title: Cold fusion

text: On 22–25 March 2009, the American Chemical Society meeting included a four-day symposium in conjunction with the 20th anniversary of the announcement of cold fusion. Researchers working at the U.S. Navy's Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center (SPAWAR) reported detection of energetic neutrons using a heavy water electrolysis setup and a CR-39 detector, a result previously published in "Naturwissenschaften". The authors claim that these neutrons are indicative of nuclear reactions. Without quantitative analysis of the number, energy, and timing of the neutrons and exclusion of other potential sources, this interpretation is unlikely to find acceptance by the wider scientific community.


title: Cold fusion

text: Although details have not surfaced, it appears that the University of Utah forced the 23 March 1989 Fleischmann and Pons announcement to establish priority over the discovery and its patents before the joint publication with Jones. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) announced on 12 April 1989 that it had applied for its own patents based on theoretical work of one of its researchers, Peter L. Hagelstein, who had been sending papers to journals from 5 to 12 April. On 2 December 1993 the University of Utah licensed all its cold fusion patents to ENECO, a new company created to profit from cold fusion discoveries, and in March 1998 it said that it would no longer defend its patents.


title: Cold fusion

text: The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) now rejects patents claiming cold fusion. Esther Kepplinger, the deputy commissioner of patents in 2004, said that this was done using the same argument as with perpetual motion machines: that they do not work. Patent applications are required to show that the invention is "useful", and this utility is dependent on the invention's ability to function. In general USPTO rejections on the sole grounds of the invention's being "inoperative" are rare, since such rejections need to demonstrate "proof of total incapacity", and cases where those rejections are upheld in a Federal Court are even rarer: nevertheless, in 2000, a rejection of a cold fusion patent was appealed in a Federal Court and it was upheld, in part on the grounds that the inventor was unable to establish the utility of the invention.


title: Cold fusion

text: A U.S. patent might still be granted when given a different name to disassociate it from cold fusion, though this strategy has had little success in the US: the same claims that need to be patented can identify it with cold fusion, and most of these patents cannot avoid mentioning Fleischmann and Pons' research due to legal constraints, thus alerting the patent reviewer that it is a cold-fusion-related patent. David Voss said in 1999 that some patents that closely resemble cold fusion processes, and that use materials used in cold fusion, have been granted by the USPTO. The inventor of three such patents had his applications initially rejected when they were reviewed by experts in nuclear science; but then he rewrote the patents to focus more on the electrochemical parts so they would be reviewed instead by experts in electrochemistry, who approved them. When asked about the resemblance to cold fusion, the patent holder said that it used nuclear processes involving "new nuclear physics" unrelated to cold fusion. Melvin Miles was granted in 2004 a patent for a cold fusion device, and in 2007 he described his efforts to remove all instances of "cold fusion" from the patent description to avoid having it rejected outright.


title: Cold fusion

text: A patent only legally prevents others from using or benefiting from one's invention. However, the general public perceives a patent as a stamp of approval, and a holder of three cold fusion patents said the patents were very valuable and had helped in getting investments.


title: Cold fusion

text: A 1990 Michael Winner film "Bullseye!", starring Michael Caine and Roger Moore, referenced the Fleischmann and Pons experiment. The film – a comedy – concerned conmen trying to steal scientists' purported findings. However, the film had a poor reception, described as "appallingly unfunny".


title: Cold fusion

text: In "Undead Science", sociologist Bart Simon gives some examples of cold fusion in popular culture, saying that some scientists use cold fusion as a synonym for outrageous claims made with no supporting proof, and courses of ethics in science give it as an example of pathological science. It has appeared as a joke in "Murphy Brown" and "The Simpsons". It was adopted as a software product name Adobe ColdFusion and a brand of protein bars (Cold Fusion Foods). It has also appeared in advertising as a synonym for impossible science, for example a 1995 advertisement for Pepsi Max.


title: Cold fusion

text: The plot of "The Saint", a 1997 action-adventure film, parallels the story of Fleischmann and Pons, although with a different ending. The film might have affected the public perception of cold fusion, pushing it further into the science fiction realm.


title: Cold fusion

text: In the "Legends of Tomorrow" episode "No Country for Old Dads", Ray Palmer theorizes that cold fusion could repair the shattered Fire Totem, if it wasn't only theoretical.


title: Cold fusion

text: In Series 8 Episode 7 of New Tricks, The Gentleman Vanishes, cold fusion is a topic of the investigation the UCOS team does in that episode.


title: Imaginary number

text: An imaginary number is a real number multiplied by the imaginary unit , which is defined by its property . The square of an imaginary number is . For example, is an imaginary number, and its square is . By definition, zero is considered to be both real and imaginary.


title: Imaginary number

text: Originally coined in the 17th century by René Descartes as a derogatory term and regarded as fictitious or useless, the concept gained wide acceptance following the work of Leonhard Euler (in the 18th century) and Augustin-Louis Cauchy and Carl Friedrich Gauss (in the early 19th century).


title: Imaginary number

text: An imaginary number can be added to a real number to form a complex number of the form , where the real numbers and are called, respectively, the "real part" and the "imaginary part" of the complex number.


title: Imaginary number

text: Although the Greek mathematician and engineer Hero of Alexandria is noted as the first to present a calculation involving the square root of a negative number, it was Rafael Bombelli who first set down the rules for multiplication of complex numbers in 1572. The concept had appeared in print earlier, such as in work by Gerolamo Cardano. At the time, imaginary numbers and negative numbers were poorly understood and were regarded by some as fictitious or useless, much as zero once was. Many other mathematicians were slow to adopt the use of imaginary numbers, including René Descartes, who wrote about them in his "La Géométrie" in which he coined the term "imaginary" and meant it to be derogatory. The use of imaginary numbers was not widely accepted until the work of Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) and Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855). The geometric significance of complex numbers as points in a plane was first described by Caspar Wessel (1745–1818).


title: Imaginary number

text: In 1843, William Rowan Hamilton extended the idea of an axis of imaginary numbers in the plane to a four-dimensional space of quaternion imaginaries in which three of the dimensions are analogous to the imaginary numbers in the complex field.


title: Imaginary number

text: Geometrically, imaginary numbers are found on the vertical axis of the complex number plane, which allows them to be presented perpendicular to the real axis. One way of viewing imaginary numbers is to consider a standard number line positively increasing in magnitude to the right and negatively increasing in magnitude to the left. At 0 on the -axis, a -axis can be drawn with "positive" direction going up; "positive" imaginary numbers then increase in magnitude upwards, and "negative" imaginary numbers increase in magnitude downwards. This vertical axis is often called the "imaginary axis" and is denoted formula_1 formula_2 or .


title: Imaginary number

text: In this representation, multiplication by  corresponds to a rotation of 180 degrees about the origin, which is a half circle. Multiplication by  corresponds to a rotation of 90 degrees about the origin which is a quarter of a circle. Both these numbers are roots of formula_3: formula_4, formula_5. In the field of complex numbers, for every formula_6, formula_3 has formula_8 th roots formula_9, meaning formula_10, called roots of unity. Multiplying by the first formula_8th root of unity causes a rotation of formula_12 degrees about the origin.


title: Imaginary number

text: Multiplying by a complex number is the same as rotating around the origin by the complex number's argument, followed by a scaling by its magnitude.


title: Imaginary number

text: Care must be used when working with imaginary numbers that are expressed as the principal values of the square roots of negative numbers:


title: Imaginary number

text: The fallacy occurs as the equality formula_15 fails when the variables are not suitably constrained. In that case, the equality fails to hold as the numbers are both negative, which can be demonstrated by:


title: Monarch

text: A monarch is a head of state for life or until abdication, and therefore the head of state of a monarchy. A monarch may exercise the highest authority and power in the state, or others may wield that power on behalf of the monarch. Usually a monarch either personally inherits the lawful right to exercise the state's sovereign rights (often referred to as "the throne" or "the crown") or is selected by an established process from a family or cohort eligible to provide the nation's monarch. Alternatively, an individual may proclaim themself monarch, which may be backed and legitimated through acclamation, right of conquest or a combination of means.


title: Monarch

text: If a young child is crowned the monarch, then a regent is often appointed to govern until the monarch reaches the requisite adult age to rule. Monarchs' actual powers vary from one monarchy to another and in different eras; on one extreme, they may be autocrats (absolute monarchy) wielding genuine sovereignty; on the other they may be ceremonial heads of state who exercise little or no direct power or only reserve powers, with actual authority vested in a parliament or other body (constitutional monarchy).


title: Monarch

text: A monarch can reign in multiple monarchies simultaneously. For example, the monarchy of Canada and the monarchy of the United Kingdom (as well as 14 other Commonwealth realms) are separate states, but they share the same monarch through personal union.


title: Monarch

text: Monarchs, as such, bear a variety of titles – king or queen, prince or princess (e.g., Sovereign Prince of Monaco), emperor or empress (e.g., Emperor of China, Emperor of Ethiopia, Emperor of Japan, Emperor of India), archduke, duke or grand duke (e.g., Grand Duke of Luxembourg), emir (e.g., Emir of Qatar), sultan (e.g., Sultan of Oman), or pharaoh.


title: Monarch

text: Monarchy is political or sociocultural in nature, and is generally (but not always) associated with hereditary rule. Most monarchs, both historically and in the present day, have been born and brought up within a royal family (whose rule over a period of time is referred to as a dynasty) and trained for future duties. Different systems of succession have been used, such as proximity of blood (male preference or absolute), primogeniture, agnatic seniority, Salic law, etc. While traditionally most monarchs have been male, female monarchs have also ruled, and the term queen regnant refers to a ruling monarch, as distinct from a queen consort, the wife of a reigning king.


title: Monarch

text: Some monarchies are non-hereditary. In an elective monarchy, the monarch is elected but otherwise serves as any other monarch. Historical examples of elective monarchy include the Holy Roman Emperors (chosen by prince-electors, but often coming from the same dynasty) and the free election of kings of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Modern examples include the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (lit. ‘He Who is Made Lord') of Malaysia, who is appointed by the Conference of Rulers every five years or after the king's death, and the pope of the Roman Catholic Church, who serves as sovereign of the Vatican City State and is elected to a life term by the College of Cardinals.


