title: Neural network

text: In the late 1970s to early 1980s, interest briefly emerged in theoretically investigating the Ising model in relation to . In 1981, the Ising model was solved exactly for the general case of closed Cayley trees (with loops) with an arbitrary branching ratio and found to exhibit unusual phase transition behavior in its local-apex and long-range site-site correlations.


title: Neural network

text: The parallel distributed processing of the mid-1980s became popular under the name connectionism. The text by Rumelhart and McClelland (1986) provided a full exposition on the use of connectionism in computers to simulate neural processes.


title: Neural network

text: Neural networks, as used in artificial intelligence, have traditionally been viewed as simplified models of neural processing in the brain, even though the relation between this model and brain biological architecture is debated, as it is not clear to what degree artificial neural networks mirror brain function.


title: Neural network

text: A "neural network" (NN), in the case of artificial neurons called "artificial neural network" (ANN) or "simulated neural network" (SNN), is an interconnected group of natural or artificial neurons that uses a mathematical or computational model for information processing based on a connectionistic approach to computation. In most cases an ANN is an adaptive system that changes its structure based on external or internal information that flows through the network.


title: Neural network

text: In more practical terms neural networks are non-linear statistical data modeling or decision making tools. They can be used to model complex relationships between inputs and outputs or to find patterns in data.


title: Neural network

text: An artificial neural network involves a network of simple processing elements (artificial neurons) which can exhibit complex global behavior, determined by the connections between the processing elements and element parameters. Artificial neurons were first proposed in 1943 by Warren McCulloch, a neurophysiologist, and Walter Pitts, a logician, who first collaborated at the University of Chicago.


title: Neural network

text: The concept of a neural network appears to have first been proposed by Alan Turing in his 1948 paper "Intelligent Machinery" in which he called them "B-type unorganised machines".


title: Neural network

text: The utility of artificial neural network models lies in the fact that they can be used to infer a function from observations and also to use it. Unsupervised neural networks can also be used to learn representations of the input that capture the salient characteristics of the input distribution, e.g., see the Boltzmann machine (1983), and more recently, deep learning algorithms, which can implicitly learn the distribution function of the observed data. Learning in neural networks is particularly useful in applications where the complexity of the data or task makes the design of such functions by hand impractical.


title: Neural network

text: Neural networks can be used in different fields. The tasks to which artificial neural networks are applied tend to fall within the following broad categories:


title: Neural network

text: Application areas of ANNs include nonlinear system identification and control (vehicle control, process control), game-playing and decision making (backgammon, chess, racing), pattern recognition (radar systems, face identification, object recognition), sequence recognition (gesture, speech, handwritten text recognition), medical diagnosis, financial applications, data mining (or knowledge discovery in databases, "KDD"), visualization and e-mail spam filtering. For example, it is possible to create a semantic profile of user's interests emerging from pictures trained for object recognition.


title: Neural network

text: Theoretical and computational neuroscience is the field concerned with the analysis and computational modeling of biological neural systems.


title: Neural network

text: Since neural systems are intimately related to cognitive processes and behaviour, the field is closely related to cognitive and behavioural modeling.


title: Neural network

text: The aim of the field is to create models of biological neural systems in order to understand how biological systems work. To gain this understanding, neuroscientists strive to make a link between observed biological processes (data), biologically plausible mechanisms for neural processing and learning (biological neural network models) and theory (statistical learning theory and information theory).


title: Neural network

text: Many models are used; defined at different levels of abstraction, and modeling different aspects of neural systems. They range from models of the short-term behaviour of individual neurons, through models of the dynamics of neural circuitry arising from interactions between individual neurons, to models of behaviour arising from abstract neural modules that represent complete subsystems. These include models of the long-term and short-term plasticity of neural systems and its relation to learning and memory, from the individual neuron to the system level.


title: Neural network

text: In August 2020 scientists reported that bi-directional connections, or added appropriate feedback connections, can accelerate and improve communication between and in modular neural networks of the brain's cerebral cortex and lower the threshold for their successful communication. They showed that adding feedback connections between a resonance pair can support successful propagation of a single pulse packet throughout the entire network.


title: Neural network

text: Historically, a common criticism of neural networks, particularly in robotics, was that they require a large diversity of training samples for real-world operation. This is not surprising, since any learning machine needs sufficient representative examples in order to capture the underlying structure that allows it to generalize to new cases. Dean Pomerleau, in his research presented in the paper "Knowledge-based Training of Artificial Neural Networks for Autonomous Robot Driving," uses a neural network to train a robotic vehicle to drive on multiple types of roads (single lane, multi-lane, dirt, etc.). A large amount of his research is devoted to (1) extrapolating multiple training scenarios from a single training experience, and (2) preserving past training diversity so that the system does not become overtrained (if, for example, it is presented with a series of right turns—it should not learn to always turn right). These issues are common in neural networks that must decide from amongst a wide variety of responses, but can be dealt with in several ways, for example by randomly shuffling the training examples, by using a numerical optimization algorithm that does not take too large steps when changing the network connections following an example, or by grouping examples in so-called mini-batches.


title: Neural network

text: A. K. Dewdney, a former "Scientific American" columnist, wrote in 1997, "Although neural nets do solve a few toy problems, their powers of computation are so limited that I am surprised anyone takes them seriously as a general problem-solving tool."


title: Neural network

text: Arguments for Dewdney's position are that to implement large and effective software neural networks, much processing and storage resources need to be committed. While the brain has hardware tailored to the task of processing signals through a graph of neurons, simulating even a most simplified form on Von Neumann technology may compel a neural network designer to fill many millions of database rows for its connections—which can consume vast amounts of computer memory and data storage capacity. Furthermore, the designer of neural network systems will often need to simulate the transmission of signals through many of these connections and their associated neurons—which must often be matched with incredible amounts of CPU processing power and time. While neural networks often yield "effective" programs, they too often do so at the cost of "efficiency" (they tend to consume considerable amounts of time and money).


title: Neural network

text: Arguments against Dewdney's position are that neural nets have been successfully used to solve many complex and diverse tasks, such as autonomously flying aircraft.


title: Neural network

text: Neural networks, for instance, are in the dock not only because they have been hyped to high heaven, (what hasn't?) but also because you could create a successful net without understanding how it worked: the bunch of numbers that captures its behaviour would in all probability be "an opaque, unreadable table...valueless as a scientific resource".


title: Neural network

text: In spite of his emphatic declaration that science is not technology, Dewdney seems here to pillory neural nets as bad science when most of those devising them are just trying to be good engineers. An unreadable table that a useful machine could read would still be well worth having.


title: Neural network

text: Although it is true that analyzing what has been learned by an artificial neural network is difficult, it is much easier to do so than to analyze what has been learned by a biological neural network. Moreover, recent emphasis on the explainability of AI has contributed towards the development of methods, notably those based on attention mechanisms, for visualizing and explaining learned neural networks. Furthermore, researchers involved in exploring learning algorithms for neural networks are gradually uncovering generic principles that allow a learning machine to be successful. For example, Bengio and LeCun (2007) wrote an article regarding local vs non-local learning, as well as shallow vs deep architecture.


title: Neural network

text: Some other criticisms came from believers of hybrid models (combining neural networks and symbolic approaches). They advocate the intermix of these two approaches and believe that hybrid models can better capture the mechanisms of the human mind (Sun and Bookman, 1990).


title: Neural network

text: While initially research had been concerned mostly with the electrical characteristics of neurons, a particularly important part of the investigation in recent years has been the exploration of the role of neuromodulators such as dopamine, acetylcholine, and serotonin on behaviour and learning.


title: Neural network

text: Biophysical models, such as BCM theory, have been important in understanding mechanisms for synaptic plasticity, and have had applications in both computer science and neuroscience. Research is ongoing in understanding the computational algorithms used in the brain, with some recent biological evidence for radial basis networks and neural backpropagation as mechanisms for processing data.


title: Neural network

text: Computational devices have been created in CMOS for both biophysical simulation and neuromorphic computing. More recent efforts show promise for creating nanodevices for very large scale principal components analyses and convolution. If successful, these efforts could usher in a new era of neural computing that is a step beyond digital computing, because it depends on learning rather than programming and because it is fundamentally analog rather than digital even though the first instantiations may in fact be with CMOS digital devices.


title: Neural network

text: Between 2009 and 2012, the recurrent neural networks and deep feedforward neural networks developed in the research group of Jürgen Schmidhuber at the Swiss AI Lab IDSIA have won eight international competitions in pattern recognition and machine learning. For example, multi-dimensional long short term memory (LSTM) won three competitions in connected handwriting recognition at the 2009 International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition (ICDAR), without any prior knowledge about the three different languages to be learned.


title: Neural network

text: Variants of the back-propagation algorithm as well as unsupervised methods by Geoff Hinton and colleagues at the University of Toronto can be used to train deep, highly nonlinear neural architectures, similar to the 1980 Neocognitron by Kunihiko Fukushima, and the "standard architecture of vision", inspired by the simple and complex cells identified by David H. Hubel and Torsten Wiesel in the primary visual cortex.


title: Neural network

text: Radial basis function and wavelet networks have also been introduced. These can be shown to offer best approximation properties and have been applied in nonlinear system identification and classification applications.


title: Neural network

text: Deep learning feedforward networks alternate convolutional layers and max-pooling layers, topped by several pure classification layers. Fast GPU-based implementations of this approach have won several pattern recognition contests, including the IJCNN 2011 Traffic Sign Recognition Competition and the ISBI 2012 Segmentation of Neuronal Structures in Electron Microscopy Stacks challenge. Such neural networks also were the first artificial pattern recognizers to achieve human-competitive or even superhuman performance on benchmarks such as traffic sign recognition (IJCNN 2012), or the MNIST handwritten digits problem of Yann LeCun and colleagues at NYU.


