title: Scarface (1932 film)

text: Camonte's rise to prominence and success is modeled after the American Dream, but more overtly violent. As the film follows the rise and fall of an Italian gangster, Tony becomes increasingly more Americanized. When Tony appears from under the towel at the barbershop, this is the first time the audience gets a look at his face. He appears foreign with a noticeable Italian accent, slicked hair and an almost Neanderthal appearance evident by the scars on his cheek. As the movie progresses, he becomes more Americanized as he loses his accent and his suits change from gaudy to elegant. By the end of the film, his accent is hardly noticeable. Upon the time of his death, he had accumulated many "objects" which portray the success suggested by the American Dream: his own secretary, a girlfriend of significant social status (more important even is she was the mistress of his old boss), as well as a fancy apartment, big cars, and nice clothes. Camonte exemplifies the idea of the American Dream that one can obtain success in America by following Camonte's own motto to, "Do it first, do it yourself, and keep on doin' it." On the other hand, Camonte represents the American urge to reject modern life and society, in turn rejecting Americanism itself. The gangster strives for the same American Dream as anyone else, but through violence and illicit activity, approaches it in a way at odds with modern societal values.


title: Scarface (1932 film)

text: Control of territory is a theme in the gangster film genre in a physical sense and on the movie screen. Tony works to control the city by getting rid of competing gangs and gaining physical control of the city, and he likewise gains control of the movie screen in his rise to power. This is most evident in scenes and interactions involving Tony, Johnny, and Poppy. In an early scene in the film, Tony comes to Johnny's apartment to receive his payment after killing Louie Costillo. Two rooms are visible in the shot: the main room, where Tony sits, and the room in the background where Poppy sits and where Johnny keeps his money. Lovo goes into the back room but Tony does not, so this room represents Johnny's power and territory. The men are sitting across from each other in the scene with Poppy sitting in the middle of them in the background representing the trophy they are both fighting for. However, they both appear equally in the shot, representing their equality of power. Later, in the nightclub scene, Tony sits himself in between Poppy and Johnny showing he is in control through his centrality in the shot. He has gained the most power and territory, as indicated by "winning" Poppy.


title: Scarface (1932 film)

text: "Scarface" represents the American fears and confusion that stemmed from the technological advancement of the time: whether technological advancement and mass production should be feared or celebrated. An overall anxiety post-World War I was whether new technology would cause ultimate destruction, or whether it would help make lives easier and bring happiness. In the film, Tony excitedly revels in the possibilities machine guns can bring by killing more people, more quickly, and from further away. This represents the question of whether or not mass production equals mass destruction or mass efficiency.


title: Scarface (1932 film)

text: The use of playful motifs throughout the film showcased Howard Hawks's dark comedy he expressed through his directing. In the bowling alley scene, where rival gang leader Tom Gaffney was murdered, when Gaffney throws the ball, the shot remains on the last standing bowling pin, which falls to represent the death of kingpin Tom Gaffney. In the same scene, before the death of Gaffney, a shot shows an "X" on the scoreboard, foreshadowing Gaffney's death. Hawks used the "X" foreshadowing technique throughout the film (seen first in the opening credits) which were chiefly associated with death appearing many times (but not every scene) when a death is portrayed; the motif appears in numerous places, most prominently as Tony's "X" scar on his left cheek. The motifs mock the life of the gangster. The gangster's hat is a common theme throughout gangster films, specifically "Scarface", as representative of conspicuous consumption. Hawks included hand gestures, a common motif in his films. In "Scarface", George Raft was instructed to repetitively flip a coin, which he does throughout the film.


title: Scarface (1932 film)

text: Camonte's apartment looks out on a neon, flashing sign that says "The World Is Yours". This sign represents the modern American city as a place of opportunity and individualism. As attractive as the slogan is, the message is impossible, yet Tony doesn't understand this. The view from his apartment represents the rise of the gangster. When Camonte is killed in the street outside his building, the camera pans up to show the billboard, representative of the societal paradox of the existence of opportunity yet the inability to achieve it. According to Robert Warshow, the ending scene represents how the world is not ours, but not his either. The death of the gangster momentarily releases us from the idea of the concept of success and the need to succeed. In regards to the theme of excess, the sign is a metaphor for the dividing desires created by modernity seen through the lens of the excessive desires of the gangster persona.


title: Scarface (1932 film)

text: "Sharp" and "hard-edged", "Scarface" set the visual style for the gangster films of the 1930s. Hawks created a violent, gripping film through his use of strong contrast of black and white in his cinematography, for example, dark rooms, silhouettes of bodies against drawn shades, and pools of carefully placed light. Much of the film is shown to take place at night. The tight grouping of subjects within the shot and stalking camera movement followed the course of action in the film. The cinematography is dynamic and characterized by highly varied camera placement and mobile framing.


title: Scarface (1932 film)

text: In October 1946, after World War II and the relations between Italy and the United States softened, Titanus, an Italian film production company was interested in translating "Scarface" into Italian. Initially, upon requesting approval from the Italian film office, the request was rejected due to censorship concerns of the portrayal of violence and crime throughout the film. There was no initial concern about the film's portrayal of Italians. Titanus appealed to the Italian film office calling "Scarface", "one of the most solid and constructive motion pictures ever produced overseas". They lobbied to bring in a foreign language film to help domestic film producers save money in the Italian economy damaged by the recent war. After receiving approval at the end of 1946, Titanus translated a script for dubbing the film. One difference in the Italian script is the names of the characters were changed from Italian sounding to more American sounding. For example, Tony Camonte was changed to Tony Kermont, and Guino Rinaldo was changed to Guido Reynold. This and several other changes were made to conspicuously remove references to Italians. Another example is the difference in the scene in the restaurant with Tony and Johnny. In the American version, Tony makes a comical statement about the garlic in the pasta, whereas, in the Italian translation, the food in question is a duck liver pâté, a less overtly Italian reference to food. Moreover, in the American version, the gangsters are referred to as illegal immigrants by the outraged community; however, in the Italian dubbed version, the citizen status of the criminals are not mentioned, merely the concern of repeat offenders.


title: Scarface (1932 film)

text: The film was redubbed into Italian in 1976 by the broadcasting company "Radio Televisione Italiana" (RAI). Franco Dal Cer translated the script and the dub was directed by Giulio Panicali. Pino Locchi dubbed the voice of Tony Camonte for Paul Muni and Pino Colizzi dubbed the voice of Gunio Rinaldo for George Raft. A difference between the 1947 version and the 1976 version is that all of the Italian names are and Italian cultural references were untouched from the original American script. The 1976 version celebrates the Italian backgrounds of the characters, adding noticeably different Italian dialects to specific characters. This version of the dubbed film translates the opening and closing credit scenes as well as the newspaper clippings shown into Italian; however, the translation of the newspaper clippings was not done with particular aesthetic care.


title: Scarface (1932 film)

text: The film was redubbed in the 1990s and released on Universal's digital edition. According to scholarly consensus, the 1990 dub is a combination of re-voicing and reuse of audio from the 1976 redub.


title: Scarface (1932 film)

text: Despite its lack of success at the box office, "Scarface" was one of the most discussed films of 1932 due to its subject matter, and its struggle and triumph over censor boards. "Scarface" is cited (often with "Little Caesar" and "The Public Enemy") as the archetype of the gangster film genre, because it set the early standard for the genre which continues to appear in Hollywood. However, "Scarface" was the last of the three big gangsters films of the early 1930s, as the outrage at the Pre-Code violence caused by the three films, particularly "Scarface", sparked the creation of the Production Code Administration in 1934. Howard Hawks cited "Scarface" as one of his favorite works and the film was a subject of pride for Howard Hughes. Hughes locked the film in his vaults a few years after release, refusing many profitable offers to distribute the film or to buy its rights. In 1979, three years after his death, Summa Corporation, which controlled his estate, sold the rights to "Scarface" along with seven other films to Universal Pictures, which sparked the 1983 remake starring Al Pacino. Though rare for a remake, the 1983 version was also critically acclaimed.