title: Monarch

text: In recent centuries, many states have abolished the monarchy and become republics. Advocacy of government by a republic is called republicanism, while advocacy of monarchy is called monarchism. A principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the immediate continuity of national leadership, as illustrated in the classic phrase "The [old] King is dead. Long live the [new] King!". In cases where the monarch serves mostly as a ceremonial figure (e.g., most modern constitutional monarchies), real leadership does not depend on the monarch.


title: Monarch

text: A form of government may, in fact, be hereditary without being considered a monarchy, such as a family dictatorship.


title: Monarch

text: Monarchies take a wide variety of forms, such as the two co-princes of Andorra, positions held simultaneously by the Roman Catholic bishop of Urgel (Spain) and the elected president of France (although strictly Andorra is a diarchy). Similarly, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia is considered a monarch despite only holding the position for five years at a time.


title: Monarch

text: Hereditary succession within one patrilineal family has been most common (but see the Rain Queen), with a preference for children over siblings, and sons over daughters. In Europe, some peoples practiced equal division of land and regalian rights among sons or brothers, as in the Germanic states of the Holy Roman Empire, until after the medieval era and sometimes (e.g., Ernestine duchies) into the 19th century. Other European realms practiced one or another form of primogeniture, in which a lord was succeeded by his eldest son or, if he had none, by his brother, his daughters or sons of daughters.


title: Monarch

text: The system of tanistry practiced among Celtic tribes was semi-elective and gave weight also to ability and merit.


title: Monarch

text: The Salic law, practiced in France and in the Italian territories of the House of Savoy, stipulated that only men could inherit the crown. In most fiefs, in the event of the demise of all legitimate male members of the patrilineage, a female of the family could succeed (semi-Salic law). In most realms, daughters and sisters were eligible to succeed a ruling kinsman before more distant male relatives (male-preference primogeniture), but sometimes the husband of the heiress became the ruler, and most often also received the title, "jure uxoris". Spain today continues this model of succession law, in the form of cognatic primogeniture. In more complex medieval cases, the sometimes conflicting principles of proximity and primogeniture battled, and outcomes were often idiosyncratic.


title: Monarch

text: As the average life span increased, the eldest son was more likely to reach majority age before the death of his father, and primogeniture became increasingly favored over proximity, tanistry, seniority, and election.


title: Monarch

text: In 1980, Sweden became the first monarchy to declare "equal primogeniture", "absolute primogeniture" or "full cognatic primogeniture", meaning that the eldest child of the monarch, whether female or male, ascends to the throne. Other nations have since adopted this practice: Netherlands in 1983, Norway in 1990, Belgium in 1991, Denmark in 2009, and Luxembourg in 2011. The United Kingdom adopted absolute (equal) primogeniture on April 25, 2013, following agreement by the prime ministers of the sixteen Commonwealth Realms at the 22nd Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting.


title: Monarch

text: In some monarchies, such as Saudi Arabia, succession to the throne usually first passes to the monarch's next eldest brother and so on through his other brothers, and only after them to the monarch's children ("agnatic seniority"). In some other monarchies (e.g., Jordan), the monarch chooses who will be his successor within the royal family, who need not necessarily be his eldest son.


title: Monarch

text: Whatever the rules of succession, there have been many cases of a monarch being overthrown and replaced by a usurper who would often install his own family on the throne.


title: Monarch

text: A series of Pharaohs ruled Ancient Egypt over the course of three millennia ( to 31 BC) until it was conquered by the Roman Empire. In the same time period several kingdoms flourished in the nearby Nubia region, with at least one of them, that of the so-called A-Group culture, apparently influencing the customs of Egypt itself. From the 6th to 19th centuries, Egypt was variously part of the Byzantine Empire, Islamic Empire, Mamluk Sultanate, Ottoman Empire and British Empire with a distant monarch. The Sultanate of Egypt was a short-lived protectorate of the United Kingdom from 1914 until 1922 when it became the Kingdom of Egypt and Sultan Fuad I changed his title to King. After the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, the monarchy was dissolved and Egypt became a republic.


title: Monarch

text: West Africa hosted the Kanem Empire (700–1376) and its successor, the Bornu principality which survives to the present day as one of the traditional states of Nigeria.


title: Monarch

text: In the Horn of Africa, the Kingdom of Aksum and later the Zagwe dynasty, Ethiopian Empire (1270–1974), and Aussa Sultanate were ruled by a series of monarchs. Haile Selassie, the last Emperor of Ethiopia, was deposed in a communist coup. Various Somali Sultanates also existed, including the Adal Sultanate (led by the Walashma dynasty of the Ifat Sultanate), Sultanate of Mogadishu, Ajuran Sultanate, Warsangali Sultanate, Geledi Sultanate, Majeerteen Sultanate and Sultanate of Hobyo.


title: Monarch

text: Central and Southern Africa were largely isolated from other regions until the modern era, but they did later feature kingdoms like the Kingdom of Kongo (1400–1914).


title: Monarch

text: The Zulu people formed a powerful Zulu Kingdom in 1816, one that was subsequently absorbed into the Colony of Natal in 1897. The Zulu king continues to hold a hereditary title and an influential cultural position in contemporary South Africa, although he has no direct political power. Other tribes in the country, such as the Xhosa and the Tswana, have also had and continue to have a series of kings and chiefs (namely the "Inkosis" and the "Kgosis") whose local precedence is recognised, but who exercise no legal authority.


title: Monarch

text: As part of the Scramble for Africa, Europeans conquered, bought, or established African kingdoms and styled themselves as monarchs due to them.


title: Monarch

text: Currently, the African nations of Morocco, Lesotho, and Eswatini (Swaziland) are sovereign monarchies under dynasties that are native to the continent. Places like St. Helena, Ceuta, Melilla and the Canary Islands are ruled by the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland or the King of Spain. So-called "sub-national monarchies" of varying sizes can be found all over the rest of the continent, e.g., the Yoruba city-state of Akure in south-western Nigeria is something of an elective monarchy: its reigning Oba, the "Deji", has to be chosen by an electoral college of nobles from amongst a finite collection of royal princes of the realm upon the death or removal of an incumbent.


title: Monarch

text: Within the Holy Roman Empire different titles were used by nobles exercising various degrees of sovereignty within their borders (see below). Such titles were granted or recognised by the Emperor or Pope. Adoption of a new title to indicate sovereign or semi-sovereign status was not always recognized by other governments or nations, sometimes causing diplomatic problems.


title: Monarch

text: During the nineteenth century, many small monarchies in Europe merged with other territories to form larger entities, and following World War I and World War II, many monarchies were abolished, but of those remaining, all except Luxembourg, Liechtenstein, Andorra, Vatican City, and Monaco were headed by a king or queen.


title: Monarch

text: , in Europe there are twelve monarchies: seven kingdoms (Belgium, Denmark, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom), one grand duchy (Luxembourg), one papacy (Vatican City), and two principalities (Liechtenstein and Monaco), as well as one diarchy principality (Andorra).


title: Monarch

text: In China, before the abolition of the monarchy in 1912, the Emperor of China was traditionally regarded as the ruler of "All under heaven". "King" is the usual translation for the term (), the sovereign before the Qin dynasty and during the Ten Kingdoms period. During the early Han dynasty, China had a number of kingdoms, each about the size of a province and subordinate to the Emperor.


title: Monarch

text: In Korea, (great king), or (king), was a Chinese royal style used in many states rising from the dissolution of Gojoseon, Buyeo, Goguryeo, Baekje, Silla and Balhae, Goryeo, Joseon. The legendary Dangun Wanggeom founded the first kingdom, Gojoseon. Some scholars maintain that the term also refers to a title used by all rulers of Gojoseon and that is the proper name of the founder. (1675) describes The Annals of the as a collection of nationalistic legends. The monarchs of Goguryeo and some monarchs of Silla used the title , meaning "Greatest King". The early monarchs of Silla used the titles of , , , and finally until 503. The title (prince) can refer to the dethroned rulers of the Joseon dynasty as well. Under the Korean Empire (1897–1910), the rulers of Korea were given the title of , meaning the "Emperor". Today, Members of the Korean Imperial family continue to participate in numerous traditional ceremonies, and groups exist to preserve Korea's imperial heritage.


title: Monarch

text: In modern history, between 1925 and 1979, Iran was ruled by two Emperors from the Pahlavi dynasty that used the title of "Shahanshah" (or "King of Kings"). The last Iranian Shahanshah was King Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who was forced to abdicate the throne as a result of a revolution in Iran. In fact the Persian (Iranian) kingdom goes back to about 2,700 BC (see list of Kings of Persia), but reached its ultimate height and glory when King Cyrus the Great (known as "The Great Kourosh" in Iran) started the Achaemenid dynasty. Under his rule, the empire embraced all the previous civilized states of the ancient Near East, expanded vastly and eventually conquered most of Southwest Asia and much of Central Asia and the Caucasus. From the Mediterranean Sea and Hellespont in the west to the Indus River in the east, Cyrus the Great created the largest empire the world had yet seen.


title: Monarch

text: Thailand and Bhutan are like the United Kingdom in that they are constitutional monarchies ruled by a King. Jordan and many other Middle Eastern monarchies are ruled by a Malik and parts of the United Arab Emirates, such as Dubai, are still ruled by monarchs.


title: Monarch

text: Saudi Arabia is the largest Arab state in Western Asia by land area and the second-largest in the Arab world (after Algeria). It was founded by Abdul-Aziz bin Saud in 1932, although the conquests which eventually led to the creation of the Kingdom began in 1902 when he captured Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud; succession to the throne was limited to sons of Ibn Saud until 2015, when a grandson was elevated to Crown Prince. The Saudi Arabian government has been an absolute monarchy since its inception, and designates itself as Islamic. The King bears the title "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques" in reference to the two holiest places in Islam: Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, and Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina.