title: Locked-in syndrome

text: Locked-in syndrome (LIS), also known as pseudocoma, is a condition in which a patient is aware but cannot move or communicate verbally due to complete paralysis of nearly all voluntary muscles in the body except for vertical eye movements and blinking. The individual is conscious and sufficiently intact cognitively to be able to communicate with eye movements. Electroencephalography results are normal in locked-in syndrome.


title: Locked-in syndrome

text: Total locked-in syndrome, or completely locked-in state (CLIS), is a version of locked-in syndrome wherein the eyes are paralyzed as well. Fred Plum and Jerome B. Posner coined the term for this disorder in 1966.


title: Locked-in syndrome

text: Locked-in syndrome is usually characterized by quadriplegia (loss of limb function) and the inability to speak in otherwise cognitively intact individuals. Those with locked-in syndrome may be able to communicate with others through coded messages by blinking or moving their eyes, which are often not affected by the paralysis. The symptoms are similar to those of sleep paralysis. Patients who have locked-in syndrome are conscious and aware, with no loss of cognitive function. They can sometimes retain proprioception and sensation throughout their bodies. Some patients may have the ability to move certain facial muscles, and most often some or all of the extraocular muscles. Individuals with the syndrome lack coordination between breathing and voice. This prevents them from producing voluntary sounds, though the vocal cords themselves may not be paralysed.


title: Locked-in syndrome

text: Unlike persistent vegetative state, in which the upper portions of the brain are damaged and the lower portions are spared, locked-in syndrome is essentially the opposite, caused by damage to specific portions of the lower brain and brainstem, with no damage to the upper brain. Injuries to the pons are the most common cause of locked-in syndrome.


title: Locked-in syndrome

text: Curare poisoning mimics a total locked-in syndrome by causing paralysis of all voluntarily controlled skeletal muscles. The respiratory muscles are also paralyzed, but the victim can be kept alive by artificial respiration.


title: Locked-in syndrome

text: Locked-in syndrome can be difficult to diagnose. In a 2002 survey of 44 people with LIS, it took almost three months to recognize and diagnose the condition after it had begun. Locked-in syndrome may mimic loss of consciousness in patients, or, in the case that respiratory control is lost, may even resemble death. People are also unable to actuate standard motor responses such as withdrawal from pain; as a result, testing often requires making requests of the patient such as blinking or vertical eye movement.


title: Locked-in syndrome

text: Brain imaging may provide additional indicators of locked-in syndrome, as brain imaging provides clues as to whether or not brain function has been lost. Additionally, an EEG can allow the observation of sleep-wake patterns indicating that the patient is not unconscious but simply unable to move.


title: Locked-in syndrome

text: Neither a standard treatment nor a cure is available. Stimulation of muscle reflexes with electrodes (NMES) has been known to help patients regain some muscle function. Other courses of treatment are often symptomatic. Assistive computer interface technologies such as Dasher, combined with eye tracking, may be used to help people with LIS communicate with their environment.


title: Locked-in syndrome

text: It is extremely rare for any significant motor function to return, with the majority of locked-in syndrome patients never regaining motor control. However, some people with the condition continue to live for extended periods of time, while in exceptional cases, like that of Kerry Pink, Gareth Shepherd, Jacob Haendel, Kate Allatt, and Jessica Wegbrans, a near-full recovery may be achieved with intensive physical therapy.


title: Locked-in syndrome

text: New brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) may provide future remedies. One effort in 2002 allowed a fully locked-in patient to answer yes-or-no questions. In 2006, researchers created and successfully tested a neural interface which allowed someone with locked-in syndrome to operate a web browser. Some scientists have reported that they have developed a technique that allows locked-in patients to communicate via sniffing.


title: Locked-in syndrome

text: For the first time in 2020, a 34- year-old German patient, paralyzed since 2015 (later also the eyeballs) managed to communicate through an implant capable of reading brain activity.


title: Locked-in syndrome

text: 25. Injuries to the pons are the most common cause of locked-in syndrome,Harrison’s principles of internal medicine 21st edition vol 2 page 3332.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Bankruptcy is a legal process through which people or other entities who cannot repay debts to creditors may seek relief from some or all of their debts. In most jurisdictions, bankruptcy is imposed by a court order, often initiated by the debtor.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Bankrupt is not the only legal status that an insolvent person may have, and the term "bankruptcy" is therefore not a synonym for insolvency.


title: Bankruptcy

text: The word "bankruptcy" is derived from Italian "banca rotta", literally meaning "broken bank". The term is often described as having originated in renaissance Italy, where there allegedly existed the tradition of smashing a banker's bench if he defaulted on payment so that the public could see that the banker, the owner of the bench, was no longer in a condition to continue his business, although some dismiss this as a false etymology.


title: Bankruptcy

text: In Ancient Greece, bankruptcy did not exist. If a man owed and he could not pay, he and his wife, children or servants were forced into "debt slavery", until the creditor recouped losses through their physical labour. Many city-states in ancient Greece limited debt slavery to a period of five years; debt slaves had protection of life and limb, which regular slaves did not have. However, servants of the debtor could be retained beyond that deadline by the creditor and were often forced to serve their new lord for a lifetime, usually under significantly harsher conditions. An exception to this rule was Athens, which by the laws of Solon forbade enslavement for debt; as a consequence, most Athenian slaves were foreigners (Greek or otherwise).


title: Bankruptcy

text: The Statute of Bankrupts of 1542 was the first statute under English law dealing with bankruptcy or insolvency. Bankruptcy is also documented in East Asia. According to al-Maqrizi, the Yassa of Genghis Khan contained a provision that mandated the death penalty for anyone who became bankrupt three times.


title: Bankruptcy

text: A failure of a nation to meet bond repayments has been seen on many occasions. In a similar way, Philip II of Spain had to declare four state bankruptcies in 1557, 1560, 1575 and 1596. According to Kenneth S. Rogoff, "Although the development of international capital markets was quite limited prior to 1800, we nevertheless catalog the various defaults of France, Portugal, Prussia, Spain, and the early Italian city-states. At the edge of Europe, Egypt, Russia, and Turkey have histories of chronic default as well."


title: Bankruptcy

text: The principal focus of modern insolvency legislation and business debt restructuring practices no longer rests on the elimination of insolvent entities, but on the remodeling of the financial and organizational structure of debtors experiencing financial distress so as to permit the rehabilitation and continuation of the business.


title: Bankruptcy

text: For private households, it is important to assess the underlying problems and to minimize the risk of financial distress to re-occur. It has been stressed that debt advice, a supervised rehabilitation period, financial education and social help to find sources of income and to improve the management of household expenditures must be equally provided during this period of rehabilitation (Refiner "et al.", 2003; Gerhardt, 2009; Frade, 2010). In most EU Member States, debt discharge is conditioned by a partial payment obligation and by a number of requirements concerning the debtor's behavior. In the United States (US), discharge is conditioned to a lesser extent. The spectrum is broad in the EU, with the UK coming closest to the US system (Reifner et al., 2003; Gerhardt, 2009; Frade, 2010). The Other Member States do not provide the option of a debt discharge. Spain, for example, passed a bankruptcy law ("ley concurs") in 2003 which provides for debt settlement plans that can result in a reduction of the debt (maximally half of the amount) or an extension of the payment period of maximally five years (Gerhardt, 2009), but it does not foresee debt discharge.


title: Bankruptcy

text: In the US, it is very difficult to discharge federal or federally guaranteed student loan debt by filing bankruptcy. Unlike most other debts, those student loans may be discharged only if the person seeking discharge establishes specific grounds for discharge under the "Brunner" test, under which the court evaluates three factors:


title: Bankruptcy

text: Even if a debtor proves all three elements, a court may permit only a partial discharge of the student loan. Student loan borrowers may benefit from restructuring their payments through a Chapter 13 bankruptcy repayment plan, but few qualify for discharge of part or all of their student loan debt.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Bankruptcy fraud is a white-collar crime most typically involving concealment of assets by a debtor to avoid liquidation in bankruptcy proceedings. It may include filing of false information, multiple filings in different jurisdictions, bribery, and other acts.


title: Bankruptcy

text: While difficult to generalize across jurisdictions, common criminal acts under bankruptcy statutes typically involve concealment of assets, concealment or destruction of documents, conflicts of interest, fraudulent claims, false statements or declarations, and fee fixing or redistribution arrangements. Falsifications on bankruptcy forms often constitute perjury. Multiple filings are not in and of themselves criminal, but they may violate provisions of bankruptcy law. In the U.S., bankruptcy fraud statutes are particularly focused on the mental state of particular actions. Bankruptcy fraud is a federal crime in the United States.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Bankruptcy fraud should be distinguished from "strategic bankruptcy", which is not a criminal act since it creates a real (not a fake) bankruptcy state. However, it may still work against the filer.


title: Bankruptcy

text: All assets must be disclosed in bankruptcy schedules whether or not the debtor believes the asset has a net value. This is because once a bankruptcy petition is filed, it is for the creditors, not the debtor, to decide whether a particular asset has value. The future ramifications of omitting assets from schedules can be quite serious for the offending debtor. In the United States, a closed bankruptcy may be reopened by motion of a creditor or the U.S. trustee if a debtor attempts to later assert ownership of such an "unscheduled asset" after being discharged of all debt in the bankruptcy. The trustee may then seize the asset and liquidate it for the benefit of the (formerly discharged) creditors. Whether or not a concealment of such an asset should also be considered for prosecution as fraud or perjury would then be at the discretion of the judge or U.S. Trustee.


title: Bankruptcy

text: In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, bankruptcy is limited to individuals; other forms of insolvency proceedings (such as liquidation and administration) are applied to companies. In the United States, "bankruptcy" is applied more broadly to formal insolvency proceedings. In some countries, such as in Finland bankruptcy is limited only to companies and individuals who are insolvent are condemned to de facto indentured servitude or minimum social benefits until their debts are paid in full, with accrued interest except when the court decides to show rare clemency by accepting a debtors application for debt restructuring, in which case an individual may have the amount of remaining debt reduced or be released from the debt. In France, the cognate French word "banqueroute" is used solely for cases of fraudulent bankruptcy, whereas the term "faillite" (cognate of "failure") is used for bankruptcy in accordance with the law.