title: Scarface (1932 film)

text: Paul Muni's performance in "Scarface" as "the quintessential gangster anti-hero" contributed greatly to his rapid ascent into his acclaimed film career. Paul Muni received significant accolades for his performance as Tony Camonte. Critics praised Muni for his robust and fierce performance. Al Pacino stated he was greatly inspired by Paul Muni and Muni influenced his own performance in the 1983 "Scarface" remake. However, despite the impressive portrayal of a rising gangster, critics claim the character minimally resembled Al Capone. Unlike Camonte, Capone avoided grunt work and typically employed others to do his dirty work for him. Moreover, Muni's Scarface at the end revealed the Capone character to be a coward as he pled for mercy and tried to escape before getting shot in the street. Capone wasn't known for his cowardice and didn't die in battle.


title: Scarface (1932 film)

text: "Scarface" was Ann Dvorak's best known film. The film launched Raft's lengthy career as a leading man. Raft, in the film's second lead, had learned to flip a coin without looking at it, a trait of his character, and he made a strong impression in the comparatively sympathetic but colorful role. Howard Hawks told Raft to use this in the film to camouflage his lack of acting experience. A reference is made in Raft's later role as gangster Spats Columbo in "Some Like it Hot" (1959), wherein he asks a fellow gangster (who is flipping a coin) "Where did you pick up cheap trick?"


title: Scarface (1932 film)

text: The movie "Scarface" may have had an influence on actual gangster life four years after the film was released. In 1936, Jack McGurn who was thought to be responsible for the St. Valentine's Massacre depicted in the film, was murdered by rivals in a bowling alley.


title: Scarface (1932 film)

text: The film was one of the first films released on video by MCA Videocassette in May 1980. The film was released on DVD on May 22, 2007, and was released again on August 28, 2012, in celebration of the 100th anniversary of Universal Studios, by Universal Pictures Home Entertainment. Both versions of the DVD include an introduction by "Turner Classic Movies" host and film historian Robert Osborne and the film's alternate ending. On video and on television, the film maintains Hawks's original ending but still contains the other alterations he was required to make during filming. A completely unaltered and uncensored version of the film was not known to exist until the limited edition set of "Scarface" (1983) was released on October 15, 2019.


title: Scarface (1932 film)

text: After the rights for "Scarface" were obtained after the death of Howard Hughes, Brian de Palma released a remake of the film in 1983 featuring Al Pacino as Scarface. The film was set in contemporary Miami and is known for its inclusion of graphic violence and obscene language, considered "as violent and obscene for the 1980s" as the original film was considered for 1930s cinema. The 2003 DVD "Anniversary Edition" limited edition box set of the 1983 film includes its 1932 counterpart. At the end of the 1983 film, a title reading "This film is dedicated to Howard Hawks and Ben Hecht" appears over the final shot.


title: Scarface (1932 film)

text: Universal announced in 2011 that the studio is developing a new version of "Scarface". The studio claims the new film is neither a sequel nor a remake, but will take elements from both the 1932 and the 1983 version, including the basic premise of a man who becomes a kingpin in his quest for the American Dream. In 2016, Antoine Fuqua was in talks to direct the remake, but left the project the following year in February, with the Coen brothers rewriting the script. Universal later hired David Ayer to direct and contracted Diego Luna to star, but dismissed Ayer because his script was too violent. In 2018, Fuqua was back on the project, but left again in May 2020. Instead, Luca Guadagnino has signed to direct the film, with the script from Coen brothers.


title: Scarface (1932 film)

