title: Jeremy Hunt

text: Under Hunt, the Department of Health announced a new junior doctors' contract in England which would increase doctors' basic pay but extend "normal hours" for which they would not be paid a premium. In September 2015, the British Medical Association (BMA) said they would not re-enter negotiations unless Hunt dropped his threat to impose the contract and balloted their members for industrial action. They argued the contract would include an increase in working hours with a relative pay cut of up to 40%. Hunt tried reassuring the BMA no junior doctor would face a pay cut, before admitting those who worked longer than 56 hours a week would face a fall in pay but said working these long hours was unsafe. In November 2015, he said he would offer a basic pay increase of 11%, but still removing compensation for longer hours.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: On 19 November 2015, the result of a BMA strike ballot was announced, with 98% voting for full strike action. An agreement was not reached by the junior doctors committee's deadline, so the BMA announced a strike would go ahead.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: The first day of strike action was in January 2016 and involved junior doctors only providing emergency care. A second day of strike action occurred in February 2016 where doctors again provided only emergency care. Following these strikes, Hunt announced he would unilaterally impose the new contract without agreement or further negotiation, with NHS trusts instructed to introduce it in August. In response, the BMA announced three 48-hour long strikes and issued a legal challenge over the contract.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: Further talks after the strikes resulted in an agreement to be put to a referendum. In the July referendum, 58% of BMA members rejected the offer. Following this, Hunt rejected holding any further talks with the BMA and announced the imposition of the new contract on junior doctors starting from October.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: In February 2016, Hunt was polled as the "most disliked" frontline British politician. He acknowledged there would be "considerable dismay" and announced an urgent inquiry led by Academy of Medical Royal Colleges chair Susan Bailey into junior doctors' morale and welfare. The Academy Trainee Doctors' Group voted unanimously not to participate in the review under the offered terms. He said he had lessons to learn but denied any personal responsibility for the dispute.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: Also, in 2016, both Stephen Hawking and Robert Winston called for an inquiry into claims made by Hunt regarding whether the NHS had sufficient funding, with Hawking saying Hunt had "cherry-picked research, causing a devastating breakdown of trust between Government and the medical profession".


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: Hunt was appointed Foreign Secretary in July 2018 following the resignation of Boris Johnson. Hunt said "My principal job at a time of massive importance for our country is to stand four square behind the Prime Minister so that we can get through an agreement with the European Union based on what was agreed by the Cabinet last week at Chequers." In July 2018, Hunt expressed fears over the UK potentially leaving the EU without a deal. He said that it would be "incredibly challenging economically" and that "It would lead to a fissure in relations which would be highly damaging for that great partnership that we have had for so many years, which has been so important in sustaining the international order."


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: Hunt supported the Saudi Arabian-led military intervention in Yemen and described Saudi Arabia as a "very, very important military ally". In August 2018, he defended Britain's alliance with Saudi Arabia after a bomb dropped on a school bus in Yemen killed 51 people, including 40 children, although he said he was "deeply shocked" at the deaths. Amid global outrage over the murder of Saudi dissident journalist Jamal Khashoggi at the Saudi Arabian consulate in Istanbul, Hunt rejected calls to end the UK's arms sales to Saudi Arabia, saying: "There are jobs in the UK ... at stake so when it comes to the issue of arms sales we have our procedures." In February 2019, he urged Germany to lift ban on arms sales to Saudi Arabia and warned that Germans are risking "a loss of confidence in Germany's credibility as a partner", although he admitted: "Over 80,000 children [in Yemen] have died of starvation, there are about a quarter of a million people starving at the moment, and around 20 million people don't have food security – they don't know whether they're going to be able to get the food they need in the days ahead." Andrew Smith, of Campaign Against Arms Trade (CAAT), said Hunt "played an utterly central and complicit role in arming and supporting the Saudi-led destruction of Yemen".


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: In July 2018, Hunt visited China and met China's foreign minister Wang Yi. Hunt said that the "UK-China Strategic Dialogue is an important opportunity to intensify our cooperation on shared challenges in international affairs, ranging from global free trade to non-proliferation and environmental challenges, under the UK-China Global Partnership and 'Golden Era' for UK-China relations". In October 2018, he criticised the Xinjiang re-education camps and human rights abuses against the Uyghur Muslim minority in China, saying: "British diplomats who visited Xinjiang have confirmed that reports of mass internment camps for Uighur Muslims were 'broadly true'."


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: Hunt was critical of Russia and Iran. On 23 August 2018, Hunt met US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo to discuss the 'threat' from both countries. In April 2019, Hunt condemned the United States for recognising Israel's 1981 annexation of the Golan Heights, saying: "We should never recognise the annexation of territory by force. (...) We want Israel to be a success and we consider them to be a great friend but on this we do not agree." In June 2019, he stated he shared the US Government's assessment that Iran was to blame for two attacks on oil tankers in the Gulf of Oman.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: Hunt supported the continued efforts of the UK Government to leave the European Union. During the September 2018 Conservative conference, Hunt likened the European Union to the former USSR, saying: "It was the Soviet Union that stopped people leaving. The lesson from history is clear: If you turn the EU club into a prison, the desire to get out won't diminish." This comment was strongly criticised. While on a February 2019 Brexit-related visit to Ljubljana, he caused anger by congratulating his hosts on "making really remarkable transformation from a Soviet vassal state to a modern European democracy." In fact Slovenia, as part of Yugoslavia, had previously been non-aligned.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: In November 2018, Hunt threatened the United Arab Emirates with "serious diplomatic consequences" after it sentenced British research student Matthew Hedges to life in prison for allegedly spying for the UK. Hunt said that the verdict "is not what we expect from a friend and trusted partner of the United Kingdom and runs contrary to earlier assurances". Hedges was released at the end of November, after intense negotiations.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: Following the April 2019 arrest of WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange in London's Ecuadorian Embassy, Hunt thanked the Ecuadorean President Lenín Moreno for his cooperation.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: Hunt announced his campaign to become the leader of the Conservative Party on 24 May 2019, following the resignation of Prime Minister Theresa May. On 20 June 2019, he was named one of the final two candidates. Hunt was defeated by Boris Johnson, having secured only one third of the vote. His campaign was given £10,000 by a close associate to Saudi Arabian Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: Following Boris Johnson's election as party leader, Hunt was offered the role of Secretary of State for Defence in Johnson's Cabinet but decided to turn it down.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: Returning to the backbenches, Hunt founded Patient Safety Watch in October 2019, with the charity seeking to establish data to report on patient safety and harm in care, continuing the work on safety he started as Health Secretary. He chairs the organisation and said he planned to invest considerable sums of money into it. However according to "The Guardian" two thirds of its income is spent on the salary of Hunt's former political advisor who was sacked over a previous lobbying scandal.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: Hunt held his seat at the 2019 general election. He was elected as the new chair of the Health and Social Care Select Committee in January 2020, succeeding Sarah Wollaston. In February 2020, Hunt called for an inquiry into the National Health Service after the publishing of many reports regarding infant mortality in NHS hospitals.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: In March 2020, Hunt expressed disapproval of the Government's response to the emerging COVID-19 pandemic, criticising the Government for still allowing "external visits to care homes" and "not preventing mass gatherings".


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: Hunt voted against Boris Johnson in the 2022 vote of confidence and urged other colleagues to do the same.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: His book, "Zero: Eliminating unnecessary deaths in a post-pandemic NHS", argues for "candour, a no-blame culture and a sincere determination to treat every mistake as an opportunity to learn how to do better next time". He writes that in the NHS there are 150 preventable deaths each week and draws on the experience of the airline industry to advocate a shift from a blame culture to a learning culture.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: Following the resignation of Boris Johnson, Hunt announced he would be standing in the subsequent Conservative Party leadership election. He criticised Johnson for investing in infrastructure instead of "wealth creation", and proposed policies including a moratorium on business rates in deprived areas and a cut to corporation tax to 15% instead of a proposed rise to 25%. He also said he would retain the rise in National Insurance rates and would not cut personal taxation until he "[got] the economy growing". Hunt said Esther McVey would be deputy prime minister if he were to become prime minister. He was eliminated in the first round of voting on 13 July, receiving 18 votes. He endorsed Rishi Sunak after being eliminated.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: Following the dismissal of Kwasi Kwarteng on 14 October 2022, following the poorly received September 2022 mini-budget, Hunt was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer by Prime Minister Liz Truss.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: On 18 October, Tory MP Sir Roger Gale stated "Jeremy Hunt is "de facto" prime minister at the moment". This was echoed by media, including "The Guardian," with the "Financial Times" writing that many MPs believe he is now the country's "de facto" leader. "The Economist" called him "chancellor in name but prime minister in practice" and "the most powerful person in Britain".


