title: Precipitation

text: Each region of the world is going to have changes in precipitation due to their unique conditions. Eastern portions of North and South America, northern Europe, and northern and central Asia have become wetter. The Sahel, the Mediterranean, southern Africa and parts of southern Asia have become drier. There has been an increase in the number of heavy precipitation events over many areas during the past century, as well as an increase since the 1970s in the prevalence of droughts—especially in the tropics and subtropics. Changes in precipitation and evaporation over the oceans are suggested by the decreased salinity of mid- and high-latitude waters (implying more precipitation), along with increased salinity in lower latitudes (implying less precipitation, more evaporation, or both). Over the contiguous United States, total annual precipitation increased at an average rate of 6.1% per century since 1900, with the greatest increases within the East North Central climate region (11.6% per century) and the South (11.1%). Hawaii was the only region to show a decrease (−9.25%).


title: Precipitation

text: The urban heat island warms cities 0.6 to 5.6 °C (1.1 to 10.1 °F) above surrounding suburbs and rural areas. This extra heat leads to greater upward motion, which can induce additional shower and thunderstorm activity. Rainfall rates downwind of cities are increased between 48% and 116%. Partly as a result of this warming, monthly rainfall is about 28% greater between downwind of cities, compared with upwind. Some cities induce a total precipitation increase of 51%.


title: Precipitation

text: The Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (abbreviated QPF) is the expected amount of liquid precipitation accumulated over a specified time period over a specified area. A QPF will be specified when a measurable precipitation type reaching a minimum threshold is forecast for any hour during a QPF valid period. Precipitation forecasts tend to be bound by synoptic hours such as 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 GMT. Terrain is considered in QPFs by use of topography or based upon climatological precipitation patterns from observations with fine detail. Starting in the mid to late 1990s, QPFs were used within hydrologic forecast models to simulate impact to rivers throughout the United States. Forecast models show significant sensitivity to humidity levels within the planetary boundary layer, or in the lowest levels of the atmosphere, which decreases with height. QPF can be generated on a quantitative, forecasting amounts, or a qualitative, forecasting the probability of a specific amount, basis. Radar imagery forecasting techniques show higher skill than model forecasts within six to seven hours of the time of the radar image. The forecasts can be verified through use of rain gauge measurements, weather radar estimates, or a combination of both. Various skill scores can be determined to measure the value of the rainfall forecast.


title: Levothyroxine

text: Levothyroxine, also known as -thyroxine, is a manufactured form of the thyroid hormone thyroxine (T). It is used to treat thyroid hormone deficiency (hypothyroidism), including a severe form known as myxedema coma. It may also be used to treat and prevent certain types of thyroid tumors. It is not indicated for weight loss. Levothyroxine is taken by mouth or given by intravenous injection. Maximum effect from a specific dose can take up to six weeks to occur.


title: Levothyroxine

text: Side effects from excessive doses include weight loss, trouble tolerating heat, sweating, anxiety, trouble sleeping, tremor, and fast heart rate. Use is not recommended in people who have had a recent heart attack. Use during pregnancy has been found to be safe. Dosing should be based on regular measurements of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and T levels in the blood. Much of the effect of levothyroxine is following its conversion to triiodothyronine (T).


title: Levothyroxine

text: Levothyroxine was first made in 1927. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Levothyroxine is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the second most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 98million prescriptions.


title: Levothyroxine

text: Levothyroxine is typically used to treat hypothyroidism, and is the treatment of choice for people with hypothyroidism who often require lifelong thyroid hormone therapy.


title: Levothyroxine

text: It may also be used to treat goiter via its ability to lower thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which is considered goiter-inducing. Levothyroxine is also used as interventional therapy in people with nodular thyroid disease or thyroid cancer to suppress TSH secretion. A subset of people with hypothyroidism treated with an appropriate dose of levothyroxine will describe continuing symptoms despite TSH levels in the normal range. In these people, further laboratory and clinical evaluation is warranted, as they may have another cause for their symptoms. Furthermore, reviewing their medications and possible dietary supplements is important, as several medications can affect thyroid hormone levels.


title: Levothyroxine

text: Levothyroxine is also used to treat subclinical hypothyroidism, which is defined by an elevated TSH level and a normal-range free T level without symptoms. Such people may be asymptomatic and whether they should be treated is controversial. One benefit of treating this population with levothyroxine therapy is preventing development of hypothyroidism. As such, treatment should be taken into account for patients with initial TSH levels above 10 mIU/L, people with elevated thyroid peroxidase antibody titers, people with symptoms of hypothyroidism and TSH levels of 5–10 mIU/L, and women who are pregnant or want to become pregnant. Oral dosing for patients with subclinical hypothyroidism is 1 μg/kg/day.


title: Levothyroxine

text: It is also used to treat myxedema coma, which is a severe form of hypothyroidism characterized by mental status changes and hypothermia. As it is a medical emergency with a high mortality rate, it should be treated in the intensive-care unit with thyroid hormone replacement and aggressive management of individual organ system complications.


title: Levothyroxine

text: Dosages vary according to the age groups and the individual condition of the person, body weight, and compliance to the medication and diet. Other predictors of the required dosage are sex, body mass index, deiodinase activity (SPINA-GD), and etiology of hypothyroidism. Annual or semiannual clinical evaluations and TSH monitoring are appropriate after dosing has been established. Levothyroxine is taken on an empty stomach about half an hour to an hour before meals. As such, thyroid replacement therapy is usually taken 30 minutes prior to eating in the morning. For patients with trouble taking levothyroxine in the morning, bedtime dosing is effective, as well. A study in 2015 showed greater efficacy of levothyroxine when taken at bedtime. Doses of levothyroxine that normalize serum TSH may not normalize abnormal levels of LDL cholesterol and total cholesterol.


title: Levothyroxine

text: Poor compliance in taking the medicine is the most common cause of elevated TSH levels in people receiving appropriate doses of levothyroxine.


title: Levothyroxine

text: For older people (over 50 years old) and people with known or suspected ischemic heart disease, levothyroxine therapy should not be initiated at the full replacement dose. Since thyroid hormone increases the heart's oxygen demand by increasing heart rate and contractility, starting at higher doses may cause an acute coronary syndrome or an abnormal heart rhythm.


title: Levothyroxine

text: Hypothyroidism is common among pregnant women. A nationwide cohort study showed that 1.39% of all pregnant women in 2010 in Denmark received a prescription of levothyroxine during pregnancy. According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration pregnancy categories, levothyroxine has been assigned category A. Given that no increased risk of congenital abnormalities has been demonstrated in pregnant women taking levothyroxine, therapy should be continued during pregnancy. Furthermore, therapy should be immediately administered to women diagnosed with hypothyroidism during pregnancy, as hypothyroidism is associated with a higher rate of complications, such as spontaneous abortion, preeclampsia, and premature birth.


title: Levothyroxine

text: Thyroid hormone requirements increase during and last throughout pregnancy. As such, pregnant women are recommended to increase to nine doses of levothyroxine each week, rather than the usual seven, as soon as their pregnancy is confirmed. Repeat thyroid function tests should be done five weeks after the dosage is increased.


title: Levothyroxine

text: While a minimal amount of thyroid hormones is found in breast milk, the amount does not influence infant plasma thyroid levels. Furthermore, levothyroxine was not found to cause any adverse events to the infant or mother during breastfeeding. As adequate concentrations of thyroid hormone are required to maintain normal lactation, appropriate levothyroxine doses should be administered during breastfeeding.


title: Levothyroxine

text: Levothyroxine is safe and effective for children with hypothyroidism; the goal of treatment for children with hypothyroidism is to reach and preserve normal intellectual and physical development.


title: Levothyroxine

text: Levothyroxine is contraindicated in people with hypersensitivity to levothyroxine sodium or any component of the formulation, people with acute myocardial infarction, and people with thyrotoxicosis of any etiology. Levothyroxine is also contraindicated for people with uncorrected adrenal insufficiency, as thyroid hormones may cause an acute adrenal crisis by increasing the metabolic clearance of glucocorticoids. For oral tablets, the inability to swallow capsules is an additional contraindication.


title: Levothyroxine

text: Adverse events are generally caused by incorrect dosing. Long-term suppression of TSH values below normal values frequently cause cardiac side effects and contribute to decreases in bone mineral density (low TSH levels are also well known to contribute to osteoporosis).


title: Levothyroxine

text: Too high a dose of levothyroxine causes hyperthyroidism. Overdose can result in heart palpitations, abdominal pain, nausea, anxiousness, confusion, agitation, insomnia, weight loss, and increased appetite. Allergic reactions to the drug are characterized by symptoms such as difficulty breathing, shortness of breath, or swelling of the face and tongue. Acute overdose may cause fever, hypoglycemia, heart failure, coma, and unrecognized adrenal insufficiency.


title: Levothyroxine

text: Acute massive overdose may be life-threatening; treatment should be symptomatic and supportive. Massive overdose can be associated with increased sympathetic activity, thus may require treatment with beta-blockers.


title: Levothyroxine

text: Many foods and other substances can interfere with absorption of thyroxine. Substances that reduce absorption are aluminium- and magnesium-containing antacids, simethicone, sucralfate, cholestyramine, colestipol, and polystyrene sulfonate. Sevelamer with calcium carbonate may decrease the bioavailability of levothyroxine. Grapefruit juice may delay the absorption of levothyroxine, but based on a study of 10 healthy people aged 20–30 (eight men, two women), it may not have a significant effect on bioavailability in young adults. A study of eight women suggested that coffee may interfere with the intestinal absorption of levothyroxine, though at a level less than eating bran. Certain other substances can cause adverse effects that may be severe. Combination of levothyroxine with ketamine may cause hypertension and tachycardia; and tricyclic and tetracyclic antidepressants increase its toxicity. Lithium, though, can cause hyperthyroidism (but most often hypothyroidism) by affecting iodine metabolism of the thyroid itself, thus inhibiting synthetic levothyroxine, as well. Soy, walnuts, fiber, calcium supplements, and iron supplements can also adversely affect absorption. A study found that cow's milk reduces levothyroxine absorption.


title: Levothyroxine

text: To minimize interactions, a manufacturer of levothyroxine recommends after taking it, waiting 30 minutes to one hour before eating or drinking anything that is not water. They further recommend to take it in the morning on an empty stomach.


title: Levothyroxine

text: Levothyroxine is a synthetic form of thyroxine (T), an endogenous hormone secreted by the thyroid gland, which is converted to its active metabolite, -triiodothyronine (T). T and T bind to thyroid receptor proteins in the cell nucleus and cause metabolic effects through the control of DNA transcription and protein synthesis. Like its naturally secreted counterpart, levothyroxine is a chiral compound in the -form.


