" has been adapted to film several times, including 1973's "Gawain and the Green Knight" (played by Murray Head) and 1984's "Sword of the Valiant" (played by Miles O'Keeffe), both directed by Stephen Weeks; neither film was well reviewed and both deviate substantially from the source material. A 1991 television adaptation by Thames Television, "Gawain and the Green Knight", was both more faithful and better received. Other film portrayals included Robert Gwyn Davin's in "First Knight" (1995), Anthony Hickox in "Prince Valiant" (1997), Sebastian Roché in "Merlin" (1998), Noah Huntley in "The Mists of Avalon" (2001), and Joel Edgerton in "King Arthur" (2004). In the 2008 television series "Merlin", Gawain appears as Sir Gwaine, played by Eoin Macken. Though of noble origin, he passes himself as a peasant due to his mother's mistreatment by the king his father served; he is finally knighted by Arthur due to his personal value. In the 2011 series "Camelot", he is played by Clive Standen. In 2020's "Cursed", Gawain is played by Matt Stokoe, who doubles as the Green Knight. In the 2021 film "The Green Knight", Gawain is portrayed by Dev Patel.


title: Gawain

text: The character has appeared in a number of stage productions and operas, mostly interpretations of "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight". Particularly notable among them is the 1991 opera "Gawain", with music by Harrison Birtwistle and a libretto by David Harsent. Gawain also appears in video games, including as the protagonist of "Chronicles of the Sword". He is voiced by Takahiro Mizushima in "Fate/EXTRA" and its sequel "Fate/EXTRA CCC", as well as in "Fate/Grand Order". In "Sonic and the Black Knight" (2009), Sir Gawain is one of the main characters, based on Knuckles the Echidna. He also featured in the video game "" as a cavalier.


title: City of Lies

text: City of Lies is a 2018 crime thriller film about the investigations by the Los Angeles Police Department of the murders of rappers Tupac Shakur and the Notorious B.I.G. It is directed by Brad Furman, with a screenplay by Christian Contreras based on the non-fiction book "LAbyrinth" by Randall Sullivan. The film stars Johnny Depp as retired LAPD detective Russell Poole and Forest Whitaker as journalist Jack Jackson, with Rockmond Dunbar and Neil Brown Jr. also starring.


title: City of Lies

text: The film first premiered in Italy on December 8, 2018, screened out of competition on the last day of the Noir in Festival. It received a limited release in Italy on January 10, 2019. Formerly set to be released in the United States on September 7, 2018, by Global Road Entertainment, it was pulled from the schedule in August 2018. It was eventually acquired by Saban Films and released on March 19, 2021, followed by a PVOD release on April 9, 2021. The film received mixed reviews from critics.


title: City of Lies

text: In 2015, "Los Angeles Times" investigative reporter Darius "Jack" Jackson is assigned to write about the murder of Christopher Wallace. He meets with the retired and disgraced Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) detective Russell Poole. In a series of flashbacks, Poole reveals his theory that Death Row Records CEO Suge Knight paid corrupt LAPD officers to murder Wallace and cover it up.


title: City of Lies

text: In 1997, just weeks after the Wallace murder, Poole is tasked with investigating the shooting of off-duty black police officer Kevin Gaines by a white detective, Frank Lyga. Poole faces pressure from upper management in relation to the media frenzy involving other recent race-related incidents in Los Angeles, namely the beating of Rodney King and the trial of O.J. Simpson. During the course of the investigation, Poole learns that Gaines was on Knight's payroll and had Bloods gang affiliation. Poole's superior officer, Lieutenant O'Shea, refuses to give credence to this theory and orders Poole to close the Gaines-Lyga shooting. Lyga is exonerated but faces a civil suit, with the Gaines family being represented by attorney Johnnie Cochran. Poole confirms from an undercover FBI agent the connection between Knight and Gaines, and he is transferred to the Robbery-Homicide Division to investigate the Wallace murder.


title: City of Lies

text: Poole and his partner Fred Miller obtain the names of suspects including David Mack, another LAPD officer in Knight's employ, as well as Nation of Islam member Amir Muhammad and Blood member Wardell Fouse. Poole learns Mack worked security for Wallace and has also been recently tied to a bank robbery. Mack is arrested but does not give up any information related to Wallace's death. Poole begins investigating yet another LAPD officer, Rafael Pérez, after learning that he has been stealing cocaine from the evidence room. Poole tails Pérez and watches him shoot a drug dealer but Poole intervenes and shoots Pérez in self-defense. Pérez is criminally charged and implicates himself and other officers in various criminal activities. Poole is granted his own task force and also prepares to take the stand in Lyga's civil trial where he intends to claim, on the record, that Mack was involved in Wallace's death and that the LAPD is covering it up, but the city settles before the trial commences. Lyga is unable to clear his name and Poole is shunned by the LAPD.


title: City of Lies

text: Voletta Wallace files a wrongful death claim against Los Angeles based on the evidence championed by Poole. Mack and Amir Muhammad were named as defendants, but were dropped shortly before the trial began after the LAPD and FBI dismissed them as suspects. Poole resigns in disgrace one month before he was eligible for his pension, which ultimately costs him his family.


title: City of Lies

text: Jackson meets with Poole and Voletta who have developed a friendship in the decades since her son's murder. Jackson apologizes to her for previously writing an article implicating her son in the murder of Tupac Shakur; which she accepts. Voletta reveals that she is thankful for Poole's sacrifice in his attempts to solve the murder. Poole informs Jackson that Wallace's earning potential was estimated at $1 billion, and that a civil suit would bankrupt the city. One day, Poole goes to the L.A. Sheriff's Department in an attempt to reopen his investigation, but suffers a heart attack and dies some time after.


title: City of Lies

text: Out of guilt, Jackson, using the information he has learned, wrote an article about Russell Poole declaring him as a forgotten hero. Jackson's article is received with acclaim, however, he soon resigns from his job, finding the system too hypocritical to celebrate worthy men like Poole. Both the murders of Wallace and Tupac remain unsolved.


title: City of Lies

text: On February 4, 2013, Miriam Segal's British production company Good Films was reported to have bought the film rights to Randall Sullivan's non-fiction book "LAbyrinth". This explored police corruption in Los Angeles related to detective Russell Poole's investigation of the murders of Tupac Shakur and Biggie Smalls, which were never solved. On September 7, 2016, Johnny Depp was reportedly cast in the film to play Poole, the Los Angeles police detective.