title: Monarch

text: Oman is led by Sultan Haitham bin Tariq Al Said. The Kingdom of Jordan is one of the Middle East's more modern monarchies is also ruled by a Malik. In Arab and Arabized countries, Malik (absolute King) is the absolute word to render a monarch and is superior to all other titles. Nepal abolished their monarchy in 2008. Sri Lanka had a complex system of monarchies from 543 BC to 1815. Between 47–42 BC, Anula of Sri Lanka became the country's first female head of state as well as Asia's first head of state.


title: Monarch

text: In Malaysia's constitutional monarchy, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (the Supreme Lord of the Federation) is "de facto" rotated every five years among the nine Rulers of the Malay states of Malaysia (those nine of the thirteen states of Malaysia that have hereditary royal rulers), elected by "Majlis Raja-Raja" (Conference of Rulers).


title: Monarch

text: Under Brunei's 1959 constitution, the Sultan of Brunei is the head of state with full executive authority, including emergency powers, since 1962. The Prime Minister of Brunei is a title held by the Sultan. As the prime minister, the Sultan presides over the cabinet.


title: Monarch

text: Cambodia has been a kingdom since the 1st century. The power of the absolute monarchy was reduced when it became the French Protectorate of Cambodia from 1863 to 1953. It returned to an absolute monarchy from 1953 until the establishment of a republic following the 1970 coup. The monarchy was restored as a constitutional monarchy in 1993 with the king as a largely symbolic figurehead.


title: Monarch

text: In the Philippines, the pre-Colonial Filipino nobility, variously titled the "harì" (today meaning "king"), "Lakan", "Raja" and "Datu" belonged to the caste called "Uring Maharlika" (Noble Class). When the islands were annexed to the Spanish Empire in the late 16th century, the Spanish monarch became the sovereign while local rulers often retained their prestige as part of the Christianised nobility called the "Principalía". After the Spanish–American War, the country was ceded to the United States of America and made into a territory and eventually a Commonwealth, thus ending monarchism. While the Philippines is currently a republic, the Sultan of Sulu and Sultan of Maguindanao retain their titles only for ceremonial purposes but are considered ordinary citizens by the 1987 Constitution.


title: Monarch

text: Bhutan has been an independent kingdom since 1907. The first Druk Gyalpo ("Dragon King") was elected and thereafter became a hereditary absolute monarchy. It became a constitutional monarchy in 2008.


title: Monarch

text: Tibet was a monarchy since the Tibetan Empire in the 6th century. It was ruled by the Yuan dynasty following the Mongol invasion in the 13th century and became an effective diarchy with the Dalai Lama as co-ruler. It came under the rule of the Chinese Qing dynasty from 1724 until 1912 when it gained de facto independence. The Dalai Lama became an absolute temporal monarch until the annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China in 1951.


title: Monarch

text: The concept of monarchy existed in the Americas long before the arrival of European colonialists. When the Europeans arrived they referred to these tracts of land within territories of different aboriginal groups to be kingdoms, and the leaders of these groups were often referred to by the Europeans as Kings, particularly hereditary leaders.


title: Monarch

text: The first local monarch to emerge in North America after colonization was Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who declared himself Emperor of Haiti on September 22, 1804. Haiti again had an emperor, Faustin I from 1849 to 1859. In South America, Brazil had a royal house ruling as emperor between 1822 and 1889, under Emperors Pedro I and Pedro II.


title: Monarch

text: Between 1931 and 1983 nine other previous British colonies attained independence as kingdoms. All, including Canada, are in a personal union relationship under a shared monarch. Therefore, though today there are legally ten American monarchs, one person occupies each distinct position.


title: Monarch

text: In addition to these sovereign states, there are also a number of sub-national ones. In Bolivia, for example, the Afro-Bolivian king claims descent from an African dynasty that was taken from its homeland and sold into slavery. Though largely a ceremonial title today, the position of "king of the Afro-Bolivians" is officially recognized by the government of Bolivia.


title: Monarch

text: Polynesian societies were ruled by an "ariki" from ancient times. The title is variously translated as "supreme chief", "paramount chief" or "king".


title: Monarch

text: The Kingdom of Tahiti was founded in 1788. Sovereignty was ceded to France in 1880 although descendants of the Pōmare dynasty claim the title of King of Tahiti.


title: Monarch

text: An independent Kingdom of Rarotonga was established in 1858. It became a protectorate of the United Kingdom at its own request in 1893.


title: Monarch

text: Seru Epenisa Cakobau ruled the short-lived Kingdom of Fiji, a constitutional monarchy, from 1871 to 1874 when he voluntarily ceded sovereignty of the islands to the United Kingdom. After independence in 1970, the Dominion of Fiji retained the British monarch as head of state until it became a republic following a military coup in 1987.


title: Monarch

text: Australia, New Zealand (including the Cook Islands and Niue), Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu are sovereign states within the Commonwealth of Nations that currently have Charles III as their reigning constitutional monarch.


title: Monarch

text: The Pitcairn Islands are part of the British Overseas Territories with Charles III as the reigning constitutional monarch.


title: Monarch

text: Tonga is the only remaining sovereign kingdom in Oceania. It has had a monarch since the 10th century and became a constitutional monarchy in 1875. In 2008, King George Tupou V relinquished most of the powers of the monarchy and the position is now largely ceremonial.


title: Monarch

text: In New Zealand the position of Māori King was established in 1858. The role is largely cultural and ceremonial and has no legal power.


title: Monarch

text: Uvea, Alo and Sigave in the French territory of Wallis and Futuna have non-sovereign elective monarchs.


title: Monarch

text: The usage and meaning of a monarch's specific title have historically been defined by tradition, law and diplomatic considerations.


title: Monarch

text: Note that some titles borne by monarchs have several meanings and may not exclusively designate a monarch. A Prince may be a person of royal blood (some languages uphold this distinction, see Fürst). A Duke may belong to a peerage and hold a dukedom (title) but no duchy (territory). In Imperial Russia, a Grand Duke was a son or patrilineal grandson of the Tsar or Tsarina. Holders of titles in these alternative meanings did not enjoy the same status as monarchs of the same title.


title: Monarch

text: Within the Holy Roman Empire, there were numerous titles used by noblemen whose authority within their territory sometimes approached sovereignty, even though they acknowledged the Holy Roman Emperor as suzerain; Elector, Grand Duke, Margrave, Landgrave and Count Palatine, as well as secular princes like kings, dukes, princes and "princely counts" ("Gefürstete Grafen"), and ecclesiastical princes like Prince-Archbishops, Prince-Bishops and Prince-Abbots. A ruler with a title below emperor or king might still be regarded as a monarch, outranking a nobleman of the same ostensible title (e.g., Antoine, Duke of Lorraine, a reigning sovereign, and his younger brother, Claude, Duke of Guise, a nobleman in the peerage of France).


title: Monarch

text: The table below lists titles in approximate order of precedence. According to protocol any holder of a title indicating sovereignty took precedence over any non-sovereign titleholder.


title: Monarch

text: When a difference exists below, male titles are placed to the left and female titles are placed to the right of the slash.


title: Density of air

text: The density of air or atmospheric density, denoted "ρ", is the mass per unit volume of Earth's atmosphere. Air density, like air pressure, decreases with increasing altitude. It also changes with variation in atmospheric pressure, temperature and humidity. At 101.325 kPa (abs) and 20 °C (68 °F), air has a density of approximately , according to the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). At 101.325kPa (abs) and , air has a density of approximately , which is about that of water, according to the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). Pure liquid water is .


title: Density of air

text: Air density is a property used in many branches of science, engineering, and industry, including aeronautics; gravimetric analysis; the air-conditioning industry; atmospheric research and meteorology; agricultural engineering (modeling and tracking of Soil-Vegetation-Atmosphere-Transfer (SVAT) models); and the engineering community that deals with compressed air.


title: Density of air

text: Depending on the measuring instruments used, different sets of equations for the calculation of the density of air can be applied. Air is a mixture of gases and the calculations always simplify, to a greater or lesser extent, the properties of the mixture.


title: Density of air

text: Other things being equal, hotter air is less dense than cooler air and will thus rise through cooler air. This can be seen by using the ideal gas law as an approximation.


title: Density of air

text: The density of dry air can be calculated using the ideal gas law, expressed as a function of temperature and pressure:


title: Density of air

text: The addition of water vapor to air (making the air humid) reduces the density of the air, which may at first appear counter-intuitive. This occurs because the molar mass of water vapor (18g/mol) is less than the molar mass of dry air (around 29g/mol). For any ideal gas, at a given temperature and pressure, the number of molecules is constant for a particular volume (see Avogadro's Law). So when water molecules (water vapor) are added to a given volume of air, the dry air molecules must decrease by the same number, to keep the pressure or temperature from increasing. Hence the mass per unit volume of the gas (its density) decreases.


title: Density of air

text: The density of humid air may be calculated by treating it as a mixture of ideal gases. In this case, the partial pressure of water vapor is known as the vapor pressure. Using this method, error in the density calculation is less than 0.2% in the range of −10 °C to 50 °C. The density of humid air is found by:


title: Density of air

text: The vapor pressure of water may be calculated from the saturation vapor pressure and relative humidity. It is found by:


title: Density of air

text: The saturation vapor pressure of water at any given temperature is the vapor pressure when relative humidity is 100%. One formula is Tetens' equation from used to find the saturation vapor pressure is:


title: Density of air

text: To calculate the density of air as a function of altitude, one requires additional parameters. For the troposphere, the lowest part (~10 km) of the atmosphere, they are listed below, along with their values according to the International Standard Atmosphere, using for calculation the universal gas constant instead of the air specific constant:


title: Density of air

text: Temperature at altitude formula_36 meters above sea level is approximated by the following formula (only valid inside the troposphere, no more than ~18km above Earth's surface (and lower away from Equator)):


title: Density of air

text: As the temperature varies with height inside the troposphere by less than 25%, formula_47 and one may approximate:


title: Density of air

text: Which is identical to the isothermal solution, except that "H", the height scale of the exponential fall for density (as well as for number density n), is not equal to "RT"/"gM" as one would expect for an isothermal atmosphere, but rather:


title: Density of air

text: Note that for different gasses, the value of "H" differs, according to the molar mass "M": It is 10.9 for nitrogen, 9.2 for oxygen and 6.3 for carbon dioxide. The theoretical value for water vapor is 19.6, but due to vapor condensation the water vapor density dependence is highly variable and is not well approximated by this formula.