title: Bankruptcy

text: In Argentina the national Act "24.522 de Concursos y Quiebras" regulates the Bankruptcy and the Reorganization of the individuals and companies, public entities are not included.


title: Bankruptcy

text: A person may be declared bankrupt with an application submitted to the court by the creditor or with an application to recognize his own bankruptcy.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Legal and natural persons, including individual entrepreneurs, who have an indisputable payment obligation exceeding 60 days and amounting to more than one million AMD can be declared bankrupt.


title: Bankruptcy

text: All creditors, including the state and municipalities, to whom the person has an obligation that meets the above-mentioned minimum criteria can submit an application to declare a person bankrupt by compulsory procedure. Basically, these obligations are derived from the legal acts of the court, transactions, the obligation of the debtor to pay taxes, duties, and other fees defined by law.


title: Bankruptcy

text: At the same time, when being declared bankrupt with a voluntary bankruptcy application, the applicant bears the obligation to prove the fact that the value of his assets is less than his assets by one million AMD or more.


title: Bankruptcy

text: In Australia, bankruptcy is a status which applies to individuals and is governed by the federal "Bankruptcy Act 1966". Companies do not go bankrupt but rather go into liquidation or administration, which is governed by the federal "Corporations Act 2001".


title: Bankruptcy

text: If a person commits an act of bankruptcy, then a creditor can apply to the Federal Circuit Court or the Federal Court for a sequestration order. Acts of bankruptcy are defined in the legislation, and include the failure to comply with a bankruptcy notice. A bankruptcy notice can be issued where, among other cases, a person fails to pay a judgment debt of at least $5,000. A person can also seek to have themselves declared bankrupt for any amount of debt by lodging a debtor's petition with the "Official Receiver", which is the Australian Financial Security Authority (AFSA).


title: Bankruptcy

text: All bankrupts must lodge a Statement of Affairs document, also known as a Bankruptcy Form, with AFSA, which includes important information about their assets and liabilities. A bankruptcy cannot be discharged until this document has been lodged.


title: Bankruptcy

text: A Bankruptcy Trustee (in most cases, the Official Trustee at AFSA) is appointed to deal with all matters regarding the administration of the bankrupt estate. The Trustee's job includes notifying creditors of the estate and dealing with creditor inquiries; ensuring that the bankrupt complies with their obligations under the Bankruptcy Act; investigating the bankrupt's financial affairs; realising funds to which the estate is entitled under the Bankruptcy Act and distributing dividends to creditors if sufficient funds become available.


title: Bankruptcy

text: For the duration of their bankruptcy, all bankrupts have certain restrictions placed upon them. For example, a bankrupt must obtain the permission of their trustee to travel overseas. Failure to do so may result in the bankrupt being stopped at the airport by the Australian Federal Police. Additionally, a bankrupt is required to provide their trustee with details of income and assets. If the bankrupt does not comply with the Trustee's request to provide details of income, the trustee may have grounds to lodge an Objection to Discharge, which has the effect of extending the bankruptcy for a further three or five years depending on the type of Objection.


title: Bankruptcy

text: The realisation of funds usually comes from two main sources: the bankrupt's assets and the bankrupt's wages. There are certain assets that are protected, referred to as "protected assets". These include household furniture and appliances, tools of the trade and vehicles up to a certain value. All other assets of value can be sold. If a house, including the main residence, or car is above a certain value, a third party can buy the interest from the estate in order for the bankrupt to utilise the asset. If this is not done, the interest vests in the estate and the trustee is able to take possession of the asset and sell it.


title: Bankruptcy

text: The bankrupt must pay income contributions if their income is above a certain threshold. If the bankrupt fails to pay, the trustee can ask the Official Receiver to issue a notice to garnishee the bankrupt's wages. If that is not possible, the Trustee may seek to extend the bankruptcy for a further three or five years.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Bankruptcies can be annulled, and the bankrupt released from bankruptcy, prior to the expiration of the normal three-year period if all debts are paid out in full. Sometimes a bankrupt may be able to raise enough funds to make an Offer of Composition to creditors, which would have the effect of paying the creditors some of the money they are owed. If the creditors accept the offer, the bankruptcy can be annulled after the funds are received.


title: Bankruptcy

text: After the bankruptcy is annulled or the bankrupt has been automatically discharged, the bankrupt's credit report status is shown as "discharged bankrupt" for some years. The maximum number of years this information can be held is subject to the retention limits under the Privacy Act. How long such information is on a credit report may be shorter, depending on the issuing company, but the report must cease to record that information based on the criteria in the Privacy Act.


title: Bankruptcy

text: In Brazil, the Bankruptcy Law (11.101/05) governs court-ordered or out-of-court receivership and bankruptcy and only applies to public companies (publicly traded companies) with the exception of financial institutions, credit cooperatives, consortia, supplementary scheme entities, companies administering health care plans, equity companies and a few other legal entities. It does not apply to state-run companies.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Current law covers three legal proceedings. The first one is bankruptcy itself ("Falência"). Bankruptcy is a court-ordered liquidation procedure for an insolvent business. The final goal of bankruptcy is to liquidate company assets and pay its creditors.


title: Bankruptcy

text: The second one is Court-ordered Restructuring ("Recuperação Judicial"). The goal is to overcome the business crisis situation of the debtor in order to allow the continuation of the producer, the employment of workers and the interests of creditors, leading, thus, to preserving company, its corporate function and develop economic activity. It's a court procedure required by the debtor which has been in business for more than two years and requires approval by a judge.


title: Bankruptcy

text: The Extrajudicial Restructuring ("Recuperação Extrajudicial") is a private negotiation that involves creditors and debtors and, as with court-ordered restructuring, also must be approved by courts.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Bankruptcy, also referred to as insolvency in Canada, is governed by the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act and is applicable to businesses and individuals. For example, Target Canada, the Canadian subsidiary of the Target Corporation, the second-largest discount retailer in the United States filed for bankruptcy on January 15, 2015, and closed all of its stores by April 12. The office of the Superintendent of Bankruptcy, a federal agency, is responsible for overseeing that bankruptcies are administered in a fair and orderly manner by all licensed Trustees in Canada.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Trustees in bankruptcy, 1041 individuals licensed to administer insolvencies, bankruptcy and proposal estates are governed by the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act of Canada.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Bankruptcy is filed when a person or a company becomes insolvent and cannot pay their debts as they become due and if they have at least $1,000 in debt.


title: Bankruptcy

text: In 2011, the Superintendent of bankruptcy reported that trustees in Canada filed 127,774 insolvent estates. Consumer estates were the vast majority, with 122 999 estates. The consumer portion of the 2011 volume is divided into 77,993 bankruptcies and 45,006 consumer proposals. This represented a reduction of 8.9% from 2010. Commercial estates filed by Canadian trustees in 2011 4,775 estates, 3,643 bankruptcies and 1,132 Division 1 proposals. This represents a reduction of 8.6% over 2010.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Creditors become involved by attending creditors' meetings. The trustee calls the first meeting of creditors for the following purposes:


title: Bankruptcy

text: In Canada, a person can file a consumer proposal as an alternative to bankruptcy. A consumer proposal is a negotiated settlement between a debtor and their creditors.


title: Bankruptcy

text: A typical proposal would involve a debtor making monthly payments for a maximum of five years, with the funds distributed to their creditors. Even though most proposals call for payments of less than the full amount of the debt owing, in most cases, the creditors accept the deal—because if they do not, the next alternative may be personal bankruptcy, in which the creditors get even less money. The creditors have 45 days to accept or reject the consumer proposal. Once the proposal is accepted by both the creditors and the Court, the debtor makes the payments to the Proposal Administrator each month (or as otherwise stipulated in their proposal), and the general creditors are prevented from taking any further legal or collection action. If the proposal is rejected, the debtor is returned to his prior insolvent state and may have no alternative but to declare personal bankruptcy.


title: Bankruptcy

text: A consumer proposal can only be made by a debtor with debts to a maximum of $250,000 (not including the mortgage on their principal residence). If debts are greater than $250,000, the proposal must be filed under Division 1 of Part III of the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act. An Administrator is required in the Consumer Proposal, and a Trustee in the Division I Proposal (these are virtually the same although the terms are not interchangeable). A Proposal Administrator is almost always a licensed trustee in bankruptcy, although the Superintendent of Bankruptcy may appoint other people to serve as administrators.


title: Bankruptcy

text: In 2006, there were 98,450 personal insolvency filings in Canada: 79,218 bankruptcies and 19,232 consumer proposals.


title: Bankruptcy

text: In Canada, bankruptcy always means liquidation. There is no way for a company to emerge from bankruptcy after restructuring, as is the case in the United States with a Chapter 11 bankruptcy filing. Canada does, however, have laws that allow for businesses to restructure and emerge later with a smaller debtload and a more positive financial future. While not technically a form of bankruptcy, businesses with $5M or more in debt may make use of the Companies' Creditors Arrangement Act to halt all debt recovery efforts against the company while they formulate a plan to restructure.


title: Bankruptcy

text: The People's Republic of China legalized bankruptcy in 1986, and a revised law that was more expansive and complete was enacted in 2007.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Bankruptcy in Ireland applies only to natural persons. Other insolvency processes including liquidation and examinership are used to deal with corporate insolvency.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Irish bankruptcy law has been the subject of significant comment, from both government sources and the media, as being in need of reform. Part 7 of the Civil Law (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 2011 has started this process and the government has committed to further reform.


title: Bankruptcy

text: The Parliament of India in the first week of May 2016 passed Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code 2016 (New Code). Earlier a clear law on corporate bankruptcy did not exist, even though individual bankruptcy laws have been in existence since 1874. The earlier law in force was enacted in 1920 called the Provincial Insolvency Act.