text: "Scarface" is often associated with other pre-code crime films released in the early 1930s such as "The Doorway to Hell" (1930), "Little Caesar" (1931) and "The Public Enemy" (1931). According to Fran Mason of the University of Winchester, "Scarface" is more similar to the film "The Roaring Twenties" than its early 1930s gangster film contemporaries because of its excess.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: An mRNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that uses a copy of a molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA) to produce an immune response. The vaccine delivers molecules of antigen-encoding mRNA into immune cells, which use the designed mRNA as a blueprint to build foreign protein that would normally be produced by a pathogen (such as a virus) or by a cancer cell. These protein molecules stimulate an adaptive immune response that teaches the body to identify and destroy the corresponding pathogen or cancer cells. The mRNA is delivered by a co-formulation of the RNA encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles that protect the RNA strands and help their absorption into the cells.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: Reactogenicity, the tendency of a vaccine to produce adverse reactions, is similar to that of conventional non-RNA vaccines. People susceptible to an autoimmune response may have an adverse reaction to messenger RNA vaccines. The advantages of mRNA vaccines over traditional vaccines are ease of design, speed and lower cost of production, the induction of both cellular and humoral immunity, and lack of interaction with the genomic DNA. While some messenger RNA vaccines, such as the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine, have the disadvantage of requiring ultracold storage before distribution, other mRNA vaccines, such as the Moderna, CureVac, and Walvax COVID-19 vaccines, do not have such requirements.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: In RNA therapeutics, messenger RNA vaccines have attracted considerable interest as COVID-19 vaccines. In December 2020, Pfizer–BioNTech and Moderna obtained authorization for their mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccines. On 2 December, the UK Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) became the first medicines regulator to approve an mRNA vaccine, authorizing the Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine for widespread use. On 11 December, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued an emergency use authorization for the Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine and a week later similarly authorized the Moderna vaccine.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: The first successful transfection of designed mRNA packaged within a liposomal nanoparticle into a cell was published in 1989. "Naked" (or unprotected) lab-made mRNA was injected a year later into the muscle of mice. These studies were the first evidence that "in vitro" transcribed mRNA with a chosen gene was able to deliver the genetic information to produce a desired protein within living cell tissue and led to the concept proposal of messenger RNA vaccines.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: Liposome-encapsulated mRNA encoding a viral antigen was shown in 1993 to stimulate T cells in mice. The following year self-amplifying mRNA was developed by including both a viral antigen and replicase encoding gene. The method was used in mice to elicit both a humoral and cellular immune response against a viral pathogen. The next year mRNA encoding a tumor antigen was shown to elicit a similar immune response against cancer cells in mice.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: The first human clinical trial using "ex vivo" dendritic cells transfected with mRNA encoding tumor antigens (therapeutic cancer mRNA vaccine) was started in 2001. Four years later, the successful use of modified nucleosides as a method to transport mRNA inside cells without setting off the body's defense system was reported. Clinical trial results of an mRNA vaccine directly injected into the body against cancer cells were reported in 2008.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: BioNTech in 2008, and Moderna in 2010, were founded to develop mRNA biotechnologies. The US research agency DARPA launched at this time the biotechnology research program ADEPT to develop emerging technologies for the US military. The agency recognized the potential of nucleic acid technology for defense against pandemics and began to invest in the field. DARPA grants were seen as a vote of confidence that in turn encouraged other government agencies and private investors to invest in mRNA technology. DARPA awarded at the time a $25 million grant to Moderna.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: The first human clinical trials using an mRNA vaccine against an infectious agent (rabies) began in 2013. Over the next few years, clinical trials of mRNA vaccines for a number of other viruses were started. mRNA vaccines for human use have been studied for infectious agents such as influenza, Zika virus, cytomegalovirus, and Chikungunya virus.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: In March 2022 Moderna announced the development of mRNA vaccines for 15 diseases: Chikungunya virus, COVID-19, Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever, Dengue, Ebola virus disease, HIV, Malaria, Marburg virus disease, Lassa fever, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), Nipah and henipaviral diseases, Rift Valley fever, Severe fever with Thrombocytopenia syndrome, Tuberculosis and Zika.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: The COVID-19 pandemic, and sequencing of the causative virus SARS-CoV-2 at the beginning of 2020, led to the rapid development of the first approved mRNA vaccines. BioNTech and Moderna in December of the same year obtained approval for their mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccines. On 2 December, seven days after its final eight-week trial, the UK Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) became the first global medicines regulator in history to approve an mRNA vaccine, granting emergency authorization for Pfizer–BioNTech's BNT162b2 COVID-19 vaccine for widespread use. On 11 December, the FDA gave emergency use authorization for the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine and a week later similar approval for the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine. Other mRNA vaccines continued under development.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: The goal of a vaccine is to stimulate the adaptive immune system to create antibodies that precisely target that particular pathogen. The markers on the pathogen that the antibodies target are called antigens.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: Traditional vaccines stimulate an antibody response by injecting either antigens, an attenuated (weakened) virus, an inactivated (dead) virus, or a recombinant antigen-encoding viral vector (harmless carrier virus with an antigen transgene) into the body. These antigens and viruses are prepared and grown outside the body.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: In contrast, mRNA vaccines introduce a short-lived synthetically created fragment of the RNA sequence of a virus into the individual being vaccinated. These mRNA fragments are taken up by dendritic cells through phagocytosis. The dendritic cells use their internal machinery (ribosomes) to read the mRNA and produce the viral antigens that the mRNA encodes. The body degrades the mRNA fragments within a few days of introduction. Although non-immune cells can potentially also absorb vaccine mRNA, produce antigens, and display the antigens on their surfaces, dendritic cells absorb the mRNA globules much more readily. The mRNA fragments are translated in the cytoplasm and do not affect the body's genomic DNA, located separately in the cell nucleus.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: Once the viral antigens are produced by the host cell, the normal adaptive immune system processes are followed. Antigens are broken down by proteasomes. Class I and class II MHC molecules then attach to the antigen and transport it to the cellular membrane, "activating" the dendritic cell. Once activated, dendritic cells migrate to lymph nodes, where they present the antigen to T cells and B cells. This triggers the production of antibodies specifically targeted to the antigen, ultimately resulting in immunity.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: The central component of a mRNA vaccine is its mRNA construct. The "in vitro" transcribed mRNA is generated from an engineered plasmid DNA, which has an RNA polymerase promoter and sequence which corresponds to the mRNA construct. By combining T7 phage RNA polymerase and the plasmid DNA, the mRNA can be transcribed in the lab. Efficacy of the vaccine is dependent on the stability and structure of the designed mRNA.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: The "in vitro" transcribed mRNA has the same structural components as natural mRNA in eukaryotic cells. It has a 5' cap, a 5'-untranslated region (UTR) and 3'-UTR, an open reading frame (ORF), which encodes the relevant antigen, and a 3'-poly(A) tail. By modifying these different components of the synthetic mRNA, the stability and translational ability of the mRNA can be enhanced, and in turn, the efficacy of the vaccine improved.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: The mRNA can be improved by using synthetic 5'-cap analogues which enhance the stability and increase protein translation. Similarly, regulatory elements in the 5'-untranslated region and the 3'-untranslated region can be altered, and the length of the poly(A) tail optimized, to stabilize the mRNA and increase protein production. The mRNA nucleotides can be modified to both decrease innate immune activation and increase the mRNA's half-life in the host cell. The nucleic acid sequence and codon usage impacts protein translation. Enriching the sequence with guanine-cytosine content improves mRNA stability and half-life and, in turn, protein production. Replacing rare codons with synonymous codons frequently used by the host cell also enhances protein production.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: For a vaccine to be successful, sufficient mRNA must enter the host cell cytoplasm to stimulate production of the specific antigens. Entry of mRNA molecules, however, faces a number of difficulties. Not only are mRNA molecules too large to cross the cell membrane by simple diffusion, they are also negatively charged like the cell membrane, which causes a mutual electrostatic repulsion. Additionally, mRNA is easily degraded by RNAases in skin and blood.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: Various methods have been developed to overcome these delivery hurdles. The method of vaccine delivery can be broadly classified by whether mRNA transfer into cells occurs within ("in vivo") or outside ("ex vivo") the organism.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: Dendritic cells display antigens on their surfaces, leading to interactions with T cells to initiate an immune response. Dendritic cells can be collected from patients and programmed with the desired mRNA, then administered back into patients to create an immune response.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: The simplest way that "ex vivo" dendritic cells take up mRNA molecules is through endocytosis, a fairly inefficient pathway in the laboratory setting that can be significantly improved through electroporation.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: Since the discovery that the direct administration of "in vitro" transcribed mRNA leads to the expression of antigens in the body, "in vivo" approaches have been investigated. They offer some advantages over "ex vivo" methods, particularly by avoiding the cost of harvesting and adapting dendritic cells from patients and by imitating a regular infection.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: Different routes of injection, such as into the skin, blood, or muscles, result in varying levels of mRNA uptake, making the choice of administration route a critical aspect of "in vivo" delivery. One study showed, in comparing different routes, that lymph node injection leads to the largest T-cell response.