title: Creep (Radiohead song)

text: Following the release of "Pablo Honey", Radiohead spent two years touring in support of Belly, PJ Harvey and James. They performed "Creep" at every show, and came to resent it. O'Brien recalled: "We seemed to be living out the same four and a half minutes of our lives over and over again. It was incredibly stultifying." Yorke told "Rolling Stone" in 1993: "It's like it's not our song any more ... It feels like we're doing a cover." During Radiohead's first American tour, audience members would scream for "Creep", then leave after it was performed. Yorke said the success "gagged" them and had almost caused them to break up; they felt they were being judged on a single song. Radiohead were determined to move on rather than "repeat that small moment of [our] lives forevermore".


title: Creep (Radiohead song)

text: According to O'Brien, the success of "Creep" meant that Radiohead were not in debt to EMI, and so had more freedom on their next album, "The Bends" (1995). The album title, a term for decompression sickness, references Radiohead's rapid rise to fame with "Creep"; Yorke said "we just came up too fast". John Leckie, who produced "The Bends", recalled that EMI hoped for a single "even better" than "Creep" but that Radiohead "didn't even know what was good about it in the first place". Radiohead wrote the "Bends" track "My Iron Lung" in response, with the lines: "This is our new song / just like the last one / a total waste of time". Yorke said in 1995: "People have defined our emotional range with that one song, 'Creep'. I saw reviews of 'My Iron Lung' that said it was just like 'Creep'. When you're up against things like that, it's like: 'Fuck you.' These people are never going to listen."


title: Creep (Radiohead song)

text: In January 1996, Radiohead surpassed the UK chart performance of "Creep" with the "Bends" single "Street Spirit", which reached number five. This, alongside the critical success of "The Bends", established that Radiohead were not one-hit wonders. During the promotion for Radiohead's third album, "OK Computer" (1997), Yorke became hostile when "Creep" was mentioned in interviews and refused requests to play it, telling a Montréal audience: "Fuck off, we're tired of it." He dismissed fans demanding it as "anally retarded". After the tour, Radiohead did not perform it until the encore of their 2001 homecoming concert at South Park, Oxford, when an equipment failure halted a performance of another song.


title: Creep (Radiohead song)

text: In a surprise move, Radiohead performed "Creep" as the opening song of their headline performance at the 2009 Reading Festival. They did not perform it again until their 2016 tour for "A Moon Shaped Pool," when a fan spent the majority of a concert shouting for it. Radiohead decided to play it to "see what the reaction is, just to see how it feels". They performed "Creep" again during the encore of their headline performance at the Glastonbury Festival that year. According to the "Guardian" critic Alexis Petridis, "Given Radiohead’s famously fractious relationship with their first big hit ... the performance of 'Creep' [was] greeted with something approaching astonished delight." In 2017, O'Brien said: "It's nice to play for the right reasons. People like it and want to hear it. We do err towards not playing it because you don't want it to feel like show business." In the same interview, Yorke said: "It can be cool sometimes, but other times I want to stop halfway through and be like, 'Nah, this isn't happening'." In a 2020 interview, O'Brien was dismissive of "Pablo Honey" but cited "Creep" as the "standout track".


title: Creep (Radiohead song)

text: According to the journalist Alex Ross in 2001, "What set 'Creep' apart from the grunge of the early nineties was the grandeur of its chords—in particular, its regal turn from G major to B major. No matter how many times you hear the song, the second chord still sails beautifully out of the blue. The lyrics may be saying, 'I'm a creep,' but the music is saying, 'I am majestic.'" Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote in 2001 that "Creep" achieved "a rare power that is both visceral and intelligent". In 2007, VH1 ranked "Creep" the 31st-greatest song of the 1990s. In 2020, "Rolling Stone" named it the 16th-greatest debut single; the journalist Andy Greene noted that though Radiohead had followed "Creep" with "some of the most innovative and acclaimed music of the past 30 years", it remained their most famous song. "The Guardian" named "Creep" the 34th-greatest Radiohead song in 2020, writing: "In the end, the band's disavowal of the song sent its credibility full circle. Nowadays, 'Creep' is a joke, but we're all blissfully in on it." In 2021, "Rolling Stone" named "Creep" the 118th greatest song of all time.


title: Creep (Radiohead song)

text: In July 2021, Yorke released "Creep (Very 2021 Rmx)", a remixed version of "Creep". The remix is based on a time-stretched version of the acoustic version of "Creep", extending it to nine minutes, with "eerie" synthesisers. Yorke contributed the remix to a show by the Japanese fashion designer Jun Takahashi, who provided artwork and an animated music video. "Vogue" described the remix as "haunting and spare", and "Classic Rock" described it as "woozy" and "discombobulating". "Rolling Stone" said it was a fitting track for the COVID-19 pandemic, when "a sense of time is warped and singular moments can seem both fleeting and drawn out simultaneously".


title: Creep (Radiohead song)

text: In April 2008, the American musician Prince covered "Creep" at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival. A bootleg recording was shared online, but removed at Prince's request; after being informed of the situation in an interview, Yorke said: "Well, tell him to unblock it. It's our song." "Creep" has also been covered by artists including Frank Bennett, Postmodern Jukebox, the Pretenders, Kelly Clarkson, Tears for Fears, Arlo Parks, the Scala & Kolacny Brothers, R3hab, Mónica Naranjo, Mxmtoon Sophie Koh and Paul Gannon. The actor Jim Carrey covered the song at Arlene's Grocery.


title: Creep (Radiohead song)

text: The chord progression and melody in "Creep" are similar to those of the 1972 song "The Air That I Breathe", written by Albert Hammond and Mike Hazlewood. After Rondor Music, the publisher of "The Air That I Breathe", took legal action, Hammond and Hazlewood received cowriting credits and a percentage of the royalties. Hammond said Radiohead were honest about having reused the composition, and so he and Hazlewood accepted only a small part of the royalties.


title: Creep (Radiohead song)

text: In January 2018, the American singer Lana Del Rey said on Twitter that Radiohead were taking legal action against her for allegedly plagiarising "Creep" on her 2017 track "Get Free", and had asked for 100% of publishing royalties instead of Del Rey's offer of 40%. She denied that "Creep" had inspired "Get Free". Radiohead's publisher, Warner Chappell Music, confirmed it was seeking songwriting credits for "all writers" of "Creep", but denied that a lawsuit had been brought or that Radiohead had demanded 100% of royalties. In March, Del Rey told an audience: "My lawsuit's over, I guess I can sing that song any time I want." The writing credits for "Get Free" were not updated on the database of the American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers.


title: Popcorn Time

text: Popcorn Time is a multi-platform, free software BitTorrent client that includes an integrated media player. The application provides a piracy-based alternative to subscription-based video streaming services such as Netflix. Popcorn Time uses sequential downloading to stream video listed by several torrent websites, and third-party trackers can also be added manually. The legality of the software depends on the jurisdiction.


title: Popcorn Time

text: Following its creation, Popcorn Time quickly received positive media attention, with some comparing the app to Netflix for its ease of use. After this increase in popularity, the program was abruptly taken down by its original developers on March 14, 2014, due to pressure from the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA). Since then, the program has been forked several times with several other development teams such as Time4Popcorn and the Butter Project to maintain the program and produce new features. Time4Popcorn reportedly gained millions of users within four months of launching in 2014 and became the first fork to bring Popcorn Time to Android devices. In September 2014, Time4Popcorn became available on jailbroken Apple devices, and eventually non-jailbroken iOS devices via a Windows installation tool. The iOS version of Popcorn Time is no longer maintained.


title: Popcorn Time

text: The Popcorn Time interface presents thumbnails and film titles in a manner similar to Netflix. This list of media can be searched and browsed by genres or categories. When a user clicks on one of the titles, the film is downloaded via the BitTorrent protocol. As with other BitTorrent clients, as soon as Popcorn Time starts to download a film, it also starts to share the downloaded content with other users (in technical terms, it seeds the torrent to others in the BitTorrent swarm). It continues to make the downloaded content available to others until the movie is deleted, which is normally done automatically once the application is closed.


title: Popcorn Time

text: Popcorn Time was developed "in a couple of weeks" by a group from Buenos Aires, Argentina, who elected "Pochoclín" (derived from "pochoclo", which means "popcorn" in Buenos Aires parlance) as their mascot. They believed that piracy was a "service problem" created by "an industry that portrays innovation as a threat to their antique recipe to collect value", and also argued that streaming providers were being given too many restrictions and forced to provide inconsistent service between countries, noting that streaming providers in their native Argentina "seem to believe that "There's Something About Mary" [1998] is a recent movie. That movie would be old enough to vote here."


title: Popcorn Time

text: Made available for Linux, macOS, Windows and Android, Popcorn Time's source code was downloadable from their website; the project was intended to be free software. Contributors localized the program into 44 languages.


title: Popcorn Time

text: Popcorn Time became the subject of mainstream media attention for its ease of use, with "PC Magazine" and "CBC News" likening Popcorn Time to Netflix, and noting its obvious advantages over Netflix such as the size of its library, and the recent selections available. Caitlin Dewey of "The Washington Post" said Popcorn Time may have been an attempt to make the normally "sketchy" ecosystem of torrents more accessible by giving it a clean modern look and an easy-to-use interface.


title: Popcorn Time

text: The legality of the various Popcorn Time clients matched that of all other BitTorrent clients plus the additional issues that apply to sites like The Pirate Bay and YTS itself, due to the explicit linking to movie content; its website claimed that the software was possibly illegal depending on local laws.


title: Popcorn Time

text: In the UK a court order was given in April 2015 to ISPs to block URLs that provided either the Popcorn Time application software (PTAS) or "sources of update information" (SUI), i.e. pointers to torrent-indexing sites. The court found that, unlike previous cases concerning indexing sites directly, neither websites providing the PTAS nor the SUI could be construed to be "communicating a work to the public", since neither contained any specific information about any specific work. It considered it entirely probable that both the providers of the PTAS and the SUI could be held to be "authorising acts of infringement" by users, but this was not the case that the claimants had raised at the hearing. Instead, they had claimed that the providers had been authorising acts of infringement by content-hosting websites, but then that claim had not been made out.