title: Levothyroxine

text: Absorption of orally administered levothyroxine from the gastrointestinal tract ranges from 40 to 80%, with the majority of the drug absorbed from the jejunum and upper ileum. Levothyroxine absorption is increased by fasting and decreased in certain malabsorption syndromes, by certain foods, and with age. The bioavailability of the drug is decreased by dietary fiber.


title: Levothyroxine

text: Greater than 99% of circulating thyroid hormones are bound to plasma proteins including thyroxine-binding globulin, transthyretin (previously called thyroxine-binding prealbumin), and albumin. Only free hormone is metabolically active.


title: Levothyroxine

text: The primary pathway of thyroid hormone metabolism is through sequential deiodination. The liver is the main site of T deiodination, and along with the kidneys, are responsible for about 80% of circulating T. In addition to deiodination, thyroid hormones are also excreted through the kidneys and metabolized through conjugation and glucuronidation and excreted directly into the bile and the gut, where they undergo enterohepatic recirculation.


title: Levothyroxine

text: Half-life elimination is 6–7 days for people with normal lab results; 9–10 days for people with hypothyroidism; 3–4 days for people with hyperthyroidism. Thyroid hormones are primarily eliminated by the kidneys (about 80%), with urinary excretion decreasing with age. The remaining 20% of T is eliminated in the stool.


title: Levothyroxine

text: Thyroxine was first isolated in pure form in 1914, at the Mayo Clinic by Edward Calvin Kendall from extracts of hog thyroid glands. The hormone was synthesized in 1927 by British chemists Charles Robert Harington and George Barger.


title: Levothyroxine

text: , levothyroxine was the second-most commonly prescribed medication in the U.S., with 23.8 million prescriptions filled each year.


title: Levothyroxine

text: In 2016, it became the most commonly prescribed medication in the U.S., with more than 114 million prescriptions.


title: Levothyroxine

text: Levothyroxine for systemic administration is available as an oral tablet, an intramuscular injection, and as a solution for intravenous infusion. Furthermore, it is available as both brand-name and generic products. While the FDA approved the use of generic levothyroxine for brand-name levothyroxine in 2004, the decision was met with disagreement by several medical associations. The American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (AACE), the Endocrine Society, and the American Thyroid Association did not agree with the FDA that brand-name and generic formulations of levothyroxine were bioequivalent. As such, people were recommended to be started and kept on either brand-name or generic levothyroxine formulations and not changed back and forth from one to the other. For people who do switch products, their TSH and free T levels should be tested after six weeks to check that they are within normal range.


title: Levothyroxine

text: Common brand names include Eltroxin, Euthyrox, Eutirox, Letrox, Levaxin, Lévothyrox, Levoxyl, -thyroxine, Thyrax, and Thyrax Duotab in Europe; Thyrox and Thyronorm in South Asia; Unithroid, Eutirox, Synthroid, and Tirosint in North and South America; and Thyrin and Thyrolar in Bangladesh. Numerous generic versions also are available.


title: Levothyroxine

text: The related drug dextrothyroxine (-thyroxine) was used in the past as a treatment for hypercholesterolemia (elevated cholesterol levels), but was withdrawn due to cardiac side effects. Once weekly thyroxine (OWT) preparations are also available for clinical use. A recent meta-analysis published by Dutta et al. involving data from 4 studies (294 patients) showed that OWT is associated with less efficient control of hypothyroidism, risks of supraphysiologic elevation of thyroid hormone levels along with transient echocardiographic changes in some patients following 2-4 h of thyroxine intake. Hence it is not surprising that OWT therapy has not become popular and is very sparingly used across the globe.


title: Miguel Rodríguez Orejuela

text: Miguel Ángel Rodríguez Orejuela (born August 15, 1943) is a convicted Colombian drug lord, formerly one of the leaders of the Cali Cartel, based in the city of Cali. He is the younger brother of Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela. He married Miss Colombia 1974, Marta Lucía Echeverry.


title: Miguel Rodríguez Orejuela

text: The Rodríguez brothers and "Jose " formed the Cali cartel in the 1970s. They were primarily involved in marijuana trafficking. In the 1980s, they branched about into Cocaine trafficking. For a time, the Cali Cartel supplied 80% of the United States and 90% of the Europe cocaine market.


title: Miguel Rodríguez Orejuela

text: The Cali Cartel was less violent than its rival, the Medellín Cartel. While the Medellín Cartel was involved in a brutal campaign of violence against the Colombian government, the Cali Cartel grew. The cartel was much more inclined toward bribery rather than violence. However, after the demise of the Medellín Cartel, the Colombian authorities turned their attention to the Cali cartel. The police campaign against the cartel began in the summer of 1995.


title: Miguel Rodríguez Orejuela

text: On August 6, 1995, Rodriguez Orejuela was arrested when the Colombian National Police broke down the door of his apartment (Hacienda Buenos Aires) in the exclusive Normandia neighborhood in Cali, Colombia and found him hiding in a secret closet. Rodriguez Orejuela was not eligible for extradition to the U.S. for crimes committed prior to December 16, 1997. However, while he was detained in Colombia, Rodriguez Orejuela continued to engage in drug trafficking. As a result, the United States requested his extradition.


title: Miguel Rodríguez Orejuela

text: On March 11, 2005, Rodriguez Orejuela was extradited to the United States. His brother, Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela, had already been extradited. On September 26, 2006, both Gilberto and Miguel were sentenced to 30 years in prison, after pleading guilty to charges of conspiring to import cocaine to the U.S. in exchange for the United States agreeing not to bring charges against their family members. Their lawyers, David Oscar Markus and Roy Kahn, were able to obtain immunity for 29 family members.


title: Miguel Rodríguez Orejuela

text: On November 16, 2006, the brothers pleaded guilty to one count of conspiring to engage in money laundering. Both were sentenced to an additional 87 months in prison. The two prison terms were set to run concurrently.


title: Alan Davies

text: Alan Roger Davies (; born 6 March 1966) is an English stand-up comedian, writer, actor and TV presenter. He is best known for his portrayal of the title role in the BBC mystery drama series "Jonathan Creek" (1997–2016) and as the only permanent panellist on the BBC panel show "QI" since its premiere in 2003, outlasting its original host Stephen Fry.


title: Alan Davies

text: Davies was born in Loughton, Essex, and spent his childhood years in Chingford. When Davies was six his mother died from leukaemia and he was raised by his father. He was sexually abused by his father from age 8 to 13, as described in his book "Just Ignore Him". Davies wrote that his brother and sister were turned against him. Davies identified this as making him strongly want to please others, which led him to shoplift for schoolmates, and play the joker at home.


title: Alan Davies

text: Davies attended Staples Road School in Loughton and was privately educated at the independent Bancroft's School in Woodford Green, where he gained eight O-Levels. He then moved on to Loughton College of Further Education where he gained four more O-Levels and two A-Levels (Communications & Theatre Studies). He graduated in Drama & Theatre Studies from the University of Kent in 1988, and was awarded an honorary doctorate by the university in 2003.


title: Alan Davies

text: Davies began performing comedy in 1988 at the Whitstable Labour Club. In 1991, he was named "Time Out"s Best Young Comic. He continued touring and performing in the UK and Australia, winning the Edinburgh Festival Critics Award for Comedy in 1994. That show was released on video and audio cassette in 1995 as "Alan Davies Live at the Lyric" recorded at the Lyric Theatre as part of the Perrier Pick of the Fringe season in October 1994.


title: Alan Davies

text: A version of his show "Urban Trauma", which ran in the West End at the Duchess Theatre and toured the UK and Australia, was shown on BBC One in 1998.


title: Alan Davies

text: In 2012, Davies planned a new tour called "Life is Pain". The title for this show came from a story he heard about a six-year-old girl being told off by her mother and responding "Life is pain". Davies said "This really made me laugh". The tour was broadcast on Dave.


title: Alan Davies

text: In 1994 and 1995, Davies hosted "Alan's Big One" for three series on Radio 1 before appearing in Channel 4's spoof travel show "One for the Road" (made by Channel X in 1994/5).


title: Alan Davies

text: From 1997 to 2016 he played the title role in "Jonathan Creek", a trick-deviser for a stage magician, with a side interest in solving crimes. "Jonathan Creek" won a BAFTA for Best Drama and brought Davies to mainstream attention. The series ran semi-regularly between 1997 and 2004 before returning on New Year's Day 2009, with a special episode titled "The Grinning Man", was broadcast on the BBC. Further specials were aired in 2010 ("The Judas Tree") and 2013 ("The Clue of the Savant's Thumb").


title: Alan Davies

text: Davies co-wrote and starred in his own radio sitcom, "The Alan Davies Show", in 1998. Cassettes of the show were produced and released by the BBC, with episodes broadcast on the digital radio station BBC7. He played Russell Boyd in the BBC comedy "A Many Splintered Thing", also in 1998 and 2000.


title: Alan Davies

text: In 2001, Davies played Robert Gossage in "Bob and Rose", a comedy drama about a gay man falling for a woman. He won the Best Actor award at the Monte Carlo TV Festival for his performance. He also played Jack the dog in the radio sitcom "About a Dog". In 2003, Davies appeared as a Star in a Reasonably-Priced Car on "Top Gear" with a time of 1:54 in wet conditions. He returned in Series 8 with 1:50.3 in dry conditions. During a period from the mid-1990s to 2002, Davies advertised for Abbey National.


title: Alan Davies

text: Davies took on a less comedic role in 2004, starring as Henry Farmer, a maverick barrister, in ITV Sunday night drama "The Brief", for two series. Subsequent drama roles include Superintendent Mallard in "Agatha Christie's Marple" (ITV, 2008), as well as appearances in "The Good Housekeeping Guide" (BBC One, 2006), "Roman Road" (ITV 2004) and "Hotel Babylon" (BBC One, 2008).


title: Alan Davies

text: He argued the case for John Lennon as the greatest Briton of all time on the BBC's "Great Britons" series in 2002. In 2007, Davies starred in the second episode of ITV's "You Don't Know You're Born" and on "The Unbelievable Truth".


title: Alan Davies

text: He has appeared in an episode of the BBC science programme "Horizon" in which Professor Marcus du Sautoy attempted to introduce him to elements of mathematical thought which was broadcast on BBC Two on 31 March 2009. He went on to appear in "Horizon" for a second time in November 2009, this time leading the episode — du Sautoy also returned as a guest speaker.


title: Alan Davies

text: On 16 May 2010, Davies appeared in "Your Sudden Death Question", an episode of the ITV detective series "Lewis", as Marcus Richard, a scamming quizmaster at a competition held in an Oxford college, at which some of the contestants are murdered. In September 2010, he began a three-part documentary series "Alan Davies' Teenage Revolution" (Channel 4), partly based on his autobiographical book "My Favourite People and Me, 1978–88".