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: Following Truss' resignation, Hunt declined to stand in the party leadership election to replace her. Following Rishi Sunak's appointment as Prime Minister, Hunt was reappointed as Chancellor.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: Hunt's wife, Lucia Guo, comes from Xi'an in China. Hunt first met Guo in 2008, when she was working at Warwick University recruiting Chinese students for the university. They married in July 2009 and have a son and two daughters; Guo and the three children are low-profile and rarely appear in public. His wife presented a segment on Sky's "China Hour", a show coproduced by state-owned broadcaster China International Television Corporation.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: He owns a townhouse in Pimlico, central London as well as a home in Hambledon, Surrey. Hunt and his wife own Mare Pond Properties Ltd, a company which bought seven luxury flats in Alexandra Wharf, Southampton, with the help of a standard bulk discount from property developer and Conservative donor Nicholas James Roach.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: Hunt speaks Japanese, having studied the language for two years while working in Japan as an English language teacher in the 1990s.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: Hunt has named his personal political heroes as Margaret Thatcher and William Wilberforce. Hunt is a member of the Church of England.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: Hunt has advocated for pro-active good mental health through actions including exercise, social contacts, gratitude and sleep.


title: Jeremy Hunt

text: In June 2022, he revealed that "every member of his family" has had cancer, and he himself has recovered from "a minor one".


title: Greatest common divisor

text: In mathematics, the greatest common divisor (GCD) of two or more integers, which are not all zero, is the largest positive integer that divides each of the integers. For two integers "x", "y", the greatest common divisor of "x" and "y" is denoted formula_1. For example, the GCD of 8 and 12 is 4, that is, formula_2.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: In the name "greatest common divisor", the adjective "greatest" may be replaced by "highest", and the word "divisor" may be replaced by "factor", so that other names include highest common factor (hcf), etc. Historically, other names for the same concept have included greatest common measure.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: This notion can be extended to polynomials (see Polynomial greatest common divisor) and other commutative rings (see below).


title: Greatest common divisor

text: The "greatest common divisor" (GCD) of two nonzero integers and is the greatest positive integer such that is a divisor of both and ; that is, there are integers and such that and , and is the largest such integer. The GCD of and is generally denoted .


title: Greatest common divisor

text: This definition also applies when one of and is zero. In this case, the GCD is the absolute value of the non zero integer: . This case is important as the terminating step of the Euclidean algorithm.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: The above definition cannot be used for defining , since , and zero thus has no greatest divisor. However, zero is its own greatest divisor if "greatest" is understood in the context of the divisibility relation, so is commonly defined as 0. This preserves the usual identities for GCD, and in particular Bézout's identity, namely that generates the same ideal as . This convention is followed by many computer algebra systems. Nonetheless, some authors leave undefined.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: The GCD of and is their greatest positive common divisor in the preorder relation of divisibility. This means that the common divisors of and are exactly the divisors of their GCD. This is commonly proved by using either Euclid's lemma, the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, or the Euclidean algorithm. This is the meaning of "greatest" that is used for the generalizations of the concept of GCD.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: Computing all divisors of the two numbers in this way is usually not efficient, especially for large numbers that have many divisors. Much more efficient methods are described in .


title: Greatest common divisor

text: Two numbers are called relatively prime, or coprime, if their greatest common divisor equals 1. For example, 9 and 28 are coprime.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: For example, a 24-by-60 rectangular area can be divided into a grid of: 1-by-1 squares, 2-by-2 squares, 3-by-3 squares, 4-by-4 squares, 6-by-6 squares or 12-by-12 squares. Therefore, 12 is the greatest common divisor of 24 and 60. A 24-by-60 rectangular area can thus be divided into a grid of 12-by-12 squares, with two squares along one edge (24/12 = 2) and five squares along the other (60/12 = 5).


title: Greatest common divisor

text: The greatest common divisor is useful for reducing fractions to the lowest terms. For example, gcd(42, 56) = 14, therefore,


title: Greatest common divisor

text: The least common multiple of two integers that are not both zero can be computed from their greatest common divisor, by using the relation


title: Greatest common divisor

text: Greatest common divisors can be computed by determining the prime factorizations of the two numbers and comparing factors. For example, to compute gcd(48, 180), we find the prime factorizations 48 = 2 · 3 and 180 = 2 · 3 · 5; the GCD is then 2 · 3 · 5 = 2 · 3 · 5 = 12, as shown in the Venn diagram. The corresponding LCM is then


title: Greatest common divisor

text: In practice, this method is only feasible for small numbers, as computing prime factorizations takes too long.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: The method introduced by Euclid for computing greatest common divisors is based on the fact that, given two positive integers and such that , the common divisors of and are the same as the common divisors of and .


title: Greatest common divisor

text: So, Euclid's method for computing the greatest common divisor of two positive integers consists of replacing the larger number by the difference of the numbers, and repeating this until the two numbers are equal: that is their greatest common divisor.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: This method can be very slow if one number is much larger than the other. So, the variant that follows is generally preferred.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: A more efficient method is the "Euclidean algorithm", a variant in which the difference of the two numbers and is replaced by the "remainder" of the Euclidean division (also called "division with remainder") of by .


title: Greatest common divisor

text: Denoting this remainder as , the algorithm replaces by repeatedly until the pair is , where is the greatest common divisor.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: Lehmer's algorithm is based on the observation that the initial quotients produced by Euclid's algorithm can be determined based on only the first few digits; this is useful for numbers that are larger than a computer word. In essence, one extracts initial digits, typically forming one or two computer words, and runs Euclid's algorithms on these smaller numbers, as long as it is guaranteed that the quotients are the same with those that would be obtained with the original numbers. The quotients are collected into a small 2-by-2 transformation matrix (a matrix of single-word integers) to reduce the original numbers. This process is repeated until numbers are small enough that the binary algorithm (see below) is more efficient.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: This algorithm improves speed, because it reduces the number of operations on very large numbers, and can use hardware arithmetic for most operations. In fact, most of the quotients are very small, so a fair number of steps of the Euclidean algorithm can be collected in a 2-by-2 matrix of single-word integers. When Lehmer's algorithm encounters a quotient that is too large, it must fall back to one iteration of Euclidean algorithm, with a Euclidean division of large numbers.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: The method is as follows: Let "a" and "b" be the two non-negative integers. Let the integer "d" be 0. There are five possibilities:


title: Greatest common divisor

text: As gcd("a", "a") = "a", the desired GCD is "a" × 2 (as "a" and "b" are changed in the other cases, and "d" records the number of times that "a" and "b" have been both divided by 2 in the next step, the GCD of the initial pair is the product of "a" and 2).


title: Greatest common divisor

text: Then 2 is a common divisor. Divide both "a" and "b" by 2, increment "d" by 1 to record the number of times 2 is a common divisor and continue.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: As gcd("a","b") = gcd("b","a"), if "a" < "b" then exchange "a" and "b". The number "c" = "a" − "b" is positive and smaller than "a". Any number that divides "a" and "b" must also divide "c" so every common divisor of "a" and "b" is also a common divisor of "b" and "c". Similarly, "a" = "b" + "c" and every common divisor of "b" and "c" is also a common divisor of "a" and "b". So the two pairs ("a", "b") and ("b", "c") have the same common divisors, and thus gcd("a","b") = gcd("b","c"). Moreover, as "a" and "b" are both odd, "c" is even, the process can be continued with the pair ("a", "b") replaced by the smaller numbers ("c"/2, "b") without changing the GCD.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: Each of the above steps reduces at least one of "a" and "b" while leaving them non-negative and so can only be repeated a finite number of times. Thus eventually the process results in "a" = "b", the stopping case. Then the GCD is "a" × 2.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: Example: ("a", "b", "d") = (48, 18, 0) → (24, 9, 1) → (12, 9, 1) → (6, 9, 1) → (3, 9, 1) → (3, 3, 1) ; the original GCD is thus the product 6 of 2 = 2 and "a"= "b"= 3.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: The binary GCD algorithm is particularly easy to implement on binary computers. Its computational complexity is


title: Greatest common divisor

text: The computational complexity is usually given in terms of the length of the input. Here, this length is formula_13 and the complexity is thus


title: Greatest common divisor

text: If "a" and "b" are both nonzero, the greatest common divisor of "a" and "b" can be computed by using least common multiple (LCM) of "a" and "b":


title: Greatest common divisor

text: is an entire function in the variable "b" for all positive integers "a" where "c"("k") is Ramanujan's sum.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: The computational complexity of the computation of greatest common divisors has been widely studied. If one uses the Euclidean algorithm and the elementary algorithms for multiplication and division, the computation of the greatest common divisor of two integers of at most bits is formula_19 This means that the computation of greatest common divisor has, up to a constant factor, the same complexity as the multiplication.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: However, if a fast multiplication algorithm is used, one may modify the Euclidean algorithm for improving the complexity, but the computation of a greatest common divisor becomes slower than the multiplication. More precisely, if the multiplication of two integers of bits takes a time of , then the fastest known algorithm for greatest common divisor has a complexity formula_20 This implies that the fastest known algorithm has a complexity of formula_21


title: Greatest common divisor

text: Previous complexities are valid for the usual models of computation, specifically multitape Turing machines and random-access machines.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: The computation of the greatest common divisors belongs thus to the class of problems solvable in quasilinear time. "A fortiori", the corresponding decision problem belongs to the class P of problems solvable in polynomial time. The GCD problem is not known to be in NC, and so there is no known way to parallelize it efficiently; nor is it known to be P-complete, which would imply that it is unlikely to be possible to efficiently parallelize GCD computation. Shallcross et al. showed that a related problem (EUGCD, determining the remainder sequence arising during the Euclidean algorithm) is NC-equivalent to the problem of integer linear programming with two variables; if either problem is in NC or is P-complete, the other is as well. Since NC contains NL, it is also unknown whether a space-efficient algorithm for computing the GCD exists, even for nondeterministic Turing machines.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: Although the problem is not known to be in NC, parallel algorithms asymptotically faster than the Euclidean algorithm exist; the fastest known deterministic algorithm is by Chor and Goldreich, which (in the CRCW-PRAM model) can solve the problem in time with processors. Randomized algorithms can solve the problem in time on formula_22 processors (this is superpolynomial).


title: Greatest common divisor

text: In 1972, James E. Nymann showed that "k" integers, chosen independently and uniformly from {1, ..., "n"}, are coprime with probability 1/"ζ"("k") as "n" goes to infinity, where "ζ" refers to the Riemann zeta function. (See coprime for a derivation.) This result was extended in 1987 to show that the probability that "k" random integers have greatest common divisor "d" is "d"/ζ("k").


title: Greatest common divisor

text: Using this information, the expected value of the greatest common divisor function can be seen (informally) to not exist when "k" = 2. In this case the probability that the GCD equals "d" is "d"/ζ(2), and since ζ(2) = π/6 we have


title: Greatest common divisor

text: This last summation is the harmonic series, which diverges. However, when "k" ≥ 3, the expected value is well-defined, and by the above argument, it is


title: Greatest common divisor

text: The notion of greatest common divisor can more generally be defined for elements of an arbitrary commutative ring, although in general there need not exist one for every pair of elements.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: If is a commutative ring, and and are in , then an element of is called a "common divisor" of and if it divides both and (that is, if there are elements and in such that "d"·"x" = "a" and "d"·"y" = "b").


title: Greatest common divisor

text: If is a common divisor of and , and every common divisor of and divides , then is called a "greatest common divisor" of and "b".


title: Greatest common divisor

text: With this definition, two elements and may very well have several greatest common divisors, or none at all. If is an integral domain then any two GCD's of and must be associate elements, since by definition either one must divide the other; indeed if a GCD exists, any one of its associates is a GCD as well. Existence of a GCD is not assured in arbitrary integral domains. However, if is a unique factorization domain, then any two elements have a GCD, and more generally this is true in GCD domains.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: If is a Euclidean domain in which euclidean division is given algorithmically (as is the case for instance when "R" = "F"["X"] where is a field, or when is the ring of Gaussian integers), then greatest common divisors can be computed using a form of the Euclidean algorithm based on the division procedure.


title: Greatest common divisor

text: The elements 2 and 1 +  are two maximal common divisors (that is, any common divisor which is a multiple of 2 is associated to 2, the same holds for 1 + , but they are not associated, so there is no greatest common divisor of and "b".


title: Greatest common divisor

text: Corresponding to the Bézout property we may, in any commutative ring, consider the collection of elements of the form "pa" + "qb", where and range over the ring. This is the ideal generated by and , and is denoted simply ("a", "b"). In a ring all of whose ideals are principal (a principal ideal domain or PID), this ideal will be identical with the set of multiples of some ring element "d"; then this is a greatest common divisor of and "b". But the ideal ("a", "b") can be useful even when there is no greatest common divisor of and "b". (Indeed, Ernst Kummer used this ideal as a replacement for a GCD in his treatment of Fermat's Last Theorem, although he envisioned it as the set of multiples of some hypothetical, or "ideal", ring element , whence the ring-theoretic term.)