title: Popcorn Time

text: The judge, however, found that the Popcorn Time suppliers did "plainly know and intend" for the application to be "the key means which procures and induces the user to access the host website and therefore causes the infringing communications to occur"; and on this basis had "a common design with the operators of the host websites" and therefore shared a joint liability for the copyright infringements (joint tortfeasance). It was therefore appropriate to order the ISPs to block the websites as provided for by section 97A of the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988.


title: Popcorn Time

text: On May 20, 2015, the government of Israel blocked all access to the official downloads of Popcorn Time, following a lawsuit from its biggest cable and satellite providers for copyright infringement. Although the download sites were blocked, internet users still possessing a copy of the installation file and/or the program were not affected, and there were other sharing sites that distributed installation files. Less than a month later, the government reversed the ban.


title: Popcorn Time

text: On August 17, 2015, the Danish website popcorntime.dk was shut down by Danish police and two arrests were made. The case has caused controversy given that the website is not affiliated with the Popcorn Time developer teams but only distributed information about the service.


title: Popcorn Time

text: As with other BitTorrent clients, the IP addresses of users of the original app or its forks can easily be determined by third parties. In early 2015, many German Popcorn Time users received demands for damages of €815. The high amount was justified by the fact that the application not only downloads but also distributes movies, a fact that not all users were aware of.


title: Popcorn Time

text: In 2015, Cobbler Nevada alleged that Popcorn Time users illegally downloaded copies of the Adam Sandler movie "The Cobbler". Popcorn Time attempted to differentiate itself from "all technological applications" by claiming that Popcorn Time had no legitimate purposes, however, the evidence in favor of this assertion was the Wikipedia article "Popcorn Time."


title: Popcorn Time

text: On March 8, 2016, Norway's police unit for economic crimes, Økokrim, decided seized Popcorn-Time.no domain name. The original site did not host the Popcorn Time application but instead had news articles and external links to other applications. The seizure, however, is being contested by the Norwegian member organizations NUUG and EFN.


title: Popcorn Time

text: On March 14, 2014, Popcorn Time's original website and GitHub repository were removed after allegations of copyright infringement. It was later revealed by the Sony leaks that the MPAA did indeed prevent the original developers of Popcorn Time from continuing to work on the program. Despite the copyright complaints that the software received, Popcorn Time's developers simply wanted to move on. They said, "our experiment has put us at the doors of endless debates about copyright infringement and copyright, legal threats and the shady machinery that makes us feel in danger for doing what we love. And that's not a battle we want a place in".


title: Popcorn Time

text: The developers claimed that the majority of their users were those outside of the United States, and that it was "installed on every single country on Earth. Even the two that don't have internet access," by users who would "risk fines, lawsuits and whatever consequences that may come just to be able to watch a recent movie in slippers. Just to get the kind of experience they deserve". They also praised media outlets for not antagonizing them in their coverage of Popcorn Time, and agreeing with their views that the movie industry was anti-consumer and too restrictive in regard to innovation.


title: Popcorn Time

text: After its discontinuation, the Popcorn Time application was forked by various different groups to continue development of the project. On August 8, 2015, the website of the original Popcorn Time application was redirected to the popcorntime.io website. A few days later, members of the original Popcorn Time project announced that they would endorse the popcorntime.io project as the successor to the original discontinued Popcorn Time.


title: Popcorn Time

text: After the original developers discontinued the program, other teams forked the original Popcorn Time source code and continued development independently. These groups continued using the name "Popcorn Time", but other than the Popcorn Time project, these forks are not associated with the developers of the original application. The developers of the original Popcorn Time had members join the Popcorn Time project, and endorsed this as the successor to the discontinued old Popcorn Time. Popcorntime.app, formerly popcorntime.sh, is sponsored by private VPN company VPN.ht.


title: Popcorn Time

text: This Popcorn Time fork was originally launched with the web domain time4popcorn.eu. The domain time4popcorn.eu was suspended by Eurid, as a result of a legal investigation against time4popcorn.eu. The programs that rely on the time4popcorn.eu domain temporarily stopped functioning, but the program and website were updated to a new domain popcorn-time.se. As the original time4Popcorn.eu domain was forcibly removed, the team moved to the popcorn-time.se website.


title: Popcorn Time

text: On May 13, 2014, the fork released a mobile version for Android phones and tablets. In addition, popcorn-time.se added built in VPN on June 9, 2014, provided by Kebrum.


title: Popcorn Time

text: The popcorn-time.se developers later added Chromecast support for desktop and Android. On July 30, 2014, popcorn-time.se developers added support for the Apple TV to their desktop app; on September 30, 2014, an app for jailbroken iOS devices was released. An anonymous development team created a tool that allows iOS users to download the fork via Windows, thus allowing non-jailbroken devices to install Popcorn Time.


title: Popcorn Time

text: Following the shutdown of popcorntime.io, users of Popcorn Time created a series of fixes that modified the original software and got it working again. The fixes were added to the Popcorn Time installers and named Popcorn Time Community Edition, giving credit to the community of users that resurrected the software.


title: Popcorn Time

text: Popcorntime.sh is a free software fork of the original Popcorn Time program. In October 2015, PopcornTime.io was shut down, along with the YTS website.


title: Popcorn Time

text: On November 3, 2015, the popcorntime.io domain was obtained by the MPAA after winning court orders in Canada and New Zealand. This came about after winning an injunction on October 16, 2015, to shut the website down, although the project reappeared on a new website ("popcorntime.sh").


title: Heat

text: In thermodynamics, heat is defined as the form of energy crossing the boundary of a thermodynamic system by virtue of a temperature difference across the boundary. A thermodynamic system does not "contain" heat. Nevertheless, the term is also often used to refer to the thermal energy contained in a system as a component of its internal energy and that is reflected in the temperature of the system. For both uses of the term, heat is a form of energy.


title: Heat

text: An example of formal vs. informal usage may be obtained from the right-hand photo, in which the metal bar is "conducting heat" from its hot end to its cold end, but if the metal bar is considered a thermodynamic system, then the energy flowing within the metal bar is called internal energy, not heat. The hot metal bar is also transferring heat to its surroundings, a correct statement for both the strict and loose meanings of "heat". Another example of informal usage is the term "heat content", used despite the fact that physics defines heat as energy transfer. More accurately, it is "thermal energy" that is "contained" in the system or body, as it is stored in the microscopic degrees of freedom of the modes of vibration.


title: Heat

text: Heat is energy in transfer to or from a thermodynamic system, by a mechanism that involves the microscopic atomic modes of motion or the corresponding macroscopic properties. This descriptive characterization excludes the transfers of energy by thermodynamic work or mass transfer. Defined quantitatively, the heat involved in a process is the difference in internal energy between the final and initial states of a system, and subtracting the work done in the process. This is the formulation of the first law of thermodynamics.


title: Heat

text: The measurement of energy transferred as heat is called calorimetry, performed by measuring its effect on the states of interacting bodies. For example, heat can be measured by the amount of ice melted, or by change in temperature of a body in the surroundings of the system.


title: Heat

text: In the International System of Units (SI) the unit of measurement for heat, as a form of energy, is the joule (J).


title: Heat

text: As a form of energy, heat has the unit joule (J) in the International System of Units (SI). In addition, many applied branches of engineering use other, traditional units, such as the British thermal unit (BTU) and the calorie. The standard unit for the rate of heating is the watt (W), defined as one joule per second.


title: Heat

text: Heat released by a system into its surroundings is by convention a negative quantity (); when a system absorbs heat from its surroundings, it is positive (). Heat transfer rate, or heat flow per unit time, is denoted by formula_1, but it is not a time derivative of a function of state (which can also be written with the dot notation) since heat is not a function of state. Heat flux is defined as rate of heat transfer per unit cross-sectional area (watts per square metre).


title: Heat

text: In 1856, Rudolf Clausius, referring to closed systems, in which transfers of matter do not occur, defined the "second fundamental theorem" (the second law of thermodynamics) in the mechanical theory of heat (thermodynamics): "if two transformations which, without necessitating any other permanent change, can mutually replace one another, be called equivalent, then the generations of the quantity of heat "Q" from work at the temperature "T", has the "equivalence-value":"


title: Heat

text: In 1865, he came to define the entropy symbolized by "S", such that, due to the supply of the amount of heat "Q" at temperature "T" the entropy of the system is increased by


title: Heat

text: In a transfer of energy as heat without work being done, there are changes of entropy in both the surroundings which lose heat and the system which gains it. The increase, , of entropy in the system may be considered to consist of two parts, an increment, that matches, or 'compensates', the change, , of entropy in the surroundings, and a further increment, that may be considered to be 'generated' or 'produced' in the system, and is said therefore to be 'uncompensated'. Thus


title: Heat

text: It is then said that an amount of entropy has been transferred from the surroundings to the system. Because entropy is not a conserved quantity, this is an exception to the general way of speaking, in which an amount transferred is of a conserved quantity.


title: Heat

text: From the second law of thermodynamics it follows that in a spontaneous transfer of heat, in which the temperature of the system is different from that of the surroundings:


title: Heat

text: For purposes of mathematical analysis of transfers, one thinks of fictive processes that are called "reversible", with the temperature of the system being hardly less than that of the surroundings, and the transfer taking place at an imperceptibly slow rate.


title: Heat

text: Following the definition above in formula (), for such a fictive reversible process, a quantity of transferred heat (an inexact differential) is analyzed as a quantity , with (an exact differential):


title: Heat

text: This equality is only valid for a fictive transfer in which there is no production of entropy, that is to say, in which there is no uncompensated entropy.