title: City of Lies

text: Brad Furman was announced as director for the film, from a script written by Christian Contreras and adapted from the book. On September 19, Open Road Films acquired the film's US distribution rights. It co-financed the film along with Miramax, while Good Universe handled the film's international sales.


title: City of Lies

text: On November 11, 2016, Rockmond Dunbar was cast in the film to play Dreadlocks. The same day Forest Whitaker joined the film to play the journalist who teams up with the police officer to uncover the truth. On November 17, Neil Brown Jr. was cast in the film to play police officer Rafael Pérez. Xander Berkeley, Shea Whigham, Wynn Everett, and Toby Huss were cast in the film on December 13, while two days later Louis Herthum and Shamier Anderson also joined the film, with Herthum playing a city attorney who defends Poole on trial and Anderson playing corrupt LAPD officer David "D. Mack" Mack. On January 6, 2017, Amin Joseph joined the film to play police officer Kevin Gaines, and on January 18, Laurence Mason to play an FBI agent, Dunton. On January 23, 2017, newcomer Joseph Ferrante joined the film for an unspecified role.


title: City of Lies

text: Principal photography on the film began on December 13, 2016, in Los Angeles, California. Principal photography wrapped in May 2017.


title: City of Lies

text: The first trailer for the film, originally titled "LAbyrinth", was released on May 21, 2018, which would have been the Notorious B.I.G.'s 46th birthday. Following the merger between Open Road Films and IM Global to form Global Road Entertainment, the film was retitled "City of Lies" and given a release date of September 7, 2018, the 22nd anniversary of the murder of Tupac Shakur. In August 2018, the film was pulled from the schedule, reportedly due to an ongoing lawsuit involving Depp and the film's location manager; no new release date was announced.


title: City of Lies

text: On August 23, 2018, the "Daily Beast" reported that Depp's legal trouble was used as a scapegoat. It suggested that the Los Angeles Police Department may have been trying to suppress the film, in which it is negatively portrayed, or that there were other major players who did not want the film released. In July 2020, Adam Tod Brown argued that the film was suppressed so Voletta Wallace cannot reopen the Notorious B.I.G. murder case to sue the LAPD. On August 29, 2018, Bank Leumi filed another lawsuit against Miramax over millions of dollars in unpaid guarantees caused by pulling the film from release.


title: City of Lies

text: "City of Lies" was first premiered in Italy when it was screened on December 9, 2018, out of competition, at the Noir in Festival as the closing film of the event. It received a limited release in Italy on January 10, 2019. The film was released on Blu-ray in Italy on June 19, 2019.


title: City of Lies

text: On March 4, 2021, Saban Films announced that it had taken over the distribution rights, and scheduled the movie for release on March 19, 2021. In October 2021, Highland Film Group picked up international rights to the film for worldwide sales and marketing.


title: City of Lies

text: In the United States and Canada, the film grossed $275,049 from 501 theaters in its opening weekend, a per-venue average of $549.


title: City of Lies

text: On Redbox, the film debuted at #1 on the rental chart and #5 on the VOD chart for week ending June 13, 2021.


title: City of Lies

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . According to Metacritic, which calculated a weighted average score of 44 out of 100 based on 12 critics, the film received "mixed or average reviews".


title: City of Lies

text: Richard Roeper of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film 3 out of 4 stars, writing: "...in large part due to the stellar work from Depp and Whitaker, this is a valuable and somewhat illuminating look back at the senseless, stunning killings of two rap icons just six months apart." Writing for "The Hollywood Reporter", John DeFore wrote: "This is a compelling drama with real-world concerns that shouldn't be ignored, and it deserves better than to be the victim of an actor's offscreen sins."


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: Jabba Desilijic Tiure, more commonly known as Jabba the Hutt, is a fictional character and minor antagonist in the "Star Wars" franchise. Created by George Lucas, Jabba is voiced by Larry Ward with several puppeteers inside a one-ton puppet portraying him in "Return of the Jedi". He was originally supposed to first appear in "Star Wars" (1977) as a stop motion character with Declan Mulholland as his stand-in. Jabba was later added into the film as a CGI character when it was re-released in Special Edition in 1997. He also appears in the prequel movie "". The character is a large slug-like creature based on annelid worms and originally designed as an apelike figure.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: In the films, Jabba is a powerful crime lord on the planet Tatooine, who is of the Hutt species. He is obese and often exemplifies his characterizations of lust and greed by having slave alien girls in his throne room. He places a bounty on smuggler Han Solo, sending several bounty hunters to capture him. Boba Fett captures Han Solo, Darth Vader freezes him, and after Boba Fett delivers him Jabba puts Han Solo on display in his palace. Later, Princess Leia comes to save Han but is captured by Jabba, who turns her into a slave. While Luke Skywalker comes to rescue them, Leia chokes Jabba to death by wrapping the chain connected to her around his neck. Outside of the main films, Jabba first appears in the Marvel comics with the appearance of a slim humanoid with a walrus-like face.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: Jabba has received generally positive reviews from critics. However, his appearance as a CGI versus as a puppet has been disputed by many, with most being disappointed in his CGI, but applauding his look as a puppet. His name has entered common parlance as being synonymous with negative qualities such as morbid obesity, corruption, and corporate greed.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: The original script to "Star Wars" describes Jabba as a "fat, slug-like creature with eyes on extended feelers and a huge ugly mouth", but Lucas stated in an interview that the initial character he had in mind was much furrier and resembled a Wookiee. When filming the scene between Han Solo and Jabba in 1976, Lucas employed Northern Irish actor Declan Mulholland to stand-in for Jabba the Hutt, wearing a shaggy brown costume. Lucas planned to replace Mulholland in post-production with a stop-motion creature. The scene was meant to connect "Star Wars" to "Return of the Jedi" and explain why Han Solo was imprisoned at the end of "The Empire Strikes Back". Nevertheless, Lucas decided to leave the scene out of the final film on account of budget, time constraints, and because he felt that it did not enhance the film's plot.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: Lucas revisited the scene in the 1997 Special Edition release of "A New Hope", restoring the sequence and replacing Mulholland with a CGI version of Jabba the Hutt. He also replaced the English dialogue with Huttese, a fictional language created by sound designer Ben Burtt. Joseph Letteri, the visual effects supervisor for the Special Edition, explained that the ultimate goal of the revised scene was to make it look as if Jabba the Hutt was actually on the set talking to and acting with Harrison Ford with the crew looking like they had merely photographed it. Letteri stated that the new scene consisted of five shots that took over a year to complete. The scene was polished further for the 2004 release on DVD, improving Jabba's appearance with advancements in CGI techniques.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: At one point of the original scene, Ford walks behind Mulholland. This became a problem when adding the CGI Jabba since his tail would be in the way. The solution was to have Solo step on Jabba's tail, causing him to grunt in pain. In the 2004 DVD release, Jabba reacts more strongly, winding up as if to punch Han. In this version, shadows of Han can be seen on Jabba's body to make the CGI more convincing.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: Lucas confessed that people were disappointingly upset about the CGI of Jabba's appearance, complaining that the character "looked fake". Lucas dismisses this, stating that whether a character is ultimately portrayed as a puppet or as CGI, it will always be "fake" since the character is ultimately not real. He says he sees no difference between a puppet made of latex and one generated by a computer. According to Greedo's actor Paul Blake, his own character's scene was created in response to Lucas having to cut the Jabba scene.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: Lucas based the CGI on the character as he originally appeared in "Return of the Jedi". In this film, Jabba the Hutt is an immense, sedentary, slug-like creature designed by Lucas's Industrial Light & Magic Creature Shop. Design consultant Ralph McQuarrie claimed, "In my sketches Jabba was huge, agile, sort of an apelike figure. But then the design went into another direction, and Jabba became more like a worm kind of creature." According to the 1985 documentary "From Star Wars to Jedi", Lucas rejected initial designs of the character. One made Jabba appear too human—almost like a Fu Manchu character—while a second made him look too snail-like. Lucas finally settled on a design that was a hybrid of the two, drawing for further inspiration on an O'Galop cartoon figure flanking an early depiction of Bibendum. "Return of the Jedi" costume designer Nilo Rodis-Jamero commented, My vision of Jabba was literally Orson Welles when he was older. I saw him as a very refined man. Most of the villains we like are very smart people. But Phil Tippett kept imagining him as some kind of slug, almost like in "Alice in Wonderland". At one time he sculpted a creature that looked like a slug that's smoking. I kept thinking I must be really off, but eventually that's where it led up to."