title: Density of air

text: Which is identical to the isothermal solution, with the same height scale . Note that the hydrostatic equation no longer holds for the exponential approximation (unless "L" is neglected).


title: Density of air

text: "H" is 8.4km, but for different gasses (measuring their partial pressure), it is again different and depends upon molar mass, giving 8.7 for nitrogen, 7.6 for oxygen and 5.6 for carbon dioxide.


title: Density of air

text: Further note that since g, Earth's gravitational acceleration, is approximately constant with altitude in the atmosphere, the pressure at height h is proportional to the integral of the density in the column above h, and therefore to the mass in the atmosphere above height h. Therefore the mass fraction of the troposphere out of all the atmosphere is given using the approximated formula for p:


title: Density of air

text: Higher than the troposphere, at the tropopause, the temperature is approximately constant with altitude (up to ~20km) and is 220K. This means that at this layer and , so that the exponential drop is faster, with for air (6.5 for nitrogen, 5.7 for oxygen and 4.2 for carbon dioxide). Both the pressure and density obey this law, so, denoting the height of the border between the troposphere and the tropopause as "U":


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: Giancarlo Cruz-Michael Stanton (born November 8, 1989), formerly known as Mike Stanton, is an American professional baseball designated hitter and outfielder for the New York Yankees of Major League Baseball (MLB). He made his MLB debut in 2010 as a member of the then-Florida Marlins, with whom he played until the end of the 2017 season. Stanton has twice led the National League (NL) in home runs; he hit 59 home runs in 2017, the most in 16 years. Known for his prodigious physical strength and ability to regularly hit long home runs, Stanton stands tall and weighs . He bats and throws right-handed.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: Stanton is originally from the Greater Los Angeles region. He graduated from Notre Dame High School in Sherman Oaks, Los Angeles, before the Marlins selected him in the second round of the 2007 MLB draft. In 2017, Stanton led MLB in home runs (59), runs batted in (RBI) (132), and slugging percentage (.631), winning the National League Most Valuable Player (MVP) Award. A five-time MLB All-Star, Stanton has twice won both the NL Hank Aaron Award and outfield Silver Slugger Award after leading the league in home runs. In November 2014, the Marlins signed Stanton to the richest total dollar value contract in team sports history at the time of the signing; the contract is worth $325 million over 13 years. Following the 2017 season, Stanton was traded to the New York Yankees.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: Stanton is mostly of Irish, African-American and Puerto Rican descent. His maternal great-great-grandmother was Puerto Rican. His parents, Mike Stanton and Jacinta Garay, have been divorced since Stanton was eight years old. He has a brother, Egidio "E.G." Carlos Moacir Garay, and a sister, Kyrice Valivia Stanton. He was raised in the Tujunga area of Los Angeles, and grew up a Los Angeles Dodgers fan.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: Stanton attended Verdugo Hills High School in Tujunga for two years. He transferred to Notre Dame High School in Sherman Oaks where he was a three-sport athlete. In addition to baseball and basketball, Stanton played wide receiver and cornerback for the football team. He had accepted a scholarship to play baseball for Tulane, and received offers from UCLA, UNLV and USC to play football.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: The Florida Marlins selected Stanton in the second round, with the 76th overall selection, in the 2007 MLB draft. Rather than enroll in college, Stanton signed with the Marlins, receiving a $475,000 signing bonus.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: Stanton began his professional career for the Gulf Coast League Marlins of the Rookie-level Gulf Coast League, but quickly advanced to the Jamestown Jammers of the Class A-Short Season New York–Penn League. After playing nine games for the Jammers, where he batted .067 on 2-for-30 hitting, he was promoted to the Greensboro Grasshoppers of the Class A South Atlantic League. With Greensboro, Stanton hit 39 home runs, on a .293 batting average with 97 RBI and a .993 OPS. Stanton received an invitation to the 2009 Marlins' spring training. He won numerous post-season awards for his performance in the 2008 minor league season, and was placed at number 16 on Baseball America's top 100 prospects list.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: Stanton began the 2009 season with the Jupiter Hammerheads of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League, where he batted .294 with 12 home runs and 39 RBI. This performance led to a promotion to the Jacksonville Suns of the Class AA Southern League. He was selected for the All-Star Futures Game. In the off-season, he was sent to the Arizona Fall League, for top MLB prospects. Before going down with an injury, he led the league with a .478 batting average. "Baseball America" declared him the number one prospect in the Marlins system, as well as being number 3 on John Manuel's of Baseball America, top 20 prospects in the minors.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: In 52 games with the Suns in 2010, Stanton batted .311 with 21 home runs, 52 RBI and a 1.167 OPS. He struck out just nine more times than he walked (44). After a series against the Mississippi Braves in early May, Mississippi manager Phil Wellman told "The Florida Times Union": "He looks like a 15-year-old playing on an 8-year-old's Little League team." On May 6, 2010, Stanton hit a home run against the Montgomery Biscuits that cleared the scoreboard in center field and traveled an estimated .


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: On June 6, 2010, the Florida Marlins announced that Stanton would be called up to the MLB, making his MLB debut on June 8. At 20 years, 212 days, he became the third youngest player in Marlins history, behind Édgar Rentería (19 years, 276 days) and Miguel Cabrera (20 years, 67 days). Stanton went 3-for-5 with two infield singles and scored twice in the debut.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: Stanton's first MLB home run was a grand slam off of Tampa Bay Rays pitcher Matt Garza. He joined Jeff Conine, Chuck Carr, Quilvio Veras, Craig Counsell and Jeremy Hermida on the list of Marlins whose first homer came with the bases loaded. In addition, Stanton became the fourth player in the past 25 years to hit his first career grand slam before his 21st birthday along with Jose Reyes (2003), Andruw Jones (1997) and Alex Rodriguez (1996). On August 11, 2010, against the Washington Nationals, Stanton went 5-for-5 with four RBI, two doubles and a home run. He became the second youngest player to collect five hits and four RBI in a game, and the youngest to do it since 1935 (Phil Cavarretta, who was 19 years and 33 days old with the Chicago Cubs on August 21, 1935). Stanton also is just the second Marlin with five hits and four RBI in the same game, joining Gary Sheffield, who did it on September 17, 1995, at Colorado.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: Stanton's favorite MLB at-bat came on September 6, 2010, against Roy Oswalt in Philadelphia. Stanton thought he had struck out on a foul tip, but the catcher dropped the ball. On the next pitch, he hit a 435-foot home run. "That (home run) I really liked, because that's what made me grow," Stanton said. "I thought I struck out; I was a little flustered. You learn that when something's over with, you move on. I did that pretty quick right there."


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: For his rookie season, Stanton's home runs averaged a distance of 399.6 feet with average speed of 104.3 MPH.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: He was named an outfielder on "Baseball America"'s 2010 All-Rookie Team. He was also named an outfielder on the 2010 Topps Major League Rookie All-Star Team.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: In 2011, Stanton battled through leg and eye injuries which kept him from being a consistent hitting threat in the Marlins lineup. He hit his first walk-off home run on July 6, 2011, against the Philadelphia Phillies. Stanton finished the 2011 season batting .262 with 34 home runs and 87 RBI in 516 at-bats. According to HitTrackerOnline, Stanton belted 15 no-doubt home runs, the most in the National League and second most in the major leagues behind José Bautista's 18. Stanton hit the longest home runs of the season by any player in 2011 at Citi Field (465 feet), Nationals Park (455 feet), Coors Field (475 feet), and Sun Life Stadium (466 feet). His average distance (416.6 feet) and off bat speed (107.4 MPH) made significant improvement in his sophomore season. Stanton finished 23rd in the National league MVP.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: At the end of the season, Stanton had 56 career home runs before his 22nd birthday (which was in November), which matched Alex Rodriguez and was behind only Ken Griffey Jr. among players in the past 40 seasons.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: On May 21, 2012, Stanton hit a grand slam off Jamie Moyer that traveled with an exit velocity of , the fastest since ESPN's Home Run Tracker began tracking. The ball made contact with a scoreboard in the outfield which resulted in the panels hit getting knocked out momentarily. Moyer had not given up a grand slam since 2004.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: On June 28, 2012, Stanton confirmed that he would play in the 2012 MLB All-Star Game and participate in the Home Run Derby. However, On July 7, Stanton left the game against the St. Louis Cardinals after experiencing knee soreness. The next day, Stanton had surgery on his knee and later missed both of the events. He was placed on the 15-day disabled list on July 14. On August 17, Stanton hit a 494-foot home run at Coors Field. The home run was his sixth home run at Coors Field, in as many games, dating back to 2011. The home run was the longest in MLB since 2009.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: Stanton finished the 2012 season with career highs in home runs (37; second in the National League, behind only Ryan Braun), batting average (.290), on-base percentage (.361), and slugging percentage (.608) which led all of MLB. He was third in the NL in on-base plus slugging percentage (.969; behind Braun and Joey Votto).