title: Heat

text: If, in contrast, the process is natural, and can really occur, with irreversibility, then there is entropy production, with . The quantity was termed by Clausius the "uncompensated heat", though that does not accord with present-day terminology. Then one has


title: Heat

text: In non-equilibrium thermodynamics that makes the approximation of assuming the hypothesis of local thermodynamic equilibrium, there is a special notation for this. The transfer of energy as heat is assumed to take place across an infinitesimal temperature difference, so that the system element and its surroundings have near enough the same temperature . Then one writes


title: Heat

text: For a closed system (a system from which no matter can enter or exit), one version of the first law of thermodynamics states that the change in internal energy of the system is equal to the amount of heat supplied to the system minus the amount of thermodynamic work done by system on its surroundings. The foregoing sign convention for work is used in the present article, but an alternate sign convention, followed by IUPAC, for work, is to consider the work performed on the system by its surroundings as positive. This is the convention adopted by many modern textbooks of physical chemistry, such as those by Peter Atkins and Ira Levine, but many textbooks on physics define work as work done by the system.


title: Heat

text: This formula can be re-written so as to express a definition of quantity of energy transferred as heat, based purely on the concept of adiabatic work, if it is supposed that is defined and measured solely by processes of adiabatic work:


title: Heat

text: The thermodynamic work done by the system is through mechanisms defined by its thermodynamic state variables, for example, its volume , not through variables that necessarily involve mechanisms in the surroundings. The latter are such as shaft work, and include isochoric work.


title: Heat

text: The internal energy, , is a state function. In cyclical processes, such as the operation of a heat engine, state functions of the working substance return to their initial values upon completion of a cycle.


title: Heat

text: The differential, or infinitesimal increment, for the internal energy in an infinitesimal process is an exact differential . The symbol for exact differentials is the lowercase letter .


title: Heat

text: In contrast, neither of the infinitesimal increments nor in an infinitesimal process represents the change in a state function of the system. Thus, infinitesimal increments of heat and work are inexact differentials. The lowercase Greek letter delta, , is the symbol for inexact differentials. The integral of any inexact differential in a process where the system leaves and then returns to the same thermodynamic state does not necessarily equal zero.


title: Heat

text: As recounted above, in the section headed "heat and entropy", the second law of thermodynamics observes that if heat is supplied to a system in a reversible process, the increment of heat and the temperature form the exact differential


title: Heat

text: and that , the entropy of the working body, is a state function. Likewise, with a well-defined pressure, , behind a slowly moving (quasistatic) boundary, the work differential, , and the pressure, , combine to form the exact differential


title: Heat

text: with the volume of the system, which is a state variable. In general, for systems of uniform pressure and temperature without composition change,


title: Heat

text: Associated with this differential equation is the concept that the internal energy may be considered to be a function of its natural variables and . The internal energy representation of the fundamental thermodynamic relation is written as


title: Heat

text: The enthalpy may be considered to be a function of its natural variables and . The enthalpy representation of the fundamental thermodynamic relation is written


title: Heat

text: The internal energy representation and the enthalpy representation are partial Legendre transforms of one another. They contain the same physical information, written in different ways. Like the internal energy, the enthalpy stated as a function of its natural variables is a thermodynamic potential and contains all thermodynamic information about a body.


title: Heat

text: If a quantity of heat is added to a body while it does only expansion work on its surroundings, one has


title: Heat

text: If this is constrained to happen at constant pressure, i.e. with , the expansion work done by the body is given by ; recalling the first law of thermodynamics, one has


title: Heat

text: In this scenario, the increase in enthalpy is equal to the quantity of heat added to the system. This is the basis of the determination of enthalpy changes in chemical reactions by calorimetry. Since many processes do take place at constant atmospheric pressure, the enthalpy is sometimes given the misleading name of 'heat content' or heat function, while it actually depends strongly on the energies of covalent bonds and intermolecular forces.


title: Heat

text: In terms of the natural variables of the state function , this process of change of state from state 1 to state 2 can be expressed as


title: Heat

text: As a common noun, English "heat" or "warmth" (just as French "chaleur", German "Wärme", Latin "calor", Greek θάλπος, etc.) refers to (the human perception of) either thermal energy or temperature. Speculation on thermal energy or "heat" as a separate form of matter has a long history, identified as caloric theory, phlogiston theory, and fire.


title: Heat

text: The modern understanding of thermal energy originates with Thompson's 1798 mechanical theory of heat ("An Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Source of the Heat which is Excited by Friction"), postulating a mechanical equivalent of heat.


title: Heat

text: A collaboration between Nicolas Clément and Sadi Carnot ("Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire") in the 1820s had some related thinking along similar lines. In 1845, Joule published a paper entitled "The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat", in which he specified a numerical value for the amount of mechanical work required to "produce a unit of heat".


title: Heat

text: The theory of classical thermodynamics matured in the 1850s to 1860s. John Tyndall's "Heat Considered as Mode of Motion" (1863) was instrumental in popularizing the idea of heat as motion to the English-speaking public.


title: Heat

text: The theory was developed in academic publications in French, English and German. From an early time, the French technical term "chaleur" used by Carnot was taken as equivalent to the English "heat" and German "Wärme" (lit. "warmth", while the equivalent of "heat" would be German "Hitze").


title: Heat

text: James Clerk Maxwell in his 1871 "Theory of Heat" outlines four stipulations for the definition of heat:


title: Heat

text: The process function is referred to as "Wärmemenge" by Clausius, or as "amount of heat" in translation.


title: Heat

text: Use of "heat" as an abbreviated form of the specific concept of "quantity of energy transferred as heat" led to some terminological confusion by the early 20th century. The generic meaning of "heat", even in classical thermodynamics, is just "thermal energy".


title: Heat

text: Since the 1920s, it has been recommended practice to use enthalpy to refer to the "heat content at constant volume", and to thermal energy when "heat" in the general sense is intended, while "heat" is reserved for the very specific context of the transfer of thermal energy between two systems.


title: Heat

text: Leonard Benedict Loeb in his "Kinetic Theory of Gases" (1927) makes a point of using "quantity of heat"


title: Heat

text: Today's narrow definition of "heat" in physics contrasts with its use in common language, in some engineering disciplines, and in the historical scientific development of thermodynamics in the caloric theory. The terminology of "heat" in these instances may be replaced accurately with "entropy".


title: Heat

text: Richard Feynman introduced "heat" with a physical depiction, as associated with the jiggling motion of atoms and molecules, with faster motion corresponding to increased temperature. To explain physics further, he used the term "heat energy," along with "heat".


title: Heat

text: A frequent definition of heat is based on the work of Carathéodory (1909), referring to processes in a closed system.


title: Heat

text: The internal energy of a body in an arbitrary state can be determined by amounts of work adiabatically performed by the body on its surroundings when it starts from a reference state . Such work is assessed through quantities defined in the surroundings of the body. It is supposed that such work can be assessed accurately, without error due to friction in the surroundings; friction in the body is not excluded by this definition. The adiabatic performance of work is defined in terms of adiabatic walls, which allow transfer of energy as work, but no other transfer, of energy or matter. In particular they do not allow the passage of energy as heat. According to this definition, work performed adiabatically is in general accompanied by friction within the thermodynamic system or body. On the other hand, according to Carathéodory (1909), there also exist non-adiabatic, "diathermal" walls, which are postulated to be permeable only to heat.


title: Heat

text: For the definition of quantity of energy transferred as heat, it is customarily envisaged that an arbitrary state of interest is reached from state by a process with two components, one adiabatic and the other not adiabatic. For convenience one may say that the adiabatic component was the sum of work done by the body through volume change through movement of the walls while the non-adiabatic wall was temporarily rendered adiabatic, and of isochoric adiabatic work. Then the non-adiabatic component is a process of energy transfer through the wall that passes only heat, newly made accessible for the purpose of this transfer, from the surroundings to the body. The change in internal energy to reach the state from the state is the difference of the two amounts of energy transferred.


title: Heat

text: Although Carathéodory himself did not state such a definition, following his work it is customary in theoretical studies to define heat, , to the body from its surroundings, in the combined process of change to state from the state , as the change in internal energy, , minus the amount of work, , done by the body on its surrounds by the adiabatic process, so that .


title: Heat

text: In this definition, for the sake of conceptual rigour, the quantity of energy transferred as heat is not specified directly in terms of the non-adiabatic process. It is defined through knowledge of precisely two variables, the change of internal energy and the amount of adiabatic work done, for the combined process of change from the reference state to the arbitrary state . It is important that this does not explicitly involve the amount of energy transferred in the non-adiabatic component of the combined process. It is assumed here that the amount of energy required to pass from state to state , the change of internal energy, is known, independently of the combined process, by a determination through a purely adiabatic process, like that for the determination of the internal energy of state above. The rigour that is prized in this definition is that there is one and only one kind of energy transfer admitted as fundamental: energy transferred as work. Energy transfer as heat is considered as a derived quantity. The uniqueness of work in this scheme is considered to guarantee rigor and purity of conception. The conceptual purity of this definition, based on the concept of energy transferred as work as an ideal notion, relies on the idea that some frictionless and otherwise non-dissipative processes of energy transfer can be realized in physical actuality. The second law of thermodynamics, on the other hand, assures us that such processes are not found in nature.


title: Heat

text: historically, heat, temperature, and thermal equilibrium were presented in thermodynamics textbooks as jointly primitive notions. Carathéodory introduced his 1909 paper thus: "The proposition that the discipline of thermodynamics can be justified without recourse to any hypothesis that cannot be verified experimentally must be regarded as one of the most noteworthy results of the research in thermodynamics that was accomplished during the last century." Referring to the "point of view adopted by most authors who were active in the last fifty years", Carathéodory wrote: "There exists a physical quantity called heat that is not identical with the mechanical quantities (mass, force, pressure, etc.) and whose variations can be determined by calorimetric measurements." James Serrin introduces an account of the theory of thermodynamics thus: "In the following section, we shall use the classical notions of "heat", "work", and "hotness" as primitive elements, ... That heat is an appropriate and natural primitive for thermodynamics was already accepted by Carnot. Its continued validity as a primitive element of thermodynamical structure is due to the fact that it synthesizes an essential physical concept, as well as to its successful use in recent work to unify different constitutive theories." This traditional kind of presentation of the basis of thermodynamics includes ideas that may be summarized by the statement that heat transfer is purely due to spatial non-uniformity of temperature, and is by conduction and radiation, from hotter to colder bodies. It is sometimes proposed that this traditional kind of presentation necessarily rests on "circular reasoning"; against this proposal, there stands the rigorously logical mathematical development of the theory presented by Truesdell and Bharatha (1977).