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (17 October 1817 – 27 March 1898; also Sayyid Ahmad Khan) was an Indian Muslim reformer, philosopher, and educationist in nineteenth-century British India. Though initially espousing Hindu-Muslim unity, he became the pioneer of Muslim nationalism in India and is widely credited as the father of the two-nation theory, which formed the basis of the Pakistan movement. Born into a family with strong debts to the Mughal court, Ahmad studied the Quran and Sciences within the court. He was awarded an honorary LLD from the University of Edinburgh in 1889.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: In 1838, Syed Ahmad entered the service of East India Company and went on to become a judge at a Small Causes Court in 1867, retiring from 1876. During the Indian Mutiny of 1857, he remained loyal to the British Raj and was noted for his actions in saving European lives. After the rebellion, he penned the booklet "The Causes of the Indian Mutiny" – a daring critique, at the time, of various British policies that he blamed for causing the revolt. Believing that the future of Muslims was threatened by the rigidity of their orthodox outlook, Sir Ahmad began promoting Western–style scientific education by founding modern schools and journals and organising Islamic entrepreneurs.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: In 1859, Syed established Gulshan School at Muradabad, Victoria School at Ghazipur in 1863, and a scientific society for Muslims in 1864. In 1875, founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, the first Muslim university in Southern Asia. During his career, Syed repeatedly called upon Muslims to loyally serve the British Raj and promoted the adoption of Urdu as the "lingua franca" of all Indian Muslims. Syed criticized the Indian National Congress.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Sir Syed maintains a strong legacy in Pakistan and among Indian Muslims. He strongly influenced other Muslim leaders including Allama Iqbal and Muhammad Ali Jinnah. His advocacy of Islam's rationalist tradition, and at broader, radical reinterpretation of the Quran to make it compatible with science and modernity, continues to influence the global Islamic reformation. Many universities and public buildings in Pakistan bear Sir Syed's name.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Aligarh Muslim University celebrated Sir Syed's 200th birth centenary with much enthusiasm on 17 October 2017. Former President of India Pranab Mukherjee was the chief guest.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Syed Ahmad Taqvi 'Khan Bahadur' was born on 17 October 1817 to Syed Muhammad Muttaqi and Aziz-un-Nisa in Delhi, which was the capital of the Mughal Empire in the ruling times of Mughal Emperor Akbar II. Many generations of his family had since been highly connected with the administrative position in Mughal Empire. His maternal grandfather Khwaja Fariduddin served as "Wazir" (lit. Minister) in the court of Emperor Akbar Shah II. His paternal grandfather Syed Hadi Jawwad bin Imaduddin held a "mansab" (lit. General)– a high-ranking administrative position and honorary name of "Mir Jawwad Ali Khan" in the court of Emperor Alamgir II. Sir Syed's father, Syed Muhammad Muttaqi, was personally close to Emperor Akbar Shah II and served as his personal adviser. However, Syed Ahmad was born at a time when his father was regional insurrections aided and led by the East India Company, which had replaced the power traditionally held by the Mughal state, reducing its monarch to figurehead.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Syed Ahmad was the youngest of three siblings. With his elder brother Syed Muhammad bin Muttaqi Khan and elder sister Safiyatun Nisa, Sir Syed was raised in the house of his maternal grandfather in a wealthy area of the city. They were raised in strict accordance with Mughal noble traditions and exposed to politics. Their mother Aziz-un-Nisa played a formative role in Sir Syed's early life, raising him with rigid discipline with a strong emphasis on modern education.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Sir Syed's education was initiated by Shah Ghulam Ali, his father's spiritual mentor in 1822. He was taught to read and understand the Qur'an by a female tutor. He received an education traditional to Muslim nobility in Delhi. He attended a maktab run by a learned scholar, Moulvi Hamiduddin, in a house adjacent to his ancestral home and started learning Persian and Arabic. He read the works of Muslim scholars and writers such as Sahbai, Zauq and Ghalib. Other tutors instructed him in mathematics, astronomy and algebra. He also pursued the study of medicine for several years under Hakim Ghulam Haider Khan. Sir Syed was also adept at swimming, shooting and other sports. He took an active part in the Mughal court's cultural activities and attended parties, festivals and recitations.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Syed Ahmad's elder brother launched a weekly, “Syedul Akhbar”, from Delhi, which was one of the earliest Urdu newspaper of North part of India. Until the death of his father in 1838, Sir Syed had lived a life customary for an affluent young Muslim noble. Upon his father's death, he inherited the titles of his grandfather and father and was awarded the title of "Arif Jung" by the emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar. Financial difficulties put an end to Sir Syed's formal education, although he continued to study in private, using books on a variety of subjects.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Having recognized the steady decline in Mughal political power, Sir Syed decided to enter the service of the East India Company. He could not enter the colonial civil service because it was only in the 1860s that Indians were admitted. His first appointment was as a "Serestadar" (lit. Clerk) of the Criminal Department in the Sadr Amin's office in Delhi, responsible for record-keeping and managing court affairs. In February 1839, he was transferred to Agra and promoted to the title of "Naib Munshi" or deputy reader in the office of the Commissioner. In 1841 he was appointed as the "Munsif" or Sub-Judge of Fatehpur Sikri and later transferred to Delhi in 1846. He remained in Delhi until 1854 except for two short-term postings to Rohtak as officiating "Sadr Amin" in 1850 and 1853. In 1855 he was promoted to the post of "Sadr Amin" in Bijnor.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Acquainted with high-ranking British officials, Sir Syed obtained close knowledge about British colonial politics during his service at the courts. At the outbreak of the Indian rebellion, on 10 May 1857, Sir Syed was serving as the chief assessment officer at the court in Bijnor. He stood by the British officers of Bijnor and saved the lives of many officers and their family members from the revolting soldiers. The conflict had left large numbers of civilians dead. Erstwhile centres of Muslim power such as Delhi, Agra, Lucknow and Kanpur were severely affected. He lost several close relatives who died in the violence. Although he succeeded in rescuing his mother from the turmoil, she died in Meerut, owing to the privations she had experienced.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: In 1858, he was appointed as "Sadarus Sudoor", a high-ranking post at the court in Muradabad, where he began working on his most famous literary work, "The Cause of the Indian Revolt". In 1862, he was transferred to Ghazipur, and later to Aligarh in 1864. In 1864 he was sent to Banaras and elevated to the position of a Sub-Judge of Small Causes.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: In April 1869, he accompanied his two son Syed Mahmood, who had obtained a scholarship for study in England and Syed Hamid to England.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Sir Syed retired from government service in 1876 and settled in Aligarh. In 1878, he was nominated as an additional member of the Imperial Legislative Council, which he served from July 1878 to July 1880. He got the second term that lasted until 1883. He served the Legislative Council of the Lieutenant Governor of the North- Western Provinces for two terms from 1887 until 1893.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Sir Syed's early influences were his mother Aziz-un-Nisa and maternal grandfather Khwaja Fariduddin both of whom took special interest in his education. Apart from serving as a Wazir in the Mughal court Khwaja Fariduddin was also a teacher, mathematician and astronomer. He was also disposed towards Sufism, which left its impact on Sir Syed since his early childhood. His maternal uncle Khwaja Zainuddin Ahmad, who was an expert in music and mathematics also influenced him in his early days.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Sir Syed's early theological writings demonstrate the influence of three school of religious though on his outlook - the Naqshbandi tradition of Shah Ghulam Ali Dahlavi, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi and his teachings, and the Mujahidin movement of Syed Ahmad Barelvi and his earliest disciple Shah Ismail Dehlvi. While Sir Syed shared the desire for religious forms in India with the Mujahidin movement, he was opposed to the Indian Wahhabi movement.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: During his formative years in Delhi he came in contact with Ghalib and Zauq whose exquisite style of prose and poetry influenced Sir Syed's style of writing. He would often visit Imam Baksh Sahbai and Sadruddin Khan Azurda Dehlawi in his learning years. Another influence on him was his teacher and friend in Agra, Nur al Hasan of Kandhala, a teacher in Arabic at Agra College in the early 1840s who encouraged and corrected his early works.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: He was also influenced by the works of the Tunisian reformer Hayreddin Pasha and adopted his approach of utilising freedom of expression for bringing reforms in the Muslim community.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: The western writers who most influenced his political thoughts were the Utilitarians such as John Stuart Mill whose works he often quoted in his own writings. He was also influenced by the essays of Joseph Addison and Richard Steele and modelled his own journals after their "Tatler" and "Spectator".