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: Designed by visual effects artist Phil Tippett, Jabba the Hutt was inspired by the anatomy of several animal species. His body structure and reproductive processes were based on annelid worms, a hairless animal that has no skeleton and are hermaphroditic. Jabba's head was modeled after that of a snake, complete with bulbous, slit-pupilled eyes and a mouth that opens wide enough to swallow large prey. Moist, amphibian qualities were given to his skin. Jabba's design would come to represent almost all members of the Hutt species in subsequent "Star Wars" fiction.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: In "Return of the Jedi", Jabba is portrayed by a one-ton puppet that took three months and half a million dollars to construct. While filming the movie, the puppet had its own makeup artist. The puppet required three puppeteers to operate, making it one of the largest ever used in a motion picture. Stuart Freeborn designed the puppet, while John Coppinger sculpted its latex, clay, and foam pieces. The puppeteers included David Alan Barclay, Toby Philpott, and Mike Edmonds, who were members of Jim Henson's Muppet group. Barclay operated the right arm and mouth and read the character's English dialogue, while Philpott controlled the left arm, head, and tongue. The tongue was a light beige color and came out of Jabba’s mouth several times. When he encountered Leia Organa for the first time and enslaved her, he extended his tongue and licked at her face. Leia reacted with such disgust upon seeing the tongue because, in one take, Philpott moved the tongue closer than what Carrie Fisher was comfortable with, and it licked her unintentionally. Edmonds, the shortest of the three men, who also played the Ewok Logray in later scenes, was responsible for the movement of Jabba's tail. Tony Cox, who also played an Ewok, would assist as well. The eyes and facial expressions were operated by radio control.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: Lucas voiced displeasure in the puppet's appearance and immobility, complaining that the puppet had to be moved around the set to film different scenes. In the DVD commentary to the Special Edition of "Return of the Jedi", Lucas notes that, if the technology had been available in 1983, Jabba the Hutt would have been a CGI character similar to the one that appears in the Special Edition scene of "A New Hope".


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: Jabba the Hutt only speaks Huttese on film, but his lines are subtitled in English. His voice and Huttese-language dialogue were performed by the uncredited voice of Larry Ward. A heavy, booming quality was given to Ward's voice by pitching it an octave lower than normal and processing it through a subharmonic generator. A soundtrack of wet, slimy sound effects was recorded to accompany the movement of the puppet's limbs and mouth.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: Jabba the Hutt's musical theme throughout the film, composed by John Williams, is played on a tuba. The theme is very similar to one which Williams wrote for a heavyset character in "Fitzwilly" (1967), though the theme does not appear on that film's soundtrack album. Williams later turned the theme into a symphonic piece performed by the Boston Pops Orchestra featuring a tuba solo by Chester Schmitz. The role of the piece in film and popular culture has become a focus of study by musicologists such as Gerald Sloan, who says that Williams' piece "blends the monstrous and the lyrical."