title: Alan Davies

text: In September 2010, a BBC comedy series entitled "Whites" starring Davies as a chef premiered. It was however cancelled after this first series. It is believed to have been a victim of the cuts at the BBC subsequent to the reduced licence fee settlement.


title: Alan Davies

text: In April 2011, Davies appeared as the guest on the return of the ABC TV conversation program "A Quiet Word With ...". In 2011 Davies was also one of the judges on the ITV programme "Show Me The Funny", a talent contest for new and aspiring stand-up comedy performers.


title: Alan Davies

text: In September 2012, Davies made his first appearance on Channel 4's "Big Fat Quiz" series, winning "The Big Fat Quiz of the '90s" alongside Phill Jupitus.


title: Alan Davies

text: In February 2014, Davies presented a chat show "Alan Davies Après-Ski" on BBC Two, which looked at some of the highlights of the 2014 Winter Olympic Games. He also co-hosted the "Brazilian Banter" podcast for ITV with Tom & Dom from Bantams Banter. The show was a satirical look at the 2014 FIFA World Cup hosted by Brazil.


title: Alan Davies

text: Davies appears as the only permanent panellist on the BBC Two comedy quiz game "QI", which was hosted by Stephen Fry from 2003 to 2015, and then by Sandi Toksvig. He also contributed "four words" to the "QI" book "The Book of General Ignorance" (which appear after Stephen Fry's foreword), "Will this do, Stephen?". Davies has appeared in almost every regular episode of the show, though in one episode (Episode 10 of Series D, "Divination") he appeared, pre-recorded, in only the first few minutes, as he was in Paris attending the UEFA Champions League Final between Barcelona and his beloved Arsenal during the recording. His chair was empty for the rest of the episode, although his voice was heard during "General Ignorance". He also did not appear in the 2011 Comic Relief episode, when his seat was taken by David Walliams. During the filming of the QI Christmas episode 2020, Davies set the new Guinness World Record for the most Christmas crackers pulled by an individual in 30 seconds, achieving 35 successful cracks. His record stood until Joel Corry achieved 41 successful cracks at Capital's Jingle Bell Ball on 12 December 2021.


title: Alan Davies

text: Davies's first book, the autobiographical "My Favourite People and Me, 1978–88" was published by Michael Joseph (Penguin Books) in September 2009. Of the memoir, Davies said he wished to "attempt to remember what I liked as a boy/youth/idiot and to work out why". The favourite people referred to in the title include Anton Chekhov, John Belushi, Barry Sheene, Margaret Thatcher ("only for a few days" the author allows), John McEnroe and Starsky and Hutch. The book also mentions Arsenal F.C., the football team supported by Davies; he recalls as a child his mother sewing their club badge and captain's number onto his shirt, done only a year or so before she died. The paperback was published under the title "Rebel Without A Clue: How the 80s Made Me".


title: Alan Davies

text: His second memoir and autobiography, "Just Ignore Him" was published in September 2020. The book details the sexual abuse that he suffered as a boy from his father between the ages of 8 and 13. In adulthood both the police and the CPS accepted Davies' abuse accusations but declined to prosecute his father Roy Davies, due to his Alzheimer's disease and his by then advancing years. Davies promoted the book during a BBC Radio 5 Live interview, first broadcast on 9 December 2020.


title: Alan Davies

text: Davies married writer Katie Maskell on 13 January 2007 after a six-month engagement. The couple first met backstage at "QI" in 2005. Friend and comedy partner Bill Bailey was Davies' best man. Davies and his wife have three children.


title: Alan Davies

text: Davies eats fish but not other meat. He narrated an anti-vivisection video for Animal Aid called "Wasted Lives" in 2006.


title: Alan Davies

text: In late 2007, "The Times" and "The Daily Telegraph" both reported that Davies bit the ear of a homeless man. Davies had just left a wake at the nearby Groucho Club. He told "The Times" in 2009, "He wasn't a tramp. He was a raging, horrendous arsehole. He called me a cunt several times. Or if it wasn't him, it was his mate. And, yes, I went for him and, yes, I did it in what turned out to be an amusing way." Following the incident, Davies was banned from the Groucho Club.


title: Alan Davies

text: Davies is a lifelong fan and season ticket holder of Arsenal F.C. Davies also used to host the podcast "It's Up For Grabs Now", which took a light-hearted look at goings on at the club. On 18 January 2011, he began hosting the new Arsenal Podcast "The Tuesday Club" with Ian Stone, Keith Dover, Tayo Popoola and Skint Records founder Damian Harris. Releases of the podcast ceased in August 2018, but returned in April 2020 on a (mostly) weekly basis. His support of Arsenal has been used as a recurring source of humour on "QI" in various ways, such as by assigning him a buzzer sound of a chant by fans of rival club Manchester United.


title: Alan Davies

text: He is a supporter of the Labour Party, saying to "Saga" magazine in 2013: "Social injustice is important to me. Life isn't about every man for himself. Life should be about co-operation and collaboration." Despite initially voting for Jeremy Corbyn to be party leader, when being interviewed by "Radio Times" alongside fellow comedian Jo Brand regarding the broadcast of his Channel 4 sitcom "Damned" (which coincided with the 2016 Labour leadership election), Davies supported Owen Smith's leadership bid, saying Corbyn was an ineffective Leader of the Opposition.


title: Alan Davies

text: In 2016, he pursued a Master of Arts degree in Creative Writing at Goldsmiths College, which he completed in September 2018.


title: Arepa

text: Arepa () is a type of food made of ground maize dough stuffed with a filling, eaten in the northern region of South America since pre-Columbian times, and notable primarily in the cuisine of Colombia and Venezuela, but also present in the cuisines of Bolivia, Panama and other countries.


title: Arepa

text: It is commonly eaten in those countries and can be served with accompaniments such as cheese, "cuajada" (fresh cheese), various meats, chicken, avocado, or "diablito" (deviled ham spread). It can also be split to make sandwiches. Sizes, maize types, and added ingredients vary its preparation. It is similar to the Mexican "gordita," the Salvadoran "pupusa", the Ecuadorian "tortilla de maíz" and the Panamanian "tortilla" or "changa".


title: Arepa

text: The "arepa" is a pre-Columbian dish from the area that is now Colombia, Panama and Venezuela. Instruments used to make flour for the "arepas", and the clay slabs on which they were cooked, were often found at archaeological sites in the area. Although it has not been specified in which country an "arepa" was cooked for the first time, it has been possible to define the oldest dates of the presence of maize in Colombia and in Venezuela. For example, in Colombia, the first record of the existence of corn dates from about 3,000 years ago, while in Venezuela the estimate is about 2,800 years ago.


title: Arepa

text: Throughout its history, the "arepa" has stayed mainly unchanged from the "arepas" that pre-Columbian native peoples would have consumed, making the "arepa" one of the few pre-contact traditions that have remained popular in the years since colonization. The name "arepa" is said to be derived from "erepa", the word for cornbread in the Cumanagoto language.


title: Arepa

text: The "arepa" is a flat, round, unleavened patty of soaked, ground kernels of maize, or—more frequently nowadays—maize meal or maize flour. It can be grilled, baked, fried, boiled or steamed. The characteristics vary by color, flavor, size, and the food with which it may be stuffed, depending on the region. Simple arepas are filled with butter or cheese and baked. More filling varieties can be added with combinations of ingredients like beans, meat, avocados, eggs, tomatoes, salad, shrimp, or fish depending on the meal. Fried arepas are often consumed in northern South America, filled with white cheese on top and served in conjunction with fried eggs. Sweet fried arepas are another variety that is often prepared with sugarloaf (papelón) and anise (anís). Venezuelan white cheese is another topping for fried arepas that can be combined with feta cheese.


title: Arepa

text: Initially arepa flour was made by grinding maize at home. In the 1950s the precooked arepa flour was invented by Dr. , a Venezuelan engineer, and became an instant success. The flour is mixed with water and salt, and occasionally oil, butter, eggs, and/or milk. Because the flour is already cooked, the blend forms into patties easily. After being kneaded and formed, the patties are fried, grilled, or baked. Some varieties of arepas are made with "peeled" corn using the nixtamalization process; they are known as "arepa pelada".


title: Arepa

text: "Arepa" flour is specially prepared (cooked in water, then dried) for making "arepas" and other maize dough-based dishes, such as "hallacas", "bollos", "tamales", "empanadas, atole" and "chicha". The flour may be called "masarepa, masa de arepa, masa al instante", or "harina precocida". The most popular brand names of maize flour are Harina PAN and Harina Juana in Venezuela, Areparina in Colombia, and Goya elsewhere.


title: Arepa

text: Bolivian "arepas" are made from corn. There are different ways to prepare "arepas", but one of the most traditional is the Cotoca recipe. Several varieties of "arepa" can be found in the country, such as the "Cruceña" and "Andina" ones.


title: Arepa

text: The "arepa" is an iconic food in Colombia, with some 75 distinct forms of preparation. According to a study conducted by the Colombian Academy of Gastronomy, the "arepa" is part of the Colombian cultural heritage and can be considered a symbol of national gastronomic unity."


title: Arepa

text: In 2006, the "arepa" was named the cultural symbol of Colombia in a competition organized by "Semana" magazine with support from Caracol Televisión, the Ministry of Culture and 'Colombia is Passion'.


title: Arepa

text: In the Paisa region, the "arepa" is especially important to the local people and sometimes accompanies all meals of the day. In addition, "arepas" are strung into necklaces and placed around the necks of honored dignitaries as a sign of praise.


title: Arepa

text: In Colombia, the "arepa" is sold on a commercial level in neighborhood stores, chain supermarkets and market plazas and packaged with preservatives as a pre-molded white or yellow corn dough that is ready to grill or fry at home. It is also sold in the form of industrialized corn flour that requires hydration before preparation. In addition, "arepas" are sold by street vendors, in cafeterias, and in neighborhood stores. Restaurants of the Paisa Region offer a wide variety of "arepas", including a unique style of stuffed "arepa" that can be filled with eggs, meat, or cheese. Colombians in the Caribbean region commonly eat a breakfast variation called "arepa con huevo", which consists of a cooked arepa which has been split open, stuffed with a raw egg, and fried.


title: Arepa

text: The Colombian Arepa Festival is celebrated in the following five major cities: Barranquilla, Bogotá, Bucaramanga, Cali and Medellín. According to the program calendar, each city takes turns organizing the festival between the months of August and December.


title: Arepa

text: According to the Santa Marta city newspaper, El Informador, there are about 75 types of arepas around Colombia. Among them is the Arepa Ocañera, consumed in the department of Norte de Santander, characterized by the addition of Queso Costeño () and other types of meat, some recipes for this type of arepa can contain Doble Crema and chicken, one of its characteristics is that it is relatively thin unlike other arepas and also has a toasted and golden colored shell.