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: Naked mRNA injection means that the delivery of the vaccine is only done in a buffer solution. This mode of mRNA uptake has been known since the 1990s. The first worldwide clinical studies used intradermal injections of naked mRNA for vaccination. A variety of methods have been used to deliver naked mRNA, such as subcutaneous, intravenous, and intratumoral injections. Although naked mRNA delivery causes an immune response, the effect is relatively weak, and after injection the mRNA is often rapidly degraded.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: Cationic polymers can be mixed with mRNA to generate protective coatings called polyplexes. These protect the recombinant mRNA from ribonucleases and assist its penetration in cells. Protamine is a natural cationic peptide and has been used to encapsulate mRNA for vaccination.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: The first time the FDA approved the use of lipid nanoparticles as a drug delivery system was in 2018, when the agency approved the first siRNA drug, Onpattro. Encapsulating the mRNA molecule in lipid nanoparticles was a critical breakthrough for producing viable mRNA vaccines, solving a number of key technical barriers in delivering the mRNA molecule into the host cell. Research into using lipids to deliver siRNA to cells became a foundation for similar research into using lipids to deliver mRNA. However, new lipids had to be invented to encapsulate mRNA strands, which are much longer than siRNA strands.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: Principally, the lipid provides a layer of protection against degradation, allowing more robust translational output. In addition, the customization of the lipid's outer layer allows the targeting of desired cell types through ligand interactions. However, many studies have also highlighted the difficulty of studying this type of delivery, demonstrating that there is an inconsistency between "in vivo" and "in vitro" applications of nanoparticles in terms of cellular intake. The nanoparticles can be administered to the body and transported via multiple routes, such as intravenously or through the lymphatic system.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: One issue with lipid nanoparticles is that several of the breakthroughs leading to the practical use of that technology involve the use of microfluidics. Microfluidic reaction chambers are difficult to scale up, since the entire point of microfluidics is to exploit the microscale behaviors of liquids. The only way around this obstacle is to run an extensive number of microfluidic reaction chambers in parallel, a novel task requiring custom-built equipment. For COVID-19 mRNA vaccines, this was the main manufacturing bottleneck. Pfizer used such a parallel approach to solve the scaling problem. After verifying that impingement jet mixers could not be directly scaled up, Pfizer made about 100 of the little mixers (each about the size of a U.S. half-dollar coin), connected them together with pumps and filters with a "maze of piping," and set up a computer system to regulate flow and pressure through the mixers.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: Another issue, with the large-scale use of this delivery method, is the availability of the novel lipids used to create lipid nanoparticles, especially ionizable cationic lipids. Before 2020, such lipids were manufactured in small quantities measured in grams or kilograms, and they were used for medical research and a handful of drugs for rare conditions. As the safety and efficacy of mRNA vaccines became clear in 2020, the few companies able to manufacture the requisite lipids were confronted with the challenge of scaling up production to respond to orders for several tons of lipids.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: In addition to non-viral delivery methods, RNA viruses have been engineered to achieve similar immunological responses. Typical RNA viruses used as vectors include retroviruses, lentiviruses, alphaviruses and rhabdoviruses, each of which can differ in structure and function. Clinical studies have utilized such viruses on a range of diseases in model animals such as mice, chicken and primates.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: mRNA vaccines offer specific advantages over traditional vaccines. Because mRNA vaccines are not constructed from an active pathogen (or even an inactivated pathogen), they are non-infectious. In contrast, traditional vaccines require the production of pathogens, which, if done at high volumes, could increase the risks of localized outbreaks of the virus at the production facility. Another biological advantage of mRNA vaccines is that since the antigens are produced inside the cell, they stimulate cellular immunity, as well as humoral immunity.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: mRNA vaccines have the production advantage that they can be designed swiftly. Moderna designed their mRNA-1273 vaccine for COVID-19 in 2 days. They can also be manufactured faster, more cheaply, and in a more standardized fashion (with fewer error rates in production), which can improve responsiveness to serious outbreaks.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: The Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine originally required 110 days to mass-produce (before Pfizer began to optimize the manufacturing process to only 60 days), which was substantially faster than traditional flu and polio vaccines. Within that larger timeframe, the actual production time is only about 22 days: two weeks for molecular cloning of DNA plasmids and purification of DNA, four days for DNA-to-RNA transcription and purification of mRNA, and four days to encapsulate mRNA in lipid nanoparticles followed by fill and finish. The majority of the days needed for each production run are allocated to rigorous quality control at each stage.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: In addition to sharing the advantages of theoretical DNA vaccines over established traditional vaccines, mRNA vaccines also have additional advantages over DNA vaccines. The mRNA is translated in the cytosol, so there is no need for the RNA to enter the cell nucleus, and the risk of being integrated into the host genome is averted. Modified nucleosides (for example, pseudouridines, 2'-O-methylated nucleosides) can be incorporated to mRNA to suppress immune response stimulation to avoid immediate degradation and produce a more persistent effect through enhanced translation capacity. The open reading frame (ORF) and untranslated regions (UTR) of mRNA can be optimized for different purposes (a process called sequence engineering of mRNA), for example through enriching the guanine-cytosine content or choosing specific UTRs known to increase translation. An additional ORF coding for a replication mechanism can be added to amplify antigen translation and therefore immune response, decreasing the amount of starting material needed.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: Because mRNA is fragile, some vaccines must be kept at very low temperatures to avoid degrading and thus giving little effective immunity to the recipient. Pfizer–BioNTech's BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine has to be kept between . Moderna says their mRNA-1273 vaccine can be stored between , which is comparable to a home freezer, and that it remains stable between for up to 30 days. In November 2020, "Nature" reported, "While it's possible that differences in LNP formulations or mRNA secondary structures could account for the thermostability differences [between Moderna and BioNtech], many experts suspect both vaccine products will ultimately prove to have similar storage requirements and shelf lives under various temperature conditions." Several platforms are being studied that may allow storage at higher temperatures.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: Before 2020, no mRNA technology platform (drug or vaccine) had been authorized for use in humans, so there was a risk of unknown effects. The 2020 COVID-19 pandemic required faster production capability of mRNA vaccines, made them attractive to national health organisations, and led to debate about the type of initial authorization mRNA vaccines should get (including emergency use authorization or expanded access authorization) after the eight-week period of post-final human trials.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: Reactogenicity is similar to that of conventional, non-RNA vaccines. However, those susceptible to an autoimmune response may have an adverse reaction to mRNA vaccines. The mRNA strands in the vaccine may elicit an unintended immune reactionthis entails the body believing itself to be sick, and the person feeling as if they are as a result. To minimize this, mRNA sequences in mRNA vaccines are designed to mimic those produced by host cells.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: Strong but transient reactogenic effects were reported in trials of novel COVID-19 mRNA vaccines; most people will not experience severe side effects which include fever and fatigue. Severe side effects are defined as those that prevent daily activity.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: The COVID-19 mRNA vaccines from Moderna and Pfizer–BioNTech have efficacy rates of 90 to 95 percent. Prior mRNA, drug trials on pathogens other than COVID-19 were not effective and had to be abandoned in the early phases of trials. The reason for the efficacy of the new mRNA vaccines is not clear.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: Physician-scientist Margaret Liu stated that the efficacy of the new COVID-19 mRNA vaccines could be due to the "sheer volume of resources" that went into development, or that the vaccines might be "triggering a nonspecific inflammatory response to the mRNA that could be heightening its specific immune response, given that the modified nucleoside technique reduced inflammation but hasn't eliminated it completely", and that "this may also explain the intense reactions such as aches and fevers reported in some recipients of the mRNA SARS-CoV-2 vaccines". These reactions though severe were transient and another view is that they were believed to be a reaction to the lipid drug delivery molecules.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: There is misinformation implying that mRNA vaccines could alter DNA in the nucleus. mRNA in the cytosol is very rapidly degraded before it would have time to gain entry into the cell nucleus. In fact, mRNA vaccines must be stored at very low temperature to prevent mRNA degradation. Retrovirus can be single-stranded RNA (just as SARS-CoV-2 vaccine is single-stranded RNA) which enters the cell nucleus and uses reverse transcriptase to make DNA from the RNA in the cell nucleus. A retrovirus has mechanisms to be imported into the nucleus, but other mRNA lack these mechanisms. Once inside the nucleus, creation of DNA from RNA cannot occur without a primer, which accompanies a retrovirus, but which would not exist for other mRNA if placed in the nucleus.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: mRNA vaccines use either non-amplifying (conventional) mRNA or self-amplifying mRNA. Pfizer–BioNTech and Moderna vaccines use non-amplifying mRNA. Both mRNA types continue to be investigated as vaccine methods against other potential pathogens and cancer.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: The initial mRNA vaccines use a non-amplifying mRNA construct. Non-amplifying mRNA has only one open reading frame that codes for the antigen of interest. The total amount of mRNA available to the cell is equal to the amount delivered by the vaccine. Dosage strength is limited by the amount of mRNA that can be delivered by the vaccine. Non-amplifying vaccines replace uridine with N1-Methylpseudouridine in an attempt to reduce toxicity.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: Self-amplifying mRNA (saRNA) vaccines replicate their mRNA after transfection. Self-amplifying mRNA has two open reading frames. The first frame, like conventional mRNA, codes for the antigen of interest. The second frame codes for an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (and its helper proteins) which replicates the mRNA construct in the cell. This allows smaller vaccine doses. The mechanisms and consequently the evaluation of self-amplifying mRNA may be different, as self-amplifying mRNA is a much bigger molecule.