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: According to HitTrackerOnline, Stanton belted 11 no-doubt home runs, the most in the National League and sixth most in the major leagues. Stanton hit the longest home runs of the season at Coors Field (494 feet) for 2nd straight season, and Marlins Park (462 feet). His average distance (413 feet) and off bat speed (107.2 MPH) remained on-par with his 2011 campaign.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: After having a career best .290 batting average, 37 home runs and .608 slugging percentage, Stanton had a good feeling coming into the 2013 season from spring training and participating in the WBC team USA. On April 27, 2013, Stanton opened up with his first homer of the season, putting it over the scoreboard he hit last season off Jamie Moyer, and traveling an estimated 472 feet. Stanton was put on the 15-day disabled list three days later due to a grade 2 hamstring injury. He was re-activated on June 10, 2013.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: Missing six weeks, about 1/4 of the season, Stanton worked hard to regain his form. With only 116 games played he was not able put up equivalent numbers: for 425 at-bats he had a .249 average with 106 hits, 62 RBI and 24 home runs by season's end. Stanton was able to hit a milestone marker in his career. In a June 17, 2013 victory, Stanton hit two long home runs, one off former closer Heath Bell to take the lead. They were his 99th and 100th career home runs, making him the 9th fastest player to hit 100 career home runs. On the last day of the regular season against the Detroit Tigers, Stanton scored the winning run on a wild pitch to complete Henderson Álvarez's no-hitter.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: On April 18, Stanton hit a walk-off grand slam home run against the Seattle Mariners. Against the San Diego Padres, Stanton hit what was estimated to be the longest home run in Marlins Park history. Stanton hit his 154th career home run with the Marlins, tying the franchise career record with Dan Uggla. On September 11, Stanton was hit by a pitch in the face by Milwaukee Brewers pitcher Mike Fiers, and was at first expected to resume play, but subsequent examination determined the injury was more serious. The impact resulted in multiple facial fractures, lacerations, and dental damage. On September 17, the Marlins announced that Stanton would not play the last two weeks of the 2014 season. In 145 games, Stanton batted .288 with 37 home runs, 105 RBI, 94 walks (24 intentional), a .555 slugging percentage, and a .950 OPS. He finished second in MVP voting to winner Clayton Kershaw.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: On November 17, 2014, the Marlins and Stanton agreed to a 13-year, $325 million extension, the most lucrative contract in sports history. The deal included a no-trade clause and Stanton could opt out of the contract after he turns 30.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: On April 16, Stanton hit his 155th career home run, surpassing Dan Uggla to become the Marlins all-time home run leader. On May 12, Stanton hit a 467-foot home run which cleared the left field stands at Dodger Stadium. It was the third-longest home run of the season at that point and the fifth ever hit out of Dodger Stadium. On May 15, 2015, Stanton hit a 474-foot line drive to center field which landed in the camera well in Marlins Park. It was the second longest home run of the season at that time, pushing his out of the stadium homer to number 4. On May 30, Stanton hit a 466-foot home run, the longest in Citi Field history. In June he had a strong batting average, but on June 26, he broke the hamate bone in his left wrist in a ninth-inning at-bat.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: At the time of his season-ending hand injury in June, Stanton had played only 74 games but hit 27 home runs, with a batting average of .265. His batted balls had the highest average exit velocity of the season in the major leagues, at 96.0 miles per hour. He also hit the ball with the highest exit velocity in the major league all season, at 120.3 miles per hour.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: On April 26, Stanton hit a three-run home run off of Dodgers ace Clayton Kershaw. It was the first three-run homer Kershaw had allowed in 844 innings. From July 5–6, Stanton hit four home runs in four consecutive at-bats at Citi Field.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: Despite not being selected to the 2016 Major League Baseball All-Star Game, Stanton was among those representing the National League in the 2016 version of the Home Run Derby. Stanton won the Derby with 61 total home runs, setting a new record for most home runs in a single Derby. Stanton hit the 10 longest home runs and 18 of the 19 longest among the eight competitors. In 119 games of 2016, Stanton batted .240 with 27 home runs and 74 RBI. He again hit the ball with the highest exit velocity in the major league all season, at 120.1 miles per hour. He also hit the longest home run of the season in the major leagues, a 504-foot home run. He missed 22 games in August and September after suffering a grade 2 hamstring strain, originally thought to be season-ending.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: On April 12, 2017, Stanton hit two home runs, the second one landing in a pool behind left center field, prompting a fan to dive in to retrieve the ball. The Marlins would lose 5–4 to the Braves. On May 21, while at Dodger Stadium, Stanton attempted to snag a fly ball that was heading for the visiting teams' bullpen by leaping up on the door, but the door was left unlocked, causing it to slide open while Stanton was hanging on it. Stanton was selected to the National League team in the All-Star Game, his fourth selection, played at Marlins Park. At the time, he led the NL with 26 home runs and batted .277/.360/.572 (avg/on base/slugging). He also participated in the Home Run Derby but lost by one home run in the first round to New York Yankees catcher and future teammate Gary Sánchez.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: Named NL Player of the Week on August 13, Stanton had hit his 250th career home run earlier in the day versus the Colorado Rockies. For the week, he generated a major league-leading six home runs and 11 RBI and averaged 1.037 SLG and 1.416 OPS. While playing the San Francisco Giants on August 14, Stanton hit his 43rd home run, setting the Marlins franchise record for most home runs in a season, which surpassed Gary Sheffield's mark of 42 set in 1996. Stanton hit the home run versus Ty Blach and had homered in five consecutive games, setting another franchise record. Over a span of 35 games through August 15, Stanton erupted for 23 home runs, including in six games in a row. Only Sammy Sosa (1998) and Barry Bonds (2001) had hit more in a 35-game span.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: On August 27, Stanton became the first player since Chris Davis in 2013 to hit 50 home runs in one season. Stanton also became the sixth player in MLB history to reach 50 home runs before the end of August. During the August 29 game versus the Washington Nationals, he hit his 18th home run of the month, tying Rudy York for the most home runs in August, set in 1937. Stanton won the NL Player of the Month Award for August, leading the major league with 18 home runs, 37 RBI, 28 runs scored and .899 slugging percentage. Stanton hit his 57th home run and drove in four runs on September 23 versus Arizona, giving him 125 RBI on the season, and passing Preston Wilson's franchise record of 121 set in 2000. Enhancing the cachet of Stanton's historic season, ESPN ranked Marlins Park as one of the six most difficult stadiums in which to hit a home run in 2017.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: He finished the season with 59 home runs and 132 RBI, and batted .281. He yet again hit the ball with the highest exit velocity in the major league all season, at 120.1 miles per hour. He also had the highest ISO (Isolated Power) of all MLB players in 2017, at .350. He was also the first player in the National League since Prince Fielder in 2007 to hit 50 or more home runs in a season.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: Before Game 2 of the World Series, Stanton was presented with the Hank Aaron Award, the second of his career, as the "most outstanding offensive performer" in the National League. On November 16, Stanton was named the National League's Most Valuable Player, beating out Cincinnati Reds' first baseman Joey Votto by two voting points. At the end of his MVP season, Stanton was the holder of 10 Marlins records including most career home runs (267), RBI (672), slugging percentage (.554), total bases (1,983), strikeouts (1,140), and single-season records for home runs (59), RBI (132), slugging percentage (.631), extra-base hits (91), and total bases (377).


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: In the offseason, the new Marlins ownership sought to trade Stanton in order to shed his large contract from the payroll; on December 8, the Marlins agreed to trade Stanton to the Cardinals, but Stanton exercised his no-trade clause to formally reject the deal. Hours later, the Marlins finalized a trade with the Giants, but Stanton again used his no-trade clause to veto the offer.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: On December 11, 2017, the New York Yankees acquired Stanton and cash considerations from the Marlins for Starlin Castro and minor leaguers Jorge Guzmán and José Devers. He is the second player in major league history to be traded after a 50-homer season, Greg Vaughn being the first.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: Stanton hit two home runs in his debut with the Yankees, including on his first at-bat, on Opening Day 2018. He was the first Yankee since Joe Pepitone to have a multi home run game on Opening Day. On May 15, Stanton collected his 1,000th hit. On June 4, while playing the Detroit Tigers, pitcher Mike Fiers, who hit Stanton in the face in 2014, hit him again, angering Stanton. In his next at-bat, he hit a home run to left field, pointing at Fiers as he crossed home plate. On August 30, Stanton hit his 300th home run, off Francisco Liriano, becoming the 147th player in MLB history to do so.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: Stanton played 158 games in 2018, finishing the year with a .266 batting average, 38 home runs, 34 doubles, and 100 RBI. He also struck out 211 times, breaking the Yankees record previously set by Aaron Judge. For the fourth consecutive year, he hit the ball with the highest exit velocity of the season in the major leagues, which was 121.7 miles per hour. He also tied for the major league lead in sacrifice flies (10).


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: The Yankees finished the season at 100–62, eight games behind the Boston Red Sox, clinching a wild card spot. In the 2018 AL Wild Card Game against the Oakland Athletics, Stanton hit his first career postseason home run off of Blake Treinen. The Yankees won 7–2, but were eliminated in the ALDS by the Red Sox.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: On April 1, Stanton was placed on the 10-day injured list due to a Grade 1 left biceps strain. On April 22 he received a cortisone injection in his left shoulder that was administered to address a preexisting injury. On May 20, he was optioned to Class-A Advanced Tampa for a rehab assignment. He made his return on June 20 as a right fielder against Tampa Bay Rays. On June 27, he returned to IL with a knee injury, thus missing the London series against Boston Red Sox. He was replaced by fellow outfielder, Mike Tauchman. On August 11, he was transferred to the 60-day injured list and missed the remainder of the season. In 2019 with the Yankees he batted .288/.403/.492 with three home runs in 59 at-bats.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: On July 23, Stanton opened the COVID-19 pandemic-delayed 2020 season with the first home run in the MLB for the year, hit in the first inning of the Yankees' Opening Day game against the Washington Nationals off of Max Scherzer.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: Stanton suffered a hamstring injury in August, and was limited to just 23 games. He finished the regular season hitting .250 with four home runs and 11 RBI.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: In Game 1 of the 2020 American League Division Series on October 5, Stanton hit a grand slam in the ninth inning to propel the Yankees to a 9–3 win over the Tampa Bay Rays.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: On May 14, he was placed on the 10-day injured list with a strained left quadriceps muscle. He missed 13 games.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: On July 30, he returned to the outfield after a long absence, playing left field against the Marlins. He didn't see any action in the outfield in the pandemic-shortened 2020 season, and played there only 13 games in 2019 and 73 games in 2018 as he moved into the designated-hitter role. Stanton had a bounce-back 2021 season after two years of injury riddled seasons, batting .273/.354/.516 with 35 home runs and 97 RBI. Stanton went 3-for-4 with a home run and two long singles that hit off the top of the Green Monster in the Yankees' 6–2 loss to the Red Sox in the American League Wild Card Game.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: On June 17, Stanton hit his 361st home run during a game against the Toronto Blue Jays, tying Joe DiMaggio as the 84th Yankees player on the all-time list. However, it took Stanton 1,800 fewer at-bats to achieve this feat. On June 25, Stanton hit a ground ball for the final out of a Houston Astros combined no-hitter, the first no-hitter pitched against the Yankees in 19 years.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: On July 8, Stanton was elected to start the All-Star Game in the outfield. It was his 5th career selection, the first all-star game selection since 2017, and first selection with the Yankees. Stanton hit a two-run home run in the 4th inning off Tony Gonsolin, which was immediately followed by Byron Buxton's go-ahead home run. Stanton was named the 2022 All-Star Game MVP.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: On September 20 at Yankee Stadium, in a 9–8 win over the Pittsburgh Pirates, Stanton hit his third career walk-off grand slam.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: In 2022, he batted .211/.297/.462 (all career lows) in 398 at-bats, with 31 home runs and 78 RBI. He slumped especially in the second half of the season, batting .151/.246/.336, and against power pitchers, batting .156/.248/.313. He had the slowest sprint speed of all Yankees, at 24.5 feet per second.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: On October 18, Stanton hit a three-run home run in the deciding Game 5 of the ALDS against the Cleveland Guardians, helping propel the Yankees to the ALCS.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: Stanton has represented the United States internationally, including the World Baseball Classic in 2013 and 2017. Team Puerto Rico had previously investigated whether Stanton could play for them or not. However, it was discovered that his connection with Puerto Rico was too far back on his mother's family tree for him to be eligible to represent the island.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: Stanton's mother calls him "Cruz" (his other middle name), but his father and other relatives call him "Mike" or "Mikey". As a child, he was known as Giancarlo, but switched to Mike in sixth grade because he was tired of being mocked for his original name and having it mispronounced. He was known as "Mike Stanton" throughout his high school and minor league careers and for his first two years as a major leaguer. After a trip to Europe in the 2011–12 offseason (during which he frequently heard names like Gianpiero, Gianpaolo, Gianluigi and Giancarlo) he made it known before the 2012 season that he preferred to be called Giancarlo.