title: Heat

text: This alternative approach to the definition of quantity of energy transferred as heat differs in logical structure from that of Carathéodory, recounted just above.


title: Heat

text: This alternative approach admits calorimetry as a primary or direct way to measure quantity of energy transferred as heat. It relies on temperature as one of its primitive concepts, and used in calorimetry. It is presupposed that enough processes exist physically to allow measurement of differences in internal energies. Such processes are not restricted to adiabatic transfers of energy as work. They include calorimetry, which is the commonest practical way of finding internal energy differences. The needed temperature can be either empirical or absolute thermodynamic.


title: Heat

text: In contrast, the Carathéodory way recounted just above does not use calorimetry or temperature in its primary definition of quantity of energy transferred as heat. The Carathéodory way regards calorimetry only as a secondary or indirect way of measuring quantity of energy transferred as heat. As recounted in more detail just above, the Carathéodory way regards quantity of energy transferred as heat in a process as primarily or directly defined as a residual quantity. It is calculated from the difference of the internal energies of the initial and final states of the system, and from the actual work done by the system during the process. That internal energy difference is supposed to have been measured in advance through processes of purely adiabatic transfer of energy as work, processes that take the system between the initial and final states. By the Carathéodory way it is presupposed as known from experiment that there actually physically exist enough such adiabatic processes, so that there need be no recourse to calorimetry for measurement of quantity of energy transferred as heat. This presupposition is essential but is explicitly labeled neither as a law of thermodynamics nor as an axiom of the Carathéodory way. In fact, the actual physical existence of such adiabatic processes is indeed mostly supposition, and those supposed processes have in most cases not been actually verified empirically to exist.


title: Heat

text: Referring to conduction, Partington writes: "If a hot body is brought in conducting contact with a cold body, the temperature of the hot body falls and that of the cold body rises, and it is said that a "quantity of heat" has passed from the hot body to the cold body."


title: Heat

text: Referring to radiation, Maxwell writes: "In Radiation, the hotter body loses heat, and the colder body receives heat by means of a process occurring in some intervening medium which does not itself thereby become hot."


title: Heat

text: Maxwell writes that convection as such "is not a purely thermal phenomenon". In thermodynamics, convection in general is regarded as transport of internal energy. If, however, the convection is enclosed and circulatory, then it may be regarded as an intermediary that transfers energy as heat between source and destination bodies, because it transfers only energy and not matter from the source to the destination body.


title: Heat

text: In accordance with the first law for closed systems, energy transferred solely as heat leaves one body and enters another, changing the internal energies of each. Transfer, between bodies, of energy as work is a complementary way of changing internal energies. Though it is not logically rigorous from the viewpoint of strict physical concepts, a common form of words that expresses this is to say that heat and work are interconvertible.


title: Heat

text: Cyclically operating engines that use only heat and work transfers have two thermal reservoirs, a hot and a cold one. They may be classified by the range of operating temperatures of the working body, relative to those reservoirs. In a heat engine, the working body is at all times colder than the hot reservoir and hotter than the cold reservoir. In a sense, it uses heat transfer to produce work. In a heat pump, the working body, at stages of the cycle, goes both hotter than the hot reservoir, and colder than the cold reservoir. In a sense, it uses work to produce heat transfer.


title: Heat

text: In classical thermodynamics, a commonly considered model is the heat engine. It consists of four bodies: the working body, the hot reservoir, the cold reservoir, and the work reservoir. A cyclic process leaves the working body in an unchanged state, and is envisaged as being repeated indefinitely often. Work transfers between the working body and the work reservoir are envisaged as reversible, and thus only one work reservoir is needed. But two thermal reservoirs are needed, because transfer of energy as heat is irreversible. A single cycle sees energy taken by the working body from the hot reservoir and sent to the two other reservoirs, the work reservoir and the cold reservoir. The hot reservoir always and only supplies energy and the cold reservoir always and only receives energy. The second law of thermodynamics requires that no cycle can occur in which no energy is received by the cold reservoir. Heat engines achieve higher efficiency when the ratio of the initial and final temperature is greater.


title: Heat

text: Another commonly considered model is the heat pump or refrigerator. Again there are four bodies: the working body, the hot reservoir, the cold reservoir, and the work reservoir. A single cycle starts with the working body colder than the cold reservoir, and then energy is taken in as heat by the working body from the cold reservoir. Then the work reservoir does work on the working body, adding more to its internal energy, making it hotter than the hot reservoir. The hot working body passes heat to the hot reservoir, but still remains hotter than the cold reservoir. Then, by allowing it to expand without passing heat to another body, the working body is made colder than the cold reservoir. It can now accept heat transfer from the cold reservoir to start another cycle.


title: Heat

text: The device has transported energy from a colder to a hotter reservoir, but this is not regarded as by an inanimate agency; rather, it is regarded as by the harnessing of work . This is because work is supplied from the work reservoir, not just by a simple thermodynamic process, but by a cycle of thermodynamic operations and processes, which may be regarded as directed by an animate or harnessing agency. Accordingly, the cycle is still in accord with the second law of thermodynamics. The 'efficiency' of a heat pump (which exceeds unity) is best when the temperature difference between the hot and cold reservoirs is least.


title: Heat

text: Functionally, such engines are used in two ways, distinguishing a target reservoir and a resource or surrounding reservoir. A heat pump transfers heat to the hot reservoir as the target from the resource or surrounding reservoir. A refrigerator transfers heat, from the cold reservoir as the target, to the resource or surrounding reservoir. The target reservoir may be regarded as leaking: when the target leaks heat to the surroundings, heat pumping is used; when the target leaks coldness to the surroundings, refrigeration is used. The engines harness work to overcome the leaks.


title: Heat

text: According to Planck, there are three main conceptual approaches to heat. One is the microscopic or kinetic theory approach. The other two are macroscopic approaches. One is the approach through the law of conservation of energy taken as prior to thermodynamics, with a mechanical analysis of processes, for example in the work of Helmholtz. This mechanical view is taken in this article as currently customary for thermodynamic theory. The other macroscopic approach is the thermodynamic one, which admits heat as a primitive concept, which contributes, by scientific induction to knowledge of the law of conservation of energy. This view is widely taken as the practical one, quantity of heat being measured by calorimetry.


title: Heat

text: Bailyn also distinguishes the two macroscopic approaches as the mechanical and the thermodynamic. The thermodynamic view was taken by the founders of thermodynamics in the nineteenth century. It regards quantity of energy transferred as heat as a primitive concept coherent with a primitive concept of temperature, measured primarily by calorimetry. A calorimeter is a body in the surroundings of the system, with its own temperature and internal energy; when it is connected to the system by a path for heat transfer, changes in it measure heat transfer. The mechanical view was pioneered by Helmholtz and developed and used in the twentieth century, largely through the influence of Max Born. It regards quantity of heat transferred as heat as a derived concept, defined for closed systems as quantity of heat transferred by mechanisms other than work transfer, the latter being regarded as primitive for thermodynamics, defined by macroscopic mechanics. According to Born, the transfer of internal energy between open systems that accompanies transfer of matter "cannot be reduced to mechanics". It follows that there is no well-founded definition of quantities of energy transferred as heat or as work associated with transfer of matter.


title: Heat

text: Nevertheless, for the thermodynamical description of non-equilibrium processes, it is desired to consider the effect of a temperature gradient established by the surroundings across the system of interest when there is no physical barrier or wall between system and surroundings, that is to say, when they are open with respect to one another. The impossibility of a mechanical definition in terms of work for this circumstance does not alter the physical fact that a temperature gradient causes a diffusive flux of internal energy, a process that, in the thermodynamic view, might be proposed as a candidate concept for transfer of energy as heat.


title: Heat

text: In this circumstance, it may be expected that there may also be active other drivers of diffusive flux of internal energy, such as gradient of chemical potential which drives transfer of matter, and gradient of electric potential which drives electric current and iontophoresis; such effects usually interact with diffusive flux of internal energy driven by temperature gradient, and such interactions are known as cross-effects.


title: Heat

text: If cross-effects that result in diffusive transfer of internal energy were also labeled as heat transfers, they would sometimes violate the rule that pure heat transfer occurs only down a temperature gradient, never up one. They would also contradict the principle that all heat transfer is of one and the same kind, a principle founded on the idea of heat conduction between closed systems. One might to try to think narrowly of heat flux driven purely by temperature gradient as a conceptual component of diffusive internal energy flux, in the thermodynamic view, the concept resting specifically on careful calculations based on detailed knowledge of the processes and being indirectly assessed. In these circumstances, if perchance it happens that no transfer of matter is actualized, and there are no cross-effects, then the thermodynamic concept and the mechanical concept coincide, as if one were dealing with closed systems. But when there is transfer of matter, the exact laws by which temperature gradient drives diffusive flux of internal energy, rather than being exactly knowable, mostly need to be assumed, and in many cases are practically unverifiable. Consequently, when there is transfer of matter, the calculation of the pure 'heat flux' component of the diffusive flux of internal energy rests on practically unverifiable assumptions. This is a reason to think of heat as a specialized concept that relates primarily and precisely to closed systems, and applicable only in a very restricted way to open systems.


title: Heat

text: In many writings in this context, the term "heat flux" is used when what is meant is therefore more accurately called diffusive flux of internal energy; such usage of the term "heat flux" is a residue of older and now obsolete language usage that allowed that a body may have a "heat content".


title: Heat

text: In the kinetic theory, heat is explained in terms of the microscopic motions and interactions of constituent particles, such as electrons, atoms, and molecules. The immediate meaning of the kinetic energy of the constituent particles is not as heat. It is as a component of internal energy.


title: Heat

text: In microscopic terms, heat is a transfer quantity, and is described by a transport theory, not as steadily localized kinetic energy of particles. Heat transfer arises from temperature gradients or differences, through the diffuse exchange of microscopic kinetic and potential particle energy, by particle collisions and other interactions. An early and vague expression of this was made by Francis Bacon. Precise and detailed versions of it were developed in the nineteenth century.