title: Bankruptcy

text: The legal definitions of the terms bankruptcy, insolvency, liquidation and dissolution are contested in the Indian legal system. There is no regulation or statute legislated upon bankruptcy which denotes a condition of inability to meet a demand of a creditor as is common in many other jurisdictions.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Winding up of companies was in the jurisdiction of the courts which can take a decade even after the company has actually been declared insolvent. On the other hand, supervisory restructuring at the behest of the Board of Industrial and Financial Reconstruction is generally undertaken using receivership by a public entity.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Dutch bankruptcy law is governed by the Dutch Bankruptcy Code ("Faillissementswet"). The code covers three separate legal proceedings.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Federal Law No. 127-FZ "On Insolvency (Bankruptcy)" dated 26 October 2002 (as amended) (the "Bankruptcy Act"), replacing the previous law in 1998, to better address the above problems and a broader failure of the action.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Russian insolvency law is intended for a wide range of borrowers: individuals and companies of all sizes, with the exception of state-owned enterprises, government agencies, political parties and religious organizations. There are also special rules for insurance companies, professional participants of the securities market, agricultural organizations and other special laws for financial institutions and companies in the natural monopolies in the energy industry.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Federal Law No. 40-FZ "On Insolvency (Bankruptcy)" dated 25 February 1999 (as amended) (the "Insolvency Law of Credit Institutions") contains special provisions in relation to the opening of insolvency proceedings in relation to the credit company. Insolvency Provisions Act, credit organizations used in conjunction with the provisions of the Bankruptcy Act.


title: Bankruptcy

text: The main face of the bankruptcy process is the insolvency officer (trustee in bankruptcy, bankruptcy manager). At various stages of bankruptcy, he must be determined: the temporary officer in Monitoring procedure, external manager in External control, the receiver or administrative officer in The economic recovery, the liquidator. During the bankruptcy trustee in bankruptcy (insolvency officer) has a decisive influence on the movement of assets (property) of the debtor - the debtor and has a key influence on the economic and legal aspects of its operations.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Under Swiss law, bankruptcy can be a consequence of insolvency. It is a court-ordered form of debt enforcement proceedings that applies, in general, to registered commercial entities only. In a bankruptcy, all assets of the debtor are liquidated under the administration of the creditors, although the law provides for debt restructuring options similar to those under Chapter 11 of the U.S. Bankruptcy code.


title: Bankruptcy

text: In Sweden, bankruptcy (Swedish: konkurs) is a formal process that may involve a company or individual. It is not the same as insolvency, which is inability to pay debts that should have been paid. A creditor or the company itself can apply for bankruptcy. An external bankruptcy manager takes over the company or the assets of the person, and tries to sell as much as possible. A person or a company in bankruptcy can not access its assets (with some exceptions).


title: Bankruptcy

text: The formal bankruptcy process is rarely carried out for individuals. Creditors can claim money through the Enforcement Administration anyway, and creditors do not usually benefit from the bankruptcy of individuals because there are costs of a bankruptcy manager which has priority. Unpaid debts remain after bankruptcy for individuals. People who are deeply in debt can obtain a debt arrangement procedure (Swedish: skuldsanering). On application, they obtain a payment plan under which they pay as much as they can for five years, and then all remaining debts are cancelled. Debts that derive from a ban on business operations (issued by court, commonly for tax fraud or fraudulent business practices) or owed to a crime victim as compensation for damages, are exempted from this—and, as before this process was introduced in 2006, remain lifelong. Debts that have not been claimed during a 3-10 year period are cancelled. Often crime victims stop their claims after a few years since criminals often do not have job incomes and might be hard to locate, while banks make sure their claims are not cancelled. The most common reasons for personal insolvency in Sweden are illness, unemployment, divorce or company bankruptcy.


title: Bankruptcy

text: For companies, formal bankruptcy is a normal effect of insolvency, even if there is a reconstruction mechanism where the company can be given time to solve its situation, e.g. by finding an investor. The formal bankruptcy involves contracting a bankruptcy manager, who makes certain that assets are sold and money divided by the priority the law claims, and no other way. Banks have such a priority. After a finished bankruptcy for a company, it is terminated. The activities might continue in a new company which has bought important assets from the bankrupted company.


title: Bankruptcy

text: The United Arab Emirates Bankruptcy Law came into force on 29 December 2016, and created a single law governing bankruptcy procedures, which had previously been spread across multiple sources. There are two court procedures: first, a procedure for a company that is not yet insolvent, known as a protective composition, and second, a formal bankruptcy that is split into a rescue process (similar to protective composition) or liquidation.


title: Bankruptcy

text: The Bankruptcy Law does not apply to government bodies, or to companies trading in free zones such as the Dubai International Financial Centre or the Abu Dhabi Global Market, which have their own insolvency laws.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Bankruptcy in the United Kingdom (in a strict legal sense) relates only to individuals (including sole proprietors) and partnerships. Companies and other corporations enter into differently named legal insolvency procedures: liquidation and administration (administration order and administrative receivership). However, the term 'bankruptcy' is often used when referring to companies in the media and in general conversation. Bankruptcy in Scotland is referred to as sequestration. To apply for bankruptcy in Scotland, an individual must have more than £1,500 of debt.


title: Bankruptcy

text: A trustee in bankruptcy must be either an Official Receiver (a civil servant) or a licensed insolvency practitioner. Current law in England and Wales derives in large part from the Insolvency Act 1986. Following the introduction of the Enterprise Act 2002, a UK bankruptcy now normally last no longer than 12 months, and may be less if the Official Receiver files in court a certificate that investigations are complete. It was expected that the UK Government's liberalization of the UK bankruptcy regime would increase the number of bankruptcy cases; initially, cases increased, as the Insolvency Service statistics appear to bear out. Since 2009, the introduction of the Debt Relief Order has resulted in a dramatic fall in bankruptcies, the latest estimates for year 2014/15 being significantly less than 30,000 cases.


title: Bankruptcy

text: The UK bankruptcy law was changed in May 2000, effective May 29, 2000. Debtors may now retain occupational pensions while in bankruptcy, except in rare cases.


title: Bankruptcy

text: The Government have updated legislation (2016) to streamline the application process for UK bankruptcy. UK residents now need to apply online for bankruptcy - there is an upfront fee of £680. The process for residents of Northern Ireland differs - applicants must follow the older process of applying through the courts.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Bankruptcy in the United States is a matter placed under federal jurisdiction by the United States Constitution (in Article 1, Section 8, Clause 4), which empowers Congress to enact "uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States". Congress has enacted statutes governing bankruptcy, primarily in the form of the Bankruptcy Code, located at Title 11 of the United States Code.


title: Bankruptcy

text: A debtor declares bankruptcy to obtain relief from debt, and this is normally accomplished either through a discharge of the debt or through a restructuring of the debt. When a debtor files a voluntary petition, their bankruptcy case commences.


title: Bankruptcy

text: While bankruptcy cases are always filed in United States Bankruptcy Court (an adjunct to the U.S. District Courts), bankruptcy cases, particularly with respect to the validity of claims and exemptions, are often dependent upon State law. A Bankruptcy Exemption defines the property a debtor may retain and preserve through bankruptcy. Certain real and personal property can be exempted on "Schedule C" of a debtor's bankruptcy forms, and effectively be taken outside the debtor's bankruptcy estate. Bankruptcy exemptions are available only to individuals filing bankruptcy.


title: Bankruptcy

text: There are two alternative systems that can be used to "exempt" property from a bankruptcy estate, federal exemptions (available in some states but not all), and state exemptions (which vary widely between states). For example, Maryland and Virginia, which are adjoining states, have different personal exemption amounts that cannot be seized for payment of debts. This amount is the first $6,000 in property or cash in Maryland, but normally only the first $5,000 in Virginia. State law therefore plays a major role in many bankruptcy cases, such that there may be significant differences in the outcome of a bankruptcy case depending upon the state in which it is filed.


title: Bankruptcy

text: After a bankruptcy petition is filed, the court schedules a hearing called a "341 meeting" or "meeting of creditors", at which the bankruptcy trustee and creditors review the petitioner's petition and supporting schedules, question the petitioner, and can challenge exemptions they believe are improper.


title: Bankruptcy

text: There are six types of bankruptcy under the Bankruptcy Code, located at Title 11 of the United States Code:


title: Bankruptcy

text: An important feature applicable to all types of bankruptcy filings is the automatic stay. The automatic stay means that the mere request for bankruptcy protection automatically halts most lawsuits, repossessions, foreclosures, evictions, garnishments, attachments, utility shut-offs, and debt collection activity.


title: Bankruptcy

text: The most common types of personal bankruptcy for individuals are Chapter 7 and Chapter 13. Chapter 7, known as a "straight bankruptcy", involves the discharge of certain debts without repayment. Chapter 13 involves a plan of repayment of debts over a period of years. Whether a person qualifies for Chapter 7 or Chapter 13 is in part determined by income. As many as 65% of all US consumer bankruptcy filings are Chapter 7 cases.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Before a consumer may obtain bankruptcy relief under either Chapter 7 or Chapter 13, the debtor is to undertake credit counseling with approved counseling agencies prior to filing a bankruptcy petition and to undertake education in personal financial management from approved agencies prior to being granted a discharge of debts under either Chapter 7 or Chapter 13. Some studies of the operation of the credit counseling requirement suggest that it provides little benefit to debtors who receive the counseling because the only realistic option for many is to seek relief under the Bankruptcy Code.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Often called "straight bankruptcy" or "simple bankruptcy", a Chapter 7 bankruptcy potentially allows debtors to eliminate most or all of their debts over a period of as little as three or four months. In a typical consumer bankruptcy, the only debts that survive a Chapter 7 are student loans, child support obligations, some tax bills, and criminal fines. Credit cards, pay day loans, personal loans, medical bills, and just about all other bills are discharged.