title: Giancarlo Stanton

text: He is unmarried and has no children. When asked by the "New York Post" in May 2021 how he liked "being one of New York’s most eligible bachelors", he said, "It’s nice, and it also allows me to focus on being the best baseball player I can be."


title: Miklós Horthy

text: Miklós Horthy de Nagybánya (; ; English: Nicholas Horthy; ; 18 June 1868 – 9 February 1957), was a Hungarian admiral and dictator who served as the regent of the Kingdom of Hungary between the two World Wars and throughout most of World War II – from 1 March 1920 to 15 October 1944.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: Horthy started his career as a sub-lieutenant in the Austro-Hungarian Navy in 1896 and attained the rank of rear admiral in 1918. He saw action in the Battle of the Strait of Otranto and became commander-in-chief of the Navy in the last year of World War I; he was promoted to vice admiral and commander of the Fleet when Emperor-King Charles dismissed the previous admiral from his post following mutinies. During the revolutions and interventions in Hungary from Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia, Horthy returned to Budapest with the National Army; the parliament subsequently invited him to become regent of the kingdom. Through the interwar period Horthy led an administration which was national conservative. Hungary under Horthy banned the Hungarian Communist Party as well as the Arrow Cross Party, and pursued an irredentist foreign policy in the face of the 1920 Treaty of Trianon. Charles, the former king, attempted twice to return to Hungary before the Hungarian government caved in to Allied threats to renew hostilities in 1921. Charles was then escorted out of Hungary into exile.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: Ideologically a national conservative, Horthy has sometimes been labeled as fascist. In the late 1930s, Horthy's foreign policy led him into an alliance with Nazi Germany against the Soviet Union. With the support of Adolf Hitler, Hungary succeeded in redeeming certain areas ceded to neighboring countries by the Treaty of Trianon. Under Horthy's leadership, Hungary gave support to Polish refugees in 1939 and participated in the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. Some historians view Horthy as unenthusiastic in contributing to the German war effort and the Holocaust in Hungary (out of fear that it may sabotage peace deals with Allied forces), in addition coupled with several attempts to strike a secret deal with the Allies of World War II after it had become obvious that the Axis would lose the war, therefore eventually leading the Germans to invade and take control of the country in March 1944 in Operation Margarethe. However, prior to the Nazi occupation within the area of Hungary 63,000 Jews were killed. In late 1944, 437,000 Jews were deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau, where the majority were gassed on arrival. Serbian historian Zvonimir Golubović has claimed that not only was Horthy aware of these genocidal massacres, but had approved of them such as those in the Novi Sad Raid.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: In October 1944, Horthy announced that Hungary had declared an armistice with the Allies and withdrawn from the Axis. He was forced to resign, placed under arrest by the Germans and taken to Bavaria. At the end of the war, he came under the custody of American troops. After providing evidence for the Ministries Trial of war crimes in 1948, Horthy settled and lived out his remaining years in exile in Portugal. His memoirs, "Ein Leben für Ungarn" ("A Life for Hungary"), were first published in 1953. He has a reputation as a controversial historical figure in contemporary Hungary.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: Miklós Horthy de Nagybánya was born at Kenderes to an untitled lower nobility, descended from István Horti, ennobled by King Ferdinand II in 1635. His father, István Horthy de Nagybánya, was a member of the House of Magnates, the upper chamber of the Diet of Hungary, and lord of a estate. He married Hungarian noblewoman Paula Halassy de Dévaványa in 1857. Miklós was the fourth of their eight children raised as Protestants.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: Horthy entered the Austro-Hungarian Imperial and Royal Naval Academy (k.u.k. Marine-Akademie) at Fiume (now Rijeka, Croatia) at age 14. Because the official language of the naval academy was German, Horthy spoke Hungarian with a slight, but noticeable, Austro-German accent for the rest of his life. He also spoke Italian, Croatian, English, and French.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: As a young man, Horthy traveled around the world and served as a diplomat for Austria-Hungary in the Ottoman Empire and other countries. Horthy married Magdolna Purgly de Jószáshely in Arad in 1901. They had 4 children: Magdolna (1902), Paula (1903), István (1904) and Miklós (1907). From 1911 until 1914, he was a naval aide-de-camp to Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria, for whom he had a great respect.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: At the beginning of World War I, Horthy was commander of the pre-dreadnought battleship . In 1915, he earned a reputation for boldness while commanding the new light cruiser . He planned the 1917 attack on the Otranto Barrage, which resulted in the Battle of the Strait of Otranto, the largest naval engagement of the war in the Adriatic Sea. A consolidated British, French and Italian fleet met the Austro-Hungarian force. Despite the numerical superiority of the Allied fleet, the Austrian force emerged from the battle victorious. The Austrian fleet remained relatively unscathed, however, Horthy was wounded. After the Cattaro mutiny of February 1918, Emperor Charles I of Austria selected Horthy over many more senior commanders as the new Commander-in-Chief of the Imperial Fleet in March 1918. In June, Horthy planned another attack on Otranto, and in a departure from the cautious strategy of his predecessors, he committed the empire's battleships to the mission. While sailing through the night, the dreadnought met Italian MAS torpedo boats and was sunk, causing Horthy to abort the mission. He managed to preserve the rest of the empire's fleet until he was ordered by Emperor Charles to surrender it to the new State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (the predecessor of Yugoslavia) on 31 October.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: The end of the war saw Hungary turned into a landlocked nation, and with that, the new government had little need for Horthy's naval expertise. He retired with his family to his private estate at Kenderes.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: Two national traumas that followed the First World War profoundly shaped the spirit and future of the Hungarian nation. The first was the loss, as dictated by the Allies of World War I, of large portions of Hungarian territory that had bordered other countries. These were lands that had belonged to Hungary (then part of Austria-Hungary) but were now ceded mainly to Czechoslovakia, Romania, Austria and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The excisions, eventually ratified in the Treaty of Trianon of 1920, cost Hungary two-thirds of its territory and one-third of its native Hungarian speakers; this dealt the population a terrible psychological blow. The second trauma began in March 1919, when Communist leader Béla Kun seized power in the capital, Budapest, after the first proto-democratic government in Hungary faltered.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: Kun and his henchmen proclaimed a Hungarian Soviet Republic and promised the restoration of Hungary's former grandeur. Instead, his efforts at reconquest failed, and Hungarians were treated to Soviet-style repression in the form of armed gangs who intimidated or murdered enemies of the regime. This period of violence came to be known as the Red Terror.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: Within weeks of his coup, Kun's popularity plummeted. On 30 May 1919, anti-communist politicians formed a counter-revolutionary government in the southern city of Szeged, which was occupied by French forces at the time. There, Gyula Károlyi, the prime minister of the counter-revolutionary government, asked former Admiral Horthy, still considered a war hero, to be the Minister of War in the new government and take command of a counter-revolutionary force that would be named the National Army (). Horthy consented, and he arrived in Szeged on 6 June. Soon afterward, because of orders from the Allied powers, a cabinet was reformed, and Horthy was not given a seat in it. Undaunted, Horthy managed to retain control of the National Army by detaching the army command from the War Ministry.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: After the Communist government collapsed and its leaders fled, French-supported Romanian forces entered Budapest on 6 August 1919. In retaliation for the Red Terror, reactionary crews now exacted revenge in a two-year wave of violent repression known today as the White Terror. These reprisals were organized and carried out by officers of Horthy's National Army, particularly Pál Prónay, Gyula Ostenburg-Moravek and Iván Héjjas. Their victims were primarily communists, social democrats, and Jews. Most Hungarian Jews were not supporters of the Bolsheviks, but much of the leadership of the Hungarian Soviet Republic had been young Jewish intellectuals, and anger about the Communist revolution easily translated into anti-Semitic hostility.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: In Budapest, Prónay installed his unit in the Hotel Britannia, where the group swelled to battalion size. Their program of vicious attacks continued; they planned a citywide pogrom against the Jews until Horthy found out and put a stop to it. In his diary, Prónay reported that Horthy:reproached me for the many Jewish corpses found in the various parts of the country, especially in the Transdanubia. This, he emphasized, gave the foreign press extra ammunitions against us. He told me that we should stop harassing small Jews; instead, we should kill some big (Kun government) Jews such as Somogyi or Vázsonyi – these people deserve punishment much more... in vain, I tried to convince him that the liberal papers would be against us anyway, and it did not matter that we killed only one Jew or we killed them all