title: MRNA vaccine

text: SaRNA vaccines being researched include a malaria vaccine. Gritstone bio started in 2021 a phase 1 trial of an saRNA COVID-19 vaccine, used as a booster vaccine. The vaccine is designed to target both the spike protein of the SARS‑CoV‑2 virus, and viral proteins that may be less prone to genetic variation, to provide greater protection against SARS‑CoV‑2 variants. saRNA vaccines must use uridine, which is required for reproduction to occur.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: Minecraft: Story Mode is an episodic point-and-click video game developed and published by Telltale Games, based on Mojang Studios' sandbox video game "Minecraft". The first five episodes were released between October 2015 through March 2016 and an additional three episodes were released as downloadable content in mid-2016. A second season consisting of five episodes was released in 2017.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: The game follows the same episodic format as other Telltale Games titles, such as "The Walking Dead", "The Wolf Among Us", "Tales from the Borderlands", and "Game of Thrones". The story revolves around a player-created character named Jesse, originally an everyman, who later becomes a hero together with their friends. During the first four episodes, Jesse and their friends attempt to reassemble an old group of heroes known as the Order of the Stone to save the Overworld from the destructive Wither Storm. The rest of the first season follows Jesse and their friends, now the new Order of the Stone, on a new adventure after discovering a powerful artifact. In the second season, Jesse faces the powerful Admin.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: The game was available for Windows, macOS, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Wii U, Nintendo Switch, Xbox 360, Xbox One, Android, iOS and Apple TV. A retail version was released in December 2016. However, both seasons of the game are no longer playable due to the shutdown of Telltale Games in late 2018, causing the game to be ultimately discontinued on the 25th of June 2019. On December 5th, 2022 the series was removed from Netflix making it the first interactive special to be removed.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: "Minecraft: Story Mode" is an episodic interactive comedy-drama point-and-click graphic adventure video game. It was released as a number of episodes similar to Telltale Games' other games. Players can collect items, solve puzzles, and talk to non-player characters through conversation trees to learn about the story and determine what to do next. Decisions that the player makes affect events in both the current episode and later episodes. However, "Minecraft: Story Mode" is intended to be a family-friendly title, unlike Telltale's previous games, which tend to carry more mature or emotional overtones (including the death of major characters). As such, the decisions are intended to be pivotal and emotional but not to involve mature imagery or themes. Elements of crafting and building were included in the gameplay which are central to "Minecraft". The game includes combat and other action sequences, carried out through both quick time events and more arcade-like controls, such as steering around debris on a road. The Netflix version of Season 1 (excluding the Adventure Pass episodes) was fully pre-rendered, using an enhanced version of the Telltale Tool, uses limited choices and the second version of male and female models, and re-created as an interactive series.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: "Minecraft: Story Mode" takes place in an interpretation of the world of "Minecraft," known as the "Overworld", where the game is the extent of the characters' universe, and the characters are unaware that they are in a game. The main character, Jesse, is an inexperienced resident of said universe who sets out on a journey with their friends within the world of "Minecraft" to find The Order of the Stone (Gabriel the Warrior, Ellegaard the Redstone Engineer, Magnus the Rogue, Soren the Architect and Ivor the Potion Brewer and Enchanter), five legendary adventurers who saved the "Minecraft" world. The game includes settings that are normally difficult to access from within "Minecraft", including the Nether and The End.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: The player can customize Jesse, including choice of gender and skin tone. Jesse is voiced by Patton Oswalt if male and by Catherine Taber if female. Other main characters within the "Minecraft: Story Mode" world include Jesse's friends Petra (voiced by Ashley Johnson), Axel (Brian Posehn), Olivia (Martha Plimpton), Lukas (Scott Porter), and Jesse's pet pig, Reuben (Dee Bradley Baker). The first season features several characters in supporting roles, including the Order of the Stone—Gabriel (Dave Fennoy), Magnus (Corey Feldman), Ellegaard (Grey Griffin), Soren (John Hodgman) and Ivor (Paul Reubens), the latter of whom becomes a main character from episode five onwards—former Ocelot member and Blaze Rods leader Aiden (Matthew Mercer); the ruler of Sky City, the Founder (Melissa Hutchison); Milo (Jim Meskimen), the leader of an underground building club; "Minecraft" YouTubers CaptainSparklez, DanTDM, LDShadowLady, Stampy Cat and Stacy Plays (all played by themselves); Torque Dawg (Adam Harrington); Cassie Rose/The White Pumpkin (Ashly Burch with a disguised voice by Roger L. Jackson); the super-computer PAMA (Jason 'jtop' Topolski); its creator and former Old Builder Harper (Yvette Nicole Brown); the warrior Emily (Audrey Wasilewski); and the Old Builders—Hadrian (Jim Cummings), Mevia (Kari Wahlgren) and Otto (Jamie Alcroft). Season 2 adds several more, such as Jesse's assistant Radar (Yuri Lowenthal), the famous hero Jack (Fred Tatasciore) and his villager sidekick Nurm (Mark Barbolak), Champion City ruler Stella (Ashley Albert) and her treasure sniffing llama Lluna, and the sinister Admin named Romeo (J.B. Blanc).