title: Arepa

text: Another variation would be the Arepa Boyacense, which the municipality of Ventequemada is characterized by its production of it, this type of food may contain butter, eggs and cheese, it has a certain sweetness in addition to some recipes for this arepa can have cuajada. There is also the Arepa Paisa, which is consumed in the department of Antioquía, prepared with Maíz Trillado (), this recipe is the one that most closely resembles how the indigenous communities prepare the arepa.. In addition, another arepa consumed in the Andean region of the country is the Arepa Santandereana, which has cooked yuca and chicharrón.


title: Arepa

text: In Puerto Rico, mostly in the San Juan area and beach sides, arepas are popular. They can also be found in some restaurants as almost always "arepas de coco". The Puerto Rican arepa is made with corn flour, coconut milk, coconut oil, baking powder, and sugar. They can be fried, baked or cooked on a grill. Once done the arepa is cut open and stuffed. There are countless filling. Crab, shrimp, and octopus stewed in sofrito, lemon, coconut milk, and ginger among other ingredients is the most popular.


title: Arepa

text: Arepas are present in the Canary Islands due to population flow between the islands and Venezuela. They are found in the province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, being rare in the eastern islands of the archipelago. Many of the arepas consumed in the bars and restaurants of the islands are fried. Some incorporate ingredients from the local gastronomy such as soft cheese or Canary plantain.


title: Arepa

text: The "arepa" is a symbol of Venezuelan gastronomy and one of the most common pre-Hispanic foods still popular in Venezuela.


title: Arepa

text: According to a 2015 survey of the Venezuelan people, nearly 70 percent of the nation ate "arepas" on a regular basis. It is common for Venezuelans to eat "arepas" throughout the day, both as snacks and as sides to meals, creating a culture where these corn products can be found almost everywhere and in specific restaurants called "areperas". The "arepa" is seen as a cornerstone of a Venezuelan diet; previous to the 2015 food shortages, it was estimated that each year the average Venezuelan consumed about 30 kilos of the corn flour used to make "arepas". Venezuelan arepas are commonly filled with a great variety of different fillings, from beef and avocado to cheese, varying widely by the location of where they are sold and the ingredients that can be obtained.


title: Arepa

text: In the Andes region of Venezuela, "arepas de trigo" are made with wheatflour rather than cornmeal. These lighter arepas are generally eaten as a snack or an accompaniment to heavier meals.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: Charles Joseph Scarborough (; born April 9, 1963) is an American television host, attorney, political commentator, and former politician who is the co-host of "Morning Joe" on MSNBC with his wife Mika Brzezinski. He previously hosted "Scarborough Country" on the same network. A former member of the Republican Party, Scarborough served in the United States House of Representatives for Florida's 1st district from 1995 to 2001. Scarborough was also a visiting fellow at the Harvard Institute of Politics at the Harvard Kennedy School of Government. He was named in the 2011 "Time" 100 as one of the most influential people in the world.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: Scarborough was born in Atlanta in 1963, the son of Mary Joanna ("née" Clark) and George Francis Scarborough, a businessman. He has two siblings. In 1969, his family moved to Meridian, Mississippi, and then to Elmira, New York in 1973, and Pensacola, Florida in 1978. Scarborough attended Pensacola Catholic High School in Pensacola. He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in history from the University of Alabama in 1985 and a Juris Doctor from the University of Florida College of Law in 1990. During this time, he wrote music and produced CDs with his band, Dixon Mills, including the album "Calling on Robert E. Lee", and he also coached football and taught high school.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: Scarborough's most high-profile case was briefly representing Michael F. Griffin, who murdered Dr. David Gunn in 1993. He made several court appearances representing Griffin, before removing himself from the case, later saying: "There was no way in hell I could sit in at a civil trial, let alone a capital trial," referring to the prospect of prosecutors seeking the death penalty against Griffin. Scarborough assisted Griffin in choosing other counsel from the many who offered their services, however, and helped shield the family from the media exposure, "pro bono".


title: Joe Scarborough

text: Scarborough's political profile was also raised when he assisted with a petition drive, in late-1993, opposing a proposed sixty-five percent increase in Pensacola's property taxes.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: In 1994, Scarborough was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives for Florida's 1st congressional district, becoming the first Republican to represent the Florida Panhandle since Reconstruction. The seat had become open when eight-term Democratic incumbent Earl Hutto retired. In the general election, Scarborough defeated the Democratic candidate, Pensacola attorney Vince "Vinnie" Whibbs Jr., with 61 percent of the vote. Whibbs was the son of former Pensacola mayor Vince Whibbs. This district had not supported a Democratic candidate for U.S. president since 1960, however Democratic candidates had continued to hold most local offices well into the 1990s. Scarborough's win coincided with a large Republican wave that allowed the Republicans to take the majority in the House for the first time in 40 years.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: Scarborough was reelected with 72 percent of the vote in 1996. In 1998 and 2000, he faced only write-in candidates as opposition.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: In June 2000, during his congressional career, he received a 95 percent lifetime rating from the American Conservative Union. He signed the Contract with America. Scarborough served on the Armed Services, Judiciary, Government Reform, and Education committees. In 1998 he was named chairman of the Civil Service Committee.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: Scarborough was one of a group of about 40 freshmen Republican legislators who dubbed themselves the "New Federalists" after "The Federalist Papers". Scarborough was elected political director of the incoming legislators. The New Federalists called for sweeping cuts in the U.S. government, including plans to "privatize, localize, consolidate, [or] eliminate" the Departments of Commerce, Education, Energy and Housing and Urban Development. House speaker Newt Gingrich tapped Scarborough to head a Republican task force on education, and Scarborough declared, "Our goal is to get as much money, power, and authority out of Washington and get as much money, power, and authority into the classroom as possible." Rep. John Kasich (R-Ohio), then chairman of the House Budget Committee, adopted Scarborough's language eliminating the federal Department of Education in the 1996 House Budget Resolution. The budget passed the House by a vote of 238–193.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: Scarborough supported a number of anti-abortion positions while in Congress. He voted in favor of the Unborn Victims of Violence Act, that made it a crime to harm a fetus during the commission of other crimes.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: Scarborough sponsored a bill to force the U.S. to withdraw from the United Nations after a four-year transition and voted to make the Corporation for Public Broadcasting self-sufficient by eliminating federal funding. He also voted for the "Medicare Preservation act of 1995," which cut the projected growth of Medicare by $270 billion over ten years, and against the "Small Business Job Protection Act of 1996," which raised the minimum wage to $5.15. Scarborough had a conservative voting record on economic, social, and foreign policy issues but was seen as moderate on environmental issues and human rights causes, including supporting the closure of the School of the Americas and defending accused terrorist Lori Berenson.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: While in Congress, Scarborough received a number of awards, including the "Friend of the Taxpayer Award" from Americans for Tax Reform; the "Guardian of Small Business Award" from the National Federation of Independent Business; the "Spirit of Enterprise Award" from the United States Chamber of Commerce; the "Taxpayer's Hero Award" from the Citizens Against Government Waste; and the "Guardian of Seniors' Rights Award" from the 60 Plus Association.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: Scarborough was one of the 228 members of the House who voted to impeach Bill Clinton in December 1998.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: In May 2001, five months into his fourth term in Congress, Scarborough stated his intention to resign to spend more time with his children. Of his resignation, Scarborough said, "The realization has come home to me that they're at a critical stage of their lives and I would rather be judged at the end of my life as a father than as a congressman." A special election was held in October 2001 to replace Scarborough. Since then, Scarborough has contemplated returning to politics several times. In 2017, Scarborough left the Republican Party to become an independent.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: In 1999, while still serving in Congress, Scarborough founded the free weekly Pensacola-area newspaper "The Florida Sun". The paper merged in 2001 and is now known as the "Independent News".


title: Joe Scarborough

text: After leaving Congress, Scarborough worked as an environmental lawyer in Florida. He was appointed to the President's Council on the 21st Century Workforce in 2002.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: In April 2003, he embarked upon a television career with the launch of "Scarborough Country" on MSNBC. In May 2007, he began hosting "Morning Joe".


title: Joe Scarborough

text: In an op-ed for "The Washington Post" in August 2016, Scarborough argued that the Republican Party must "dump Donald Trump" as their presidential candidate. Drawing attention to Trump's remarks about Hillary Clinton and the Second Amendment, Scarborough wrote: "A bloody line has been crossed that cannot be ignored. At long last, Donald Trump has left the Republican Party few options but to act decisively and get this political train wreck off the tracks before something terrible happens."


title: Joe Scarborough

text: In June 2017, Scarborough and Brzezinski were the targets of tweets by President Trump that, in response to their coverage of his administration, referred to Scarborough as "Psycho Joe" and called Brzezinski "low I.Q. Crazy Mika," while asserting that she was "bleeding badly from a face-lift" when he previously encountered her at Mar-a-Lago. The hosts responded with an op-ed in "The Washington Post", in which they described White House officials telling them that the president would kill a pending "National Enquirer" article if they apologized to Trump for their coverage of him.  The president's tweets received criticism from many Republican lawmakers, including Speaker of the House Paul Ryan, Senators John McCain, Susan Collins, Ben Sasse, Lindsey Graham, and Lisa Murkowski.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: Trump has also alluded to an incident from Scarborough's time in Congress. On July 20, 2001, while Scarborough was in Washington, D.C., one of his aides was found dead on the floor of his congressional office in Fort Walton Beach, Florida. An autopsy determined that an undiagnosed heart-valve irregularity had caused the 28-year-old to lose consciousness, fall, and hit her head on the edge of a desk the day before. Speculation developed about the death, often connecting it with Scarborough's resignation from Congress, announced in May. The idea that Scarborough was involved in the death was promoted by publisher Markos Moulitsas and by filmmaker Michael Moore, who registered the domain name JoeScarboroughKilledHisIntern.com. Since 2017, Trump has resurrected the idea and has called for another investigation. "It's remarkable that we have a president who is trying to have someone prosecute the person he considers to be his chief critic in the media," Scarborough responded in 2020. "That's what Putin does. That's what Orban does. That's what autocrats have been doing for centuries."


title: Joe Scarborough

text: In August 2019, Scarborough drew criticism after posting conspiracy-driven tweets about the death of Jeffrey Epstein, an American financier multimillionaire and convicted sex offender. Scarborough tweeted: "A guy who had information that would have destroyed rich and powerful men's lives ends up dead in his jail cell. How predictably...Russian."