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: According to film historian Laurent Bouzereau, Jabba the Hutt's death in "Return of the Jedi" was suggested by script writer Lawrence Kasdan. Lucas decided that Leia should strangle him with her slave chain. He was inspired by a scene from "The Godfather" (1972) where an obese character named Luca Brasi (Lenny Montana) is garroted by an assassin.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: Jabba was voiced by Scott Schumann in post-1997 editions of "Star Wars" and in "". In "The Phantom Menace" end credits, Jabba was jokingly credited as playing himself. In the radio drama adaption of the original trilogy, Jabba is played by Ed Asner.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: Jabba the Hutt exemplifies lust, greed, and gluttony. The character is known throughout the "Star Wars" universe as a "vile gangster" who amuses himself by torturing and humiliating his subjects and enemies. He surrounds himself with scantily-clad slave girls of all species, chained to his dais. The "Star Wars" Databank remarks that residents of his palace are not safe from his desire to dominate and torture: in "Return of the Jedi", the Twi'lek slave dancer Oola is fed to Jabba's pet rancor.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: Jabba the Hutt's physical appearance reinforces his personality as a criminal deviant. In "Return of the Jedi", Han Solo calls Jabba a "slimy piece of worm-ridden filth". Film critic Roger Ebert described him as "a cross between a toad and the Cheshire Cat." Curiously, the Russian/Ukrainian word for "toad" (жаба / zhaba) sounds very close to "Jabba", while in Arabic حُوت (ḥūt) means "fish / whale". Science fiction writer Jeanne Cavelos wrote that Jabba deserved the "award for most disgusting alien". Science fiction authors Tom and Martha Veitch wrote that Jabba's body is a "miasmic mass", and that "[t]he Hutt's lardaceous body seemed to periodically release a greasy discharge, sending fresh waves of rotten stench" into the air. Jabba's appetite is insatiable, and some authors portray him threatening to eat his subordinates. "The Hollywood Reporters" Arthur Knight called Jabba a "truly frightening... gross walrus-shaped grotesque."


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: Among Jabba's only displays of any positive qualities within the franchise occur in "Star Wars: The Clone Wars", where he demonstrates genuine affection for his son Rotta and is worried by his kidnapping and angered by his supposed death. In one Expanded Universe story, Jabba prevents a Chevin named Ephant Mon from freezing to death on an ice planet; afterward, Ephant Mon becomes one of his most loyal servants.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: Although briefly mentioned by Greedo and Han Solo in "Star Wars" and again by Han in "The Empire Strikes Back", Jabba was first seen in 1983 in "Return of the Jedi", the third installment of the original "Star Wars" trilogy. Directed by Richard Marquand and written by Lawrence Kasdan and George Lucas, the first act of "Return of the Jedi" features the attempts of Princess Leia Organa (Carrie Fisher), the Wookiee Chewbacca (Peter Mayhew), and Jedi Knight Luke Skywalker (Mark Hamill) to rescue their friend, the aforementioned Han Solo (Harrison Ford), who had been imprisoned in carbonite in the previous film, "The Empire Strikes Back".


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: The captured Han is delivered to Jabba by bounty hunter Boba Fett (Jeremy Bulloch) and is placed on display in the crime lord's throne room as a decoration. Lando Calrissian (Billy Dee Williams), droids C-3PO (Anthony Daniels) and R2-D2 (Kenny Baker), Leia, and Chewbacca infiltrate Jabba's palace to save Han. Leia is able to free Han from the carbonite, but she is caught and enslaved by the Hutt. Chained to Jabba, she is forced to wear her iconic metal bikini. Luke arrives to "bargain for Solo's life", but Jabba rejects his offer and attempts to feed him to his pet rancor, an enormous monster. Luke kills the rancor, with him, Han, and Chewbacca condemned to be devoured by the sarlacc. At the Great Pit of Carkoon, Luke escapes execution with the help of R2-D2 and defeats Jabba's thugs. During the subsequent confusion, Leia chokes Jabba to death with the chain used to tether her to his throne. Luke, Leia, Han, Lando, Chewbacca, C-3PO, and R2-D2 escape, and Jabba's sail barge explodes over the sarlacc pit in the background.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: The second film appearance of Jabba the Hutt was in the Special Edition of "Star Wars", which was released in 1997 to commemorate the 20th anniversary of its release. In the original version, Han Solo disputes with the alien bounty hunter Greedo (Paul Blake and Maria De Aragon), whom he kills, and Jabba confirms Greedo's last words and demands that Han pay the value of the payload lost by him. Han promises to compensate Jabba as soon as he receives payment for delivering Obi-Wan Kenobi (Alec Guinness), Luke Skywalker, R2-D2, and C-3PO to Alderaan. Jabba agrees, but threatens to place a big price on Solo's head if he fails.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: Jabba the Hutt made his third film appearance in the 1999 prequel "", set 36 years before "Return of the Jedi". Jabba gives the order to begin a podrace at Mos Espa on Tatooine. With this done, Jabba falls asleep and misses the race's conclusion.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: Jabba is referred to in the film "" (2018) by a young Han Solo's (Alden Ehrenreich) mentor Tobias Beckett (Woody Harrelson), who invites Han to join him in working for "big shot gangster" on Tatooine. At the end of the film, Han and Chewbacca decide to go to Tatooine for the job.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: Jabba figures into the plot of the animated film "", wherein his son Rotta is captured by Separatists, where it is later revealed that Ziro, Jabba's uncle, took part in the kidnapping as part of his plan to take full control of the Hutt Clan. Jedi Knight Anakin Skywalker (voiced by Matt Lanter) and his Padawan Ahsoka Tano (voiced by Ashley Eckstein) return him to Jabba in exchange for the safe passage of Republic ships through his territory. This is backed up by Padme exposing Ziro's crimes to Jabba, who vows to ensure that Ziro will be punished severely.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: Jabba subsequently appeared in a handful of episodes of , starting in the third season. In the episode "Sphere of Influence", wherein Jabba is faced by Chairman Papanoida, whose daughters were kidnapped by Greedo, Jabba allows a sample of Greedo's blood to be taken to prove him the kidnapper. In the episode "Evil Plans", Jabba hires the bounty hunter Cad Bane (voiced by Corey Burton) to bring him plans for the Senate building. When Bane returns successful, Jabba and the Hutt Council send Bane to free Ziro from prison. Jabba next makes a short appearance in the episode "Hunt for Ziro" in which he is seen laughing at his uncle's death at the hand of Sy Snootles (voiced by Nika Futterman), and pays her for delivering Ziro's holo-diary. In the fifth seasons episode "Eminence", Jabba and the Hutt Council are approached by Shadow Collective leaders Darth Maul (voiced by Sam Witwer), Savage Opress (voiced by Clancy Brown), and Pre Vizsla (voiced by Jon Favreau); when disappointed by these, Jabba sends bounty hunters Embo (voiced by Dave Filoni), Dengar (voiced by Simon Pegg), Sugi (voiced by Anna Graves), and Latts Razzi (voiced by Clare Grant) to capture them. After a battle, the Shadow Collective confront Jabba at his palace on Tatooine, where Jabba agrees to an alliance.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: The first released appearances of Jabba the Hutt in any visual capacity were in Marvel Comics' adaptation of "A New Hope". In "Six Against the Galaxy" (1977) by Roy Thomas, "What Ever Happened to Jabba the Hut?" (1979) and "In Mortal Combat" (1980), both by Archie Goodwin, Jabba the Hutt, originally spelled "Hut," appeared as a tall humanoid with a walrus-like face, a topknot, and a bright uniform. The official "Jabba" was not yet established as he had yet to be seen.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: While awaiting the sequel to "Star Wars", Marvel kept the monthly comic going with their own stories. One of which includes Jabba tracking Han Solo and Chewbacca down to an old hideaway they use for smuggling. However, circumstances force Jabba to lift the bounty on Solo and Chewbacca, enabling them to return to Tatooine for an adventure with Luke Skywalker. In the course of another adventure, Solo kills the space pirate Crimson Jack and busts up his operation, which Jabba bankrolled. Jabba thus renews the reward for Solo's head. Solo later kills a bounty hunter who tells him why he is hunted once more. He and Chewbacca return to the Rebels, where in "The Empire Strikes Back" Solo mentions an incident with a "bounty hunter we ran into on Ord Mantell".