title: Heat

text: In statistical mechanics, for a closed system (no transfer of matter), heat is the energy transfer associated with a disordered, microscopic action on the system, associated with jumps in occupation numbers of the energy levels of the system, without change in the values of the energy levels themselves. It is possible for macroscopic thermodynamic work to alter the occupation numbers without change in the values of the system energy levels themselves, but what distinguishes transfer as heat is that the transfer is entirely due to disordered, microscopic action, including radiative transfer. A mathematical definition can be formulated for small increments of quasi-static adiabatic work in terms of the statistical distribution of an ensemble of microstates.


title: Heat

text: Quantity of heat transferred can be measured by calorimetry, or determined through calculations based on other quantities.


title: Heat

text: Calorimetry is the empirical basis of the idea of quantity of heat transferred in a process. The transferred heat is measured by changes in a body of known properties, for example, temperature rise, change in volume or length, or phase change, such as melting of ice.


title: Heat

text: A calculation of quantity of heat transferred can rely on a hypothetical quantity of energy transferred as adiabatic work and on the first law of thermodynamics. Such calculation is the primary approach of many theoretical studies of quantity of heat transferred.


title: Heat

text: The discipline of heat transfer, typically considered an aspect of mechanical engineering and chemical engineering, deals with specific applied methods by which thermal energy in a system is generated, or converted, or transferred to another system. Although the definition of heat implicitly means the transfer of energy, the term "heat transfer" encompasses this traditional usage in many engineering disciplines and laymen language.


title: Heat

text: "Heat transfer" is generally described as including the mechanisms of heat conduction, heat convection, thermal radiation, but may include mass transfer and heat in processes of phase changes.


title: Heat

text: Convection may be described as the combined effects of conduction and fluid flow. From the thermodynamic point of view, heat flows into a fluid by diffusion to increase its energy, the fluid then transfers (advects) this increased internal energy (not heat) from one location to another, and this is then followed by a second thermal interaction which transfers heat to a second body or system, again by diffusion. This entire process is often regarded as an additional mechanism of heat transfer, although technically, "heat transfer" and thus heating and cooling occurs only on either end of such a conductive flow, but not as a result of flow. Thus, conduction can be said to "transfer" heat only as a net result of the process, but may not do so at every time within the complicated convective process.


title: Heat

text: In an 1847 lecture entitled "On Matter, Living Force, and Heat", James Prescott Joule characterized the terms latent heat and sensible heat as components of heat each affecting distinct physical phenomena, namely the potential and kinetic energy of particles, respectively.


title: Heat

text: He described latent energy as the energy possessed via a distancing of particles where attraction was over a greater distance, i.e. a form of potential energy, and the sensible heat as an energy involving the motion of particles, i.e. kinetic energy.


title: Heat

text: Latent heat is the heat released or absorbed by a chemical substance or a thermodynamic system during a change of state that occurs without a change in temperature. Such a process may be a phase transition, such as the melting of ice or the boiling of water.


title: Heat

text: Heat capacity is a measurable physical quantity equal to the ratio of the heat added to an object to the resulting temperature change. The "molar heat capacity" is the heat capacity per unit amount (SI unit: mole) of a pure substance, and the "specific heat capacity", often called simply "specific heat", is the heat capacity per unit mass of a material. Heat capacity is a physical property of a substance, which means that it depends on the state and properties of the substance under consideration.


title: Heat

text: The specific heats of monatomic gases, such as helium, are nearly constant with temperature. Diatomic gases such as hydrogen display some temperature dependence, and triatomic gases (e.g., carbon dioxide) still more.


title: Heat

text: Before the development of the laws of thermodynamics, heat was measured by changes in the states of the participating bodies.


title: Heat

text: In general, most bodies expand on heating. In this circumstance, heating a body at a constant volume increases the pressure it exerts on its constraining walls, while heating at a constant pressure increases its volume.


title: Heat

text: Beyond this, most substances have three ordinarily recognized states of matter, solid, liquid, and gas. Some can also exist in a plasma. Many have further, more finely differentiated, states of matter, such as glass and liquid crystal. In many cases, at fixed temperature and pressure, a substance can exist in several distinct states of matter in what might be viewed as the same 'body'. For example, ice may float in a glass of water. Then the ice and the water are said to constitute two phases within the 'body'. Definite rules are known, telling how distinct phases may coexist in a 'body'. Mostly, at a fixed pressure, there is a definite temperature at which heating causes a solid to melt or evaporate, and a definite temperature at which heating causes a liquid to evaporate. In such cases, cooling has the reverse effects.


title: Heat

text: All of these, the commonest cases, fit with a rule that heating can be measured by changes of state of a body. Such cases supply what are called "thermometric bodies", that allow the definition of empirical temperatures. Before 1848, all temperatures were defined in this way. There was thus a tight link, apparently logically determined, between heat and temperature, though they were recognized as conceptually thoroughly distinct, especially by Joseph Black in the later eighteenth century.


title: Heat

text: There are important exceptions. They break the obviously apparent link between heat and temperature. They make it clear that empirical definitions of temperature are contingent on the peculiar properties of particular thermometric substances, and are thus precluded from the title 'absolute'. For example, water contracts on being heated near 277 K. It cannot be used as a thermometric substance near that temperature. Also, over a certain temperature range, ice contracts on heating. Moreover, many substances can exist in metastable states, such as with negative pressure, that survive only transiently and in very special conditions. Such facts, sometimes called 'anomalous', are some of the reasons for the thermodynamic definition of absolute temperature.


title: Heat

text: In the early days of measurement of high temperatures, another factor was important, and used by Josiah Wedgwood in his pyrometer. The temperature reached in a process was estimated by the shrinkage of a sample of clay. The higher the temperature, the more the shrinkage. This was the only available more or less reliable method of measurement of temperatures above 1000 °C (1,832 °F). But such shrinkage is irreversible. The clay does not expand again on cooling. That is why it could be used for the measurement. But only once. It is not a thermometric material in the usual sense of the word.


title: Heat

text: Nevertheless, the thermodynamic definition of absolute temperature does make essential use of the concept of heat, with proper circumspection.


title: Heat

text: The property of hotness is a concern of thermodynamics that should be defined without reference to the concept of heat. Consideration of hotness leads to the concept of empirical temperature. All physical systems are capable of heating or cooling others. With reference to hotness, the comparative terms hotter and colder are defined by the rule that heat flows from the hotter body to the colder.


title: Heat

text: If a physical system is inhomogeneous or very rapidly or irregularly changing, for example by turbulence, it may be impossible to characterize it by a temperature, but still there can be transfer of energy as heat between it and another system. If a system has a physical state that is regular enough, and persists long enough to allow it to reach thermal equilibrium with a specified thermometer, then it has a temperature according to that thermometer. An empirical thermometer registers degree of hotness for such a system. Such a temperature is called empirical. For example, Truesdell writes about classical thermodynamics: "At each time, the body is assigned a real number called the "temperature". This number is a measure of how hot the body is."


title: Heat

text: Physical systems that are too turbulent to have temperatures may still differ in hotness. A physical system that passes heat to another physical system is said to be the hotter of the two. More is required for the system to have a thermodynamic temperature. Its behavior must be so regular that its empirical temperature is the same for all suitably calibrated and scaled thermometers, and then its hotness is said to lie on the one-dimensional hotness manifold. This is part of the reason why heat is defined following Carathéodory and Born, solely as occurring other than by work or transfer of matter; temperature is advisedly and deliberately not mentioned in this now widely accepted definition.


title: Heat

text: This is also the reason that the zeroth law of thermodynamics is stated explicitly. If three physical systems, "A", "B", and "C" are each not in their own states of internal thermodynamic equilibrium, it is possible that, with suitable physical connections being made between them, "A" can heat "B" and "B" can heat "C" and "C" can heat "A". In non-equilibrium situations, cycles of flow are possible. It is the special and uniquely distinguishing characteristic of internal thermodynamic equilibrium that this possibility is not open to thermodynamic systems (as distinguished amongst physical systems) which are in their own states of internal thermodynamic equilibrium; this is the reason why the zeroth law of thermodynamics needs explicit statement. That is to say, the relation 'is not colder than' between general non-equilibrium physical systems is not transitive, whereas, in contrast, the relation 'has no lower a temperature than' between thermodynamic systems in their own states of internal thermodynamic equilibrium is transitive. It follows from this that the relation 'is in thermal equilibrium with' is transitive, which is one way of stating the zeroth law.


title: Heat

text: Just as temperature may be undefined for a sufficiently inhomogeneous system, so also may entropy be undefined for a system not in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium. For example, 'the temperature of the solar system' is not a defined quantity. Likewise, 'the entropy of the solar system' is not defined in classical thermodynamics. It has not been possible to define non-equilibrium entropy, as a simple number for a whole system, in a clearly satisfactory way.


title: Kenny Everett

text: Kenny Everett (born Maurice James Christopher Cole; 25 December 1944 – 4 April 1995) was an English comedian, radio disc jockey and television presenter. After spells on pirate radio and Radio Luxembourg in the mid-1960s, he was one of the first DJs to join BBC Radio's newly created BBC Radio 1 in 1967. It was here he developed his trademark voices and surreal characters which he later adapted for television.


title: Kenny Everett

text: Everett was dismissed from the BBC in 1970 after making remarks about a government minister's wife. He was later re-instated at the BBC, working both on local and national radio, but, in the Autumn of 1973, when commercial radio became licensed in the UK, he joined Capital Radio. Starting in the late 1970s, he transitioned to television where he made numerous comedy series on ITV and BBC, often appearing with Cleo Rocos, whose glamorous and curvaceous figure was often used to comic effect. Rocos would be his assistant in the 1987 BBC gameshow "Brainstorm". He was a highly versatile performer, able to write his own scripts, compose jingles and operate advanced recording and mixing equipment. His personality also made him a regular guest on chat shows and game shows such as "Blankety Blank".


title: Kenny Everett

text: Everett openly supported the UK's Conservative Party under Margaret Thatcher and made publicity appearances at conferences and rallies. However, as a closeted gay man, he would face criticism for supporting a Conservative government that enacted Section 28, a clause of the Local Government Act which made it illegal for councils to promote gay rights and issues. He was diagnosed with HIV in 1989 and died in 1995.