title: Joe Scarborough

text: In January 2021, Scarborough excoriated the Capitol Hill Police for having enabled the attack at the U.S. Capitol by Donald Trump supporters. He claimed a double standard that had the perpetrators been either black or Muslim, they likely would have been dealt with more harshly.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: In May 2007, Scarborough became one of the rotating hosts auditioning for the slot vacated by "Imus in the Morning" on MSNBC. Scarborough, with his morning show, won the slot permanently in July 2007.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: "Morning Joe" is a weekday MSNBC morning news and talk show, airing from 6 a.m. to 10 a.m. Eastern Time. It features Joe Scarborough providing both enterprise reporting and discussion on the news of the day in a panel format with co-hosts Mika Brzezinski and Willie Geist. The show features in-depth discussions that help drive the day's political conversation.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: In 2007, New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg joined Geist, Brzezinski, MSNBC president Phil Griffin, and Scarborough to cut the ribbon on the new set of "Morning Joe" at 30 Rock.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: Scarborough has covered presidential elections and conventions. In 2015 he interviewed Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump and abruptly ended the interview, but resumed it after commercial break. During the 2016 election, Scarborough criticized the Democratic National Committee for trying to protect Hillary Clinton and ensure she received the Democratic party's presidential nomination, calling the DNC "rigged" against voters. 2017 marked the program's 10th year on air.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: According to Nielsen ratings in 2016, "Morning Joe" delivered MSNBC's biggest total viewer and demo audiences in the time period ever and beat third-place CNN in both categories. This marked "Morning Joe"s seventh straight year topping CNN in total viewers. Scarborough also is a regular guest on NBC and MSNBC news programs and has appeared on "Meet the Press" numerous times. In April 2012, Scarborough guest-hosted "Meet the Press".


title: Joe Scarborough

text: On December 8, 2008, Scarborough and "Morning Joe" co-host Mika Brzezinski began hosting a two-hour late-morning radio show on WABC (770 AM) in New York City, replacing 12-year veteran host John Gambling. On April 26, 2010, the radio show was placed on "hiatus", which Scarborough said was to redevelop its format into a new three-hour show. The show never returned.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: Scarborough released his first book, "Rome Wasn't Burnt in a Day: the Real Deal on how Politicians, Bureaucrats, and other Washington Barbarians are Bankrupting America," on October 4, 2005.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: In his second book, "The Last Best Hope", released on June 9, 2009, Scarborough outlined a plan to help guide conservatives back to a political majority after their defeats in the 2006 midterm elections and the 2008 presidential election.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: On November 12, 2013, Scarborough released his third book, "The Right Path: From Ike to Reagan, How Republicans Once Mastered Politics—and Can Again".


title: Joe Scarborough

text: On November 24, 2020, Scarborough released his fourth book, "Saving Freedom: Truman, the Cold War, and the Fight for Western Civilization".


title: Joe Scarborough

text: Scarborough released his debut EP, "Mystified", on June 23, 2017. A music video for the title track of the new wave-inspired EP was also released on the same day. Scarborough said he planned to release a new EP every month for the following four years.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: In 1986, Scarborough married Melanie Hinton. The couple had two sons and divorced in 1999. While interviewing Robert F. Kennedy Jr. in June 2005, Scarborough expressed concerns about the possibility that one of his sons may have suffered vaccine damage (See Thimerosal controversy). Scarborough said, "My son, born in 1991, has a slight form of autism called Asperger's. When I was practicing law and also when I was in Congress, parents would constantly come to me and they would bring me videotapes of their children, and they were all around the age of my son or younger. So, something happened in 1989."


title: Joe Scarborough

text: In October 2001, Scarborough married his second wife, Susan Waren, a former aide to Florida governor Jeb Bush and also a former congressional committee staffer. Their daughter was born in August 2003; their son was born in May 2008. Scarborough and Waren were divorced in January 2013.


title: Joe Scarborough

text: , Scarborough resides in New Canaan, Connecticut, an affluent exurb of New York City. In early 2017, during a trip to Antibes, France, he became engaged to his co-host Mika Brzezinski. The couple married on November 24, 2018, in Washington, D.C., in a ceremony officiated by late U.S. Representative Elijah Cummings.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: The Katyusha () is a type of rocket artillery first built and fielded by the Soviet Union in World War II. Multiple rocket launchers such as these deliver explosives to a target area more intensively than conventional artillery, but with lower accuracy and requiring a longer time to reload. They are fragile compared to artillery guns, but are cheap, easy to produce, and usable on almost any chassis. The Katyushas of World War II, the first self-propelled artillery mass-produced by the Soviet Union, were usually mounted on ordinary trucks. This mobility gave the Katyusha, and other self-propelled artillery, another advantage: being able to deliver a large blow all at once, and then move before being located and attacked with counter-battery fire.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: Katyusha weapons of World War II included the BM-13 launcher, light BM-8, and heavy BM-31. Today, the nickname "Katyusha" is also applied to newer truck-mounted post-Soviet – in addition to non-Soviet – multiple-rocket launchers, notably the common BM-21 Grad and its derivatives.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: Initially, concerns for secrecy kept the military designation of the Katyushas from being known by the soldiers who operated them. They were called by code names such as "Kostikov guns", after A. Kostikov, the head of the RNII, the Reactive Scientific Research Institute, and finally classed as "Guards Mortars". The name "BM-13" was only allowed into secret documents in 1942, and remained classified until after the war.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: Because they were marked with the letter "K" (for Voronezh Komintern Factory), Red Army troops adopted a nickname from Mikhail Isakovsky's popular wartime song, "Katyusha", about a girl longing for her absent beloved, who has gone away on military service. Katyusha is the Russian equivalent of "Katie", an endearing diminutive form of the name Katherine. "Yekaterina" is given the diminutive "Katya," which itself is then given the affectionate diminutive "Katyusha".


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: German troops coined the nickname "Stalin's organ" (), after Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, comparing the visual resemblance of the launch array to a pipe organ, and the sound of the weapon's rocket motors, a distinctive howling sound which terrified the German troops, adding a psychological warfare aspect to their use. Weapons of this type are known by the same name in Denmark (), Finland (), France (), Norway (), the Netherlands and Belgium (), Hungary (), Spain and other Spanish-speaking countries () as well as in Sweden ().


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: The heavy BM-31 launcher was also referred to as "Andryusha" ("Андрюша", an affectionate diminutive of "Andrew").


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: Katyusha rocket launchers, which were built in Voronezh, were mounted on many platforms during World War II, including on trucks, artillery tractors, tanks, and armoured trains, as well as on naval and riverine vessels as assault support weapons. Soviet engineers also mounted single Katyusha rockets on lengths of railway track to serve in urban combat.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: The design was relatively simple, consisting of racks of parallel rails on which rockets were mounted, with a folding frame to raise the rails to launch position. Each truck had 14 to 48 launchers. The M-13 rocket of the BM-13 system was long, in diameter and weighed .


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: The weapon is less accurate than conventional artillery guns, but is extremely effective in saturation bombardment. A battery of four BM-13 launchers could fire a salvo in 7–10 seconds that delivered 4.35 tons of high explosives over a impact zone, making its power roughly equivalent to that of 72 conventional artillery guns. With an efficient crew, the launchers could redeploy to a new location immediately after firing, denying the enemy the opportunity for counterbattery fire. Katyusha batteries were often massed in very large numbers to create a shock effect on enemy forces. The weapon's disadvantage was the long time it took to reload a launcher, in contrast to conventional guns which could sustain a continuous low rate of fire.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: Initial development of solid propellant rockets was carried out by Nikolai Tikhomirov at the Soviet Gas Dynamics Laboratory (GDL), with the first test-firing of a solid fuel rocket carried out in March 1928, which flew for about 1,300 meters The rockets were used to assist take-off of aircraft and were later developed into the RS-82 and RS-132 (RS for , 'rocket-powered shell') in the early 1930s led by Georgy Langemak, including firing rockets from aircraft and the ground. In June 1938, GDL's successor Reactive Scientific Research Institute (RNII) began building several prototype launchers for the modified 132 mm M-132 rockets. Firing over the sides of ZIS-5 trucks proved unstable, and V.N. Galkovskiy proposed mounting the launch rails longitudinally. In August 1939, the result was the BM-13 (BM stands for "боевая машина" (translit. "boyevaya mashina"), 'combat vehicle' for M-13 rockets).


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: The first large-scale testing of the rocket launchers took place at the end of 1938, when 233 rounds of various types were used. A salvo of rockets could completely straddle a target at a range of . But the artillery branch was not fond of the Katyusha, because it took up to 50 minutes to load and fire 24 rounds, while a conventional howitzer could fire 95 to 150 rounds in the same time. Testing with various rockets was conducted through 1940, and the BM-13-16 with launch rails for sixteen rockets was authorized for production. Only forty launchers were built before Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: After their success in the first month of the war, mass production was ordered and the development of other models proceeded. The Katyusha was inexpensive and could be manufactured in light industrial installations which did not have the heavy equipment to build conventional artillery gun barrels. By the end of 1942, 3,237 Katyusha launchers of all types had been built, and by the end of the war total production reached about 10,000.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: The truck-mounted Katyushas were installed on ZIS-6 6×4 trucks, as well as the two-axle ZIS-5 and ZIS-5V. In 1941, a small number of BM-13 launchers were mounted on STZ-5 artillery tractors. A few were also tried on KV tank chassis as the KV-1K, but this was a needless waste of heavy armour. Starting in 1942, they were also mounted on various British, Canadian and U.S. Lend-Lease trucks, in which case they were sometimes referred to as BM-13S. The cross-country performance of the Studebaker US6 2½-ton 6×6 truck was so good that it became the GAU's standard mounting in 1943, designated BM-13N ("normalizovanniy", 'standardized'), and more than 1,800 of this model were manufactured by the end of World War II. After World War II, BM-13s were based on Soviet-built ZIS-151 trucks.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: The 82 mm BM-8 was approved in August 1941, and deployed as the BM-8-36 on truck beds and BM-8-24 on T-40 and T-60 light tank chassis. Later these were also installed on GAZ-67 jeeps as the BM-8-8, and on the larger Studebaker trucks as the BM-8-48. In 1942, the team of scientists Leonid Shvarts, Moisei Komissarchik and engineer Yakov Shor received the Stalin prize for the development of the BM-8-48.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: Based on the M-13, the M-30 rocket was developed in 1942. Its bulbous warhead required it to be fired from a grounded frame, called the M-30 (single frame, four round; later double frame, 8 round), instead of a launch rail mounted on a truck. In 1944 it became the basis for the BM-31-12 truck-mounted launcher.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: A battery of BM-13-16 launchers included four firing vehicles, two reload trucks and two technical support trucks, with each firing vehicle having a crew of six. Reloading was executed in 3–4 minutes, although the standard procedure was to switch to a new position some 10 km away due to the ease with which the battery could be identified by the enemy. Three batteries were combined into a division (company), and three divisions into a separate mine-firing regiment of rocket artillery.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: In particular, BM-8-16 is a vehicle which fires M-8 missiles and has 16 rails. BM-31-12 is a vehicle which fires M-31 missiles and has 12 launch tubes. Short names such as BM-8 or BM-13 were used too. Number of launch rails/tubes is absent here. Such names describe launchers only no matter what vehicle they are mounted on. In particular BM-8-24 had a number of variants: vehicle mounted (ZIS-5 truck), tank mounted (T-40) and tractor mounted (STZ-3). All of them had the same name: BM-8-24. Other launchers had a number of variants mounted on different vehicles too. Typical set of vehicles for soviet missile systems is the following:


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: Note: There was also an experimental KV-1K – Katyusha mounted on KV-1 tank which was not taken in service.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: The Axis powers had captured Katyushas during the war. Germany considered producing a local copy, but instead created the "8 cm Raketen-Vielfachwerfer", which was based on the Katyusha.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: Romania had started developing its Mareșal tank destroyer in late 1942. One of the first experimental models was equipped with a Katyusha rocket launcher and tested in the summer of 1943. The project was not continued.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: The multiple rocket launchers were top secret in the beginning of World War II. A special unit of the NKVD troops was raised to operate them. On July 14, 1941, an experimental artillery battery of seven launchers was first used in battle at Rudnya in Smolensk Oblast of Russia, under the command of Captain Ivan Flyorov, destroying a concentration of German troops with tanks, armored vehicles and trucks at the marketplace, causing massive German Army casualties and its retreat from the town in panic, see also in articles by a Russian military historian Andrey Sapronov, an eyewitness of the maiden launches. Following the success, the Red Army organized new Guards mortar batteries for the support of infantry divisions. A battery's complement was standardized at four launchers. They remained under NKVD control until German "Nebelwerfer" rocket launchers became common later in the war.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: On August 8, 1941, Stalin ordered the formation of eight special Guards mortar regiments under the direct control of the Reserve of the Supreme High Command (RVGK). Each regiment comprised three battalions of three batteries, totalling 36 BM-13 or BM-8 launchers. Independent Guards mortar battalions were also formed, comprising 12 launchers in three batteries of four. By the end of 1941, there were eight regiments, 35 independent battalions, and two independent batteries in service, fielding a total of 554 launchers.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: In June 1942 heavy Guards mortar battalions were formed around the new M-30 static rocket launch frames, consisting of 96 launchers in three batteries. In July, a battalion of BM-13s was added to the establishment of a tank corps. In 1944, the BM-31 was used in motorized heavy Guards mortar battalions of 48 launchers. In 1943, Guards mortar brigades, and later divisions, were formed equipped with static launchers.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: By the end of 1942, 57 regiments were in service—together with the smaller independent battalions, this was the equivalent of 216 batteries: 21% BM-8 light launchers, 56% BM-13, and 23% M-30 heavy launchers. By the end of the war, the equivalent of 518 batteries were in service.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: The success and economy of multiple rocket launchers (MRL) have led them to continue to be developed. In the years following WWII, the BM-13 was replaced by the 140 mm BM-14 and the BM-31 was replaced by the 240 mm BM-24. During the Cold War, the Soviet Union fielded several models of Katyusha-like MRL, notably the BM-21 Grad launchers somewhat inspired by the earlier weapon, and the larger BM-27 Uragan. Advances in artillery munitions have been applied to some Katyusha-type multiple launch rocket systems, including bomblet submunitions, remotely deployed land mines, and chemical warheads.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: With the breakup of the Soviet Union, Russia inherited most of its military arsenal including its large complement of MRLs. In recent history, they have been used by the Russian Armed Forces during the First and Second Chechen Wars and by the Armenian and Azerbaijani Armed Forces during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War. The Georgian Defense Forces are reported to have used BM-21 Grad or similar rocket artillery in fighting in the 2008 South Ossetia war.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: Katyusha-like launchers were exported to Afghanistan, Angola, Czechoslovakia, Khmer Republic, Egypt, East Germany, Hungary, Iran, Iraq, Mongolia, North Korea, Poland, Syria, Yemen and Vietnam. They were also built in Czechoslovakia, the People's Republic of China, North Korea, and Iran.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: Proper Katyushas (BM-13s) also saw action in the Korean War, used by the Chinese People's Volunteer Army and Korean People's Army against the South Korean and United Nations forces. Soviet BM-13s were known to have been imported to China before the Sino-Soviet split and were operational in the People's Liberation Army. The Viet Minh deployed them against the French Far East Expeditionary Corps during the Battle of Dien Bien Phu at the end of the First Indochina War.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: Israel captured BM-24 MRLs during the Six-Day War (1967), used them in two battalions during the Yom Kippur War (1973) and the 1982 Lebanon War, and later developed the MAR-240 launcher for the same rockets, based on a Sherman tank chassis.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: The rockets were employed by the Tanzania People's Defence Force in the Uganda-Tanzania War. Tanzanian forces called them "Baba Mtakatifu" (Kiswahili for "Holy Father") while the Ugandans called them Saba Saba.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: During the 2006 Lebanon War, Hezbollah fired between 3,970 and 4,228 rockets, from light truck-mounts and single-rail man-portable launchers. About 95% of these were 122 mm (4.8 in) Syrian-manufactured M-21OF type artillery rockets which carried warheads up to 30 kg (66 lb) and had a range of 20 km, perhaps up to 30 km (19 mi). Most rockets fired at Israel by Hamas from the Gaza Strip are of the simpler Qassam rocket type, but Hamas has also launched 122-mm Grad-type Katyusha rockets against several cities in Israel, although they are not reported to have truck-mounted launchers. Although Katyusha originally referred to the mobile launcher, today the rockets are often referred to as Katyushas.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: Some allege that the Central Intelligence Agency bought Katyushas from the Egyptian Armed Forces and supplied them to the Mujahideen (via Pakistan's ISI) during the Soviet–Afghan War.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: Katyusha-like MRLs were also allegedly used by the Rwandan Patriotic Front during its 1990 invasion of Rwanda, through the 1994 genocide. They were effective in battle, but translated into much anti-Tutsi sentiment in the local media.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: It was reported that BM-21 Grad launchers were used against the U.S. Army during the 2003 invasion of Iraq. They have also been used in the Afghanistan and Iraq insurgencies. In Iraq, according to Associated Press and Agence France-Presse reports, Katyusha-like rockets were fired at the Green Zone late March 2008.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: Katyusha rockets were reportedly used by both Gaddafi Loyalists and anti-Gaddafi forces during the Libyan Civil War.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: In February 2013, the Defence Ministry of Yemen reported seizing an Iranian ship, and that the ship's cargo included (among its other weapons) Katyusha rockets.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: On May 19, 2019, a Katyusha rocket was fired inside the Green Zone in Baghdad, Iraq, landing less than a mile from the US Embassy near the statue of the Unknown Soldier. No casualties were reported.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: On January 4, 2020, four Katyusha rockets were fired in the Baghdad area. According to two Iraqi Police sources and an official Iraqi Armed Forces statement, one Katyusha rocket landed in the Green Zone in Celebration Square near the U.S. Embassy and another landed in the nearby Jadriya neighborhood. Two other Katyusha rockets landed in Balad Air Base, which houses U.S. Armed Forces troops, according to two security sources.


title: Katyusha rocket launcher

text: Participants in the creation of the Katyusha rocket launcher received official recognition only in 1991. By decree of the President of the USSR Mikhail Gorbachev dated June 21, 1991, I. T. Kleymenov, G. E. Langemak, V. N. Luzhin, B. S. Petropavlovsky, B. M. Slonimer and N. I. Tikhomirov were posthumously awarded title of Heroes of Socialist Labor for their work on the creation of the Katyusha.


title: Vaishnavism

text: Vaishnavism () is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the sole supreme being leading all other Hindu deities, i.e. "Mahavishnu". Its followers are called Vaishnavites or "Vaishnava"s (), and it includes sub-sects like Krishnaism and Ramaism, which consider Krishna and Rama as the supreme beings respectively.


title: Vaishnavism

text: According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, Vaishnavism is the largest Hindu sect, constituting about 641 million or 67.6% of Hindus.


title: Vaishnavism

text: The ancient emergence of Vaishnavism is unclear, and broadly hypothesized as a fusion of various regional non-Vedic religions with Vishnu. A merger of several popular non-Vedic theistic traditions, particularly the Bhagavata cults of Vāsudeva-krishna and "Gopala-Krishna", and Narayana, developed in the 7th to 4th century BCE. It was integrated with the Vedic God Vishnu in the early centuries CE, and finalized as Vaishnavism, when it developed the avatar doctrine, wherein the various non-Vedic deities are revered as distinct incarnations of the supreme God Vishnu. Rama, Krishna, Narayana, Kalki, Hari, Vithoba, Venkateshvara, Shrinathji, and Jagannath are among the names of popular avatars all seen as different aspects of the same supreme being.


title: Vaishnavism

text: The Vaishnavite tradition is known for the loving devotion to an avatar of Vishnu (often Krishna), and as such was key to the spread of the Bhakti movement in Indian subcontinent in the 2nd millennium CE. It has four main categories of "sampradayas" (denominations, sub-schools): the medieval-era Vishishtadvaita school of Ramanuja, the Dvaita school (Tattvavada) of Madhvacharya, the Dvaitadvaita school of Nimbarkacharya, and the Pushtimarg of Vallabhacharya. Ramananda (14th century) created a Rama-oriented movement, now the largest monastic group in Asia.


title: Vaishnavism

text: Key texts in Vaishnavism include the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, the Pancaratra (Agama) texts, Naalayira Divya Prabhandham, and the Bhagavata Purana.


title: Vaishnavism

text: The ancient emergence of Vaishnavism is unclear, the evidence inconsistent and scanty. Syncretism of various traditions resulted in Vaishnavism. Although "Vishnu" was a Vedic solar deity, he is mentioned less often compared to Agni, Indra, and other Vedic deities, thereby suggesting that he had a minor position in the Vedic religion.


title: Vaishnavism

text: According to Dandekar, what is understood today as Vaishnavism did not originate in Vedism at all, but emerged from the merger of several popular theistic traditions which developed after the decline of Brahmanism at the end of the Vedic period, closely before the second urbanisation of northern India, in the 7th to 4th century BCE. It initially formed as Vasudevism around Vāsudeva, a deified leader of the Vrishnis, and one of the Vrishni heroes. Later, Vāsudeva was amalgamated with Krishna "the deified tribal hero and religious leader of the Yadavas", to form the merged deity "Bhagavan Vāsudeva-Krishna", due to the close relation between the tribes of the Vrishnis and the Yadavas. This was followed by a merger with the cult of "Gopala-Krishna" of the cowherd community of the Abhıras in the 4th century CE. The character of Gopala Krishna is often considered to be non-Vedic. According to Dandekar, such mergers consolidated the position of Krishnaism between the heterodox sramana movement and the orthodox Vedic religion. The "Greater Krsnaism", states Dandekar, then adopted the Rigvedic Vishnu as Supreme deity to increase its appeal towards orthodox elements.