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: While continuing to work as a junior clerk, Sir Syed began focusing on writing, from the age of 23 (in 1840), on various subjects (from mechanics to educational issues), mainly in Urdu, where he wrote, at least, 6000 pages. He also wrote a well known book on archeology called Athar-ul-Sandeed. He also developed interest in literature as he met a few of India's well known writers.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Sir Syed Ahmad Khan's career as an author began when he published a series of treatises in Urdu on religious subjects in 1842. In his early religious writings his religious thoughts are inclined towards the orthodoxy which slowly becomes independent with his increasing contact with the West. His early works show the influence of Sufism and his upbringing in Delhi. The main themes of these works are popularization of the practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad as the one true path and the desire to reform the lives of Indian Muslims from religious innovations thus endeavouring for the purity of Islamic belief in India.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: His later religious writings such as his commentary on the Torah and Gospel and his essays on Muhammad were stimulated in response to Christian missionary activities in India and the aggressive view of British historians towards Islam.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: His first treatise published in 1842 was a biographical sketch of Muhammad, called "Jila al- Qulub bi Zikr al-Mahbub" (Delight of the Hearts in Remembering the Beloved) in line with reformist ideas of Shah Waliullah. It was prose for recitation on Mawlid written in idiomatic Urdu. He published his second treatise "Tuhfa-i Hasan" (The Gift to Hasan) in 1844 on the encouragement of his friend Nur al Hasan. It is an Urdu translation of the tenth and twelfth chapter of Shah Abdul Aziz Dehlavi's "Tuhfah-i Ithna Ashariyya" (A treatise on the 12 Imams), which was a critique of Shia beliefs. The tenth chapter deals and answers the Shia accusations against the Sahabi and Hazrat Aisha and the twelfth deals with the Shia doctrines of tawalli and tabarri.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: His third treatise, entitled "Kalimat al-Haqq" (The True Discourse) was published in 1849. It is a critique of the prevalent Sufi practices around "pir–murid" relationships. The first part of the work is devoted to the concept of "piri" in which he argues that Muhammad is the only valid pir while the second part is focused on "muridi" and the notion of "bay'ah." He calls for reforms in the pir-murid relationship and the associated practises. "Rah i Sunna dar radd i Bid'a" (The Sunna and the Rejection of Innovations), his fourth treatise was published in 1850. In this work he was not in favour of the religious practices and beliefs of his fellow Muslims which he felt was mixed with innovation and deviated from the true Sunnah. In 1852 he published "Namiqa dar bayan masala tasawwur-i-Shaikh" (A Letter Explaining the Teaching of tasawwur i shaikh) in which he defended "tasawwur-i-Shaikh", the Sufi practice of visualizing within, the image of one's spiritual guide. In 1853 he translated some passages of al-Ghazali's "Kimiya al Sa'ada" (The Alchemy of Happiness).


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: In 1862 while stationed at Ghazipur, Sir Syed started working on a commentary on the Bible and its teaching, with the aim to explain them in terms of Islam, the final of the Abrahamic religions. It was published in Urdu and English in three parts from 1862 to 1865 under the title "Tabin al-al-kalam Fi tafsir altawrat Wa ‘I-injil’ala millat al Islam" (Elucidation of the World in Commentary of the Torah and Gospel According to the Religion of Islam). While the first part deals with the Islamic approach towards biblical writings, the second and third part contains commentary on the Book of Genesis and the Gospel of Matthew respectively.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: In 1869 he wrote "Al-Khutbat al-Ahmadiya fi'l Arab wa'I Sirat al-Muhammadiya" (A Series of Essays on the Life of Prophet Muhammad and Subjects Subsidiary Therein) as a rejoinder to William Muir's widely known four-part book, "The Life of Mahomet" published in 1864. He was deeply distress by Muir's portrayal of Islam and the character of Muhammad. He was concerned that the book might create doubts among the younger generation of Muslims. In order to prepare for the book he accompanied his son to England as he wanted to get a first-hand impression of Western civilisation.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: He was also a reader of Darwin and, while not agreeing with all of his ideas, he could be described as a sort of theistic evolutionist like his contemporary Asa Gray, and one of the first in the Islamic world, finding the arguments supporting such view through his own scientific research but also quoting earlier Islamic scholars like Al-Jahiz, Ibn Khaldun and Shah Waliullah.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Sir Syed started working on a tafsir or commentary on Quran in 1877. It was published as "Tafsir ul-Quran" in seven volumes; the first volume appeared in 1880 and the last volume was published six years after his death in 1904. In this work, he analysed and interpreted 16 paras and 13 surahs of the Quran. He also included a detailed article "Tahrir fi Usool al-Tafsir" (The Notes on the Principles of Commentary) in the first volume in which he laid down 15 principles on which he based his commentary.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: History was Sir Syed's preferred area of study and in 1840, Sir Syed compiled a book of chronological tables about the Timurid rulers of Delhi from Timurlane to Bahadur Shah Zafar at the behest of Robert N. C. Hamilton, his patron. It was later published under the title "Jam-i-Jum" (Jamshed's Cup). In "Silsilat-ul-Mulk" he compiled the biographical data of all the ruler of Delhi in history. During his stay in Bijnor, he wrote a history on the city of Bijnor but it was destroyed during the 1857 rebellion. He also wrote critical editions of books like Ziauddin Barani's "Tarikh-e-Firoz Shahi" published in 1862, and "Tuzk-e-Jahangiri" published in 1864. However his most important historical works that brought him fame as a scholar are the two editions of "Asar-us-Sanadid" and that of the "Ain-e-Akbari".


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: In 1847 he published the book "Asar-us-Sanadid" (The Remnants of Ancient Heroes) documenting antiquities of Delhi dating from the medieval era. The work is divided into four sections describing the buildings outside the city of Delhi, the buildings around the Delhi Fort, the monuments in Shahjahanabad and the last section presenting a brief historical account of the various settlements of Delhi and the prominent inhabitants of Delhi which included Sufis such as Shah Ghulam Ali, Saiyid Ahmad Shahid, physicians, scholars, poets, calligraphers, and prominent musicians of Delhi. It also contained around 130 illustrations drawn by Faiz Ali Khan and Mirza Shahrukh Beg which were the first lithographically produced book illustrations in India. He released the second edition of "Ansar-as-sanadid" in 1854. However both the editions are radically different with the second edition being abbreviated and more factual. This work brought Sir Syed a wider fame and earned him the reputation of a cultured scholar. In 1861, it was translated into French by Gracin de Tassy in Paris. The book was also presented to the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, London which made him an honorary fellow.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: In 1855, he finished his scholarly, and illustrated edition of Abul Fazl's "Ai'n-e Akbari". The first and the third volume of the work was published in 1855. The second volume sent to the publisher in 1857 was destroyed in the rebellion that took place that year. Having finished the work to his satisfaction, and believing that Mirza Asadullah Khan Ghalib was a person who would appreciate his labours, Syed Ahmad approached the great Ghalib to write a "taqriz" (in the convention of the times, a laudatory foreword) for it. Ghalib obliged, but what he did produce was a short Persian poem castigating the Ai'n-e Akbari, and by implication, the imperial, sumptuous, literate and learned Mughal culture of which it was a product. The least that could be said against it was that the book had little value even as an antique document. Ghalib practically reprimanded Syed Ahmad Khan for wasting his talents and time on dead things. Worse, he praised sky-high the "sahibs of England" who at that time held all the keys to all the a’ins in this world.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Sir Syed Ahmad Khan never again wrote a word in praise of the "Ai'n-e Akbari" and in fact gave up taking an active interest in history and archaeology. He did edit another two historical texts over the next few years, but neither of them was anything like the "Ai'n": a vast and triumphalist document on the governance of Akbar.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: During the uprising of 1857, Sir Syed was posted as a chief assessment officer at the court in Bijnor. He recorded the history of the mutiny in "Tarikh i Sarkashi-ye Bijnor" (History of the Bijnor Rebellion) which was published in 1858. He was deeply worried about the consequences of the mutiny for his fellow Muslims in particular. He wrote a number of articles and pamphlets such as "Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind" (The Causes of the Indian Revolt), "Loyal Muhammadans of India", and "Review on Dr Hunter's Indian Musalmans: Are They Bound in Conscience to Rebel Against the Queen?" to defend Muslims and Islam and create a cordial relations between the British authorities and the Muslim community.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Sir Syed supported the East India Company during the 1857 uprising, a role which has been criticised by some nationalists such as Jamaluddin Afghani. In 1859 Sir Syed published the booklet "Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind" (The Causes of the Indian Revolt) in Urdu in which he studied the causes of the Indian revolt. In this, his most famous work, he rejected the common notion that the conspiracy was planned by Muslim elites, who resented the diminishing influence of Muslim monarchs. He blamed the East India Company for its aggressive expansion as well as the ignorance of British politicians regarding Indian culture. Sir Syed advised the British to appoint Muslims to assist in administration, to prevent what he called ‘haramzadgi’ (a vulgar deed) such as the mutiny.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Maulana Altaf Hussain Hali wrote in the biography of Sir Syed that: "As soon as Sir Syed reached Muradabad, he began to write the pamphlet entitled 'The Causes of the Indian Revolt' (Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind), in which he did his best to clear the people of India, and especially the Muslims, of the charge of Mutiny. In spite of the obvious danger, he made a courageous and thorough report of the accusations people were making against the Government and refused theory which the British had invented to explain the causes of the Mutiny."