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: The Marvel artists based this Jabba on a character later named Mosep Binneed, an alien visible only briefly in the Mos Eisley Cantina scene of "A New Hope". The 1977 mass-market paperback of Lucas's "Star Wars" script describes Jabba as a "great mobile tub of muscle and suet topped by a shaggy scarred skull", but gives no further detail as to the character's physical appearance or species.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: Later "Star Wars" novels and comics adopt a version of the character's image as seen in the film and greatly elaborate on his background and activities prior to the events of the "Star Wars" films. With the 2012 acquisition of Lucasfilm by The Walt Disney Company, all literature in this category was rebranded as "Star Wars Legends" and designated as non-canonical to any and all new media released after April 2014.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: "Zorba the Hutt's Revenge" (1992), a young-adult novel by Paul and Hollace Davids, identifies Jabba's father as another powerful crime lord named Zorba and reveals that Jabba was born 596 years before the events of "A New Hope", making him around 600 years old at the time of his death in "Return of the Jedi". Four comics exploring Jabba's backstory were written by Jim Woodring and released by Dark Horse Comics in 1995–96; these were collected as "Jabba the Hutt: The Art of the Deal" in 1998. Ann C. Crispin's novel "The Hutt Gambit" (1997) explains how Jabba and Han Solo become business associates and portrays the events that lead to a bounty being placed on Han's head.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: "Tales from Jabba's Palace" (1996), a collection of short stories edited by Kevin J. Anderson, pieces together the lives of Jabba the Hutt's various minions in his palace and their relationship to him during the last days of his life. These stories reveal that very few of the Hutt's servants are loyal to him, with many plans underway among their ranks to attempt his assassination. When Jabba the Hutt is killed in "Return of the Jedi", his surviving former courtiers join forces with his rivals on Tatooine and his family on the Hutt homeworld Nal Hutta make claims to his palace, fortune, and criminal empire. Timothy Zahn's novel "Heir to the Empire" (1991) reveals that a smuggler named Talon Karrde eventually replaces Jabba as the "big fish in the pond" and moves the headquarters of the Hutt's criminal empire off of Tatooine.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: Jabba the Hutt has received positive reviews from critics. "The Telegraph" said that Jabba the Hutt is one of the "films' most memorable "Star Wars" creatures". Blake Hawkins of Comic Book Resources said that Jabba the Hutt is "definitely one of the strangest, grossest things in Star Wars". Jabba the Hutt ranked #5 on the Forbes Fictional 15 list of wealthiest fictional characters in 2008. "Business Insider's" Travis Clark said, "Like Stormtroopers or Darth Vader, some villains just come to mind when you think of "Star Wars". Jabba is another one of them." Lance Cartelli of "GameSpot" put Jabba at 12th for the greatest "Star Wars" villains. Declaring that Jabba is "without a doubt the finest Star Wars portrait of the id" and that you have to "admire his dedication of being his true, absolutely horrendous self", Jabba made it at "Rolling Stone's" 16th position for the 50 best Star Wars characters of all time.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: Jabba the Hutt as a CGI in the re-release of "A New Hope" versus as a puppet in "Return of the Jedi" has been disputed with most saying that he looks better as a puppet. After the Hutt Twins’ first appearance in "The Book of Boba Fett", Matt Singer of "ScreenCrush" wrote that no Hutt species should ever be CGI as it does not "look real". "TheWraps" Phil Owen said that the CGI Jabba looked "incredibly horrible". Matt Goldberg of "Collider" also said, "The CGI Jabba the Hutt looked awful." "The Denver Post" applauded the special effects team on "Return of the Jedi" for making Jabba look like a "horrid creature".


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: The character's name has become an insulting term of disparagement. To say that someone "looks like Jabba the Hutt" is commonly understood as a slur to impugn that person's weight or appearance. Jabba the Hutt has also come to represent greed and anarchy, especially in the business world. Lindsey Boylan, the first accuser of New York's 56th Governor Andrew Cuomo for sexual harassment, compared Cuomo to Jabba the Hutt. Robin Mukherjee wrote about "inner selves" and described his "inner self" to Jabba the Hutt, stating: "It is pleasure-seeking to the point of gluttonous, has a sense of lust that seems to never be satisfied, and personifies the sin of sloth." The Turkish Cultural Community of Austria stated that a Lego toy set of Jabba's palace was racially biased of two religious structures in Turkey, because Jabba the Hutt is a "racial prejudice and vulgar insinuations against … Orientals and Asians as sneaky and criminal personalities." Carrie Fisher, actress of Princess Leia, said that if Donald Trump were to play a "Star Wars" character it would be Jabba the Hutt, because of the sexual allegations against him.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: With the premiere of "Return of the Jedi" in 1983 and the accompanying merchandising campaign, Jabba the Hutt has extended his popularity outside "Star Wars". The character was produced and marketed as a series of action figure play sets by Kenner/Hasbro from 1983 to 2004. In the 1990s, Jabba the Hutt starred in his own comic book series, "Jabba the Hutt: The Art of the Deal," which is a reference to the book of the same title by Donald Trump.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: In Mel Brooks' "Star Wars" spoof film "Spaceballs" (1987), Jabba the Hutt is parodied as the character Pizza the Hutt, a cheesy blob shaped like a slice of pizza whose name is a double pun on Jabba the Hutt and the restaurant franchise Pizza Hut.