title: Bankruptcy

text: In Chapter 7, a debtor surrenders non-exempt property to a bankruptcy trustee, who then liquidates the property and distributes the proceeds to the debtor's unsecured creditors. In exchange, the debtor is entitled to a discharge of some debt. However, the debtor is not granted a discharge if guilty of certain types of inappropriate behavior (e.g., concealing records relating to financial condition) and certain debts (e.g., spousal and child support and most student loans). Some taxes are not discharged even though the debtor is generally discharged from debt. Many individuals in financial distress own only exempt property (e.g., clothes, household goods, an older car, or the tools of their trade or profession) and do not have to surrender any property to the trustee. The amount of property that a debtor may exempt varies from state to state (as noted above, Virginia and Maryland have a $1,000 difference.) Chapter 7 relief is available only once in any eight-year period. Generally, the rights of secured creditors to their collateral continues, even though their debt is discharged. For example, absent some arrangement by a debtor to surrender a car or "reaffirm" a debt, the creditor with a security interest in the debtor's car may repossess the car even if the debt to the creditor is discharged.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Ninety-one percent of US individuals who petition for relief under Chapter 7 hire an attorney to file their petitions. The typical cost of an attorney is $1,170.00. Alternatives to filing with an attorney are: filing pro se, hiring a non-lawyer petition preparer, or using online software to generate the petition.


title: Bankruptcy

text: To be eligible to file a consumer bankruptcy under Chapter 7, a debtor must qualify under a statutory "means test". The means test was intended to make it more difficult for a significant number of financially distressed individual debtors whose debts are primarily consumer debts to qualify for relief under Chapter 7 of the Bankruptcy Code. The "means test" is employed in cases where an individual with primarily consumer debts has more than the average annual income for a household of equivalent size, computed over a 180-day period prior to filing. If the individual must "take" the "means test", their average monthly income over this 180-day period is reduced by a series of allowances for living expenses and secured debt payments in a very complex calculation that may or may not accurately reflect that individual's actual monthly budget. If the results of the means test show no disposable income (or in some cases a very small amount) then the individual qualifies for Chapter 7 relief. An individual who fails the means test will have their Chapter 7 case dismissed, or may have to convert the case to a Chapter 13 bankruptcy.


title: Bankruptcy

text: If a debtor does not qualify for relief under Chapter 7 of the Bankruptcy Code, either because of the Means Test or because Chapter 7 does not provide a permanent solution to delinquent payments for secured debts, such as mortgages or vehicle loans, the debtor may still seek relief under Chapter 13 of the Code.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Generally, a trustee sells most of the debtor's assets to pay off creditors. However, certain debtor assets will be protected to some extent by bankruptcy exemptions. These include Social Security payments, unemployment compensation, limited equity in a home, car, or truck, household goods and appliances, trade tools, and books. However, these exemptions vary from state to state.


title: Bankruptcy

text: In Chapter 11 bankruptcy, the debtor retains ownership and control of assets and is re-termed a debtor in possession (DIP). The debtor in possession runs the day-to-day operations of the business while creditors and the debtor work with the Bankruptcy Court in order to negotiate and complete a plan. Upon meeting certain requirements (e.g., fairness among creditors, priority of certain creditors) creditors are permitted to vote on the proposed plan. If a plan is confirmed, the debtor continues to operate and pay debts under the terms of the confirmed plan. If a specified majority of creditors do not vote to confirm a plan, additional requirements may be imposed by the court in order to confirm the plan. Debtors filing for Chapter 11 protection a second time are known informally as "Chapter 22" filers.


title: Bankruptcy

text: In a corporate or business bankruptcy, an indebted company is typically recapitalized so that it emerges from bankruptcy with more equity and less debt, with potential for dispute over the valuation of the reorganized business.


title: Bankruptcy

text: In Chapter 13, debtors retain ownership and possession of all their assets but must devote some portion of future income to repaying creditors, generally over three to five years. The amount of payment and period of the repayment plan depend upon a variety of factors, including the value of the debtor's property and the amount of a debtor's income and expenses. Under this chapter, the debtor can propose a repayment plan in which to pay creditors over three to five years. If the monthly income is less than the state's median income, the plan is for three years, unless the court finds "just cause" to extend the plan for a longer period. If the debtor's monthly income is greater than the median income for individuals in the debtor's state, the plan must generally be for five years. A plan cannot exceed the five-year limit.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Relief under Chapter 13 is available only to individuals with regular income whose debts do not exceed prescribed limits. If the debtor is an individual or a sole proprietor, the debtor is allowed to file for a Chapter 13 bankruptcy to repay all or part of the debts. Secured creditors may be entitled to greater payment than unsecured creditors.


title: Bankruptcy

text: In contrast to Chapter 7, the debtor in Chapter 13 may keep all property, whether or not exempt. If the plan appears feasible and if the debtor complies with all the other requirements, the bankruptcy court typically confirms the plan and the debtor and creditors are bound by its terms. Creditors have no say in the formulation of the plan, other than to object to it, if appropriate, on the grounds that it does not comply with one of the Code's statutory requirements. Generally, the debtor makes payments to a trustee who disburses the funds in accordance with the terms of the confirmed plan.


title: Bankruptcy

text: When the debtor completes payments pursuant to the terms of the plan, the court formally grant the debtor a discharge of the debts provided for in the plan. However, if the debtor fails to make the agreed upon payments or fails to seek or gain court approval of a modified plan, a bankruptcy court will normally dismiss the case on the motion of the trustee. After a dismissal, creditors may resume pursuit of state law remedies to recover the unpaid debt.


title: Bankruptcy

text: In 2004, the number of insolvencies reached record highs in many European countries. In France, company insolvencies rose by more than 4%, in Austria by more than 10%, and in Greece by more than 20%. The increase in the number of insolvencies, however, does not indicate the total financial impact of insolvencies in each country because there is no indication of the size of each case. An increase in the number of bankruptcy cases does not necessarily entail an increase in bad debt write-off rates for the economy as a whole.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Bankruptcy statistics are also a trailing indicator. There is a time delay between financial difficulties and bankruptcy. In most cases, several months or even years pass between the financial problems and the start of bankruptcy proceedings. Legal, tax, and cultural issues may further distort bankruptcy figures, especially when comparing on an international basis. Two examples:


title: Bankruptcy

text: The insolvency numbers for private individuals also do not show the whole picture. Only a fraction of heavily indebted households file for insolvency. Two of the main reasons for this are the stigma of declaring themselves insolvent and the potential business disadvantage.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Following the soar in insolvencies in the last decade, a number of European countries, such as France, Germany, Spain and Italy, began to revamp their bankruptcy laws in 2013. They modelled these new laws after the image of Chapter 11 of the U.S. Bankruptcy Code. Currently, the majority of insolvency cases have ended in liquidation in Europe rather than the businesses surviving the crisis. These new law models are meant to change this; lawmakers are hoping to turn bankruptcy into a chance for restructuring rather than a death sentence for the companies.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Technically, states do not collapse directly due to a sovereign default event itself. However, the tumultuous events that follow may bring down the state, so in common language we do describe states as being bankrupted.


title: Bankruptcy

text: Some examples of this are when a Korean state bankrupted Imperial China causing its destruction, or more specifically, when Chang'an's (Sui Dynasty) war with Pyongyang (Goguryeo) in 614 A.D. ended in the former's disintegration within 4 years, although the latter also seemingly entered into decline and fell some 56 years later. Another example is when the United States, with heavy financial backing from its allies (creditors), bankrupted the Soviet Union which led to the latter's demise.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: Bash is a Unix shell and command language written by Brian Fox for the GNU Project as a free software replacement for the Bourne shell. First released in 1989, it has been used as the default login shell for most Linux distributions. Bash was one of the first programs Linus Torvalds ported to Linux, alongside GCC. A version is also available for Windows 10 and Windows 11 via the Windows Subsystem for Linux. It is also the default user shell in Solaris 11. Bash was also the default shell in versions of Apple macOS from 10.3 (originally, the default shell was tcsh) to the 2019 release of macOS Catalina, which changed the default shell to zsh, although Bash remains available as an alternative shell.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: Bash is a command processor that typically runs in a text window where the user types commands that cause actions. Bash can also read and execute commands from a file, called a shell script. Like most Unix shells, it supports filename globbing (wildcard matching), piping, here documents, command substitution, variables, and control structures for condition-testing and iteration. The keywords, syntax, dynamically scoped variables and other basic features of the language are all copied from sh. Other features, e.g., history, are copied from csh and ksh. Bash is a POSIX-compliant shell, but with a number of extensions.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: The shell's name is an acronym for "Bourne Again Shell", a pun on the name of the Bourne shell that it replaces and the notion of being "born again".