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: When the work was finished, without waiting for an English translation, Sir Syed sent the Urdu version to be printed at the Mufassilat Gazette Press in Agra. Within a few weeks, he received 500 copies back from the printers. One of his friends warned him not to send the pamphlet to the British Parliament or to the Government of India. Rae Shankar Das, a great friend of Sir Syed, begged him to burn the books rather than put his life in danger. Sir Syed replied that he was bringing these matters to the attention of the British for the good of his own people, of his country, and of the government itself. He said that if he came to any harm while doing something that would greatly benefit the rulers and the subjects of India alike, he would gladly suffer whatever befell him. When Rae Shankar Das saw that Sir Syed's mind was made up and nothing could be done to change it, he wept and remained silent. After performing a supplementary prayer and asking God's blessing, Sir Syed sent almost all the 500 copies of his pamphlet to England, one to the government, and kept the rest himself.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: When the government of India had the book translated and presented before the council, Lord Canning, the governor-general, and Sir Bartle Frere accepted it as a sincere and friendly report. The foreign secretary Cecil Beadon, however, severely attacked it, calling it 'an extremely seditious pamphlet'. He wanted a proper inquiry into the matter and said that the author, unless he could give a satisfactory explanation, should be harshly dealt with. Since no other member of the Council agreed with his opinion, his attack did no harm.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Later, Sir Syed was invited to attend Lord Canning's durbar in Farrukhabad and happened to meet the foreign secretary there. He told Sir Syed that he was displeased with the pamphlet and added that if he had really had the government's interests at heart, he would not have made his opinion known in this way throughout the country; he would have communicated it directly to the government. Sir Syed replied that he had only had 500 copies printed, the majority of which he had sent to England, one had been given to the government of India, and the remaining copies were still in his possession. Furthermore, he had the receipt to prove it. He was aware, he added, that the view of the rulers had been distorted by the stress and anxieties of the times, which made it difficult to put even the most straightforward problem in its right perspective. It was for this reason that he had not communicated his thoughts publicly. He promised that for every copy that could be found circulating in India he would personally pay 1,000 rupees. At first, Beadon was not convinced and asked Sir Syed over and over again if he was sure that no other copy had been distributed in India. Sir Syed reassured him on this matter, and Beadon never mentioned it again. Later he became one of Sir Syed's strongest supporters.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Many official translations were made of the Urdu text of "The Causes of the Indian Revolt". The one undertaken by the India Office formed the subject of many discussions and debates. The pamphlet was also translated by the government of India and several members of parliament, but no version was offered to the public. A translation which had been started by Auckland Colvin, a government official was finished by Sir Syed's friend, Colonel G.F.I. Graham, and finally published in 1873.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: In 1860 Sir Syed wrote a series of bilingual pamphlets called the Risala Khair Khwahan-e Musalmanan-e-Hind (An Account of the Loyal Mohammedans of India) from Meerut containing episodes in the life of those Muslims who stood by the British during the 1857 uprising. It was published in three issues, the first and second issues appeared in 1860, while the third was published in 1861. The first issue highlighted the bravery of those Muslims who stood by the British while the second issue carried an article on jihad in which he makes a clear distinction between jihad and rebellion.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: In August 1871 William Wilson Hunter, a Scottish historian and member of the Indian Civil Service published "Indian Musalmans: Are They Bound in Conscience to Rebel Against the Queen?" in which he discussed the Indian Wahabi movement, its role in the rebellion and argued that the Muslims were a threat to the Empire. Hunter links Wahhabism with rebellion and terms them as self-stylised jihadis. His accusations led to the prosecution of Muslims in India especially in the North Western Provinces and those associated with Wahhabism were severely punished. Many Muslims found his arguments one-sided and this prompted Sir Syed to write a rejoinder of the book. He reviewed the book in "The Pioneer" in a series of articles which were reprinted in "Aligarh Institute Gazette" from 24 November 1871, to 23 February 1872. They were later collected and published in a book in England by Hafiz Ahmad Hasan, the Vakil of Tonk. Sir Syed based his arguments upon Muhammad's own conduct during holy wars.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Through the 1850s, Syed Ahmad Khan began developing a strong passion for education. While pursuing studies of different subjects including European jurisprudence, Sir Syed began to realise the advantages of Western-style education, which was being offered at newly established colleges across India. Despite being a devout Muslim, Sir Syed criticised the influence of traditional dogma and religious orthodoxy, which had made most Indian Muslims suspicious of British influences. Sir Syed began feeling increasingly concerned for the future of Muslim communities. A scion of Mughal nobility, Sir Syed had been reared in the finest traditions of Muslim elite culture and was aware of the steady decline of Muslim political power across India. The animosity between the British and Muslims before and after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 threatened to marginalise Muslim communities across India for many generations.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Sir Syed intensified his work to promote co-operation with British authorities, promoting loyalty to the Empire amongst Indian Muslims. Committed to working for the upliftment of Muslims, Sir Syed founded a modern madrassa in Muradabad in 1859; this was one of the first religious schools to impart scientific education. Sir Syed also worked on social causes, helping to organise relief for the famine-struck people of North-West Province in 1860. While posted in Ghazipur in 1863, he established a madrasa which later became the Victoria High school. He also formed the Scientific Society in Ghazipur to promote educational reforms across the country. He wrote an insightful tract on education titled "Iltimas Ba Khidmat-e-Sakinan-e-Hind Dar Bab-e- Taraqqi Taleem in Ahl-e-Hind" (Address to the natives of Hindoostan on education).


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Upon his transfer to Aligarh in 1864, Sir Syed began working wholeheartedly as an educator. The Scientific Society was transferred from Ghazipur to Aligarh and rechristened as the Scientific Society of Aligarh. Modelling it after the Royal Society and the Royal Asiatic Society, Sir Syed assembled Muslim scholars from different parts of the country. The Society held annual conferences, disbursed funds for educational causes and regularly published a journal on scientific subjects in English and Urdu. Sir Syed felt that the socio-economic future of Muslims was threatened by their orthodox aversions to modern science and technology. He published many writings promoting liberal, rational interpretations of Islamic scriptures, struggling to find rational interpretations for jinn, angels, and miracles of the prophets.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: One example was the reaction to his argument – which appeared in his "tafsir" (exegesis) of the Quran – that "riba" referred to interest charges when lending money to the poor, but not to the rich, nor to borrowers "in trade or in industry", since this finance supported "trade, national welfare and prosperity". While many jurists declared all interest to be riba, (according to Sir Syed) this was based "on their own authority and deduction" rather than the Quran.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: On 1 April 1869 he went, along with his sons Syed Mahmood and Syed Hamed to England, where he was awarded the Order of the Star of India from the British government on 6 August. Travelling across England, he visited its colleges and was inspired by the culture of learning established after the Renaissance. Sir Syed returned to India in the following year determined to build a school modelled on Cambridge and Oxford imparting modern education to Indians. Upon his return, he established the "Khwastgaran-i-Taraqqi-i-Talim-i-Musalman" (Committee for the Better Diffusion and Advancement of Learning among Muhammadans) on 26 December 1870. By 1872, it was converted into a Fund Committee for the establishment of a school. Sir Syed described his vision of the institution he proposed to establish in an article written sometime in 1872 and re-printed in the Aligarh Institute Gazette of 5 April 1911:


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: I may appear to be dreaming and talking like Shaikh Chilli, but we aim to turn this MAO College into a University similar to that of Oxford or Cambridge. Like the churches of Oxford and Cambridge, there will be mosques attached to each College... The College will have a dispensary with a Doctor and a compounder, besides a "Unani Hakim". It will be mandatory on boys in residence to join the congregational prayers (namaz) at all the five times. Students of other religions will be exempted from this religious observance. Muslim students will have a uniform consisting of a black alpaca, half-sleeved "chugha" and a red "Fez" cap... Bad and abusive words which boys generally pick up and get used to, will be strictly prohibited. Even such a word as a "liar" will be treated as an abuse to be prohibited. They will have food either on tables of European style or on chaukis in the manner of the Arabs... Smoking of cigarette or "huqqa" and the chewing of betels shall be strictly prohibited. No corporal punishment or any such punishment as is likely to injure a student's self-respect will be permissible... It will be strictly enforced that Shia and Sunni boys shall not discuss their religious differences in the College or in the boarding house. At present it is like a day dream. I pray to God that this dream may come true."


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: He began publishing the journal "Tehzeeb-ul-Akhlaq" ("Social Reformer") on 24 December 1870 to spread awareness and knowledge on modern subjects and promote reforms in Muslim society. Sir Syed worked to promote reinterpretation of Muslim ideology in order to reconcile tradition with Western education. He argued in several books on Islam that the Qur'an rested on an appreciation of reason and natural law, making scientific inquiry important to being a good Muslim.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: By 1873, the committee under Sir Syed issued proposals for the construction of a college in Aligarh. Maulvi Samiullah Khan was appointed as the secretary of the sub-committee of the proposed school. Members of the committee toured the country in order to raise funds for the school which was finally established on 24 May 1875 in Aligarh as the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental Collegiate School. Two years later, in 1877, the school was converted into the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College. He retired from his career as a jurist the following year, concentrating entirely on developing the college and on religious reform. Sir Syed's pioneering work received support from the British. Although intensely criticised by orthodox religious leaders hostile to modern influences, Sir Syed's new institution attracted a large student body, mainly drawn from the Muslim gentry and middle classes. However, MAO College was open to all communities, and had a sizeable number of Hindu students. The first graduate of the college was a Hindu. The curriculum at the college involved scientific and Western subjects, as well as Oriental subjects and religious education. The first chancellor was Sultan Shah Jahan Begum, a prominent Muslim noblewoman, and Sir Syed invited an Englishman, Theodore Beck, to serve as the first college principal. The college was originally affiliated with Calcutta University but was transferred to the Allahabad University in 1885. Near the turn of the 20th century, it began publishing its own magazine and established a law school. In 1920, the college was transformed into Aligarh Muslim University.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: After founding the Anglo-Oriental College, Sir Syed felt the need of a pan-India organisation to propagate the ideas of his movement. To this cause, he established the All India Muhammadan Educational Congress with its headquarters in Aligarh. The first session of the Congress was held at Aligarh in 1886 under the presidency of Maulvi Samiullah Khan. The main objective of the organisation was to promote educational development among Muslims through conferences throughout India and transform the Anglo-Oriental College to the status of university. The name of the organisation was changed to All India Muhammadan Educational Conference to avoid confusion with the Indian National Congress.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Sir Syed's Aligarh Movement and his desire to open institutions for Western education was opposed by the orthodox Indian Muslims. Imdad Ali, the then deputy collector of Kanpur condemned the foundation of Anglo-Oriental College. Several periodicals such as "Noor-ul-Afaq", "Noor-ul-Anwar", and "Taed-ul-Islam" were started by his opponents in opposition to "Tehzeeb-ul-Akhlaq" to dissuade Muslims from joining the Aligarh Movement. Many other orthodox Islamic schools condemned him as out of the fold of Islam i.e. "kafir". According to J.M.S. Baljon his ideas created "a real hurricane of protests and outbursts of wrath" among the local clerics "in every town and village" in Muslim India, who issued fatawa "declaring him to be a "kafir"" (unbeliever). He was also accused of having converted to Christianity. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the founder of the Ahmadiyya movement criticised some of his writings in a polemic titled "Barakat al Dua". Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, the Pan-Islamic ideologue launched a vitriolic attack on him through his periodical calling him a “Naturist”.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Many of his own friends, like Nawab Muhsin ul Mulk, expressed their significant reservations at his religious ideas (many of which were expounded in his commentary of Qur'an). Syed Ahmad Khan's controversial views such as his rejection of miracles, denial of the existence of angels, downplaying the status of prophethood, etc. arose disdain also from orthodox adherents of Waliullahi reform trends, such as "Ahl-e Hadith" and Deobandis. "Ahl-i Hadith" were particularly severe in their condemnation of Ahmad Khan; with many of its leaders like Muḥammad Ḥusayn Baṭālvī (d. 1920 C.E/ 1338 A.H) declaring "Takfir" (excommunication) of Sir Syed as an apostate.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Maulana Qasim Nanautawi, the founder of Darul Uloom Deoband, expressed in a letter to an acquaintance of his and Sir Syed's:


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: "No doubt, I greatly admire, as per what I've heard, Syed (Ahmad) Sahab's courage ("Ūlul Azmi") and concern for the Muslims ("Dardmandi e Ahl e Islam"). For this if I shall express my affection for him, it will be rightful. However, similar to this (or rather more than this), upon hearing about his disturbed (Fāsid) beliefs, I have deep complains and sorrow for him"


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Maulana Qasim Nanautawi wrote directly to Sir Syed as well, explaining him some of his "noteworthy" mistakes. This correspondence was published as "Tasfiyat ul Aqaaid" in 1887 C.E


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Shan Muhammad in his book "Sir Syed Ahmad Khan: a political biography" notes that Sir Syed was foremost an educationist and reformer and not an academic thinker and so his political philosophy is related to the circumstances of his times. Important events that shaped his political outlook includes the 1857 Rebellion, the premiership of William Ewart Gladstone in England that started in 1868 and the viceroyalty of Lord Ripon in India.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: In 1878, Sir Syed was nominated to the Viceroy's Legislative Council. He testified before the education commission to promote the establishment of more colleges and schools across India. At the start of his political career, Sir Syed was an advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity and India's composite culture, wanting to empower all Indians. In the same year, Sir Syed founded the Muhammadan Association to promote political co-operation amongst Indian Muslims from different parts of the country. In 1886, he organised the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference in Aligarh, which promoted his vision of modern education and political unity for Muslims. His works made him the most prominent Muslim politician in 19th century India, often influencing the attitude of Muslims on various national issues.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Sir Syed discouraged the active involvement of Muslims in politics. He regarded the attainment of higher English education as the first priority for the upliftmeant of the Muslim community as opposed to political pursuits. He declined to lend support to the National Muhammadan Association, a political organisation founded by Syed Ameer Ali in 1887 and refused to participate in the Muhammedan National Conference at Lahore which he regarded as a political agitation.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: When the Indian National Congress was established in 1885 he did not express any opinion about it but later he became an active critic of the organisation and expressed his active opposition to the Congress.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Sir Syed's opposition received criticism from Maulvi Sharaf-ul-Haqq who criticised his views about the Congress demands in a risala titled "Kalam Mufid-al-Anam". Lala Lajpat Rai wrote a series of open letters expressing grief and surprise at his change in attitude towards Congress.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Sir Syed advocated the use of constitutional machinery such as participation in administration for expressing grievances to the British government.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: He supported the efforts of Indian political leaders Surendranath Banerjee and Dadabhai Naoroji to obtain representation for Indians in the government and civil services. In 1883, he founded the Muhammadan Civil Service Fund Association to encourage and support the entry of Muslim graduates into the Indian Civil Service (ICS). In 1883, he established the Muhammedan Association to put forward grievances of the Muslims to the Imperial Legislative Council. He was nominated as a member of the Civil Service Commission in 1887 by Lord Dufferin. In 1888, he along with Raja Shiv Prasad of Benaras established the United Patriotic Association at Aligarh to promote political co-operation with the British and Muslim participation in the British government.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: At the start of his career, Syed Ahmad Khan advocated for Hindu-Muslim unity in Colonial India. He stated: "India is a beautiful bride and Hindus and Muslims are her two eyes. If one of them is lost, this beautiful bride will become ugly." Being raised in the diverse city of Delhi, Syed Ahmad Khan was exposed to the festivals of both Hindus and Muslims. He collected Hindu scriptures and "had a commitment to the country's composite culture", being close friends with Swami Vivekanand to Debendranath Tagore. In the 19th century, he opposed cow slaughter, even stopping a fellow Muslim from sacrificing one for Eid al-Adha to promote peace between Muslims and Hindus. Addressing a large gathering in Gurdaspur on 27 January 1884, Sir Syed said:


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: When he founded Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, he opened its admissions to Indians of all faiths, with its first principal Henry Siddons being a Christian and one of its patrons Mahendra Singh of Patiala being a Sikh. Shafey Kidwai notes that Sir Syed promoted "advocacy of the empowerment of all Indians".


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: The onset of the Hindi-Urdu controversy of 1867 saw the emergence of Sir Syed as a champion for cause of the Urdu language. He became a leading Muslim voice opposing the adoption of Hindi as a second official language of the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh). Sir Syed perceived Urdu as the "lingua franca" of the United Provinces which was created as a confluence of Muslim and Hindu contributions in India. Having been developed by during the Mughal period, Urdu was used as a secondary language to Persian, the official language of the Mughal court. Since the decline of the Mughal dynasty, Sir Syed promoted the use of Urdu through his own writings. Under Sir Syed, the Scientific Society translated Western works only into Urdu. The schools established by Sir Syed imparted education in the Urdu medium. The demand for Hindi, led largely by Hindus, was to Sir Syed an erosion of the centuries-old Muslim cultural domination of India. Testifying before the British-appointed education commission, Sir Syed controversially exclaimed that "Urdu was the language of gentry and Hindi that of the vulgar." His remarks provoked a hostile response from Hindu leaders, who unified across the nation to demand the recognition of Hindi.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: The success of the Hindi movement led Sir Syed to further advocate Urdu as the symbol of Muslim heritage and as the language of all Indian Muslims. His educational and political work grew increasingly centred around and exclusively for Muslim interests. He also sought to persuade the British to give Urdu extensive official use and patronage. His colleagues such as Mohsin-ul-Mulk and Maulvi Abdul Haq developed organisations such as the Urdu Defence Association and the Anjuman Taraqqi-i-Urdu, committed to the perpetuation of Urdu. All these colleagues led efforts that resulted in the adoption of Urdu as the official language of the Hyderabad State and as the medium of instruction in the Osmania University. To Muslims in northern and western India, Urdu had become an integral part of political and cultural identity. However, the division over the use of Hindi or Urdu further provoked communal conflict between Muslims and Hindus in India.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Sir Syed is considered as the first person to theorize the idea of separate nationhood for Muslims in subcontinent. In a speech at Meerut in 1866 he presented on overall scenario of post colonial phase in which he described Muslims and Hindus as two nations. He's regarded as the father of Two-Nation Theory and the pioneer of Muslim nationalism which led to the partition of India.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Urdu-Hindi controversy is seen as the transformation of Sir Syed's views towards Muslim nationhood which he expressed in his speeches during later days. While fearful of the loss of Muslim political power owing to the community's backwardness, Sir Syed was also averse to the prospect of democratic self-government, which would give control of government to the Hindu-majority population:


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: "At this time our nation is in a bad state in regards education and wealth, but God has given us the light of religion and the Quran is present for our guidance, which has ordained them and us to be friends. Now God has made them rulers over us. Therefore we should cultivate friendship with them, and should adopt that method by which their rule may remain permanent and firm in India, and may not pass into the hands of the Bengalis... If we join the political movement of the Bengalis our nation will reap a loss, for we do not want to become subjects of the Hindus instead of the subjects of the "people of the Book..."


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Is it possible that under these circumstances two nations—the Mohammedans and the Hindus—could sit on the same throne and remain equal in power? Most certainly not. It is necessary that one of them should conquer the other. To hope that both could remain equal is to desire the impossible and the inconceivable. But until one nation has conquered the other and made it obedient, peace cannot reign in the land."


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: In 1836, he married Parsa Begum, alias Mubarak Begum. They had two sons, Syed Hamid and Syed Mahmood, and a daughter, Ameena, who died at a young age.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Sir Syed Ahmad Khan Bahadur lived the last two decades of his life in Aligarh, regarded widely as the mentor of 19th and 20th century Muslim entrepreneurs. Battling illnesses and old age, Sir Syed died on 27 March 1898. He was buried in Sir Syed Masjid at the campus of Aligarh Muslim University.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Syed Ahmad is widely commemorated across South Asia as a great Muslim social reformer and visionary. His educational model and progressive thinking inspired Muslim elites who supported the All India Muslim League. He founded the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference in 1886 in order to promote Western education, especially science and literature, among India's Muslims. The conference, in addition to generating funds for Ahmad Khan's Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, motivated Muslim elites to propose expansion of educational uplift elsewhere, known as the Aligarh Movement. In turn this new awareness of Muslim needs helped stimulate a political consciousness among Muslim elites that went on to form the AIML which led Muslims of India towards formation of Pakistan.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: He was an influence on several political leaders, thinkers and writers such as Muhammad Iqbal, Abul Kalam Azad, Sayyid Mumtaz Ali Altaf Hussain Hali, Shibli Nomani, Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk, Chiragh Ali, and Nazir Ahmad Dehlvi.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: The university he founded remains one of India's most prominent institutions and served as the arsenal of Muslim India. Prominent alumni of Aligarh include Muslim political leaders Maulana Mohammad Ali Jouhar, Abdur Rab Nishtar, Maulana Shaukat Ali and Maulvi Abdul Haq. The first two Prime Ministers of Pakistan, Liaquat Ali Khan and Khawaja Nazimuddin, as well as Indian President Dr. Zakir Hussain, are amongst Aligarh's most famous graduates. His birth anniversary is celebrated as Sir Syed Day every year by the university and its alumni.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Several educational institutions in India and Pakistan such as Sir Syed University of Engineering and Technology, Sir Syed CASE Institute of Technology and Sir Syed College, Taliparamba are named after him.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: On 2 June 1869, Syed Ahmad Khan was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Star of India (CSI), for his service as Principal "Sadr Amin". He was appointed a fellow of the Calcutta and Allahabad Universities by the Viceroy in the years 1876 and 1887 respectively.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Syed Ahmad was later bestowed with the suffix of 'Khan Bahadur' and was subsequently knighted by the British government in the 1888 New Year Honours as a Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India (KCSI). for his loyalty to the British crown, through his membership of the Imperial Legislative Council and in the following year he received an LL.D. "honoris causa" from the Edinburgh University.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Pakistan Postal Services also issued a commemorative postage stamp in his honour in 1990 in its 'Pioneers of Freedom' series.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: In 1997 Syed Ahmad Khan was commemorated with an English Heritage blue plaque at 21 Mecklenburgh Square in Bloomsbury, where he lived in 1869–70.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: On 14 August 2022 marking the diamond jubilee celebrations of Pakistan's independence, State Bank of Pakistan revealed a commemorative Rs.75 note featuring Syed Ahmed Khan along with other founding fathers signifying their struggle for country's independence.