title: Jabba the Hutt

text: The Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C., included a display on Jabba the Hutt in the temporary exhibition "Star Wars: The Magic of Myth", which closed in 1999. Jabba's display was called "The Hero's Return," referencing Luke Skywalker's journey toward becoming a Jedi. In 2012, a reduced scale of Jabba's barge, the Khetanna, was created in Huntington Beach, California, as a parade float for a "Star Wars-"themed charity relay.


title: Nicotinamide

text: Niacinamide or Nicotinamide (NAM) is a form of vitamin B found in food and used as a dietary supplement and medication. As a supplement, it is used by mouth to prevent and treat pellagra (niacin deficiency). While nicotinic acid (niacin) may be used for this purpose, niacinamide has the benefit of not causing skin flushing. As a cream, it is used to treat acne. It is a water-soluble vitamin. Niacinamide is the supplement name while Nicotinamide (NAM) is the scientific name.


title: Nicotinamide

text: Side effects are minimal. At high doses liver problems may occur. Normal amounts are safe for use during pregnancy. Niacinamide is in the vitamin B family of medications, specifically the vitamin B complex. It is an amide of nicotinic acid. Foods that contain niacinamide include yeast, meat, milk, and green vegetables.


title: Nicotinamide

text: Niacinamide was discovered between 1935 and 1937. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Niacinamide is available as a generic medication and over the counter. Commercially, niacinamide is made from either nicotinic acid (niacin) or nicotinonitrile. In a number of countries grains have niacinamide added to them.


title: Nicotinamide

text: Niacinamide is the preferred treatment for pellagra, caused by niacin deficiency. while niacin may be used, niacinamide has the benefit of not causing skin flushing.


title: Nicotinamide

text: Niacinamide cream is used as a treatment for acne. It has anti-inflammatory actions, which may benefit people with inflammatory skin conditions.


title: Nicotinamide

text: Niacinamide increases the biosynthesis of ceramides in human keratinocytes in vitro and improves the epidermal permeability barrier in vivo. The application of 2% topical niacinamide for 2 and 4 weeks has been found to be effective in lowering the sebum excretion rate. Niacinamide has been shown to prevent "Cutibacterium acnes"-induced activation of toll-like receptor 2, which ultimately results in the down-regulation of pro-inflammatory interleukin-8 production.


title: Nicotinamide

text: Other skin benefits from topical niacinamide may include relief to a stripped moisture barrier in the skin, reduced irritation, increase of collagen production, and the lessening of hyperpigmentation in one's skin.


title: Nicotinamide

text: Niacinamide at doses of 500 to 1000 mg a day decreases the risk of skin cancers, other than melanoma, in those at high risk.


title: Nicotinamide

text: Niacinamide has minimal side effects. At very high doses above 3g/ day acute liver toxicity has been documented in at least one case. Normal doses are safe during pregnancy.


title: Nicotinamide

text: The structure of nicotinamide consists of a pyridine ring to which a primary amide group is attached in the "meta" position. It is an amide of nicotinic acid. As an aromatic compound, it undergoes electrophilic substitution reactions and transformations of its two functional groups. Examples of these reactions reported in "Organic Syntheses" include the preparation of 2-chloronicotinonitrile by a two-step process via the "N"-oxide,


title: Nicotinamide

text: from nicotinonitrile by reaction with phosphorus pentoxide, and from 3-aminopyridine by reaction with a solution of sodium hypobromite, prepared "in situ" from bromine and sodium hydroxide.


title: Nicotinamide

text: The hydrolysis of nicotinonitrile is catalysed by the enzyme nitrile hydratase from "Rhodococcus rhodochrous" J1, producing 3500 tons per annum of nicotinamide for use in animal feed. The enzyme allows for a more selective synthesis as further hydrolysis of the amide to nicotinic acid is avoided. Nicotinamide can also be made from nicotinic acid. According to "Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry", worldwide 31,000 tons of nicotinamide were sold in 2014.


title: Nicotinamide

text: Nicotinamide, as a part of the cofactor nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH / NAD) is crucial to life. In cells, nicotinamide is incorporated into NAD and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP). NAD and NADP are cofactors in a wide variety of enzymatic oxidation-reduction reactions, most notably glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain. If humans ingest nicotinamide, it will likely undergo a series of reactions that transform it into NAD, which can then undergo a transformation to form NADP. This method of creation of NAD is called a salvage pathway. However, the human body can produce NAD from the amino acid tryptophan and niacin without our ingestion of nicotinamide.


title: Nicotinamide

text: NAD acts as an electron carrier that helps with the interconversion of energy between nutrients and the cell's energy currency, adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In oxidation-reduction reactions, the active part of the cofactor is the nicotinamide. In NAD, the nitrogen in the aromatic nicotinamide ring is covalently bonded to adenine dinucleotide. The formal charge on the nitrogen is stabilized by the shared electrons of the other carbon atoms in the aromatic ring. When a hydride atom is added onto NAD to form NADH, the molecule loses its aromaticity, and therefore a good amount of stability. This higher energy product later releases its energy with the release of a hydride, and in the case of the electron transport chain, it assists in forming adenosine triphosphate.


title: Nicotinamide

text: Nicotinamide occurs as a component of a variety of biological systems, including within the vitamin B family and specifically the vitamin B complex. It is also a critically important part of the structures of NADH and NAD, where the "N"-substituted aromatic ring in the oxidised NAD form undergoes reduction with hydride attack to form NADH. The NADPH/NADP structures have the same ring, and are involved in similar biochemical reactions.


title: Nicotinamide

text: Nicotinamide can be methylated in the liver to biologically active 1-Methylnicotinamide when there's sufficient methyl donors.


title: Nicotinamide

text: Niacinamide occurs in trace amounts mainly in meat, fish, nuts, and mushrooms, as well as to a lesser extent in some vegetables. It is commonly added to cereals and other foods. Many multivitamins contain 20–30 mg of vitamin B and it is also available in higher doses.


title: Nicotinamide

text: A 2015 trial found niacinamide to reduce the rate of new nonmelanoma skin cancers and actinic keratoses in a group of people at high risk for the conditions.