title: Vaishnavism

text: According to Klostermaier, Vaishnavism originates in the latest centuries BCE and the early centuries CE, with the cult of the heroic Vāsudeva, a leading member of the Vrishni heroes, which was then amalgamated with Krishna, hero of the Yadavas, and still several centuries later with the "divine child" Bala Krishna of the Gopala traditions. According to Klostermaier, "In some books Krishna is presented as the founder and first teacher of the Bhagavata religion." According to Dalal, "The term Bhagavata seems to have developed from the concept of the Vedic deity Bhaga, and initially it seems to have been a monotheistic sect, independent of the Brahmanical pantheon."


title: Vaishnavism

text: The development of the Krishna-traditions was followed by a syncretism of these non-Vedic traditions with the Mahabharata canon, thus affiliating itself with Vedism in order to become acceptable to the orthodox establishment. The Vishnu of the Rig Veda was assimilated into non-Vedic Krishnaism and became the equivalent of the Supreme God. The appearance of Krishna as one of the "Avatars" of Vishnu dates to the period of the Sanskrit epics in the early centuries CE. The "Bhagavad Gita"—initially, a Krishnaite scripture, according to Friedhelm Hardy—was incorporated into the Mahabharata as a key text for Krishnaism.


title: Vaishnavism

text: Finally, the Narayana worshippers were also included, which further brahmanized Vaishnavism. The Nara-Narayana worshippers may have originated in Badari, a northern ridge of the Hindu Kush, and absorbed into the Vedic orthodoxy as Purusa Narayana. Purusa Narayana may have later been turned into Arjuna and Krsna.


title: Vaishnavism

text: In the late-Vedic texts (~1000 to 500 BCE), the concept of a metaphysical Brahman grows in prominence, and the Vaishnavism tradition considered Vishnu to be identical to Brahman, just like Shaivism and Shaktism consider Shiva and Devi to be Brahman respectively.


title: Vaishnavism

text: This complex history is reflected in the two main historical denominations of Vishnavism. The Bhagavats, worship Vāsudeva-Krishna, and are followers of Brahmanic Vaishnavism, while the Pacaratrins regard Narayana as their founder, and are followers of Tantric Vaishnavism.


title: Vaishnavism

text: S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar states that the lifetime of the Vaishnava Alvars was during the first half of the 12th century, their works flourishing about the time of the revival of Brahminism and Hinduism in the north, speculating that Vaishnavism might have penetrated to the south as early as about the first century CE. There also exists secular literature that ascribes the commencement of the tradition in the south to the 3rd century CE.


title: Vaishnavism

text: U.V. Swaminathan Aiyar, a scholar of Tamil literature, published the ancient work of the Sangam period known as the Paripatal, which contains seven poems in praise of Vishnu, including references to Krishna and Balarama. Aiyangar references an invasion of the south by the Mauryas in some of the older poems of the Sangam, and indicated that the opposition that was set up and maintained persistently against northern conquest had possibly in it an element of religion, the south standing up for orthodox Brahmanism against the encroachment of Buddhism by the persuasive eloquence and persistent effort of the Buddhist emperor Ashoka. The Tamil literature of this period has references scattered all over to the colonies of Brahmans brought and settled down in the south, and the whole output of this archaic literature exhibits unmistakably considerable Brahman influence in the making up of that literature.


title: Vaishnavism

text: The Vaishnava school of the south based its teachings on the Naradiya Pancharatra and the Bhagavata from the north and laid stress on a life of purity, high morality, worship and devotion to only one God. Although the monism of Shankara was greatly appreciated by the intellectual class, the masses came increasingly within the fold of Vishnu. Vaishnavism checked the elaborate rituals, ceremonials, vratas, fasts, and feasts prescribed by the Smritis and Puranas for the daily life of a Hindu, and also the worship of various deities like the sun, the moon, the grahas or planets, enjoined by the priestly Brahmin class for the sake of emoluments and gain. It enjoined the worship of no other deities except Narayana of the Upanishads, who was deemed the primal cause of "srsti" (creation), "sthiti" (existence) and "pralaya" (destruction). The accompanying philosophies of Advaita and Vishishtadvaita brought the lower classes into the fold of practical Hinduism, and extended to them the right and privilege of knowing God and attaining "mukti" (salvation).


title: Vaishnavism

text: The Pallava dynasty of Tamilakam patronised Vaishnavism. Mahendra Varman built shrines both of Vishnu and Shiva, several of his cave-temples exhibiting shrines to Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. In the age of the Pallava domination, which followed immediately, both Vaishnavism and Shaivism flourished, fighting the insurgent Buddhists and Jains. The Pallavas were also the first of various dynasties that offered land and wealth to the Venkatesvara temple at Tirumala, which would soon become the most revered religious site of South India. The Sri Vaishnava acharya Ramanuja is credited with the conversion of the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana (originally called Bittideva) from Jainism to Vaishnavism, consolidating the faith in Karnataka. The Chalukyas and their rivals of the Pallavas appear to have employed Vaishnavism as an assertion of divine kingship, one of them proclaiming themselves as terrestrial emanations of Vishnu while the other promptly adopted Shaivism as their favoured tradition, neither of them offering much importance to the other's deity. The Sri Vaishnava sampradaya of Ramanuja would hold sway in the south, the Vadakalai denomination subscribing to Vedanta philosophy and the Tenkalai adhering to regional liturgies known as Prabandham.


title: Vaishnavism

text: According to Hardy, there is evidence of early "southern Krishnaism," despite the tendency to allocate the Krishna-traditions to the Northern traditions. South Indian texts show close parallel with the Sanskrit traditions of Krishna and his gopi companions, so ubiquitous in later North Indian text and imagery. Early writings in Tamils' culture such as "Manimekalai" and the "Cilappatikaram" present Krishna, his brother, and favourite female companions in the similar terms. Hardy argues that the Sanskrit Bhagavata Purana is essentially a Sanskrit "translation" of the bhakti of the Tamil alvars.


title: Vaishnavism

text: Devotion to the southern Indian Mal (Perumal) may be an early form of Krishnaism, since Mal appears as a divine figure, largely like Krishna with some elements of Vishnu. The Alvars, whose name can be translated "immersed", were devotees of Perumal. They codified the Vaishnava canon of the south with their most significant liturgy, the Naalayira Divya Prabandham, traced to the 10th century as a compilation by Nathamuni. Their poems show a pronounced orientation to the Vaishnava, and often Krishna, side of Mal. But they do not make the distinction between Krishna and Vishnu on the basis of the concept of the avatars. Yet, according to Hardy, the term "Mayonism" should be used instead of "Krishnaism" when referring to Mal or Mayon. The early Alvars speak of glorifying "Vishnu bhakti" (devotion to Vishnu), but at the same time, they do regard "Shiva bhakti" (devotion to Shiva) with considerable sympathy, and make a visible effort to keep the Shaivas in countenance. The earliest Alvars go the length of describing Shiva and Vishnu as one, although they do recognise their united form as Vishnu.


title: Vaishnavism

text: Srirangam, the site of the largest functioning temple in the world of 600 acres, is devoted to Ranganathaswamy, a form of Vishnu. The legend goes that King Vibhishana, who was carrying the idol of Ranganatha on his way to Lanka, took rest for a while by placing the statue on the ground. When he prepared to depart, he realised that the idol was stuck to the ground. So, he built a small shrine, which became a popular abode for the deity Ranganatha on the banks of the river Kaveri. The entire temple campus with great walls, towards, mandapas, halls with 1000 pillars were constructed over a period of 300 years from the 14th to 17th century CE.


title: Vaishnavism

text: Most of the Gupta kings, beginning with Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) (375-413 CE) were known as Parama Bhagavatas or Bhagavata Vaishnavas. But following the Huna invasions, especially those of the Alchon Huns circa 500 CE, the Gupta Empire declined and fragmented, ultimately collapsing completely, with the effect of discrediting Vaishnavism, the religion it had been so ardently promoting. The newly arising regional powers in central and northern India, such as the Aulikaras, the Maukharis, the Maitrakas, the Kalacuris or the Vardhanas preferred adopting Saivism instead, giving a strong impetus to the development of the worship of Shiva, and its ideology of power. Vaisnavism remained strong mainly in the territories which had not been affected by these events: South India and Kashmir.


title: Vaishnavism

text: After the Gupta age, Krishnaism rose to a major current of Vaishnavism, and Vaishnavism developed into various sects and subsects, most of them emphasizing "bhakti", which was strongly influenced by south Indian religiosity. Modern scholarship posit Nimbarkacharya (c.7th century CE) to this period who propounded Radha Krishna worship and his doctrine came to be known as (dvaita-advaita).


title: Vaishnavism

text: Vaishnavism in the 10th century started to employ Vedanta-arguments, possibly continuing an older tradition of Vishnu-oriented Vedanta predating Advaita Vedanta. Many of the early Vaishnava scholars such as Nathamuni, Yamunacharya and Ramanuja, contested Adi Shankaras Advaita interpretations and proposed Vishnu bhakti ideas instead. Vaishnavism flourished in predominantly Shaivite Tamil Nadu during the seventh to tenth centuries CE with the twelve Alvars, saints who spread the sect to the common people with their devotional hymns. The temples that the Alvars visited or founded are now known as Divya Desams. Their poems in praise of Vishnu and Krishna in Tamil language are collectively known as "Naalayira" Divya Prabandha (4000 divine verses).


title: Vaishnavism

text: The Bhakti movement of late medieval Hinduism started in the 7th century, but rapidly expanded after the 12th century. It was supported by the Puranic literature such as the Bhagavata Purana, poetic works, as well as many scholarly bhasyas and samhitas.


title: Vaishnavism

text: This period saw the growth of Vashnavism Sampradayas (denominations or communities) under the influence of scholars such as Ramanujacharya, Vedanta Desika, Madhvacharya and Vallabhacharya. Bhakti poets or teachers such as Manavala Mamunigal, Namdev, Ramananda, Sankardev, Surdas, Tulsidas, Eknath, Tyagaraja, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and many others influenced the expansion of Vaishnavism.Even Meera (princess of Mehwar and Rajasthan) took part in this specific movement. These Vaishnavism sampradaya founders rejected Shankara's doctrines of Advaita Vedanta, particularly Ramanuja in the 12th century, Vedanta Desika and Madhva in the 13th, building their theology on the devotional tradition of the Alvars (Sri Vaishnavas).