title: Miklós Horthy

text: The degree of Horthy's responsibility for the excesses of Prónay is disputed. On several occasions, Horthy reached out to stop Prónay from a particularly excessive burst of anti-Jewish cruelty, and the Jews of Pest went on record absolving Horthy of the White Terror as early as the fall of 1919 when they released a statement disavowing the Kun revolution and blaming the terror on a few units within the National Army. Horthy has never been found to have personally engaged in White Terror atrocities. But his American biographer Thomas L. Sakmyster concluded that he "tacitly supported the right-wing officer detachments" who carried out the terror; Horthy called them "my best men". The admiral also had practical reasons for overlooking the terror his officers wrought, since he needed the dedicated officers to help stabilize the country. Nevertheless, it was at least another year before the terror died down. In the summer of 1920, Horthy's government took measures to rein in and eventually disperse the reactionary battalions. Prónay managed to undermine these measures, but only for a short time. Prónay was put on trial for extorting a wealthy Jewish politician, and for "insulting the President of the Parliament" by trying to cover up the extortion. Found guilty on both charges, Prónay was now a liability and an embarrassment. His command was revoked, and he was denounced as a common criminal on the floor of the Hungarian parliament.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: After serving short jail sentences, Prónay tried to convince Horthy to restore his battalion command. The Prónay Battalion lingered for a few months more under the command of a junior officer, but the government officially dissolved the unit in January 1922 and expelled its members from the army. Prónay entered politics as a member of the government's right-wing opposition. In the 1930s, he sought and failed to emulate the Nazis by generating a Hungarian fascist mass movement. In 1932, he was charged with incitement, sentenced to six months in prison, and stripped of his rank of lieutenant colonel. Prónay would support the pro-Nazi Arrow Cross and lead attacks on Jews before being captured by Soviet troops sometime during or after the Battle of Budapest of 1944–45, dying in captivity in 1947/48.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: Precisely how much Horthy knew about the excesses of the White Terror is not known. Horthy himself declined to apologize for the savagery of his officer detachments, writing later, "I have no reason to gloss over deeds of injustice and atrocities committed when an iron broom alone could sweep the country clean." He endorsed Edgar von Schmidt-Pauli's poetic justification of the White reprisals ("Hell let loose on earth cannot be subdued by the beating of angels' wings") remarking, "the Communists in Hungary, willing disciples of the Russian Bolshevists, had indeed let hell loose."


title: Miklós Horthy

text: The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in an internal report by delegate George Burnier, stated the following in April 1920:There are two distinct military organizations in Hungary: the national army and a kind of civil guard which was formed when the communist régime fell. It is the latter that has been responsible for all the reprehensible acts committed. The Government managed to regain control of these organizations only a few weeks ago. They are now well-disciplined and collaborate with the municipal police forces.This deep hostility toward Communism would be the more lasting legacy of Kun's abortive revolution. It was a conviction shared by Horthy and his country's ruling class that would help drive Hungary into a fateful alliance with Adolf Hitler.The nation of the Hungarians loved and admired Budapest, which became its polluter in the last years. Here, on the banks of the Danube, I arraign her. This city has disowned her thousand years of tradition, she has dragged the Holy Crown and the national colors in the dust, she has clothed herself in red rags. The finest of the nation she threw into dungeons or drove into exile. She laid in ruin our property and wasted our wealth. Yet the nearer we approached to this city, the more rapidly did the ice in our hearts melt. We are now ready to forgive her.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: Following the pressure of the Allied powers, Romanian troops finally evacuated Hungary on 25 February 1920.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: On 1 March 1920, the National Assembly of Hungary re-established the Kingdom of Hungary. It was apparent that the Allies of World War I would not accept any return of King Charles IV (the former Austro-Hungarian emperor) from exile. Instead, with National Army officers controlling the parliament building, the assembly voted to install Horthy as Regent; he defeated Count Albert Apponyi by a vote of 131 to 7.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: Bishop Ottokár Prohászka then led a small delegation to meet Horthy, announcing, "Hungary's Parliament has elected you Regent! Would it please you to accept the office of Regent of Hungary?" To their astonishment, Horthy declined, unless the powers of the office were expanded. As Horthy stalled, the politicians gave in to his demands and granted him "the general prerogatives of the king, with the exception of the right to name titles of nobility and of the patronage of the Church." The prerogatives he was given included the power to appoint and dismiss prime ministers, to convene and dissolve parliament, and to command the armed forces. With those sweeping powers guaranteed, Horthy took the oath of office. He was styled "His Serene Highness the Regent of the Kingdom of Hungary" (). (Charles I did try to regain his throne twice; see Charles IV of Hungary's attempts to retake the throne for more details.)


title: Miklós Horthy

text: The Hungarian state was legally a kingdom, but it had no king, as the Allied powers would not have tolerated any reinstatement of the Habsburg dynasty. The country retained its parliamentary system following the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, with a prime minister appointed as head of government. As head of state, Horthy retained significant influence through his constitutional powers and the loyalty of his ministers to the crown. Although his involvement in drafting legislation was minuscule, he nevertheless had the ability to ensure that laws passed by the Hungarian parliament conformed to his political preferences.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: The first decade of Horthy's reign was primarily consumed by stabilizing the Hungarian economy and political system. Horthy's chief partner in these efforts was his prime minister István Bethlen. It was commonly known that Horthy was an Anglophile, and British political and economic support played a significant role in the stabilization and consolidation of the early Horthy era in the Kingdom of Hungary.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: Bethlen sought to stabilize the economy while building alliances with weaker nations that could advance Hungary's cause. That cause was, primarily, reversing the losses of the Treaty of Trianon. The humiliations of the Trianon treaty continued to occupy a central place in Hungarian foreign policy and the popular imagination. The indignant anti-Trianon slogan "Nem, nem soha!" ("No, no never!") became a ubiquitous motto of Hungarian outrage. When in 1927 the British newspaper magnate Lord Rothermere denounced the partitions ratified at Trianon in the pages of his "Daily Mail", an official letter of gratitude was eagerly signed by 1.2 million Hungarians.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: But Hungary's stability was precarious, and the Great Depression derailed much of Bethlen's economic balance. Horthy replaced him with an old reactionary confederate from his Szeged days: Gyula Gömbös. Gömbös was an outspoken anti-Semite and a budding fascist. Although he agreed to Horthy's demands that he temper his anti-Jewish rhetoric and work amicably with Hungary's large Jewish professional class, Gömbös's tenure began swinging Hungary's political mood powerfully rightward. He strengthened Hungary's ties to Benito Mussolini's Italian fascist state. Fatefully, when Adolf Hitler took power in Germany in 1933, he found in Gömbös an admiring and obliging colleague. John Gunther stated that Horthy,


title: Miklós Horthy

text: Gömbös rescued the failing economy by securing trade guarantees from Germany – a strategy that positioned Germany as Hungary's primary trading partner and tied Hungary's future even more tightly to Hitler's. He also assured Hitler that Hungary would quickly become a one-party state modeled on the Nazi party control of Germany. Gömbös died in 1936 before he realized his most extreme goals, but he left his nation headed into a firm partnership with the German dictator.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: Hungary now entered into intricate political maneuvers with the regime of Adolf Hitler, and Horthy began to play a greater and more public role in navigating Hungary along this dangerous path.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: For Horthy, Hitler served as a bulwark against Soviet encroachment or invasion. Horthy was obsessed with the Communist threat. One American diplomat remarked that Horthy's anti-communist tirades were so common and ferocious that diplomats "discounted it as a phobia".


title: Miklós Horthy

text: Horthy clearly saw his country as trapped between two stronger powers, both of them dangerous; evidently, he considered Hitler to be the more manageable of the two, at least at first. Hitler was able to wield greater influence over Hungary than the Soviet Union could – not only as of the country's major trading partner but also because he could assist with two of Horthy's key ambitions: maintaining Hungarian sovereignty and satisfying the nationwide yearning to recover former Hungarian lands. Horthy's strategy was one of cautious, sometimes even a grudging, alliance. The means by which the regent granted or resisted Hitler's demands, especially with regard to Hungarian military action and the treatment of Hungary's Jews, remain the central criteria by which his career has been judged. Horthy's relationship with Hitler was, by his own account, a tense one – largely due, he said, to his unwillingness to bend his nation's policies to the German leader's desires.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: Horthy's attitude to Hitler was ambivalent. On one hand, Hungary was an irredentist state that refused to accept the frontiers imposed by the Treaty of Trianon. Furthermore, the three states with which Hungary had territorial disputes, namely Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Romania, were all allies of France, so a German-Hungarian alliance seemed logical. On the other hand, Admiral Horthy was a good navalist who believed that sea power was the most important factor in war. He felt that Britain, as the world's greatest sea power, would inevitably defeat Germany should another war begin. During a meeting with Hitler in 1935, Horthy was well pleased that Hitler informed him that he wanted Germany and Hungary to partition Czechoslovakia, but Horthy went on to tell Hitler that he must be careful not to do anything that might cause an Anglo-German war because British sea power would sooner or later cause the defeat of Nazi Germany. Horthy was always torn between his belief that an alliance with Germany was the only way to revise Trianon and his belief that war against the international order could only end in defeat.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: In August 1938, when Horthy, his wife, and some Hungarian politicians took a special train from Budapest to Germany, SA and other National Socialist formations ceremonially welcomed the delegation at the Passau train station. The train then continued to Kiel for the christening of the German cruiser "Prinz Eugen".