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: A security hole in Bash dating from version 1.03 (August 1989), dubbed Shellshock, was discovered in early September 2014 and quickly led to a range of attacks across the Internet. Patches to fix the bugs were made available soon after the bugs were identified.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: Brian Fox began coding Bash on January 10, 1988, after Richard Stallman became dissatisfied with the lack of progress being made by a prior developer. Stallman and the Free Software Foundation (FSF) considered a free shell that could run existing shell scripts so strategic to a completely free system built from BSD and GNU code that this was one of the few projects they funded themselves, with Fox undertaking the work as an employee of FSF. Fox released Bash as a beta, version .99, on June 8, 1989, and remained the primary maintainer until sometime between mid-1992 and mid-1994, when he was laid off from FSF and his responsibility was transitioned to another early contributor, Chet Ramey.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: Since then, Bash has become by far the most popular shell among users of Linux, becoming the default interactive shell on that operating system's various distributions (although Almquist shell may be the default scripting shell) and on Apple's macOS releases before Catalina in October 2019. Bash has also been ported to Microsoft Windows and distributed with Cygwin and MinGW, to DOS by the DJGPP project, to Novell NetWare, to OpenVMS by the GNV project, to ArcaOS, and to Android via various terminal emulation applications.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: In September 2014, Stéphane Chazelas, a Unix/Linux specialist, discovered a security bug in the program. The bug, first disclosed on September 24, was named Shellshock and assigned the numbers . The bug was regarded as severe, since CGI scripts using Bash could be vulnerable, enabling arbitrary code execution. The bug was related to how Bash passes function definitions to subshells through environment variables.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: The Bash command syntax is a superset of the Bourne shell command syntax. Bash supports brace expansion, command line completion (Programmable Completion), basic debugging and signal handling (using codice_1) since bash 2.05a among other features. Bash can execute the vast majority of Bourne shell scripts without modification, with the exception of Bourne shell scripts stumbling into fringe syntax behavior interpreted differently in Bash or attempting to run a system command matching a newer Bash builtin, etc. Bash command syntax includes ideas drawn from the KornShell (ksh) and the C shell (csh) such as command line editing, command history (codice_2 command), the directory stack, the codice_3 and codice_4 variables, and POSIX command substitution syntax codice_5.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: When a user presses the tab key within an interactive command-shell, Bash automatically uses command line completion, since beta version 2.04, to match partly typed program names, filenames and variable names. The Bash command-line completion system is very flexible and customizable, and is often packaged with functions that complete arguments and filenames for specific programs and tasks.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: Bash's syntax has many extensions lacking in the Bourne shell. Bash can perform integer calculations ("arithmetic evaluation") without spawning external processes. It uses the codice_6 command and the codice_7 variable syntax for this purpose. Its syntax simplifies I/O redirection. For example, it can redirect standard output (stdout) and standard error (stderr) at the same time using the codice_8 operator. This is simpler to type than the Bourne shell equivalent 'codice_9'. Bash supports process substitution using the codice_10 and codice_11syntax, which substitutes the output of (or input to) a command where a filename is normally used. (This is implemented through "/proc/fd/" unnamed pipes on systems that support that, or via temporary named pipes where necessary).


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: When using the 'function' keyword, Bash function declarations are not compatible with Bourne/Korn/POSIX scripts (the KornShell has the same problem when using 'function'), but Bash accepts the same function declaration syntax as the Bourne and Korn shells, and is POSIX-conformant. Because of these and other differences, Bash shell scripts are rarely runnable under the Bourne or Korn shell interpreters unless deliberately written with that compatibility in mind, which is becoming less common as Linux becomes more widespread. But in POSIX mode, Bash conforms with POSIX more closely.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: Bash supports here documents. Since version 2.05b Bash can redirect standard input (stdin) from a "here string" using the codice_12 operator.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: Associative array indices are strings, in a manner similar to AWK or Tcl. They can be used to emulate multidimensional arrays. Bash 4 also switches its license to GPL-3.0-or-later; some users suspect this licensing change is why MacOS continues to use older versions. Apple finally stopped using Bash in their operating systems as default shell with the release of MacOS Catalina in 2019.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: Brace expansion, also called alternation, is a feature copied from the C shell. It generates a set of alternative combinations. Generated results need not exist as files. The results of each expanded string are not sorted and left to right order is preserved:


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: Users should not use brace expansions in portable shell scripts, because the Bourne shell does not produce the same output.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: When brace expansion is combined with wildcards, the braces are expanded first, and then the resulting wildcards are substituted normally. Hence, a listing of JPEG and PNG images in the current directory could be obtained using:


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: In addition to alternation, brace expansion can be used for sequential ranges between two integers or characters separated by double dots. Newer versions of Bash allow a third integer to specify the increment.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: When brace expansion is combined with variable expansion (A.K.A. "parameter expansion" and "parameter substitution") the variable expansion is performed "after" the brace expansion, which in some cases may necessitate the use of the codice_13 built-in, thus:


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: When Bash starts, it executes the commands in a variety of dot files. Unlike Bash shell scripts, dot files do not typically have execute permission enabled nor an interpreter directive like codice_14.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: The skeleton codice_15 below is compatible with the Bourne shell and gives semantics similar to csh for the codice_16 and codice_17. The codice_18 is a short-circuit evaluation that tests if "filename" exists and is readable, skipping the part after the codice_19 if it is not.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: Some versions of Unix and Linux contain Bash system startup scripts, generally under the codice_20 directories. Bash calls these as part of its standard initialization, but other startup files can read them in a different order than the documented Bash startup sequence. The default content of the root user's files may also have issues, as well as the skeleton files the system provides to new user accounts upon setup. The startup scripts that launch the X window system may also do surprising things with the user's Bash startup scripts in an attempt to set up user-environment variables before launching the window manager. These issues can often be addressed using a codice_21 or codice_22 file to read the codice_23 — which provides the environment variables that Bash shell windows spawned from the window manager need, such as xterm or Gnome Terminal.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: Invoking Bash with the codice_24 option or stating codice_25 in a script causes Bash to conform very closely to the POSIX 1003.2 standard. Bash shell scripts intended for portability should take into account at least the POSIX shell standard. Some bash features not found in POSIX are:


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: If a piece of code uses such a feature, it is called a "bashism" – a problem for portable use. Debian's and Vidar Holen's can be used to make sure that a script does not contain these parts. The list varies depending on the actual target shell: Debian's policy allows some extensions in their scripts (as they are in the dash shell), while a script intending to support pre-POSIX Bourne shells, like autoconf's , are even more limited in the features they can use.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: Bash uses readline to provide keyboard shortcuts for command line editing using the default (Emacs) key bindings. Vi-bindings can be enabled by running codice_26.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: To execute commands in batch (i.e., in sequence) they must be separated by the character ";", or on separate lines:


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: A background execution of command1 can occur using (symbol &) at the end of an execution command, and process will be executed in background returning immediately control to the shell and allowing continued execution of commands.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: Or to have a concurrent execution of two command1 and command2, they must be executed in the Bash shell in the following way:


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: In this case command1 is executed in the background "&" symbol, returning immediately control to the shell that executes command2 in the foreground.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: A process can be stopped and control returned to bash by typing while the process is running in the foreground.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: In the output, the number in brackets refers to the job id. The plus sign signifies the default process for codice_28 and codice_29. The text "Running" and "Stopped" refer to the Process state. The last string is the command that started the process.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: The state of a process can be changed using various commands. The codice_29 command brings a process to the foreground, while codice_28 sets a stopped process running in the background. codice_28 and codice_29 can take a job id as their first argument, to specify the process to act on. Without one, they use the default process, identified by a plus sign in the output of codice_27. The codice_35 command can be used to end a process prematurely, by sending it a signal. The job id must be specified after a percent sign:


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: Bash supplies "conditional execution" command separators that make execution of a command contingent on the exit code set by a precedent command. For example:


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: Where "./do_something" is only executed if the "cd" (change directory) command was "successful" (returned an exit status of zero) and the "echo" command would only be executed if either the "cd" or the "./do_something" command return an "error" (non-zero exit status).


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: For all commands the exit status is stored in the special variable codice_36. Bash also supports and forms of conditional command evaluation.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: An external command called "bashbug" reports Bash shell bugs. When the command is invoked, it brings up the user's default editor with a form to fill in. The form is mailed to the Bash maintainers (or optionally to other email addresses).


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: Bash supports programmable completion via built-in codice_37, , and codice_38 commands. The feature has been available since the beta version of 2.04 released in 2000. These commands enable complex and intelligent completion specification for commands (i.e. installed programs), functions, variables, and filenames.


title: Bash (Unix shell)

text: The codice_37 and two commands specify how arguments of some available commands or options are going to be listed in the readline input. As of version 5.1 completion of the command or the option is usually activated by the keystroke after typing its name.


title: Porsche 964

text: The Porsche 964 is the company's internal name for the Porsche 911 manufactured and sold between 1989 and 1994. Designed by Benjamin Dimson through January 1986, it featured significant styling revisions over previous 911 models, most prominently the more integrated bumpers. It was the first car to be offered with Porsche's Tiptronic automatic transmission and all wheel drive as options.


title: Porsche 964

text: Type 964 ("nine-sixty-four", or "nine-six-four") is Porsche's internal code name for the 911 Carrera 2 and 911 Carrera 4 models, which were badged simply as "Carrera 2" and "Carrera 4". "964" is used by automotive publications and enthusiasts to distinguish them from other generations of the Carrera.


title: Porsche 964

text: The 964 was considered to be 85% new as compared to its predecessor, the Carrera 3.2. The first 964s available in 1989 were all wheel drive equipped "Carrera 4" models; Porsche added the rear wheel drive Carrera 2 variant to the range in 1990. Both variants were available as a coupé, Targa or Cabriolet. The 964 Carrera was the last generation sold with the traditional removable Targa roof until the 2011 991 (993, 996, and 997 versions used instead a complex glass-roof "greenhouse" system). A new naturally aspirated engine called the M64 was used for 964 models, with a flat-6 displacement of 3.6 litres.


title: Porsche 964

text: Porsche substantially revised the suspension, replacing torsion bars with coil springs and shock absorbers. Power steering and ABS brakes were added to the 911 for the first time; both were standard. The exterior bumpers and fog lamps became flush with the car for better aerodynamics. A new electric rear spoiler raised at speeds above and lowered down flush with the rear engine lid at lower speeds. A revised interior featured standard dual airbags beginning in late 1989 for all North American production 1990 MY cars. A new automatic climate control system provided improved heating and cooling. Revised instrumentation housed a large set of warning lights that were tied into the car's central warning system, alerting the driver to a possible problem or malfunction.


title: Porsche 964

text: The suspension was redesigned using coil springs instead of torsion bars, the first major engineering changes since the original 911. The front suspension used MacPherson struts, a system that has continued for all subsequent versions, but the rear suspension retained semi-trailing arms.