title: Nicotinamide

text: Niacinamide has been investigated for many additional disorders, including treatment of bullous pemphigoid nonmelanoma skin cancers.


title: Nicotinamide

text: There is tentative evidence for a potential role of niacinamide in treating acne, rosacea, autoimmune blistering disorders, ageing skin, and atopic dermatitis. Niacinamide also inhibits poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARP-1), enzymes involved in the rejoining of DNA strand breaks induced by radiation or chemotherapy. ARCON (accelerated radiotherapy plus carbogen inhalation and nicotinamide) has been studied in cancer.


title: Thracians

text: The Thracians (; "Thrāikes"; ) were an Indo-European speaking people who inhabited large parts of Eastern and Southeastern Europe in ancient history. Thracians resided mainly in the Balkans (mostly modern day Bulgaria, Turkey and Greece) but were also located in Anatolia (Asia Minor) and other locations in Eastern Europe.


title: Thracians

text: The exact origin of Thracians is unknown, but it is believed that proto-Thracians descended from a purported mixture of Proto-Indo-Europeans and Early European Farmers, arriving from the rest of Asia and Africa through the Asia Minor (Anatolia). The proto-Thracian culture developed into the Dacian, Getae, and several other smaller Thracian cultures.


title: Thracians

text: Thracian culture was described as tribal by the Greeks and Romans. They remained largely disunited, with their first permanent state being the Odrysian kingdom in the fifth century BC. They faced subjugation by the Achaemenid Empire around the same time. Thracians experienced a short period of peace after the Persians were defeated by the Greeks in the Persian Wars. The Odrysian kingdom lost independence to Macedonia in the late 4th century BC, and never regained total independence following Alexander the Great's death.


title: Thracians

text: The Thracians faced conquest by the Romans in the mid second century BC under whom they faced internal strife. They composed major parts of rebellions against the Romans along with the Macedonians until the Third Macedonian War. The last reported use of a Thracian language was by monks in the sixth century AD.


title: Thracians

text: Thracians were described as "warlike" and "barbarians" by the Greeks and Romans and were favored as mercenaries. Ancient descriptions of a vicious people are disputed and archaeology has been used since the mid-twentieth century in southern Bulgaria to identify more about them. Both Romans and Greeks called them barbarians since they were neither Romans nor Greeks, and to the perceived backwardness of their culture. The perceived primitiveness may be related to their living simple lives in open villages. Some authors noted that even after the introduction of Latin they still kept their "barbarous" ways. While the Thracians were perceived as unsophisticated by their contemporaries, they reportedly "had in fact a fairly advanced culture that was especially noted for its poetry and music."


title: Thracians

text: Thracians spoke the extinct Thracian language and shared a common culture. The Thracians made cultural interaction with the people surrounding them: Greeks, Persians, Scythians, Celts and later on Turks, but although they were indeed influenced by each of these cultures, this influence affected only the circles of the aristocratic elite, not Thracian culture as a whole. Among their customs was tattooing, common among both males and females. They followed a polytheistic religion. The study of the Thracians is known as Thracology.


title: Thracians

text: The first historical record of the Thracians is found in the "Iliad", where they are described as allies of the Trojans in the Trojan War against the Ancient Greeks. The ethnonym "Thracian" comes from Ancient Greek Θρᾷξ (plural Θρᾷκες; , ) or Θρᾴκιος (; Ionic: Θρηίκιος, ), and the toponym Thrace comes from Θρᾴκη (; Ionic: Θρῄκη, ). These forms are all exonyms as applied by the Greeks.


title: Thracians

text: In Greek mythology, "Thrax" (by his name simply the quintessential Thracian) was regarded as one of the reputed sons of the god Ares. In the "Alcestis", Euripides mentions that one of the names of Ares himself was "Thrax" since he was regarded as the patron of Thrace (his golden or gilded shield was kept in his temple at Bistonia in Thrace).


title: Thracians

text: The origins of the Thracians remain obscure, in the absence of written historical records before they got into contact with the Greeks. Evidence of proto-Thracians in the prehistoric period depends on artifacts of material culture. Leo Klejn identifies proto-Thracians with the multi-cordoned ware culture that was pushed away from Ukraine by the advancing timber grave culture or Srubnaya. It is generally proposed that a proto-Thracian people developed from a mixture of indigenous peoples and Indo-Europeans from the time of Proto-Indo-European expansion in the Early Bronze Age when the latter, around 1500 BC, mixed with indigenous peoples. According to one theory, their ancestors migrated in three waves from the northeast: the first in the Late Neolithic, forcing out the Pelasgians and Achaeans, the second in the Early Bronze Age, and the third around 1200 BC. They reached the Aegean islands, ending the Mycenaean civilization. They did not speak the same language. During the Iron Age (about 1000 BC) Dacians and Thracians began developing from proto-Thracians. The diverse topography didn't make it possible for a single language to form.


title: Thracians

text: Ancient Greek and Roman historians agreed that the ancient Thracians, who were of Indo-European stock and language, were superior fighters; only their constant political fragmentation prevented them from overrunning the lands around the northeastern Mediterranean. Although these historians characterized the Thracians as primitive partly because they lived in simple, open villages, the Thracians in fact had a fairly advanced culture that was especially noted for its poetry and music. Their soldiers were valued as mercenaries, particularly by the Macedonians and Romans.


title: Thracians

text: Divided into separate tribes, the Thracians did not manage to form a lasting political organization until the Odrysian state was founded in the fifth century BC. A strong Dacian state appeared in the first century BC, during the reign of King Burebista. The mountainous regions were home to various peoples, including the Illyrians, regarded as warlike and ferocious Thracian tribes, while the plains peoples were apparently regarded as more peaceable. The most prominent tribe, the Moesians only achieved importance under Roman rule.


title: Thracians

text: Thracians inhabited parts of the ancient provinces of Thrace, Moesia, Macedonia, Beotia, Attica, Dacia, Scythia Minor, Sarmatia, Bithynia, Mysia, Pannonia, and other regions of the Balkans and Anatolia. This area extended over most of the Balkans region, and the Getae north of the Danube as far as beyond the Bug and including Pannonia in the west.


title: Thracians

text: Thucydides mentions about a period in the past (from his point), when Thracians have inhabited the region of Phocis, known also as the location of Delphi; he defines it by the lifetime of Tereus – mythological Thracian king and son of god Ares.