title: Vaishnavism

text: In North and Eastern India, Vaishnavism gave rise to various late Medieval movements Ramananda in the 14th century, Sankaradeva in the 15th and Vallabha and Chaitanya in the 16th century. Historically, it was Chaitanya Mahaprabhu who founded congregational chanting of holy names of Krishna in the early 16th century after becoming a sannyasi.


title: Vaishnavism

text: During the 20th century, Vaishnavism has spread from India and is now practiced in many places around the globe, including North America, Europe, Africa, Russia and South America. A pioneer of Vaishnavite mission to the West has become sannyasi "Baba Premananda Bharati" (1858–1914), an author of the first full-length trearment of Bengali Vaishnavism in English "Sree Krishna—the Lord of Love" and founder in 1902 the "Krishna Samaj" society in New York City and a temple in Los Angeles. The global status of Vaishnavism is largely due to the growth of the ISKCON movement, founded by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada in 1966.


title: Vaishnavism

text: Vaishnavism is centered on the devotion of Vishnu and his avatars. According to Schweig, it is a "polymorphic monotheism, i.e. a theology that recognizes many forms (ananta rupa) of the one, single unitary divinity," since there are many forms of one original deity, with Vishnu taking many forms. Okita, in contrast, states that the different denominations within Vaishnavism are best described as theism, pantheism and panentheism.


title: Vaishnavism

text: The Vaishnava sampradaya started by Madhvacharya is a monotheistic tradition wherein Vishnu (Krishna) is omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent. In contrast, Sri Vaishnavism sampradaya associated with Ramanuja has monotheistic elements, but differs in several ways, such as goddess Lakshmi and god Vishnu are considered as inseparable equal divinities. According to some scholars, Sri Vaishnavism emphasizes panentheism, and not monotheism, with its theology of "transcendence and immanence", where God interpenetrates everything in the universe, and all of empirical reality is God's body. The Vaishnava sampradaya associated with Vallabhacharya is a form of pantheism, in contrast to the other Vaishnavism traditions. The Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition of Chaitanya, states Schweig, is closer to a polymorphic bi-monotheism because both goddess Radha and god Krishna are simultaneously supreme.


title: Vaishnavism

text: Vaishnavism precepts include the avatar (incarnation) doctrine, wherein Vishnu incarnates numerous times, in different forms, to set things right and bring back the balance in the universe. These avatars include Narayana, Vasudeva, Rama and Krishna; each the name of a divine figure with attributed supremacy, which each associated tradition of Vaishnavism believes to be distinct.


title: Vaishnavism

text: The term "Krishnaism" () has been used to describe a large group of independent traditions-sampradayas within Vaishnavism regarded Krishna as the Supreme God, while "Vishnuism" may be used for sects focusing on Vishnu in which Krishna is an Avatar, rather than a transcended Supreme Being. Vishnuism believes in Vishnu as the supreme being. When all other Vaishnavas recognise Krishna as one of Vishnu's avatars, though only the Krishnites identify the Supreme Being (Svayam Bhagavan, Brahman, a source of the Tridev) with Lord Krishna and his forms (Radha Krishna, Vithoba and others), those manifested themselves as Vishnu. This is its difference from such groups as Ramaism, Radhaism, Sitaism, etc. As such Krishnaism is believed to be one of the early attempts to make philosophical Hinduism appealing to the masses. In common language the term Krishnaism is not often used, as many prefer a wider term "Vaishnavism", which appeared to relate to Vishnu, more specifically as Vishnu-ism.


title: Vaishnavism

text: In Vishnu-centered sects Vishnu or Narayana is the one supreme God. The belief in the supremacy of Vishnu is based upon the many avatars (incarnations) of Vishnu listed in the Puranic texts, which differs from other Hindu deities such as Ganesha, Surya or Durga.


title: Vaishnavism

text: To the devotees of the Srivaishnava Sampradaya "Lord Vishnu is the Supreme Being and the foundation of all existence."


title: Vaishnavism

text: In the Krishnaism group of independent traditions of Vaishnavism, such as the Nimbarka Sampradaya (the first Krishnaite Sampradaya developed by Nimbarka c. 7th century CE), Ekasarana Dharma, Gaudiya Vaishnavism, Mahanubhava, Rudra Sampradaya (Pushtimarg), Vaishnava-Sahajiya and Warkari, devotees worship Krishna as the One Supreme form of God, and source of all avatars, Svayam Bhagavan.


title: Vaishnavism

text: Krishnaism is often also called Bhagavatism—perhaps the earliest Krishnite movement was Bhagavatism with Krishna-Vasudeva (about 2nd century BCE)—after the Bhagavata Purana which asserts that Krishna is "Bhagavan Himself," and subordinates to itself all other forms: Vishnu, Narayana, Purusha, Ishvara, Hari, Vasudeva, Janardana etc.


title: Vaishnavism

text: Krishna is often described as having the appearance of a dark-skinned person and is depicted as a young cowherd boy playing a flute or as a youthful prince giving philosophical direction and guidance, as in the Bhagavad Gita.


title: Vaishnavism

text: Krishna is also worshiped across many other traditions of Hinduism, and Krishna and the stories associated with him appear across a broad spectrum of different Hindu philosophical and theological traditions, where it is believed that God appears to his devoted worshippers in many different forms, depending on their particular desires. These forms include the different "avataras" of Krishna described in traditional Vaishnava texts, but they are not limited to these. Indeed, it is said that the different expansions of the Svayam bhagavan are uncountable and they cannot be fully described in the finite scriptures of any one religious community. Many of the Hindu scriptures sometimes differ in details reflecting the concerns of a particular tradition, while some core features of the view on Krishna are shared by all.


title: Vaishnavism

text: "Radha Krishna" is the combination of both the feminine as well as the masculine aspects of God. Krishna is often referred as "Svayam bhagavan" in Gaudiya Vaishnavism theology and Radha is Krishna's internal potency and supreme beloved. With Krishna, Radha is acknowledged as the supreme goddess, for it is said that she controls Krishna with her love. It is believed that Krishna enchants the world, but Radha enchants even him. Therefore, she is the supreme goddess of all. Radha and Krishna are avatars of Lakshmi and Vishnu respectively.


title: Vaishnavism

text: While there are much earlier references to the worship of this form of God, it is since Jayadeva Goswami wrote a famous poem "Gita Govinda" in the twelfth century CE, that the topic of the spiritual love affair between the divine Krishna and his consort Radha, became a theme celebrated throughout India. It is believed that Krishna has left the "circle" of the rasa dance to search for Radha. The Chaitanya school believes that the name and identity of Radha are both revealed and concealed in the verse describing this incident in Bhagavata Purana. It is also believed that Radha is not just one cowherd maiden, but is the origin of all the gopis, or divine personalities that participate in the rasa dance.


title: Vaishnavism

text: According to The Bhagavata Purana, there are twenty-two avatars of Vishnu, including Rama and Krishna. The Dashavatara is a later concept.


title: Vaishnavism

text: The Pancaratrins follow the "vyuha"s doctrine, which says that God has four manifestations ("vyuha"s), namely Vasudeva, Samkarsana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha. These four manifestations represent "the Highest Self, the individual self, mind, and egoism."


title: Vaishnavism

text: Vaishnavism theology has developed the concept of avatar (incarnation) around Vishnu as the preserver or sustainer. His avataras, asserts Vaishnavism, descend to empower the good and fight evil, thereby restoring Dharma. This is reflected in the passages of the ancient Bhagavad Gita as:


title: Vaishnavism

text: In Vaishnava theology, such as is presented in the "Bhagavata Purana" and the "Pancaratra", whenever the cosmos is in crisis, typically because the evil has grown stronger and has thrown the cosmos out of its balance, an avatar of Vishnu appears in a material form, to destroy evil and its sources, and restore the cosmic balance between the everpresent forces of good and evil. The most known and celebrated avatars of Vishnu, within the Vaishnavism traditions of Hinduism, are Krishna, Rama, Narayana and Vasudeva. These names have extensive literature associated with them, each has its own characteristics, legends and associated arts. The "Mahabharata", for example, includes Krishna, while the "Ramayana" includes Rama.


title: Vaishnavism

text: The Vedas, the Upanishads, the "Bhagavad Gita" and the Agamas are the scriptural sources of Vaishnavism, while the Bhagavata Purana is a revered and celebrates popular text, parts of which a few scholars such as Dominic Goodall include as a scripture. Other important texts in the tradition include the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, as well as texts by various "sampradayas" (denominations within Vaishnavism). In many Vaishnava traditions, Krishna is accepted as a teacher, whose teachings are in the "Bhagavad Gita" and the "Bhagavata Purana".


title: Vaishnavism

text: Vaishnavism, just like all Hindu traditions, considers the Vedas as the scriptural authority. All traditions within Vaishnavism consider the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads embedded within the four Vedas as Sruti, while Smritis, which include all the epics, the Puranas and its Samhitas, states Mariasusai Dhavamony, are considered as "exegetical or expository literature" of the Vedic texts.


title: Vaishnavism

text: The Vedanta schools of Hindu philosophy, that interpreted the Upanishads and the "Brahma Sutra", provided the philosophical foundations of Vaishnavism. Given the ancient archaic language of the Vedic texts, each school's interpretation varied, and this has been the source of differences between the "sampradayas" (denominations) of Vaishnavism. These interpretations have created different traditions within Vaishnavism, from dualistic ("Dvaita") Vedanta of Madhvacharya, to nondualistic ("Advaita") Vedanta of Madhusudana Sarasvati.


title: Vaishnavism

text: Along with the reverence and exegetical analysis of the ancient Principal Upanishads, Vaishnava-inspired scholars authored 14 Vishnu avatar-focussed Upanishads that are called the Vaishnava Upanishads. These are considered part of 95 minor Upanishads in the Muktikā Upanishadic corpus of Hindu literature. The earliest among these were likely composed in 1st millennium BCE, while the last ones in the late medieval era.


title: Vaishnavism

text: All of the Vaishnava Upanishads either directly reference and quote from the ancient Principal Upanishads or incorporate some ideas found in them; most cited texts include the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chandogya Upanishad, Katha Upanishad, Isha Upanishad, Mundaka Upanishad, Taittiriya Upanishad and others. In some cases, they cite fragments from the Brahmana and Aranyaka layers of the Rigveda and the Yajurveda.


title: Vaishnavism

text: The Vaishnava Upanishads present diverse ideas, ranging from bhakti-style theistic themes to a synthesis of Vaishnava ideas with Advaitic, Yoga, Shaiva and Shakti themes.