title: Porsche 964

text: Curb weight (to DIN 70020): 3,031 lb/1,375 kg (C2); 3,100 lb/1,406 kg (Tiptronic), 3,252 lb (1,475 kg) (C4)


title: Porsche 964

text: In 1992, Porsche produced a super-lightweight, rear-wheel-drive only version of the 964 dubbed Carrera RS for the European market. It was based on Porsche's 911 "Carrera Cup" race car and harked back to the 2.7 and 3.0 RS and RSR models. It featured a revised version of the standard engine, titled M64/03 internally, with an increased power output of and lightweight flywheel coupled to the G50/10 transmission with closer ratios, asymmetrical Limited Slip Differential and steel synchromesh. A track-oriented suspension system with lower ride height, stiffer springs, shocks and adjustable stabilizer bars without power steering (RHD UK cars did have power steering).


title: Porsche 964

text: A stripped-out interior devoid of power windows or seats, rear seats, air conditioning, cruise control, sound deadening or a stereo system (optionally fitted) and new racing-bucket front seats were part of the package. The trunk hood was made of aluminum and the chassis was seam welded. Wheels were made of magnesium and the glass was thinner in the doors and rear window. The Carrera RS is approximately 345 pounds (155 kg) lighter than the US version Carrera 2 model. Also available were a heavier Touring variant (with sound deadening, power seats (optional), undercarriage protection and power windows) and an N/GT racing variant with a stripped, blank metal interior and a roll cage. They also came with optional lights on the visors.


title: Porsche 964

text: A later ultra-limited production version, the Carrera 3.8 RS featuring the Turbo body and a 3.8 litre version of the M64 motor was sold briefly in Europe. This engine was bored out by 2 mm for a total of 3,746 cc, and was also available in a more powerful competition version called the 3.8 RSR.


title: Porsche 964

text: The Carrera RS was not sold in the United States because Porsche Cars North America felt the car's aggressive tuning was not suited to the American market. In 1992, 45 US-legal cars that were very similar to the Carrera RS were imported to the US for a proposed "Porsche Carrera Cup" racing series. This Carrera Cup series was to function as a support race for the American CART racing series just as European Carrera Cup has supported Formula One.


title: Porsche 964

text: These 45 cars were identical to a Carrera RS other than having airbags (with required electric windows), alarm system, American lighting, American bumpers, aluminum wheels, and standard seats. The cars otherwise had the lightweight seam welded chassis, lightweight interior trim, aluminum hood, lightweight door glass, suspension, brakes, G50/10 transmission and M64/03 engine etc. of the Carrera RS. These cars were approximately 200 pounds (90 kg) lighter than a normal US Carrera 2 model.


title: Porsche 964

text: The plan was for Andial, the then equivalent of what is now Porsche Motorsport US, to convert these cars to full racing specification, however, due to lack of sponsor support for the Carrera Cup series, it was cancelled before it began. The 45 cars imported to the US for this series were then sold, quietly without any advertising so as not to compete with the new RS America, through normal dealer channels. These cars were supplied with a dash plaque which indicated that they were the "Carrera Cup US Edition".


title: Porsche 964

text: In order to please devoted American 911 enthusiasts who wanted an RS model, Porsche produced the RS America. The RS America was produced as a model year 1993 and 1994 car based on the US Carrera 2. The cars were offered in standard colors red, black and white and optional colors midnight blue metallic and polar silver. Several paint to order cars were manufactured in speed yellow. The RS America featured a distinctive "whale tail" spoiler, a partially stripped interior with flat door panels (from the European RS) and carpeting along with a luggage shelf replacing the rear seats. Cloth covered sports seats, 17 inch wheels and M030 Sports Suspension were fitted as standard. The logo "RS America" was written on the deck lid along with an "RS" logo in front of the rear wheels. Deleted to save weight were power steering, cruise control, powered side mirrors, air-conditioning, sunroof and radio, although the air-conditioning, sunroof and radio as well as a limited slip differential could be ordered as options. The RS America was listed by Porsche as weighing 2,954 pounds (1,340 kg), 77 pounds (35 kg) lighter than the weight listed for a stock Carrera 2. The standard US Carrera 2 engine and gearbox were used, however the turbo brakes and seats (only in cloth) were used.


title: Porsche 964

text: Engine Design: Air-cooled or oil-cooled, horizontally opposed (flat), dry-sump lubrication, rear-mounted engine


title: Porsche 964

text: Based on the Porsche 964 was the 1990 racing version for the new Porsche Carrera Cup. In addition to an increase in output by 11 kW to 195 kW (265 hp) the 964 Cup had a welded roll-cage, a modified chassis set-up and the ground clearance was 55 mm lower than on the standard version. To reduce weight: the interior and the sound-proofing material was removed. The gear ratios were modified and it had non power-steering. The vehicle did have a catalytic converter and an anti-lock braking system (ABS).


title: Porsche 964

text: In 1992, the 964 Cup had a major revision. The vehicle now had the body from the 964RS and the engine now produced 202 kW (275 hp). Another major change was that the ABS could be switched off in the event of emergency braking or whilst the car was going backwards. The vehicle now had 18 inch magnesium rims, which replaced the aluminium rims. The car was lowered by a further 20 mm.


title: Porsche 964

text: Porsche introduced the 964 Turbo model in March, 1990 as the successor to the 930. However, they hadn't had the necessary time to develop a turbocharged version of the 3.6 litre M64 engine, and chose to re-use the 3.3 litre engine from the 930, with several minor revisions that made the engine smoother, less prone to turbo lag and more powerful, with a total output of at 5,750 rpm. A total of 3,660 964 Turbos were built.


title: Porsche 964

text: In 1992, the 3.3 litre Turbo S was introduced. The standard turbo model was modified to produce with bigger injectors and more boost and more aggressive camshafts and with a lightweight interior and limited "creature comforts" the Turbo S was one of the fastest cars on the road. With lowered suspension, a front strut brace and manual steering, the Turbo S was geared to performance. 86 cars were produced.


title: Porsche 964

text: Porsche released the 964 Turbo 3.6 in January, 1993, now featuring a KKK K27 turbocharged version of the 3.6 litre M64 engine developing at 5,500 rpm and at 4,200 rpm of torque, produced only for model year 1993/1994, with fewer than 1,500 of them produced in total, making it one of the rarest and most sought after Porsches produced since the 959. A black 1994 MY was used in the Bad Boys movie, starring Will Smith.


title: Porsche 964

text: At the end of 964 production in 1994, the Porsche factory had some 90 Turbo chassis left. These were all transferred to "Porsche Exclusiv" and built as the very special Turbo 3.6 S, available either with the traditional 964 Turbo 3.6 body or with the exclusive flachbau 'slant nose' option.


title: Porsche 964

text: Option X83 (Japan), X84 (non-US) and X85 (US), the Turbo S Flachbau, was available in the US as a US$60,179 option on top of the base price US$99,000 Turbo 3.6. The flachbau option was available when ordering the no charge '36S' option '1994 Turbo "S" Model' at a price of $60,179. In addition to the slantnose fenders, it also included the 'X88' option which included the 'Turbo S' motor, the 'X92' Exclusive front spoiler, 'X93' Exclusive rear spoiler and 'X99' Exclusive rear fender air intakes based on the Porsche 959. The flachbau option was designed around the model 968 front end, and the 930 style Turbo S front end for Japan (right down to the sill covers on the fenders). 39 Models were made for US markets, 27 for international market and 10 for Japan, all in Polar Silver (http://flachbau.com). An additional 17 X85 models were commissioned by Porsche Exclusiv for the US, known as the "Package cars," replacing the slantnose front end with the original 964-style front end.


title: Porsche 964

text: In 1993 Porsche introduced the 30th Anniversary C4 to commemorate 30 years since the 911 launch in 1963. Based on the wider turbo body and wheels with 4 wheel drive, but with a normally aspirated engine and standard small lifting wing. This version was the start of a line that continued with the 993 C4S and 996 C4S.


title: Porsche 964

text: Also in 1993 Porsche developed a highly tuned 964 Turbo S prototype for use in international motorsport. This car, known as the Turbo S Le Mans GT (or simply Turbo S LM-GT), was based on the standard road-legal Turbo S, but stripped down and modified for circuit use. A deep chin spoiler was added to the front, while two air inlets were added just above the rear wheel arches. An adjustable racing rear wing was added on top of the standard Turbo's wing. Wider wheel arches were used to house wide racing slicks. The interior was completely stripped, a rollcage added, and the windows replaced with plastic. The engine used was not the standard road-car unit, but a smaller twin-turbocharged 3.2 liter unit which produced 475 hp.


title: Porsche 964

text: The Turbo S LM-GT made its debut at the 1993 12 Hours of Sebring where the car finished seventh overall and first in its class with the Brumos Porsche racing team. From there, the car was entered in the 24 Hours of Le Mans, running under the guise of the Porsche factory team. The car would however fail to finish after the engine was damaged early in the race. For 1994, the Turbo S LM-GT would be moved to the hands of Larbre Compétition, where a new 3.6 liter engine based on the 993 unit would be used in place of the 3.2 liter engine. The team opened the year with a second-place finish at the 24 Hours of Daytona, before moving on to select rounds of the BPR Global GT Series. The car would win all four races in which it competed, including the 1000 km Suzuka. The Turbo S LM-GT would make a few select appearances in 1995 with Obermaier Racing before being retired.


title: Porsche 964

text: The development work from the Turbo S LM-GT helped Porsche in creating the 993-generation 911 GT2 in 1995, which would be mass-produced and sold to racing customers. Some teams, unable to buy new 911 GT2s, developed their own twin-turbo racing versions of the 964 Turbo to mimic the Turbo S LM-GT, but lacked the success of the factory project.