title: Thracians

text: The Thracians are mentioned in Homer's "Iliad", meaning that they were already present in the eighth century BC.


title: Thracians

text: The first Greek colonies along the Thracian coasts (first the Aegean, then the Marmara and Black Seas) were founded in the eighth century BC. Thracians and Greeks lived side-by-side. Ancient sources record a Thracian presence on the Aegean islands and in "Hellas" (the broader "land of the Hellenes").


title: Thracians

text: At some point in the 7th century BC, a portion of the Thracian Treres tribe migrated across the Thracian Bosporus and invaded Anatolia. In 637 BC, the Treres under their king Kobos ( ; ), in alliance with the Cimmerians and the Lycians, attacked the kingdom of Lydia during the seventh year of the reign of the Lydian king Ardys. They defeated the Lydians and captured the capital city of Lydia, Sardis, except for its citadel, and Ardys might have been killed in this attack. Ardys's son and successor, Sadyattes, might possibly also have been killed in another Cimmerian attack on Lydia. Soon after 635 BC, with Assyrian approval the Scythians under Madyes entered Anatolia. In alliance with Sadyattes's son, the Lydian king Alyattes, Madyes expelled the Treres from Asia Minor and defeated the Cimmerians so that they no longer constituted a threat again, following which the Scythians extended their domination to Central Anatolia until they were themselves expelled by the Medes from Western Asia in the 600s BC.


title: Thracians

text: In the 6th century BC the Persian Achaemenid Empire conquered Thrace, starting in 513 BC, when the Achaemenid king Darius I amassed an army and marched from Achaemenid-ruled Anatolia into Thrace, and from there he crossed the Arteskos river and then proceeded through the valley-route of the Hebros river. This was an act of conquest by Darius I, who sought to create a new satrapy in the Balkans, and had during his march sent emissaries to the Thracians found on the path of his army as well as to the many other Thracian tribes over a wide area. All these peoples of Thrace, including the Odrysae, submitted to the Achaemenid king until his army reached the territory of Thracian tribe of the Getae who lived just south of the Danube river and who in vain attempted to resist the Achaemenid conquest. After the resistance of the Getae was defeated and they were forced to provide the Achaemenid army with soldiers, all the Thracian tribes between the Aegean Sea and the Danube river had been subjected by the Achaemenid Empire. Once Darius had reached the Danube, he crossed the river and campaigned against the Scythians, after which he returned back to Anatolia through Thrace and left a large army in Europe under the command of his general Megabazus.


title: Thracians

text: Following Darius I's orders to create a new satrapy for the Achaemenid Empire in the Balkans, Megabazus forced the Greek cities who had refused to submit to the Achaemenid Empire, starting with Perinthus, after which led military campaigns throughout Thrace to impose Achaemenid rule over every city and tribe in the area. With the help of Thracian guides, Megabazus was able to conquer Paeonia up to but not including the area of Lake Prasias, and he gave the lands of the Paeonians inhabiting these regions up to the Lake Prasias to Thracians loyal to the Achaemenid Empire. The last endeavours of Megabazus included his the conquest of the area between the Strymon and Axius rivers, and at the end of his campaign, the king of Macedonia, Amyntas I, accepted to become a vassal of the Achaemenid Empire. Within the satrapy itself, the Achaemenid king Darius granted to the tyrant Histiaeus of Miletus the district of Myrcinus on the Strymon's east bank until Megabazus persuaded him to recall Histiaeus after he returned to Asia Minor, after which the Thracian tribe of the Edoni retook control of Myrcinus. The new satrapy, once created, was named (), derived from Scythian the name , which was the self-designation of the Scythians who inhabited the northern parts of the satrapy. Once Megabazus had returned to Asia Minor, he was succeeded in by a governor whose name is unknown, and Darius appointed the general Otanes to oversee the administrative division of the Hellespont, which extended on both sides of the sea and included the Bosporus, the Propontis, and the Hellespont proper and its approaches. Otanes then proceeded to capture Byzantium, Chalcedon, Antandrus, Lamponeia, Imbros, and Lemnos for the Achaemenid Empire.


title: Thracians

text: The area included within the satrapy of included both the Aegean coast of Thrace, as well as its Pontic coast till the Danube. In the interior, the Western border of the satrapy consisted of the Axius river and the Belasica-Pirin-Rila mountain ranges till the site of modern-day Kostenets. The importance of this satrapy rested in that it contained the Hebros river, where a route in the river valley connected the permanent Persian settlement of Doriscus with the Aegean coast, as well as with the port-cities of Apollonia, Mesembria and Odessos on the Black Sea, and with the central Thracian plain, which gave this region an important strategic value. Persian sources describe the province as being populated by three groups: the "Saka Paradraya" ("Saka beyond the sea", the Persian term for all Scythian peoples to the north of the Caspian and Black Seas ); the themselves (most likely the Thracian tribes), and "Yauna Takabara". The latter term, which translates as "Ionians with shield-like hats", is believed to refer to Macedonians. The three ethnicities (Saka, Macedonian, Thracian) enrolled in the Achaemenid army, as shown in the Imperial tomb reliefs of Naqsh-e Rostam, and participated in the Second Persian invasion of Greece on the Achaemenid side.


title: Thracians

text: When Achaemenid control over its European possessions collapsed once the Ionian Revolt started, the Thracians did not help the Greek rebels, and they instead saw Achaemenid rule as more favourable because the latter had treated the Thracians with favour and even given them more land, and also because they realised that Achaemenid rule was a bulwark against Greek expansion and Scythian attacks. During the revolt, Aristagoras of Miletus captured Myrcinus from the Edones and died trying to attack another Thracian city.


title: Thracians

text: Once the Ionian Revolt had been fully quelled, the Achaemenid general Mardonius crossed the Hellespont with a large fleet and army, re-subjugated Thrace without any effort and made Macedonia full part of the satrapy of . Mardonius was however attacked at night by the Bryges in the area of Lake Doiran and modern-day Valandovo, but he was able to defeat and submit them as well. Herodotus's list of tribes who provided the Achaemenid army with soldiers included Thracians from both the coast and from the central Thracian plain, attesting that Mardonius's campaign had reconquered all the Thracian areas which were under Achaemenid rule before the Ionian Revolt.