title: Kenny Everett

text: Maurice James Christopher Cole was born on Christmas Day 1944 at 14, Hereford Road, Seaforth, north of Liverpool city centre. From a Roman Catholic family, he attended St Bede's, the local secondary modern school, in Crosby (now part of Sacred Heart Catholic College). Cole later attended a junior seminary at Stillington, North Yorkshire, near York, with an Italian missionary order, the Verona Fathers, where he was a choirboy. After he left school, he worked in a bakery and in the advertising department of "The Journal of Commerce and Shipping Telegraph".


title: Kenny Everett

text: Everett's first break (as Maurice Cole) came when he sent a tape to the BBC in 1962. He was interviewed at the BBC and offered a job as a presenter on the BBC Light Programme, the forerunner to BBC Radio 2. He declined, however, in favour of the less-constrained world of pirate radio, where he began his career, in December 1964, as a DJ for Radio London. It was while working here that he was advised to change his name to avoid legal problems. He adopted the name "Everett" from a childhood hero, the American film comic actor Edward Everett Horton.


title: Kenny Everett

text: Everett teamed with Dave Cash for the "Kenny & Cash Show", one of the most popular pirate radio programmes. His offbeat style and likeable personality quickly gained him attention, but in November 1965 he was dismissed after some outspoken remarks about religion on air. Like most of the pirate stations, Radio London carried sponsored American evangelical shows and Everett's disparaging remarks about "The World Tomorrow" caused its producers to threaten to withdraw their lucrative contract with the station. After a spell at Radio Luxembourg, and another dismissal, Everett returned to Radio London in June 1966.


title: Kenny Everett

text: Johnny Beerling, a BBC producer, secretly visited Radio London in February 1967, and observed Everett at work: "I saw this man Everett doing everything. In the old way of doing things, the DJ sat in one room with a script. Someone else played the records and somebody else controlled the sound. Yet I see this man who has control of everything." An audition tape submitted to the BBC was assessed in March 1967 by a panel:


title: Kenny Everett

text: Member two: 'By far the most original of the young DJs. I found the stilted bits in bad taste but with suitable restraint and encouragement, Kenny Everett could be one of the BBC's best DJs. Yes.'


title: Kenny Everett

text: Member three: 'Without the hard sell and the occasional phoney American accent, a good pop DJ. Must be made to curb the funnies and the voices. Yes.'


title: Kenny Everett

text: Member four: 'I found the continuous changes of voices irritating and his personality supercilious but he certainly has some talent. Should be available but would need very firm production. Yes.'"


title: Kenny Everett

text: Everett was heard in May 1967 on the BBC's soon-to-be-discontinued BBC Light Programme previewing the Beatles' forthcoming album "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band", and was one of the DJs on the new pop music station Radio 1 from its launch at the end of September 1967. Everett had previously struck up a friendship with the Beatles and accompanied them on their August 1966 tour of the United States, sending back daily reports for Radio London. He also produced their 1968 and 1969 Christmas records.


title: Kenny Everett

text: At Radio 1, Everett continued to develop his distinctive presentation style, encouraged by producer Angela Bond who had persuaded her superiors to give him his first programme, although he later reacted against her as a representative of the BBC. Everett's Radio 1 show featured zany voices, surreal characters, multi-tracked jingles and trailers, all of his own creation and compilation. It was Everett who had persuaded Johnny Beerling and station controller Robin Scott, at a lunch meeting before his appointment, of the importance of the new station having jingles. Everett's shows on Radio 1 included "Midday Spin" and in 1968 he took over a Saturday show from 10 am to noon.


title: Kenny Everett

text: In 1970, Everett again found himself dismissed, this time after suggesting on air that Mary Peyton, the British Transport Minister's wife, had bribed her driving test examiner. The remark was a spontaneous quip, following a news item describing how Peyton had finally passed after many attempts. The BBC thought the comment "indefensible", although shortly before the incident Everett had given a controversial interview with "Melody Maker" contrary to a BBC embargo preventing him from giving interviews. In negotiations with the record companies and the Musicians' Union over needle time, a limit on the playing on-air of commercially recorded music, the MU representatives would complain about Everett, the one BBC broadcaster who persistently mocked them. In fact, in the year after Everett's death, it was stated that the bribery quip was merely an excuse and that the real reason was because he threatened to go public on the restrictive practices and deals with the Musicians' Union that were not only frustrating him and his listeners, but also making Radio One much less popular than the pirate stations it had been set up to displace.


title: Kenny Everett

text: Following an interview on the BBC Radio Solent children's show "Albert's Gang", Everett submitted weekly shows to the station that he had pre-recorded at home. This afforded the BBC the opportunity to vet the shows before broadcast. Everett was then heard on various BBC local radio stations before being reinstated at Radio 1 in April 1973. Here he recorded a weekly show from his home in Wales and it went out at 1:00 on a Sunday afternoon.


title: Kenny Everett

text: During this time, legislation had been passed allowing the licensing of commercial radio stations in the UK. One of the first, Capital Radio, began broadcasting to London and the home counties in October 1973. Everett joined the station and was given a weekend (recorded) show, where he further developed his distinctive ideas. From January 1974, following poor audience figures which in turn followed a difficult start for Capital during a time of industrial strife, the station changed to a more pop based, rather than light music, format, with Everett presenting the breakfast show with his former colleague and friend from the pirate station Radio London (Big L) days, Dave Cash, and so reactivating the "Kenny and Cash" show. When Cash moved to the lunchtime slot in 1975, Everett continued alone on the breakfast show. Everett had a great love of sound recording equipment, in particular using reel-to-reel tape recorders and mixing equipment, often adding sound-on-sound to his recordings and stereo/multi-track recordings of his pseudo-singing voice. These were broadcast on air regularly and he often created his own radio jingles. Everett created many comedy characters on "The Breakfast Show" with Cash on Capital.


title: Kenny Everett

text: In May 1975, Everett found early mornings too much for his lifestyle and he vacated the breakfast show to Graham Dene and moved to less high-pressure weekend timeslots at Capital on Saturday and Sunday lunchtimes. Here he further developed his style and his cult following, and featured both what he thought the best in music (Queen, Chris Rainbow) and the worst, which led to the popular "Kenny Everett's World's Worst Record Show" programmes, later released as an album in 1978, with slightly different tracks.


title: Kenny Everett

text: In 1975, Everett played a pivotal role in getting Queen's "Bohemian Rhapsody" released as a single. In 1976, he also presented a pre-recorded programme on Saturday lunch-time for Radio Victory in Portsmouth, later providing Captain Kremmen to the station for transmission in Dave Christian's late show. The series was also heard on Beacon Radio in the Midlands.


title: Kenny Everett

text: On 5 February 1980, Everett made his only appearance on the BBC Radio 4 show "Just a Minute", where he spoke on the subject of marbles for 90 seconds. The extended improvisation was imposed by Nicholas Parsons as a practical joke.


title: Kenny Everett

text: In October 1981, Everett returned to BBC Radio, this time on Radio 2, on Saturdays from 11:00 a.m. to 1:00 p.m, but the show was cancelled in 1983, after he made a risqué on-air joke about Margaret Thatcher.


title: Kenny Everett

text: Everett returned to Capital Radio in June 1984, reviving his Saturday lunchtime show. In May 1985, he was called in to replace Graeme Garden for one episode of the Radio 4 game show "I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue". After Capital split its frequencies in 1988, he returned to daily broadcasting on Capital Gold, as part of a strong presenting line-up including Tony Blackburn and David Hamilton. Everett presented daytime shows on weekdays until 1994, when his health deteriorated to the point he was unable to continue. During that same year, he was awarded the Special Gold Award at Sony's Radio Academy Awards for his contribution to radio.


title: Kenny Everett

text: Everett's first screen appearance was in the 1965 film "Dateline Diamonds", which had a plot based around the pirate ship MV "Galaxy". He also appeared in several television series, beginning in 1968 with a production for Granada Television called "Nice Time" which was co-presented by Germaine Greer and Jonathan Routh. In 1970 he made three series for London Weekend Television (LWT): "The Kenny Everett Explosion", "Making Whoopee" and "Ev"; and he also took part (along with such talents as Willie Rushton and John Wells) in the 1972 BBC TV series "Up Sunday".


title: Kenny Everett

text: Although never a regular presenter on Top Of The Pops, in 1973 Everett made seven appearances (six as solo host, and one as a co-host), in the months leading up to his departure from the BBC to join Capital Radio. Also in 1973, Everett provided the voice of the cat 'Charley' in the "Charley Says" animated series of public information films. Everett was the announcer on the original version of ATV's "big box game" "Celebrity Squares" which ran on ITV from 1975 to 1979.


title: Kenny Everett

text: He was a frequent panel guest on the BBC quiz show "Blankety Blank". On his first appearance in 1979, he unexpectedly bent Terry Wogan's microphone, the so-called Wogan's Wand. This became a running joke whenever Everett appeared on the show. He also hosted two short-lived quiz shows late in his career, "Brainstorm" and "Gibberish". He was a team captain on "That's Showbusiness".


title: Kenny Everett

text: In 1978, London's Thames Television offered him a new venture, which became the "Kenny Everett Video Show". This was a vehicle for Everett's characters and sketches (his fellow writers were Ray Cameron, Barry Cryer and Dick Vosburgh), interspersed with the latest pop hits, either performed by the artists themselves, or as backing tracks to dance routines by Arlene Phillips' risqué dance troupe Hot Gossip (which featured Sarah Brightman).


title: Kenny Everett

text: Various pop and TV stars made cameo appearances on the show, including Rod Stewart, Elkie Brooks, Billy Connolly, Kate Bush, Cliff Richard, Freddie Mercury, Terry Wogan and Suzi Quatro. Classical musicians such as Julian Lloyd Webber also appeared.