title: Porsche 964

text: There were two distinct incarnations of the air-cooled 911 Speedster. The first was the 1989 model year Speedster. Shown at the 1988 Frankfurt Motor Show beside the upcoming Carrera 4, the 1989 Speedster actually shared more in common with the 930 turbo than with the upcoming 964 generation 911s, causing it to be looked upon, in retrospect, as a much inferior "driver's car" to the later 1994 Speedster. More than three quarters (641) of the 800 built had the "Turbo look" wide-body option.


title: Porsche 964

text: The 1994 Porsche 911 Speedster was available either in standard or lightweight trim called “clubsport." Unlike the 1989 model, the 1994 Speedster was based on the new Carrera 2 platform and was not initially available with the "Turbo look" wide-body style. The 1994 Speedster was designed to be a more focused "driver's car" and served as a hybrid between a 964 Carrera 2 Cabriolet and a 964 RS. While it featured a softer suspension set up than the 964 RS, it offered almost none of the comforts of a normal 964 Carrera 2 Cabriolet, though power windows were standard and it was available with air conditioning and a stereo. Porsche planned to build 3000 examples of the 1994 Speedsters in 1992, but only 936 examples were built and sold during the two years of production. Once again, the United States was the most important market with 427 Speedsters heading Stateside. Right hand drive versions were exceptionally rare this time: only 27 cars compared to 139 examples in right hand drive of the pre-964 911 Speedster. Of these RHD cars 13 were made with UK specification, 8 Australia specification, 4 Singapore specification and either 2 or 3 Hong Kong Specification. Of these RHD there were 6 Speed yellow, 7 Guards Red, 3 Grey, 4 Black, 1 Slate grey, 1 Amazon Green (the only 964 Speedster in this colour), 1 Metallic Silver, 1 Grand Prix White and one Maritime Blue. In addition, 20 special examples were finished at Porsche Exclusive's workshop at Werk 1 (Factory 1) with the optional “Turbo look” wide-bodies. The Maritime Blue example shown was exhibited at the 1994 Earls Court Motor Show on the Porsche Technik stand. The car had been modified with front and rear spoilers (the latter subsequently removed), 'Techart' wheels, modified exhaust and porsche 'chip' tuning providing an additional 25 bhp.


title: Porsche 964

text: A turbo-bodied cabriolet version was released in 1992. This had the standard electric spoiler and turbo guards. Mechanically, it was the same as the standard model, apart from 17-inch Cup wheels and the brakes and suspension, which were to Turbo specifications. Only 250 of this variant were produced in total, for the 1992 and 1993 model years.


title: Porsche 964

text: The Porsche 969 was a concept intended to succeed the Porsche 959 and was based on the then upcoming 964 platform.


title: Porsche 964

text: The car was conceived in 1982 as a twin-turbo 911 with four-wheel drive and a PDK gearbox. The project received the in-house code "965" and was developed along with the new, 964 generation of the 911. However, the intended engine (a 3.3 litre, flat-six) could not be used due to cooling problems. Various alternatives were considered during the car's development, including a water-cooled version of the traditional flat-six and two variants of Porsche's Indy V8 engine.


title: Porsche 964

text: While the 969 shared the 911's roofline, its slanted headlights and wide tail were carryovers from the 959.


title: Porsche 964

text: Ultimately, the project was scrapped. Ongoing engine development issues and a projected price of over 200.000 DM in the wake of a recession kept it from succeeding the 911 turbo. (The 964 turbo made its debut in March 1990.) Fifteen of the 16 prototypes were destroyed in December 1988 and the sole remaining prototype has not been seen since. Recently Porsche disclosed that it kept it hidden from public at a warehouse near Zuffenhausen.


title: John Updike

text: John Hoyer Updike (March 18, 1932 – January 27, 2009) was an American novelist, poet, short-story writer, art critic, and literary critic. One of only four writers to win the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction more than once (the others being Booth Tarkington, William Faulkner, and Colson Whitehead), Updike published more than twenty novels, more than a dozen short-story collections, as well as poetry, art and literary criticism and children's books during his career.


title: John Updike

text: Hundreds of his stories, reviews, and poems appeared in "The New Yorker" starting in 1954. He also wrote regularly for "The New York Review of Books". His most famous work is his "Rabbit" series (the novels "Rabbit, Run"; "Rabbit Redux"; "Rabbit Is Rich"; "Rabbit at Rest"; and the novella "Rabbit Remembered"), which chronicles the life of the middle-class everyman Harry "Rabbit" Angstrom over the course of several decades, from young adulthood to death. Both "Rabbit Is Rich" (1981) and "Rabbit at Rest" (1990) were awarded the Pulitzer Prize.


title: John Updike

text: Describing his subject as "the American small town, Protestant middle class", critics recognized his careful craftsmanship, his unique prose style, and his prolific outputhe wrote on average a book a year. Updike populated his fiction with characters who "frequently experience personal turmoil and must respond to crises relating to religion, family obligations, and marital infidelity".


title: John Updike

text: His fiction is distinguished by its attention to the concerns, passions, and suffering of average Americans, its emphasis on Christian theology, and its preoccupation with sexuality and sensual detail. His work has attracted significant critical attention and praise, and he is widely considered one of the great American writers of his time. Updike's highly distinctive prose style features a rich, unusual, sometimes arcane vocabulary as conveyed through the eyes of "a wry, intelligent authorial voice that describes the physical world extravagantly while remaining squarely in the realist tradition". He described his style as an attempt "to give the mundane its beautiful due".


title: John Updike

text: Updike was born in Reading, Pennsylvania, the only child of Linda Grace (née Hoyer) and Wesley Russell Updike, and was raised at his childhood home in the nearby small town of Shillington. The family later moved to the unincorporated village of Plowville. His mother's attempts to become a published writer impressed the young Updike. "One of my earliest memories", he later recalled, "is of seeing her at her desk ... I admired the writer's equipment, the typewriter eraser, the boxes of clean paper. And I remember the brown envelopes that stories would go off in—and come back in."


title: John Updike

text: These early years in Berks County, Pennsylvania, would influence the environment of the Rabbit Angstrom tetralogy, as well as many of his early novels and short stories. Updike graduated from Shillington High School as co-valedictorian and class president in 1950 and received a full scholarship to Harvard College, where he was the roommate of Christopher Lasch during their first year. Updike had already received recognition for his writing as a teenager by winning a Scholastic Art & Writing Award, and at Harvard he soon became well known among his classmates as a talented and prolific contributor to "The Harvard Lampoon", of which he was president. He studied with dramatist Robert Chapman, the director of Harvard's Loeb Drama Center. He graduated "summa cum laude" in 1954 with a degree in English and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa.


title: John Updike

text: Upon graduation, Updike attended the Ruskin School of Drawing and Fine Art at the University of Oxford with the ambition of becoming a cartoonist. After returning to the United States, Updike and his family moved to New York, where he became a regular contributor to "The New Yorker". This was the beginning of his professional writing career.


title: John Updike

text: Updike stayed at "The New Yorker" as a full staff writer for only two years, writing "Talk of the Town" columns and submitting poetry and short stories to the magazine. In New York, Updike wrote the poems and stories that came to fill his early books like "The Carpentered Hen" (1958) and "The Same Door" (1959). These works were influenced by Updike's early engagement with "The New Yorker". This early work also featured the influence of J. D. Salinger ("A&P"); John Cheever ("Snowing in Greenwich Village"); and the Modernists Marcel Proust, Henry Green, James Joyce, and Vladimir Nabokov.


title: John Updike

text: During this time, Updike underwent a profound spiritual crisis. Suffering from a loss of religious faith, he began reading Søren Kierkegaard and the theologian Karl Barth. Both deeply influenced his own religious beliefs, which in turn figured prominently in his fiction. Updike remained a believing Christian for the rest of his life.


title: John Updike

text: Later, Updike and his family relocated to Ipswich, Massachusetts. Many commentators, including a columnist in the local "Ipswich Chronicle", asserted that the fictional town of Tarbox in "Couples" was based on Ipswich. Updike denied the suggestion in a letter to the paper. Impressions of Updike's day-to-day life in Ipswich during the 1960s and 1970s are included in a letter to the same paper published soon after Updike's death and written by a friend and contemporary. In Ipswich, Updike wrote "Rabbit, Run" (1960), on a Guggenheim Fellowship, and "The Centaur" (1963), two of his most acclaimed and famous works; the latter won the National Book Award.


title: John Updike

text: "Rabbit, Run" featured Harry "Rabbit" Angstrom, a former high school basketball star and middle-class paragon who would become Updike's most enduring and critically acclaimed character. Updike wrote three additional novels about him. "Rabbit, Run" was featured in "Time"s All-TIME 100 Greatest Novels.


title: John Updike

text: Updike's career and reputation were nurtured and expanded by his long association with "The New Yorker", which published him frequently throughout his career, despite the fact that he had departed the magazine's employment after only two years. Updike's memoir indicates that he stayed in his "corner of New England to give its domestic news" with a focus on the American home from the point of view of a male writer. Updike's contract with the magazine gave it right of first offer for his short-story manuscripts, but William Shawn, "The New Yorker"'s editor from 1952 to 1987, rejected several as too explicit.


title: John Updike

text: The Maple short stories, collected in "Too Far To Go" (1979), reflected the ebb and flow of Updike's first marriage; "Separating" (1974) and "Here Come the Maples" (1976) related to his divorce. These stories also reflect the role of alcohol in 1970s America. They were the basis for the television movie also called "Too Far To Go", broadcast by NBC in 1979.


title: John Updike

text: Updike's short stories were collected in several volumes published by Alfred A. Knopf over five decades. In 2013, the Library of America issued a two-volume boxed edition of 186 stories under the title "The Collected Stories".


title: John Updike

text: In 1971, Updike published a sequel to "Rabbit, Run" called "Rabbit Redux", his response to the 1960s; Rabbit reflected much of Updike's resentment and hostility towards the social and political changes that beset the United States during that time.


title: John Updike

text: Updike's early Olinger period was set in the Pennsylvania of his youth; it ended around 1965 with the lyrical "Of the Farm".