title: Syed Ahmad Khan

text: Prof, Shafey Kidwai"Sawaneh-e-Sirsyed: Ek Bazdeed(2017), Brown Book House, Shmashad Market, Aligarh,202002


title: Spinal stenosis

text: Spinal stenosis is an abnormal narrowing of the spinal canal or neural foramen that results in pressure on the spinal cord or nerve roots. Symptoms may include pain, numbness, or weakness in the arms or legs. Symptoms are typically gradual in onset and improve with leaning forward. Severe symptoms may include loss of bladder control, loss of bowel control, or sexual dysfunction.


title: Spinal stenosis

text: Causes may include osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, spinal tumors, trauma, Paget's disease of the bone, scoliosis, spondylolisthesis, and the genetic condition achondroplasia. It can be classified by the part of the spine affected into cervical, thoracic, and lumbar stenosis. Lumbar stenosis is the most common, followed by cervical stenosis. Diagnosis is generally based on symptoms and medical imaging.


title: Spinal stenosis

text: Treatment may involve medications, bracing, or surgery. Medications may include NSAIDs, acetaminophen, or steroid injections. Stretching and strengthening exercises may also be useful. Limiting certain activities may be recommended. Surgery is typically only done if other treatments are not effective, with the usual procedure being a decompressive laminectomy.


title: Spinal stenosis

text: Spinal stenosis occurs in as many as 8% of people. It occurs most commonly in people over the age of 50. Males and females are affected equally often. The first modern description of the condition is from 1803 by Antoine Portal, and there is evidence of the condition dating back to Ancient Egypt.


title: Spinal stenosis

text: The most common forms are lumbar spinal stenosis, at the level of the lower back, and cervical spinal stenosis, which are at the level of the neck. Thoracic spinal stenosis, at the level of the mid-back, is much less common.


title: Spinal stenosis

text: In lumbar stenosis, the spinal nerve roots in the lower back are compressed which can lead to symptoms of sciatica (tingling, weakness, or numbness that radiates from the low back and into the buttocks and legs).


title: Spinal stenosis

text: Cervical spinal stenosis can be far more dangerous by compressing the spinal cord. Cervical canal stenosis may lead to myelopathy, a serious condition causing symptoms including major body weakness and paralysis. Such severe spinal stenosis symptoms are virtually absent in lumbar stenosis, however, as the spinal cord terminates at the top end of the adult lumbar spine, with only nerve roots (cauda equina) continuing further down. Cervical spinal stenosis is a condition involving narrowing of the spinal canal at the level of the neck. It is frequently due to chronic degeneration, but may also be congenital or traumatic. Treatment frequently is surgical.


title: Spinal stenosis

text: The diagnosis of spinal stenosis involves a complete evaluation of the spine. The process usually begins with a medical history and physical examination. X-ray and MRI scans are typically used to determine the extent and location of the nerve compression.


title: Spinal stenosis

text: The medical history is the most important aspect of the examination as it will tell the physician about subjective symptoms, possible causes for spinal stenosis, and other possible causes of back pain.


title: Spinal stenosis

text: The physical examination of a patient with spinal stenosis will give the physician information about exactly where nerve compression is occurring. Some important factors that should be investigated are any areas of sensory abnormalities, numbness, irregular reflexes, and any muscular weakness.


title: Spinal stenosis

text: MRI has become the most frequently used study to diagnose spinal stenosis. The MRI uses electromagnetic signals to produce images of the spine. MRIs are helpful because they show more structures, including nerves, muscles, and ligaments, than seen on X-rays or CT scans. MRIs are helpful at showing exactly what is causing spinal nerve compression.


title: Spinal stenosis

text: In CT myelography, spinal tap is performed in the low back with dye injected into the spinal fluid. X-rays are performed followed by a CT scan of the spine to help see narrowing of the spinal canal.


title: Spinal stenosis

text: This is a very effective study in cases of lateral recess stenosis. It is also necessary for patients in which MRI is contraindicated, such as those with implanted pacemakers.


title: Spinal stenosis

text: Treatment options are either surgical or non-surgical. Overall evidence is inconclusive whether non-surgical or surgical treatment is the better for lumbar spinal stenosis.


title: Spinal stenosis

text: Lumbar decompressive laminectomy: This involves removing the roof of bone overlying the spinal canal and thickened ligaments in order to decompress the nerves and sac of nerves. 70-90% of people have good results.


title: Spinal stenosis

text: Decompression plus fusion appears no better than decompression alone, while spinal spacers appears better than decompression plus fusion but not better than decompression alone. No differences were found in the type of decompression.


title: Spinal stenosis

text: A RCT is being conducted in Sweden, to compare surgery versus non-surgical treatment for lumbar spinal stenosis.


title: Qi

text: In traditional Chinese culture and the East Asian cultural sphere, qi, also ki or chi in Wade–Giles romanization ( ), is believed to be a vital force forming part of any living entity. Literally meaning "vapor", "air", or "breath", the word "qi" is often translated as "vital energy", "vital force", "material energy", or simply as "energy". "Qi" is the central underlying principle in Chinese traditional medicine and in Chinese martial arts. The practice of cultivating and balancing "qi" is called "qigong".


title: Qi

text: Believers in "qi" describe it as a vital force, the flow of which must be unimpeded for health. "Qi" is a pseudoscientific, unverified concept, and is unrelated to the concept of energy used in science (vital energy itself being an abandoned scientific notion). The historian of medicine in China Paul U. Unschuld adds that there "is no evidence of a concept of 'energy' – either in the strictly physical sense or even in the more colloquial sense – anywhere in Chinese medical theory."


title: Qi

text: The cultural keyword "qì" is analyzable in terms of Chinese and Sino-Xenic pronunciations. Possible etymologies include the logographs , , and with various meanings ranging from "vapor" to "anger", and the English loanword "qi" or "ch'i".


title: Qi

text: The logograph is read with two Chinese pronunciations, the usual "qì" "air; vital energy" and the rare archaic "xì" "to present food" (later disambiguated with ).


title: Qi

text: Pronunciations of in modern varieties of Chinese with standardized IPA equivalents include: Standard Chinese "qì" , Wu Chinese "qi" , Southern Min "khì" , Eastern Min "ké" , Standard Cantonese "hei" , and Hakka Chinese "hi" .


title: Qi

text: Pronunciations of in Sino-Xenic borrowings include: Japanese "ki", Korean "gi", and Vietnamese "khí."


title: Qi

text: Reconstructions of the Middle Chinese pronunciation of standardized to IPA transcription include: /kʰe̯i/ (Bernard Karlgren), /kʰĭəi/ (Wang Li), /kʰiəi/ (Li Rong), /kʰɨj/ (Edwin Pulleyblank), and /kʰɨi/ (Zhengzhang Shangfang).


title: Qi

text: Reconstructions of the Old Chinese pronunciation of standardized to IPA transcription include: /*kʰɯds/ (Zhengzhang Shangfang) and /*C.qʰəp-s/ (William H. Baxter and Laurent Sagart).


title: Qi

text: The etymology of "qì" interconnects with Kharia "kʰis" "anger", Sora "kissa" "move with great effort", Khmer "kʰɛs" "strive after; endeavor", and Gyalrongic "kʰɐs" "anger".


title: Qi

text: In addition, "qì" is an uncommon character especially used in writing Daoist talismans. Historically, the word "qì" was generally written as until the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), when it was replaced by the graph clarified with "mǐ" "rice" indicating "steam (rising from rice as it cooks.)"


title: Qi

text: This primary logograph , the earliest written character for "qì," consisted of three wavy horizontal lines seen in Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE) oracle bone script, Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE) bronzeware script and large seal script, and Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE) small seal script. These oracle, bronze, and seal scripts logographs were used in ancient times as a phonetic loan character to write "qǐ" "plead for; beg; ask" which did not have an early character.


title: Qi

text: The vast majority of Chinese characters are classified as radical-phonetic characters. Such characters combine a semantically suggestive "radical characters" with a phonetic element approximating ancient pronunciation. For example, the widely known word "dào" "the Dao; the way" graphically combines the "walk" radical with a "shǒu" "head" phonetic. Although the modern "dào" and "shǒu" pronunciations are dissimilar, the Old Chinese "*lˤuʔ-s" and "*l̥uʔ-s" were alike. The regular script character "qì" is unusual because "qì" is both the "air radical" and the phonetic, with "mǐ" "rice" semantically indicating "steam; vapor".


title: Qi

text: This "qì" "air/gas radical" was only used in a few native Chinese characters like "yīnyūn" "thick mist/smoke", but was also used to create new scientific characters for gaseous chemical elements. Some examples are based on pronunciations in European languages: "fú" (with a "fú" phonetic) "fluorine" and "nǎi" (with a "nǎi" phonetic) "neon". Others are based on semantics: "qīng" (with a "jīng" phonetic, abbreviating "qīng" "light-weight") "hydrogen (the lightest element)" and "lǜ" (with a "lù" phonetic, abbreviating "lǜ" "green") "(greenish-yellow) chlorine".