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: There are also several background characters, such as Maya, Ivy and a Fangirl (GK Bowes); Owen (Owen Hill); Gill (Phil LaMarr); an EnderCon Usher named Reuben (also Jason 'jtop' Topolski); a Fanboy (Billy West); Lydia (Lydia Winters); and the EnderCon Building Competition Announcer (Erin Yvette). Stauffer said that the human characters as a whole represent the different types of gamers who play "Minecraft". Billy West narrates the first four episodes of the story.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: This is a broad overview of the plot. Certain decisions made by the player will alter details of specific events.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: Once, the Order of the Stone defeated the Ender Dragon. In the present-day Jesse, his friends Axel and Olivia, and his pet pig Reuben are preparing for the EnderCon building competition. The Ocelots, a rival team, attempt to sabotage their build, spooking Reuben. Jesse is attacked rescuing him but Petra saves them, who convinces Jesse to help her sell a Wither skull. The buyer, Ivor, tricks them and escapes with it. They pursue him and discover that Ivor will attack Gabriel (A member of the Order of the Stone) using a Wither (later Wither Storm). The group tries to stop it, but are unsuccessful. After recruiting Magnus and Ellegaard, two other members of the Order, they then head to Soren's lab, hoping that his Formidi-Bomb can destroy the Wither Storm, which Jesse uses to destroy the Storm (although either Magnus or Ellegaard dies in the process), however the beast reforms in three clusters.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: The group, joined by Gabriel or Petra (depending on player choice) escape. After that, Ivor takes the group to his lab to enchant a weapon which can destroy the Command Block. Jesse builds the enchanted weapon and destroys the command block, ultimately killing the Wither Storm, but not before the beast kills Reuben, to Jesse's dismay.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: Soon after, the Order finds a Flint and Steel, which Ivor reveals that the "Old Builders" created it and supposedly the "Eversource", a chicken that lays spawn eggs. Jesse, Ivor, Lukas, and Petra return to the temple and opens a portal, leading them to Sky City. The group eventually finds the Eversource, but Aiden, the leader of a rival group called the Blaze Rods, steals it. Jesse later defeats Aiden, who is imprisoned in the new Sky City.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: Jesse's group retrieve the Flint and Steel and try to return home through another portal, but find themselves in a portal filled corridor. While travelling between them, they arrive in a graveyard with an invite to a supposed party in a nearby mansion, in which they meet some Minecraft YouTubers. The "White Pumpkin" kills Captain Sparklez and either LDShadowLady or DanTDM through traps. Jesse and their companions discover that the culprit is Cassie Rose. They later defeat her and trap her in a pit filled with endermites.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: Jesse and their companions meet PAMA, a computer, which Jesse and Ivor escape from aided by Harper, a scientist who created PAMA. She then takes them to her lab to retrieve something to deactivate PAMA, where Jesse frees Lukas/Petra before they are captured. Harper directs Jesse to PAMA's power source which they destroy, freeing the other companion.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: Back at the portal corridor, Harper reveals the Atlas which can help Jesse's group return home. The Old Builders (consisting of Hadrian, Mevia, and Otto) imprison Jesse and force him to compete in games to win his friends' freedom, but Jesse makes a deal with Otto to free his friends, before battling and defeating Hadrian and Mevia, returning home at last.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: Radar, Jesse's new assistant, notifies Jesse of an upcoming adventure with Petra. Jesse helps citizens prepare for Founding Day before meeting her. Their meeting place self-destructs to reveal a bottomless pit - where Jesse finds a mysterious gauntlet that gets stuck on his/her hand; but they manage to escape. Petra finds Jack, a hero who can help Jesse remove the gauntlet and the "heckmouth" - the pit. Jack reveals that the gauntlet is tracked to an Ocean Monument, and that a "Structure Block" can close the pit. Jesse convinces Jack to take them and Petra to it. At the monument's centre, the Admin appears and attempts to kill them, however they and their companions escape to where Jesse collects a Structure Block and frees Jack's old friend Vos.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: After Jesse defeats it, the Admin returns and challenges Jesse's group to reclaim the clock (later destroyed by Jack/Petra) in his ice palace, who they then head towards, later joined by Stella and Lluna. However, Vos is revealed to have been the Admin the whole time, and he imprisons Jesse and the person who didn't destroy the clock, while the person who did gets the gauntlet transferred to their hand.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: Jesse resolves with their friends to find "Prisoner X" (later revealed as Xara), who apparently knows how to escape the maze. Jesse opens their cell before they combat whomever destroyed the clock and then with Xara, attack the Admin. Although it fails, they manage to free Petra/Jack from the Admin's control. The group then escapes the prison with Radar in tow.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: Xara then shows them a portal which she repowers, heading to an underground area below the bedrock. Jesse learns more about the Admin, whose name is revealed to be Romeo, and that Romeo, Xara, and their friend Fred once were friends, but a disagreement led to Fred's death and Romeo's corruption. Jesse then has to choose between saving either Radar or the people below the bedrock before escaping.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: After returning home, Jesse, Petra, and Jack come up with a plan to battle the Admin. With Lukas's assistance, they arrive at the "Terminal Space", the home of the Admin. Jesse, Jack, and Petra reaches it and finally Jesse enters it, collects Fred's gauntlet, and defeats Romeo. Jesse then has a choice to either take Romeo back for redemption or leave him to his fate, and if they rescued the people below the bedrock in the previous episode, then Radar arrives to save them, if not, Romeo distracts the monsters for Jesse and his friends to escape. Jesse's final choice involves him either choosing to leave Beacontown and have adventures with Petra or staying as mayor.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: The main "Minecraft: Story Mode" game was separated into five episodes for its first season, released in one month intervals. Three additional episodes were later released.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: In July 2017, the first trailer was released for the second season, along with a release date of July 11.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: The idea for "Minecraft: Story Mode" came around the end of 2012 when Telltale Games was engaged in work for "Tales from the Borderlands", an episodic series based on the "Borderlands" series. The idea of developing stories around other established video game franchises led the team to brainstorm the idea for a "Minecraft"-related game, given that the game was essentially a "blank canvas" for storytelling, according to Job Stauffer, and would create an interesting challenge. The two groups recognized the amount of fan-generated narrative content that existed in the way of YouTube videos and other media forms that demonstrated the potential for storytelling in the game. Many on Telltale's staff were also already fans of "Minecraft", with a private server that they played on, with some of the incidents that occurred on there becoming ideas for the game's story. Telltale began negotiations with Mojang in early 2013 and began work on the title shortly thereafter. Stauffer noted that Microsoft's acquisition of Mojang was not a factor in the game's development, as their interaction with Mojang began well before Microsoft's negotiations.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: Telltale opted to create a new main character of Jesse for "Minecraft: Story Mode" instead of using default "Steve" character from "Minecraft", feeling that they did not want to attempt to rewrite how players already saw this character in the game. Other primary characters in the game are loosely designed around archetypes of common player-characters for "Minecraft", such that those that engage in building, fighting, or griefing other players. The game will not attempt to provide any background for some concepts in "Minecraft", such as the creepers, as to avoid the various interpretations that fans have done for these elements, though they are elements of the game's story.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: Stauffer stated that the game's story would be aimed as family-friendly, similar to the films "The Goonies" or "Ghostbusters"; their intended content would be equivalent to a PG-13 or PEGI-12 rating. A number of the voice actors are alumni of such films of the 1980s such as Corey Feldman who starred in "The Goonies", and the game includes various references to these types of films. Stauffer reflected that while Telltale's more recent games like "The Walking Dead" were more mature stories, their original adventure games like "Sam & Max" and "Strong Bad's Cool Game for Attractive People" were written as family-friendly, and that they consider their approach to "Minecraft: Story Mode" as "part of our DNA". The story was aimed to be accessible to both existing players of "Minecraft" – both novice and advanced players – and to new audiences outside of the game.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: "Minecraft: Story Mode" was formally announced in December 2014 as a collaboration project between Mojang and Telltale; the announcement was presented as an interactive adventure game named "Info Quest II". Its first trailer was released during the MINECON 2015 convention in early July. The game was planned for a five-episode series for release on Android, iOS, Windows, OS X, PlayStation and Xbox consoles in late 2015; Telltale also released the game for the Wii U, only a month after the original "Minecraft" first came to a Nintendo platform. It was also the first time a Telltale title had been released on a Nintendo platform since "". In addition, "Minecraft: Story Mode – The Complete Adventure", incorporating both the main episodes and downloadable content, was announced for the Nintendo Switch.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: The series released for most systems on October 13, 2015, with the PlayStation Vita and Wii U versions to follow at a later date. A season pass of the game was available for purchase on October 27, 2015, which allows the player to access the other four episodes once they are released. Retail versions of the game were released on October 27, 2015.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: Netflix and Telltale signed a partnership in June 2018 for Netflix to offer Telltale's games over the service starting later that year, with "Minecraft: Story Mode" as the first planned title for the service. Amid troubles related to the bankruptcy of Telltale Games in October and November 2018, sufficient staff remained with Telltale to complete work on this version, which was released onto Netflix on November 27 and December 5, 2018. The Netflix series was discontinued on December 5th of 2022.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: The first episode of "Minecraft: Story Mode – Season Two" was released on July 11, 2017, for Windows, macOS, PlayStation 4, Xbox 360, Xbox One, iOS and Android. It continued the story from the first season, with the player's choices affecting elements within "Season Two". Patton Oswalt, Catherine Taber, Ashley Johnson, and Scott Porter were confirmed to continue voicework for the new season. The game supports the new Crowd Play feature that Telltale introduced in "", allowing up to 2,000 audience members to vote on decisions for the player using Twitch or other streaming services.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: On August 3, 2017, Telltale announced that the second episode, "Giant Consequences", would be released on August 15. The rest of the episodes were released on September 19, November 7, and December 19, 2017.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: In November 2018, Telltale Games began the process of closing down the studio due to financial issues. Most of its games started to become delisted from digital storefronts, including "Minecraft: Story Mode". According to GOG.com, they had to pull the title due to "expiring licensing rights". The "Minecraft" team stated that even for those that had purchased the titles before their delisting, the episodes would no longer be downloadable after June 2019. Because the Xbox Live Marketplace does not allow for removing games from sale while at the same time allowing existing owners to download the game, each episode of the game's Xbox 360 version was repriced to in the few weeks ahead of the delisting to deter users from purchasing them.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: Following the closure of Telltale, Antimo, one of the game's composers, has stated that there is currently legal confusion as to where the rights to the soundtrack lies, leading to the soundtrack only being available for streaming on SoundCloud and YouTube, where they were released before the closure of Telltale.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: "Minecraft: Story Mode" features an original soundtrack composed by American duo Antimo & Welles, consisting of Skyler Barto (Antimo) and Andrew Arcadi (Welles). The soundtrack for Season One consists of 42 tracks, while the soundtrack for Season Two has 51 tracks. On December 21, 2018, during the closure of Telltale, the duo released the "Story Mode Archives", an album consisting of 18 unused tracks from the games. Several more tracks were re-released in late 2021.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: "Minecraft: Story Mode" received "mixed or average reviews" from critics, with the Nintendo Switch version earning a weighted average of 67 based on 5 critics.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the Windows version 71/100 based on 25 reviews, the PlayStation 4 version 71/100 based on 23 reviews and the Xbox One version 77/100 based on 13 reviews. On GameRankings, a score of 78.59% was given based on 11 reviews for the Xbox One version, 77.50% for Wii U based on 4 reviews, 73.53% for the PC version based on 16 reviews, and 73.29% for PlayStation 4 based on 21 reviews.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: Metacritic gave the Windows version 59/100 based on 13 reviews, the PlayStation 4 version 53/100 based on 7 reviews and the Xbox One version 61/100 based on 8 reviews.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: Metacritic gave the Windows version 73/100 based on 10 reviews, the PlayStation 4 version 73/100 based on 7 reviews and the Xbox One version 75/100 based on 9 reviews.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: Metacritic gave the Windows version 68/100 based on 8 reviews, the PlayStation 4 version 72/100 based on 8 reviews and the Xbox One version 71/100 based on 8 reviews.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: Metacritic gave the Windows version 70/100 based on 6 reviews, the PlayStation 4 version 72/100 based on 9 reviews and the Xbox One version 69/100 based on 6 reviews.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: Metacritic gave the Windows version 64/100 based on 5 reviews, the PlayStation 4 version 69/100 based on 6 reviews and the Xbox One version 71/100 based on 5 reviews.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: Metacritic gave the Windows version 69/100 based on 4 reviews, the PlayStation 4 version 68/100 based on 6 reviews and the Xbox One version 71/100 based on 5 reviews.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: Metacritic gave the PC version 74/100 based on 8 critics and the PlayStation 4 version a score of 73/100 based on 4 reviews. On GameRankings, the PlayStation 4 version has a rating of 65.00% based on 2 reviews and on the PC version, it has a score of 72.86% based on 7 reviews.


title: Minecraft: Story Mode

text: Metacritic gave the PC version 71/100, based on 8 reviews, and the PlayStation 4 63/100 based on 4 reviews.


title: Varangians

text: The Varangians (; ; , "Várangoi"; Old East Slavic: варяже, varyazhe or варязи, varyazi) were Vikings, conquerors, traders and settlers, mostly from Sweden. Between the 9th and 11th centuries, Varangians ruled the medieval state of Kievan Rus', settled among many territories of modern Belarus, Russia and Ukraine, and formed the Byzantine Varangian Guard which later also included Anglo-Saxons.