title: Kenny Everett

text: There were also the stories of Captain Kremmen, a science fiction hero voiced by Everett and originally developed for his Capital Radio shows, who travelled the galaxy battling fictional alien menaces, along with his assistant Dr Gitfinger and his voluptuous sidekick Carla. In the first three series these segments were animations created by the Cosgrove-Hall partnership (responsible for the successful children's cartoon series "Danger Mouse", among many others). In the fourth series ("Video Cassette"), Kremmen was featured as live action with Anna Dawson playing Carla; the segments were comedy shorts rather than the earlier stories.


title: Kenny Everett

text: Other characters included: ageing rock-and-roller Sid Snot, unsuccessfully flipping cigarettes into his mouth—at one point Everett managed to catch one in his mouth, to the amusement of the studio crew; Marcel Wave, a lecherous Frenchman played by Everett wearing an absurdly false latex chin; and "Angry of Mayfair", a right-wing, upper-middle-class City gent complaining of the permissive, risqué content of the show, banging the camera's lens hood with his umbrella before storming off, turning his back to the camera to reveal him wearing women's lingerie in lieu of the entire back half of his suit.


title: Kenny Everett

text: He also created the never-seen character of "Lord Thames", supposedly the owner of Thames Television (the company was actually owned by two conglomerates). The character was often the butt of Everett's rants and was said to symbolise his contempt for senior management at the company, claiming they lived behind an ancient, cobweb-covered door marked as the "Office of Saying 'No'". Thames never disciplined him for these comments, unlike prior employers such as the BBC.


title: Kenny Everett

text: The show ran for four series on ITV. The last episode of Series 3 ended with Everett giving a farewell speech as the set and scenery was being stripped down by the crew. The final shot before the closing credits was Everett himself being picked up and placed inside an oversized dustbin.


title: Kenny Everett

text: The fourth series was retitled "The Kenny Everett Video Cassette" and was more of a comedy programme than the previous three series, which relied more on music acts.


title: Kenny Everett

text: Everett fell out with Thames regarding the management of his show, including the scheduling against the BBC's top-rated "Top of the Pops" on Thursday evenings. The BBC offered him a live-audience sketch-format comedy programme, starting with a Christmas special on BBC1 in 1981, followed by five primetime series between 1982 and 1988. The writing team was bolstered by the addition of Andrew Marshall, David Renwick and Neil Shand and the production standards were raised by the heavier investment from the corporation.


title: Kenny Everett

text: Thames Television claimed copyright on Everett's characters and tried to prevent their use by the BBC. Although this action failed, it did lead to the creation of new characters such as General Cheeseburger whose monologues were seen as a satire on US foreign policy, agony aunt Verity Treacle, mime artist Maurice Mimer whose drawings turn into real objects, upper class socialite Jeremy Mince who was perpetually drunk on champagne, orange-haired punk Gizzard Puke (intended to replace Sid Snot) and the spooneristically named Cupid Stunt, a blonde glamorous American B-movie actress with pneumatic breasts. Played in full drag but with no attempt to disguise Everett's beard, she told a cardboard cut-out of chat show host Michael Parkinson (and later Terry Wogan depicted as a skeleton in a suit) about her latest trashy film projects and lurid tales of life on set with male stars such as Burt Reynolds. Her final action in each sketch was to uncross her legs then swing them wildly to recross them (brazenly giving viewers an eyeful of her racy red lingerie) as she uttered the catchphrase "It's all done in the best "possible taste"!" Inept TV handyman Reg Prescott became another firm viewers' favourite, as each week he managed to visibly injure himself with tools whilst attempting to demonstrate DIY tips. Revived characters from the previous series included Sid Snot, Marcel Wave, Brother Lee Love, Angry of Mayfair and the Constable. Each episode in season 3 featured a version of "Snot Rap – Part II" by one or more of Everett's main characters.


title: Kenny Everett

text: Brazilian-born Cleo Rocos co-starred in the BBC series. She often appeared in nothing more than frilly underwear and high heels.


title: Kenny Everett

text: In 1981, Everett, Cryer and Cameron teamed up with Brothers Music to target the emerging home video market with a VHS release called "The Kenny Everett Naughty Joke Box", which was followed a year later by another Brothers Music VHS release called "The New Kenny Everett Naughty Video". Produced and directed by co-writer Ray Cameron, this 'too rude for television' production would get a nationwide Freeview broadcast under the name "Kenny Everett Naughty Video" by That's TV in January 2022. The video was recorded with an audience (in-vision beside Everett for much of the time), whilst co-writer Barry Cryer has an on-screen role, appearing as a guest alongside Lionel Blair and Willie Rushton. Sheila Steafel, Cleo Rocos, Debbie Linden, Linda Lusardi and Jane Score also feature in the cast, while Nikolai Grishanovich turns up at the end to make a comment about the Soviet Union. Characters appearing in the video include Gizzard Puke, Marcel Wave, Sid Snot and a caricature of an Australian called Bris Troop, whilst the video has a running joke about people at a line of urinals.


title: Kenny Everett

text: Everett made one foray into film with 1984's "Bloodbath at the House of Death", a spoof of Hammer horror films, which was penned by Everett's usual writing partners Barry Cryer and Ray Cameron (who also directed the film). Vincent Price was featured as the villain, credited only as the "Sinister Man", and a number of other popular comedians and actors also appeared, including Pamela Stephenson, Gareth Hunt and Don Warrington. Several regulars from Everett's television series also appeared.


title: Kenny Everett

text: In 1977, Everett collaborated with Mike Vickers to release the single "Captain Kremmen", based on one of his comedy characters. It entered the UK charts on 12 November, and peaked at number 32 two weeks later.


title: Kenny Everett

text: In 1983 Kenny Everett released the single "Snot Rap", ostensibly sung by two of his TV characters, Sid Snot and Cupid Stunt. This would peak at number 9 in the UK charts for the week ending 16 April, and peaked at number 91 in Australia. A sequel single, "Snot Rap – Part II", again performed in character, was released in 1985.


title: Kenny Everett

text: Everett married the singer and psychic Audrey "Lady Lee" Middleton at Kensington Register Office on 2 June 1969. By September 1979, they had separated, and he stopped publicly denying his homosexuality in the late 1980s. His co-host David Cash, in the documentary "Unforgettable Kenny Everett", states that "Once I got to know him socially off the ship, it was very obvious that his sexual tendencies were homosexual and he looked at it as bad and so he fought it all the way." One of his first boyfriends, a waiter called Dave Nealon, was a match found for Everett by his former wife. In 1985 after coming out, he introduced his "two husbands"—Nikolai Grishanovich and Pepe Flores—to the media; Everett contracted HIV from Grishanovich, who died of AIDS in 1991.


title: Kenny Everett

text: During the 1983 general election campaign, the Young Conservatives invited Everett to their conference in an attempt to attract the youth vote. Egged on by film director Michael Winner, Everett bounded onto the stage, wearing the enormously oversized foam rubber hands familiar from his mock-evangelical character Brother Lee Love. He shouted slogans such as "Let's bomb Russia!" and "Let's kick Michael Foot's stick away!" to loud applause. (Michael Foot was the ageing leader of the Labour Party at the time, who used a walking stick.) Everett later said he regretted the appearance and said that he had taken the foam hands to the rally because the Tories "asked me first".


title: Kenny Everett

text: In an interview on Ireland's "The Late Late Show" with Gay Byrne and Sinéad O'Connor in February 1989, Everett was challenged by O'Connor about his support for the Conservative Party in the light of his homosexuality and the party's Section 28 addition to the Local Government Act. Everett clarified that he was not a "full Tory", but that he had been appalled by the actions of Arthur Scargill, whom he saw as "inciting violence" and "rabble rousing" and who he thought looked like "Hitler reborn". He had consequently supported the actions of Margaret Thatcher in opposing Scargill. He said he would stand up for gay rights if he were asked providing "it was a jolly occasion", but he also felt that being in a minority and in the public eye, he could do more for gay rights by showing that he was funny and human rather than by marching in the streets.


title: Kenny Everett

text: Everett became close friends with Freddie Mercury, the lead singer of Queen, after they met on Everett's breakfast radio show on Capital Radio in 1974.


title: Kenny Everett

text: In 1988, Middleton, who had subsequently remarried actor John Alkin, published an autobiography with a foreword from Everett. After its publication and newspaper serialisation, however, Everett denounced the book for outing him. Mercury reportedly sided with Middleton. The fallout resulted in Middleton and Everett communicating only via their lawyers.


title: Kenny Everett

text: A year later, Everett and Mercury were reconciled when both were suffering with health issues due to complications with HIV. Mercury died in November 1991.


title: Kenny Everett

text: Everett was diagnosed as HIV positive in 1989 and he made his condition known to the public in 1993. He died from an AIDS-related illness on 4 April 1995, aged 50. A Catholic requiem mass was held at Church of the Immaculate Conception in Mayfair, London. His body was cremated at Mortlake Crematorium.


title: Kenny Everett

text: In 1981 Everett co-wrote a semi-fictitious autobiography entitled "The Custard Stops at Hatfield". It was published by Willow Books, an imprint of Collins, in September 1982.


title: Kenny Everett

text: Everett is the subject of a 1997 episode of the Thames Television series "Heroes of Comedy" which covers his life and career from his beginnings on pirate radio until his death. Celebrities such as Steve Wright, Cliff Richard, Cleo Rocos, Barry Cryer, Jeremy Beadle, Terry Wogan and Barry Took appear and talk about their experiences, collaborations and friendships with Everett and his influence on them.


title: Kenny Everett

text: On 18 November 2007, ITV1 broadcast a tribute show to Everett entitled "Licence to Laugh". This celebrated the 30 years since he first appeared on ITV with the "Kenny Everett Video Show" (Thames Television). Friends and colleagues revealed what it was like to know and work with the man they affectionately dubbed "Cuddly Ken". Additionally, contemporary celebrities such as Chris Moyles and Chris Tarrant talked about their love for the funny entertainer and discussed the ways in which Everett had influenced them and their work. It also featured archive footage.


title: Kenny Everett

text: The documentary "When Freddie Mercury Met Kenny Everett", broadcast on Channel 4, tells the story of the relationship between the two men from the moment they met in 1974 when Mercury was a guest on Everett's radio show, through lovers and drug taking to when both died of AIDS. It features affectionate interviews by many people who were close to him.