title: Miklós Horthy

text: During his ensuing state visit, Hitler asked Horthy for troops and matériel to participate in Germany's planned invasion of Czechoslovakia. In exchange, Horthy later reported, "He gave me to understand that as a reward we should be allowed to keep the territory we had invaded." Horthy said he declined, insisting to Hitler that Hungary's claims on the disputed lands should be settled by peaceful means.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: Three months later, after the Munich Agreement put control of Czechoslovakia's Sudetenland in Hitler's hands, by the First Vienna Award Hungary annexed some of the south-eastern parts of Czechoslovakia. Horthy enthusiastically rode into the re-acquired territories at the head of his troops, greeted by emotional ethnic Hungarians: "As I passed along the roads, people embraced one another, fell upon their knees, and wept with joy because liberation had come to them at last, without war, without bloodshed." But as "peaceful" as this annexation was, and as just as it may have seemed to many Hungarians, it was a dividend of Hitler's brinksmanship and threats of war, in which Hungary was now inextricably complicit. Hungary was now committed to the Axis agenda: on 24 February 1939, it joined the Anti-Comintern Pact, and on 11 April, it withdrew from the League of Nations. American journalists began to refer to Hungary as "the jackal of Europe".


title: Miklós Horthy

text: This combination of menace and reward drifted Hungary closer to the status of a Nazi client state. In March 1939, when Hitler took what remained of Czechoslovakia by force, Hungary was allowed to annex Carpathian Ruthenia. After a conflict with the First Slovak Republic during the Slovak–Hungarian War of 1939, Hungary gained further territories. In August 1940, Hitler intervened on Hungary's behalf once again. After the failed Hungarian-Romanian negotiations, Hungary annexed Northern Transylvania from Romania by the Second Vienna Award.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: But despite their cooperation with the Nazi regime, Horthy and his government would be better described as "conservative authoritarian" than "fascist". Certainly, Horthy was as hostile to the home-grown fascist and ultra-nationalist movements that emerged in Hungary between the wars (particularly the Arrow Cross Party) as he was to Communism. The Arrow Cross leader, Ferenc Szálasi, was repeatedly imprisoned at Horthy's command.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: John F. Montgomery, who served in Budapest as U.S. ambassador from 1933 to 1941, openly admired this side of Horthy's character and reported the following incident in his memoir: in March 1939, Arrow Cross supporters disrupted a performance at the Budapest opera house by chanting "Justice for Szálasi!" loud enough for the regent to hear. A fight broke out, and when Montgomery went to take a closer look, he discovered that:two or three men were on the floor and he [Horthy] had another by the throat, slapping his face and shouting what I learned afterward was: "So you would betray your country, would you?" The Regent was alone, but he had the situation in hand... The whole incident was typical not only of the Regent's deep hatred of alien doctrine, but of the kind of man he is. Although he was around seventy-two years of age, it did not occur to him to ask for help; he went right ahead like a skipper with a mutiny on his hands.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: And yet, by the time of this episode, Horthy had allowed his government to give in to Nazi demands that the Hungarians enact laws restricting the lives of the country's Jews. The first Hungarian anti-Jewish Law, in 1938, limited the number of Jews in the professions, the government, and commerce to twenty percent, and the second reduced it to five percent the following year; 250,000 Hungarian Jews lost their jobs as a result. A "Third Jewish Law" of August 1941 prohibited Jews from marrying non-Jews and defined anyone having two Jewish grandparents as "racially Jewish". A Jewish man who had non-marital sex with a "decent non-Jewish woman resident in Hungary" could be sentenced to three years in prison.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: Horthy's personal views on Jews and their role in Hungarian society are the subjects of some debate. In an October 1940 letter to Prime Minister Pál Teleki, Horthy echoed a widespread national sentiment: that Jews enjoyed too much success in commerce, the professions, and industry – success that needed to be curtailed:As regards the Jewish problem, I have been an anti-Semite throughout my life. I have never had contact with Jews. I have considered it intolerable that here in Hungary everything, every factory, bank, large fortune, business, theatre, press, commerce, etc. should be in Jewish hands, and that the Jew should be the image reflected of Hungary, especially abroad. Since, however, one of the most important tasks of the government is to raise the standard of living, i.e., we have to acquire wealth, it is impossible, in a year or two, to replace the Jews, who have everything in their hands, and to replace them with incompetent, unworthy, mostly big-mouthed elements, for we should become bankrupt. This requires a generation at least.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: The Kingdom of Hungary was gradually drawn into the war itself. In 1939 and 1940, Hungarian volunteers were sent to Finland's Winter War, but did not have time to partake in the fighting before the end of the war. In April 1941, Hungary became, in effect, a member of the Axis. Hungary permitted Hitler to send troops across Hungarian territory for the invasion of Yugoslavia and ultimately sent its own troops to claim its share of the dismembered Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Prime Minister Pál Teleki, horrified that he had failed to prevent this collusion with the Nazis, despite the fact that he had signed a non-aggression pact with Yugoslavia in December 1940, committed suicide.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: In June 1941, the Hungarian government finally yielded to Hitler's demands that the nation contribute to the Axis war effort. On 27 June, Hungary became part of Operation Barbarossa and declared war on the Soviet Union. The Hungarians sent in troops and material only four days after Hitler began his invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: Eighteen months later, less well-equipped and less motivated than their German allies, 200,000 troops of the Hungarian Second Army ended up holding the front on the Don River west of Stalingrad.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: The first massacre of Jewish people from Hungarian territory took place in August 1941, when government officials ordered the deportation of Jews without Hungarian citizenship (principally refugees from other Nazi-occupied countries) to Ukraine. Roughly 18,000–20,000 of these deportees were slaughtered by Friedrich Jeckeln and his SS troops; only 2,000–3,000 survived. These killings are known as the Kamianets-Podilskyi Massacre. This event, in which the slaughter of Jews for the first time numbered in the tens of thousands, is considered to be among the first large-scale massacre of the Holocaust. Because of the objections of Hungary's leadership, the deportations were halted.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: By early 1942, Horthy was already seeking to put some distance between himself and Hitler's regime. That March, he dismissed the pro-German prime minister László Bárdossy and replaced him with Miklós Kállay, a moderate whom Horthy expected to loosen Hungary's ties to Germany. Kállay successfully sabotaged economic cooperation with Nazi Germany, protected refugees, and prisoners, resisted Nazi pressure regarding Jews, established contact with the Allies and negotiated conditions under which Hungary would switch sides against Germany. However, the Allies were not close enough. When the Germans occupied Hungary in March 1944 Kállay went into hiding. He was finally captured by the Nazis, but was liberated when the war ended.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: In September 1942, personal tragedy struck the Hungarian Regent. 37-year-old István Horthy, Horthy's eldest son, was killed. István Horthy was the Deputy Regent of Hungary and a Flight Lieutenant in the reserves, 1/1 Fighter Squadron of the Royal Hungarian Air Force. He was killed when his Hawk ("Héja") fighter crashed at an air field near Ilovskoye.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: In January 1943, Hungary's enthusiasm for the war effort, never especially high, suffered a tremendous blow. The Soviet army, in the full momentum of its triumphant turnaround after the Battle of Stalingrad, punched through Romanian troops at a bend in the Don River and virtually obliterated the Second Hungarian Army in a few days' fighting. In this single action, Hungarian combat fatalities jumped by 80,000. Jew and non-Jew suffered together in this defeat, as the Hungarian troops had been accompanied by some 40,000 Jews and political prisoners in forced-labor units whose job had been to clear minefields.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: German officials blamed Hungary's Jews for the nation's "defeatist attitude." In the wake of the Don bend disaster, Hitler demanded at an April 1943 meeting that Horthy punish the 800,000 Jews still living in Hungary, who according to Hitler were responsible for this defeat. In response, Horthy and his government-supplied 10,000 Jewish deportees for labor battalions. With the growing awareness the Allies might well win the war, it became more expedient not to comply with further German requests. Cautiously, the Hungarian government began to explore contacts with the Allies in hopes of negotiating a surrender.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: Prior to the German occupation within the area of Hungary around 63,000 Jews perished.42.000 labour servicemen had perished on the eastern front, 40 % as Soviet POW. Overall, Hungarian Jews suffered close to 560,000 casualties.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: By 1944, the Axis was losing the war, and the Red Army was at Hungary's borders. Fearing that the Soviets would overrun the country, Kállay, with Horthy's approval, put out numerous feelers to the Allies. He even promised to surrender unconditionally to them once they reached Hungarian territory. An enraged Hitler summoned Horthy to a conference in Klessheim Castle near Salzburg. He pressured Horthy to make greater contributions to the war effort and again commanded him to assist in the killing of more of Hungary's Jews. Horthy now permitted the deportation of a large number of Jews (the generally accepted figure is 100,000), but would not go further.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: The conference was a ruse. As Horthy was returning home on 19 March, the Wehrmacht invaded and occupied Hungary. Horthy was told he could only stay in office if he dismissed Kállay and appointed a new government that would fully cooperate with Hitler and his plenipotentiary in Budapest, Edmund Veesenmayer. Knowing the likely alternative was a gauleiter who would treat Hungary in the same manner as the other countries under Nazi occupation, Horthy acquiesced and appointed his ambassador to Germany, General Döme Sztójay, as prime minister. The Germans originally wanted Horthy to reappoint Béla Imrédy (who had been prime minister from 1938 to 1939), but Horthy had enough influence to get Veesenmayer to accept Sztójay instead. Contrary to Horthy's hopes, Sztójay's government eagerly proceeded to participate in the Holocaust.


title: Miklós Horthy

text: The chief agents of this collaboration were Andor Jaross, the Minister of the Interior, and his two rabidly anti-Semitic state secretaries, László Endre and László Baky (later to be known as the "Deportation Trio"). On 9 April, Prime Minister Sztójay and the Germans obligated Hungary to place 300,000 Jewish people at the "disposal" of the Reich, in effect, sentencing most of Hungary's remaining Jews to death. Five days later, on 14 April, Endre, Baky, and SS Lieutenant-Colonel Adolf Eichmann commenced the deportation of the remaining Hungarian Jews. The Yellow Star, Ghettoization laws and deportation were accomplished in less than 8 weeks with the help of the new Hungarian government and authorities. The deportation of Hungarian Jews to Auschwitz began on 14 May 1944 and continued at a rate of 12–14,000 a day until 24 July.