title: Varangians

text: According to the 12th-century Kievan "Primary Chronicle", a group of Varangians known as the Rus' settled in Novgorod in 862 under the leadership of Rurik. Before Rurik, the Rus' might have ruled an earlier hypothetical polity named Rus' Khaganate. Rurik's relative Oleg conquered Kiev in 882 and established the state of Kievan Rus', which was later ruled by Rurik's descendants.


title: Varangians

text: Engaging in trade, piracy, and mercenary service, Varangians roamed the river systems and portages of Gardariki, as the areas north of the Black Sea were known in the Norse sagas. They controlled the Volga trade route (between the Varangians and the Muslims), connecting the Baltic to the Caspian Sea and the Dnieper and Dniester trade route (between Varangians and the Greeks) leading to the Black Sea and Constantinople. Those were the main important trade links at that time, connecting Medieval Europe with Abbasid Caliphates and the Byzantine Empire. Most of the silver coinage in the West came from the East via those routes.


title: Varangians

text: Attracted by the riches of Constantinople, the Varangian Rus' began the Rus'-Byzantine Wars, some of which resulted in advantageous trade treaties. At least from the early 10th century, many Varangians served as mercenaries in the Byzantine Army, constituting the elite Varangian Guard (the bodyguards of Byzantine emperors). Eventually most of them, in Byzantium and in Eastern Europe, were converted from Norse paganism to Orthodox Christianity, culminating in the Christianization of Kievan Rus' in 988. Coinciding with the general decline of the Viking Age, the influx of Scandinavians to Rus' stopped and Varangians were gradually assimilated by East Slavs by the late 11th century.


title: Varangians

text: Medieval Greek Βάραγγος "Várangos" and Old East Slavic варягъ "varjagŭ" (Old Church Slavonic варѧгъ "varęgŭ") are derived from Old Norse "væringi", originally a compound of "vár" 'pledge' or 'faith', and "gengi" 'companion', thus meaning 'sworn companion', 'confederate', extended to mean 'a foreigner who has taken service with a new lord by a treaty of fealty to him', or 'protégé'. Some scholars seem to assume a derivation from "vár" with the common suffix "-ing". Yet, this suffix is inflected differently in Old Norse, and furthermore, the word is attested with "-gangia" and cognates in other Germanic languages in the Early Middle Ages, as in Old English "wærgenga", Old Frankish "wargengus" and Langobardic "waregang". The reduction of the second part of the word could be parallel to that seen in Old Norse "foringi" 'leader', correspondent to Old English "foregenga" and Gothic 𐍆𐌰𐌿𐍂𐌰𐌲𐌰𐌲𐌲𐌾𐌰 "fauragaggja" 'steward'.


title: Varangians

text: There are raised stone memorials called runestones throughout Scandinavia of which almost all are found in Sweden. Many date to the Viking Age, and there are many associated with the Varangian Guards. These Varangian runestones commemorate various fallen warriors through carved runes, and mention voyages to the East ("Austr") or the Eastern route ("Austrvegr"), or to more specific eastern locations such as Garðaríki (what is today Russia and Ukraine). The losses that the Varangian Guard suffered are reflected by the largest group of runestones that talk of foreign voyages, such as those known as the Greece Runestones. These were raised by former members of the Varangian Guard, or in their memory. A smaller group consists of the four Italy Runestones which commemorate members of the Varangian Guard who died in southern Italy.


title: Varangians

text: The oldest of the Greece runestones are six stones in the RAK style, which dates to the period before 1015 AD. The group consists of Skepptuna runestone U 358, Västra Ledinge runestone U 518, Nälberga runestone Sö 170 and Eriksstad runestone Sm 46.


title: Varangians

text: One of later runestones in the Pr4 style is Ed runestone U 112, a large boulder at the western shore of the lake of Ed. It tells that Ragnvaldr, the captain of the Varangian Guard, had returned home where he had the inscriptions made in memory of his dead mother.


title: Varangians

text: The youngest runestones, in the Pr5 style, such as Ed runestone U 104 (presently in the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford), are dated to the period 1080–1130, after which runestones became unfashionable.


title: Varangians

text: The Varangians returned home with some influence from Byzantine culture, as exemplified by the Byzantine cross carved on the early eleventh-century Risbyle runestone U 161, and which today is the coat-of-arms of Täby, a trimunicipal locality and the seat of Täby Municipality in Stockholm County, Sweden. The runes were made by the runemaster Viking Ulf of Borresta, see Orkesta runestone U 344, in memory of another Ulf, in Skålhamra, and at the request of the latter's father.


title: Varangians

text: In the 9th century, the Rus' operated the Volga trade route, which connected Northern Rus (Garðaríki) with the Middle East (Serkland). The Volga route declined by the end of the century, and the Dnieper and Dniester routes rapidly overtook it in importance. Apart from Ladoga and Novgorod, Gnyozdovo and Gotland were major centers for Varangian trade.


title: Varangians

text: Having settled Aldeigja (Ladoga) in the 750s, Norse colonists played an important role in the early ethnogenesis of the Rus' people and in the formation of the Rus' Khaganate. The Varangians ("Varyags", in Old East Slavic) are first mentioned by the "Primary Chronicle" as having exacted tribute from the Slavic and Finnic tribes in 859. It was the time of rapid expansion of the Vikings in Northern Europe; England began to pay Danegeld in 859, and the Curonians of Grobin faced an invasion by the Swedes at about the same date.


title: Varangians

text: It has been argued that the word "Varangian", in its many forms, does not appear in primary sources until the eleventh century (though it does appear frequently in later sources describing earlier periods). This suggests that the term "Rus" was used broadly to denote Scandinavians until it became too firmly associated with the subsequent elite of Kievan Rus who assimilated Slavic culture. At that point, the new term "Varangian" was increasingly preferred to name Scandinavians, probably mostly from what is now Sweden, plying the river routes between the Baltic and the Black and Caspian Seas.


title: Varangians

text: Due largely to geographic considerations, it is often argued that most of the Varangians who traveled and settled in the lands of eastern Baltic, modern Russia and lands to the south came from the area of modern Sweden.


title: Varangians

text: The Varangians left rune stones in their native Sweden that tell of their journeys to what is today Russia, Ukraine, Greece, and Belarus. Most of these rune stones can be seen today, and are a telling piece of historical evidence. The Varangian runestones tell of many notable Varangian expeditions, and even account for the fates of individual warriors and travelers.


title: Varangians

text: The Rus' initially appeared in Serkland in the 9th century, traveling as merchants along the Volga trade route, selling furs, honey, and slaves, as well as luxury goods such as amber, Frankish swords, and walrus ivory. These goods were mostly exchanged for Arabic silver coins, called dirhams. Hoards of 9th-century Baghdad-minted silver coins have been found in Sweden, particularly in Gotland. Variations in the size of the coin hoards show that there were phases of increased importation of coins and sometime decades during which very few coins were imported.


title: Varangians

text: The economic relationship between the Rus and the Islamic world developed quickly into a network of trading routes. Initially the Rus founded Staraya Ladoga as the first node from the Baltic to the Caspian Sea and Black Sea. By the end of the 9th century, Staraya Ladoga was replaced as the most important center by Novgorod. From these centers the Rus were able to send their goods as far as Baghdad. Baghdad was the political and cultural center of the Islamic world in the 9th and 10th centuries and the Rus merchants who went there to trade their goods for silver interacted with cultures and goods from the Islamic World, and also from China, India, and North Africa.


title: Varangians

text: The trade between the Rus and the lands south of the Black and Caspian seas made it possible for cultural interactions to take place between the Rus and the Islamic World. The account written by Ibn Fadlan about his 921–922 travels from Baghdad to the capital of the Bulghar kingdom gives details which can reveal the cultural interaction between the two groups. Ibn Fadlan gives a vivid description of the daily habits of the Rus, as well as the only known first-person account of the complicated ship-burning funeral ceremony. Certain details in his account, especially the dialogue of the ceremonies and his personal conversations with Rus individuals, show that the Rus and the Muslims were interested in and fairly knowledgeable about each other's cultures.