title: Kenny Everett

text: In March 2010 the BBC confirmed that it was producing a 90-minute TV biographical film called "Number One in Heaven", to be written by Tim Whitnall and focusing on Everett's unhappiness at secondary school.


title: Kenny Everett

text: On 3 October 2012 the BBC broadcast a 90-minute TV biopic called "The Best Possible Taste" which focused on the performer's relationship with his wife, singer Lee Middleton. Oliver Lansley played the part of Everett and Katherine Kelly that of Middleton.


title: Kenny Everett

text: Everett was portrayed by Dickie Beau in the 2018 Oscar-winning film "Bohemian Rhapsody", a biographical musical drama about the life of Freddie Mercury.


title: BMW i3

text: The BMW i3 is a B-segment, high-roof hatchback manufactured and marketed by BMW with an electric powertrain using rear-wheel drive via a single-speed transmission and an underfloor lithium-ion battery pack and an optional range-extending petrol engine. The i3 was BMW's first mass-produced zero emissions vehicle and was launched as part of BMW's electric vehicle "BMW i" sub-brand.


title: BMW i3

text: Styled by Richard Kim, the i3 is offered in a single five-door configuration with a passenger module of high strength, ultra-lightweight CFRP (carbon fibre reinforced polymer) adhered to a lower aluminium module holding the chassis, battery, drive system and powertrain. The bodywork features two smaller clamshell rear-hinged rear doors. The i3 debuted as a concept at the 2011 International Motor Show Germany, and production began in September 2013 in Leipzig.


title: BMW i3

text: Having ranked third amongst electric cars sold worldwide from 2014 to 2016, its global sales totaled over 220,000 units worldwide by the end of 2021. Germany is listed as its best-selling market with over 47,500 units delivered through December 2021, followed by the U.S. with over 45,000.


title: BMW i3

text: The i3 has won two World Car of the Year Awards, selected as 2014 World Green Car of the Year and also as 2014 World Car Design of the Year. The i3 received an iF Product Design Gold Award, and won both UK Car of the Year 2014 and Best Supermini of 2014 in the first UK Car of the Year Awards.


title: BMW i3

text: In February 2011, BMW debuted its sub-brand, BMW i, to market the vehicles produced under Project i. BMW i vehicles were to be sold separately from BMW or Mini. The first two production models are the all-electric BMW i3, formerly called the Mega City Vehicle (MCV), and a plug-in hybrid called BMW i8, which is the production version of the Vision Efficient Dynamics concept unveiled at the 2009 International Motor Show Germany and has an all-electric range of . Production of both plug-in electric cars was scheduled to start in Leipzig in 2013.


title: BMW i3

text: BMW incorporated the lessons learned during the field testing of the Mini E (200–2010) and the BMW ActiveE (2012) into the design of the BMW i3, in particular regarding the type of battery and powertrain, achievable range, and the use of one pedal driving in urban traffic areas.


title: BMW i3

text: The i3 concept car was unveiled at the 2011 International Motor Show Germany. This 2011 prototype had a lithium-ion battery pack that is expected to deliver between and the battery was fully charged in about four hours with the 240-volt charging unit. The i3 was expected to go from 0 to in less than 8 seconds.


title: BMW i3

text: BMW also showcased a BMW i3 prototype during the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, before the production version was unveiled in July 2013.


title: BMW i3

text: BMW unveiled the i3 Concept Coupé study at the 2012 Los Angeles Auto Show. The carmaker developed the concept car to demonstrate the potential for extending the model range. The three-door hatchback coupe, like the five-door i3 electric hatchback sedan, is propelled by an electric motor developed by the BMW Group, with a maximum output of and peak torque of . Power delivery to the rear wheels is via a single-speed transmission. The li-ion battery pack is placed under the floor and can deliver an all-electric range of , but a gasoline engine referred to as "REx", can be added to extend the car's range to .


title: BMW i3

text: The production i3 was announced in July 2013 as a 2014 model year vehicle. The first car deliveries were expected in November 2013 for the United Kingdom and late Spring 2014 for the United States. It was expected to weigh approximately , of which the 22 kWh battery pack was ; weight savings were achieved through the extensive use of lightweight materials such as aluminium, magnesium, and carbon fiber. To alleviate range concerns, an optional range-extending two-cylinder engine was available, which added and approximately 10% to the price, which started at in the United States. Automotive press were invited to test drive the production cars in Amsterdam.


title: BMW i3

text: The original battery capacity was 60 Ah or 22 kWh (gross), with a net capacity of 19 kWh. The unladen weight was , with the range extender.


title: BMW i3

text: In the United States, the i3 was available with a choice of one of three trim packages dictating the wheels and interior: Mega World (base, cloth seats and 19" Style 427 wheels), Giga World (+US$1,700, adds leather interior accents, sunroof, and 19" Giga-specific Style 429 wheels), and Tera World (+US$2,700, adds full leather interior and 19" Tera-specific Style 428 wheels). 20" Style 430 double-spoke wheels were optional for Giga and Tera trims. In addition, there were two option packages available: Parking Assistant (+US$1,000, adds backup camera and parking assistance) and Technology – Driving Assistant (+US$2,500, adds wide-screen navigation, deceleration assistance, and adaptive cruise control). Wheel and tyre sizes vary from front to rear and by trim, as well. The equivalent trim lines in the UK were named Standard/Atelier, Loft (+£1,000; both corresponding to Mega); Lodge (+£1,500, corresponding to Giga); and Suite (+£2,000, corresponding to Tera). Wheel options were not locked to trims in the UK, with 19" Style 427 wheels standard and the rest optionally available in combination with any interior trim.


title: BMW i3

text: In May 2016, BMW announced that the 2017 model year (MY) BMW i3 will have a 94 Ah / 33 kWh (27.2 kW net usable) battery, allowing increased range. The battery pack capacity was increased by more than 50% without changes in exterior dimensions. BMW and Samsung SDI optimized the cell-internal packages with more electrolyte and adapted the active material, resulting in higher energy density of the lithium ion cells that increased battery capacity and overall battery energy. The improved battery has an upgraded electronics package that has new software mapping for the battery cooling system and the electric motor. The 94 Ah battery pack fits both the all-electric i3 and the i3 with the range extender. With the larger battery, the unladen weight was , rising to with the range extender.


title: BMW i3

text: The Range Extender (REx) variant features the same 94 Ah battery as the all-electric model. The 2017 REx model offers additional range in the American market thanks to a fuel tank that is effectively 25% larger than the previous model. Although the fuel tank is physically unchanged, BMW previously had locked out part of the tank using software specific to the American market to meet requirements for vehicles with range extender, as the car had more gasoline-powered range than all-electric range, which would affect its status as a zero-emissions vehicle (ZEV) in California.


title: BMW i3

text: The 2017 model year i3 was released in the United States and Europe in July 2016. According to BMW, as of 10 August 2016, orders for the larger battery i3 exceeded 7,000 units, with a total of 2,358 i3s delivered worldwide in July 2016, up 33.7% year-on-year. Sales also surged in the U.S. with 1,479 units sold in July 2016, up 58.2% from July 2015, and 143.3% from June 2016. However, BMW only managed to sell 6,276 i3s in 2017 in the U.S., a drop of 17 percent from 2016. Purchase incentive of up to $10,000 was available for 2017 or 2018 models.


title: BMW i3

text: Both variants with the improved battery were scheduled to be available in the UK, Germany and France starting in July 2016. Owners of previous i3 models in selected markets have the option to retrofit their vehicles with the improved battery. BMW plans to use the used 22 kWh batteries in the manufacturing of stationary power storage units. The battery retrofit option is not available in the U.S.


title: BMW i3

text: The exterior was refreshed for the 2018 model year, with a new front bumper, horizontal turnsignal light openings, and standard LED headlights. The rear bumper was also revised and a horizontal silver bar was added to the rear hatch. On the side, a silver accent was added to the roofline on the i3 model, not on the i3s model; the car's visual stance was widened with the addition of fender flares.


title: BMW i3

text: In 2017, BMW announced the addition of the i3s ("sport") to its lineup beginning with the 2018 model year. Visually, many of the chrome accents added to the regular 2018 model were blacked-out on the i3s. The i3s features increased power and torque output from and , a lowered sport suspension, wider model-exclusive Style 431 double-spoke wheels and tires (F: 175/55R20 and R: 195/50R20, each wider than the standard tires fitted with Style 430 wheels), faster acceleration, and a SPORT drive mode. The i3s features a wider track width at , compared to (F/R) for the regular i3; overall width also increases from . The i3s, like the i3, is offered with optional Range Extender. Also like the regular i3, the i3s is offered with a choice of interiors, from standard Mega / Atelier and Loft to Giga / Lodge and Tera / Suite. The unladen weight of the i3s was approximately heavier than the regular i3, at without and with the range extender.


title: BMW i3

text: In September 2018, BMW announced a larger 42.2 kWh (120 Ah) battery for the i3. Minor alterations to the i3 included new color options and adaptive headlights. With the introduction of the bigger battery, BMW decided to discontinue the REX version of the i3 in Europe. Unladen weight did not grow much with the larger battery; the unladen weight was for the regular i3 and for the i3s.


title: BMW i3

text: , BMW planned to continue i3 production until 2024, and there were no specific plans for an i3 successor. However, BMW announced in June 2021 it would discontinue i3 sales in the US after the 2021 model year, replaced by the BMW iX and BMW i4 for that market in 2022. The end of production for US models occurred in July 2021; Australian models were discontinued at the end of 2021.


title: BMW i3

text: BMW confirmed in early 2022 that production of all i3 models is scheduled to end in July 2022, and will be succeeded in some markets by BMW iX1, which will enter mass production at the Regensburg factory in 2024 before shifting to Hungary. The Leipzig plant will be retooled to produce the updated Mini Countryman.


title: BMW i3

text: In April 2021, BMW announced the 3G cellular technology services will be discontinued starting February 2022 for vehicles in the US market. This is due to the decline and decommissioning of the 3G service.