title: Qi

text: "Qì" is the phonetic element in a few characters such as "kài" "hate" with the "heart-mind radical" or , "xì" "set fire to weeds" with the "fire radical" , and "xì" "to present food" with the "food radical" .


title: Qi

text: The first Chinese dictionary of characters, the "Shuowen Jiezi"(121 CE) notes that the primary "qì" is a pictographic character depicting "cloudy vapors", and that the full combines "rice" with the phonetic "qi" , meaning "present provisions to guests" (later disambiguated as "xì" ).


title: Qi

text: Qi is a polysemous word. The unabridged Chinese-Chinese character dictionary "Hanyu Da Cidian" defines it as "present food or provisions" for the "xì" pronunciation but also lists 23 meanings for the "qì" pronunciation. The modern "ABC Chinese-English Comprehensive Dictionary," which enters "xì" "grain; animal feed; make a present of food", and a "qì" entry with seven translation equivalents for the noun, two for bound morphemes, and three equivalents for the verb. n. ① air; gas ② smell ③ spirit; vigor; morale ④ vital/material energy (in Ch[inese] metaphysics) ⑤ tone; atmosphere; attitude ⑥ anger ⑦ breath; respiration b.f. ① weather "tiānqì" ② [linguistics] aspiration "sòngqì" v. ① anger ② get angry ③ bully; insult.


title: Qi

text: Qi was an early Chinese loanword in English. It was romanized as "k'i" in Church Romanization in the early-19th century, as "ch'i" in Wade–Giles in the mid-19th century (sometimes misspelled "chi" omitting the apostrophe), and as "qi" in Pinyin in the mid-20th century. The "Oxford English Dictionary" entry for "qi" gives the pronunciation as , the etymology from Chinese "qì" "air; breath", and a definition of "The physical life-force postulated by certain Chinese philosophers; the material principle." It also gives eight usage examples, with the first recorded example of "k'í" in 1850 ("The Chinese Repository"), of "ch'i" in 1917 ("The Encyclopaedia Sinica"), and "qi" in 1971 (Felix Mann's "Acupuncture")


title: Qi

text: The word "qi" is very frequently used in word games—such as "Scrabble"—due to containing a letter Q without a letter U.


title: Qi

text: References to concepts analogous to qi are found in many Asian belief systems. Philosophical conceptions of qi from the earliest records of Chinese philosophy (5th century BCE) correspond to Western notions of humours and to the ancient Hindu yogic concept of "prana." An early form of qi comes from the writings of the Chinese philosopher Mencius (4th century BCE).


title: Qi

text: The ancient Chinese described qi as "life force". They believed it permeated everything and linked their surroundings together. Qi was also linked to the flow of energy around and through the body, forming a cohesive functioning unit. By understanding the rhythm and flow of qi, they believed they could guide exercises and treatments to provide stability and longevity.


title: Qi

text: Although the concept has been important within many Chinese philosophies, over the centuries the descriptions of qi have varied and have sometimes been in conflict. Until China came into contact with Western scientific and philosophical ideas, the Chinese had not categorized all things in terms of matter and energy. Qi and "li" (: "pattern") were 'fundamental' categories similar to matter and energy.


title: Qi

text: Fairly early on, some Chinese thinkers began to believe that there were different fractions of qi—the coarsest and heaviest fractions formed solids, lighter fractions formed liquids, and the most ethereal fractions were the "lifebreath" that animated living beings. "Yuanqi" is a notion of innate or prenatal qi which is distinguished from acquired qi that a person may develop over their lifetime.


title: Qi

text: The earliest texts that speak of qi give some indications of how the concept developed. In the Analects of Confucius, qi could mean "breath". Combining it with the Chinese word for blood (making 血氣, "xue"–"qi", blood and breath), the concept could be used to account for motivational characteristics:


title: Qi

text: The philosopher Mozi used the word qi to refer to noxious vapors that would eventually arise from a corpse were it not buried at a sufficient depth. He reported that early civilized humans learned how to live in houses to protect their qi from the moisture that troubled them when they lived in caves. He also associated maintaining one's qi with providing oneself with adequate nutrition. In regard to another kind of qi, he recorded how some people performed a kind of prognostication by observing qi (clouds) in the sky.


title: Qi

text: Mencius described a kind of qi that might be characterized as an individual's vital energies. This qi was necessary to activity and it could be controlled by a well-integrated willpower. When properly nurtured, this qi was said to be capable of extending beyond the human body to reach throughout the universe. It could also be augmented by means of careful exercise of one's moral capacities. On the other hand, the qi of an individual could be degraded by adverse external forces that succeed in operating on that individual.


title: Qi

text: Living things were not the only things believed to have qi. Zhuangzi indicated that wind is the "qi" of the Earth. Moreover, cosmic yin and yang "are the greatest of qi. He described qi as "issuing forth" and creating profound effects. He also said "Human beings are born [because of] the accumulation of "qi". When it accumulates there is life. When it dissipates there is death... There is one "qi" that connects and pervades everything in the world."


title: Qi

text: The Guanzi essay "Neiye" (Inward Training) is the oldest received writing on the subject of the cultivation of vapor "[qi]" and meditation techniques. The essay was probably composed at the Jixia Academy in Qi in the late fourth century B.C.


title: Qi

text: Xun Zi, another Confucian scholar of the Jixia Academy, followed in later years. At 9:69/127, Xun Zi says, "Fire and water have "qi" but do not have life. Grasses and trees have life but do not have perceptivity. Fowl and beasts have perceptivity but do not have "yi" (sense of right and wrong, duty, justice). Men have "qi", life, perceptivity, and "yi"." Chinese people at such an early time had no concept of radiant energy, but they were aware that one can be heated by a campfire from a distance away from the fire. They accounted for this phenomenon by claiming ""qi"" radiated from fire. At 18:62/122, he also uses ""qi"" to refer to the vital forces of the body that decline with advanced age.


title: Qi

text: Among the animals, the gibbon and the crane were considered experts at inhaling the "qi". The Confucian scholar Dong Zhongshu (ca. 150 BC) wrote in Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals: "The gibbon resembles a macaque, but he is larger, and his color is black. His forearms being long, he lives eight hundred years, because he is expert in controlling his breathing." ("")


title: Qi

text: Later, the syncretic text assembled under the direction of Liu An, the Huai Nan Zi, or "Masters of Huainan", has a passage that presages most of what is given greater detail by the Neo-Confucians:


title: Qi

text: The "Huangdi Neijing" "(""The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Medicine", circa 2nd century BCE) is historically credited with first establishing the pathways, called meridians, through which qi allegedly circulates in the human body.


title: Qi

text: In traditional Chinese medicine, symptoms of various illnesses are believed to be either the product of disrupted, blocked, and unbalanced "qi" movement through meridians or deficiencies and imbalances of qi in the "Zang Fu" organs. Traditional Chinese medicine often seeks to relieve these imbalances by adjusting the circulation of "qi" using a variety of techniques including herbology, food therapy, physical training regimens (qigong, t'ai chi ch'uan, and other martial arts training), moxibustion, "tui na", or acupuncture.The cultivation of Heavenly and Earthly qi allow for the maintenance of psychological actions


title: Qi

text: The nomenclature of Qi in the human body is different depending on its sources, roles, and locations. For sources there is a difference between so-called "Primordial Qi" (acquired at birth from one's parents) and Qi acquired throughout one's life. Or again Chinese medicine differentiates between Qi acquired from the air we breathe (so called "Clean Air") and Qi acquired from food and drinks (so-called "Grain Qi"). Looking at roles Qi is divided into "Defensive Qi" and "Nutritive Qi". Defensive Qi's role is to defend the body against invasions while Nutritive Qi's role is to provide sustenance for the body. To protect against said invasions, medicines have four types of qi; cold, hot, warm, and cool. Cold qi medicines are used to treat invasions hot in nature, while hot qi medicines are used to treat invasions cold in nature. looking at locations, Qi is also named after the Zang-Fu organ or the Meridian in which it resides: "Liver Qi", "Spleen Qi", etc. Lastly, prolonged exposure to the three evil qi (wind, cold, and wetness) can result in the penetration of evil qi through surface body parts, eventually reaching Zang-Fu organs.


title: Qi

text: A qi field ("chu-chong") refers to the cultivation of an energy field by a group, typically for healing or other benevolent purposes. A qi field is believed to be produced by visualization and affirmation. They are an important component of Wisdom Healing Qigong ("Zhineng Qigong"), founded by Grandmaster Ming Pang.


title: Qi

text: The existence of Qi has not been proven scientifically. A 1997 consensus statement on acupuncture by the United States National Institutes of Health noted that concepts such as qi "are difficult to reconcile with contemporary biomedical information".


title: Qi

text: The traditional Chinese art of geomancy, the placement and arrangement of space called feng shui, is based on calculating the balance of qi, interactions between the five elements, yin and yang, and other factors. The retention or dissipation of qi is believed to affect the health, wealth, energy level, luck, and many other aspects of the occupants. Attributes of each item in a space affect the flow of qi by slowing it down, redirecting it or accelerating it. This is said to influence the energy level of the occupants. Positive qi flows in curved lines, whereas negative qi travels in straight lines. In order for qi to be nourishing and positive, it must continue to flow not too quickly or too slowly. In addition, qi should not be blocked abruptly, because it would become stagnant and turn destructive.


title: Qi

text: One use for a "luopan" is to detect the flow of qi. The quality of qi may rise and fall over time. Feng shui with a compass might be considered a form of divination that assesses the quality of the local environment.


title: Qi

text: There are three kinds of qi, known as heaven qi ("tian qi" 天气), Earth qi ("di qi" 地气), and human qi ("ren qi" 人气). Heaven qi is composed of natural forces including the sun and rain. Earth qi is affected by heaven qi. For example, too much sun would lead to drought, and a lack of sun would cause plants to die off. Human qi is affected by earth qi, because the environment has effects on human beings. Feng shui is the balancing of heaven, Earth, and human qi.