title: Varangians

text: The geography of the Volga region and the relative lack of physical wealth available for stealing (compared to targets of Viking raids in the west) made raiding a less important aspect of the Rus/Varangian activities in the East. Some raiding was necessary to gain initial control of the towns and regions that they developed into centers of economic activities. The first small-scale raids took place in the late 9th and early 10th centuries. The Rus' undertook the first large-scale expedition in 913; having arrived on 500 ships, they pillaged Gorgan, in the territory of present-day Iran, and the adjacent areas, taking slaves and goods. On their return, the northern raiders were attacked and defeated by Khazar Muslims in the Volga Delta, and those who escaped were killed by the local tribes on the middle Volga.


title: Varangians

text: During their next expedition in 943, the Rus' captured Barda, the capital of Arran, in the modern-day Republic of Azerbaijan. The Rus' stayed there for several months, killing many inhabitants of the city and amassing substantial plunder. It was only an outbreak of dysentery among the Rus' that forced them to depart with their spoils. Sviatoslav, prince of Kiev, commanded the next attack, which destroyed the Khazar state in 965. Sviatoslav's campaign established Rus' control over the north–south trade routes, helping to alter the demographics of the region. Raids continued through the time period with the last Scandinavian attempt to reestablish the route to the Caspian Sea led by Ingvar the Far-Travelled in 1041. While there, Varangians took part in the Georgian-Byzantine Battle of Sasireti in Georgia (1042).


title: Varangians

text: The earliest Byzantine record of the Rus' may have been written prior to 842. It is preserved in the Greek "Life of St. George of Amastris", which speaks of a raid that had extended into Paphlagonia. Contemporary Byzantine presence of the Rus' is mentioned in the Frankish Annals of St. Bertin. These relate that a delegation from the court of the Byzantine emperor visited Frankish Emperor Louis the Pious at his court in Ingelheim in 839. In this delegation were two men who called themselves Rhos ("Rhos vocari dicebant"). Louis enquired about their origins and learnt that they were Swedes. Fearing that they were spies for their brothers, the Danes, he incarcerated them.


title: Varangians

text: In 860, the Rus' under Askold and Dir launched their first attack on Constantinople from Kiev. The result of this attack is disputed, but the Varangians continued their efforts as they regularly sailed on their monoxyla down the Dnieper into the Black Sea. The Rus' raids into the Caspian Sea were recorded by Muslim authors in the 870s and in 910, 912, 913, 943, and later. Although the Rus' had predominantly peaceful trading relations with the Byzantines, the rulers of Kiev launched the relatively successful naval expedition of 907 and the abortive campaign of 941 against Constantinople, as well as the large-scale invasion of the Balkans by Sviatoslav I in 968–971.


title: Varangians

text: In 1043, Yaroslav sent his son Vladimir to attack Constantinople. The Byzantines destroyed the attacking vessels and defeated Vladimir


title: Varangians

text: These raids were successful in forcing the Byzantines to re-arrange their trading arrangements; militarily, the Varangians were usually defeated by the superior Byzantine forces, especially in the sea due to Byzantine use of Greek fire.


title: Varangians

text: The Varangian Guard (Greek: Τάγμα των Βαράγγων, "Tágma tōn Varángōn") were a part of Byzantine Army and personal bodyguards of the Byzantine emperors from the 10th to the 14th centuries. Initially the guard was composed of Varangians who came from Kievan Rus'.


title: Varangians

text: Immigrants from Scandinavia (predominantly immigrants from Sweden but also elements from Denmark and Norway) kept an almost entirely Norse cast to the organization until the late 11th century. According to the late Swedish historian Alf Henrikson in his book "Svensk Historia" ("History of Sweden"), the Norse Varangian guardsmen were recognised by long hair, a red ruby set in the left ear and ornamented dragons sewn on their chainmail shirts.


title: Varangians

text: In these years, Swedish men left to enlist in the Byzantine Varangian Guard in such numbers that a medieval Swedish law, Västgötalagen, from Västergötland declared no one could inherit while staying in "Greece"—the then Scandinavian term for the Byzantine Empire—to stop the emigration, especially as two other European courts simultaneously also recruited Scandinavians: Kievan Rus' c. 980–1060 and London 1018–1066 (the Þingalið).


title: Varangians

text: Composed primarily of Scandinavians for the first hundred years, the guard increasingly included Anglo-Saxons after the successful Norman Conquest of England. By the time of Emperor Alexios Komnenos in the late 11th century, the Varangian Guard was largely recruited from Anglo-Saxons and "others who had suffered at the hands of the Vikings and their cousins the Normans". The Anglo-Saxons and other Germanic peoples shared with the Vikings a tradition of faithful, oath-bound service (to death if necessary), and after the Norman Conquest of England there were many fighting men, who had lost their lands and former masters, looking for a living elsewhere.


title: Varangians

text: The Varangian Guard not only provided security for Byzantine emperors but participated in many wars involving Byzantium and often played a crucial role, since it was usually employed at critical moments of battle. By the late 13th century, Varangians were mostly ethnically assimilated by Byzantines, though the guard operated until at least the mid-14th century, and in 1400 there were still some people identifying themselves as "Varangians" in Constantinople.


title: Doom metal

text: Doom metal is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music that typically uses slower tempos, low-tuned guitars and a much "thicker" or "heavier" sound than other heavy metal genres. Both the music and the lyrics are intended to evoke a sense of despair, dread, and impending doom. The genre is strongly influenced by the early work of Black Sabbath, who formed a prototype for doom metal. During the first half of the 1980s, a number of bands such as Witchfinder General and Pagan Altar from England, American bands Pentagram, Saint Vitus, the Obsessed, Trouble, and Cirith Ungol, and Swedish band Candlemass defined doom metal as a distinct genre.


title: Doom metal

text: The electric guitar, bass guitar, and drum kit are the most common instruments used to play doom metal (although keyboards are sometimes used), but its structures are rooted in the same scales as in blues. Guitarists and bassists often down tune their instruments to very low notes and make use of large amounts of distortion, thus producing a very "thick" or "heavy" guitar tone, which is one of the defining characteristics of the genre. Along with the usual heavy metal compositional technique of guitars and bass playing the same riff in unison, this creates a loud and bass-heavy wall of sound. Another defining characteristic is the consistent focus on slow tempos, and minor tonality with much use of dissonance (especially in the form of the tritone), employing the usage of repetitive rhythms with little regard to harmonic progression and musical structure.


title: Doom metal

text: Traditional doom metal vocalists favor clean vocals, which are often performed with a sense of despair, desperation, or pain; imitating the high-tone wails of Ozzy Osbourne (Black Sabbath), Frank Ferrara (Bang), Bobby Liebling (Pentagram), and Zeeb Parkes (Witchfinder General). So-called "epic doom" vocalists often take it a step further, singing in an operatic style. Doom metal bands influenced by other extreme metal genres often use growled or screamed vocals, as is the case of death-doom, black-doom, and funeral doom.


title: Doom metal

text: Lyrics in doom metal play a key role. Influenced by notable blues musicians like Robert Johnson and Son House, normally they are gloomy and pessimistic, including themes such as suffering, depression, fear, grief, dread, death, and anger. While some bands write lyrics in introspective and personal ways, others convey their themes using symbolism – which may be inspired by occult arts and literature.


title: Doom metal

text: Some doom metal bands use religious themes in their music. Trouble, one of the genre's pioneers, were among the first to incorporate Christian imagery. Others have incorporated occult and pagan imagery. For many bands, the use of religious themes is for aesthetic and symbolic purposes only. Examples include lyrics/imagery about the Last Judgment to invoke dread, or the use of crucifixes and cross-shaped headstones to symbolize death.


title: Doom metal

text: Furthermore, some doom metal bands write lyrics about drugs or drug addiction. This is most common among stoner doom bands, who often describe hallucinogenic or psychedelic experiences.


title: Doom metal

text: The first traces of doom in rock music could be heard as far back as The Beatles' 1969 track "I Want You (She's So Heavy)". Black Sabbath is generally regarded as being the progenitors of doom metal. Black Sabbath's music is (in and of) itself stylistically rooted in blues, but with the deliberately doomy and loud guitar playing of Tony Iommi, and the then-uncommon dark and pessimistic lyrics and atmosphere, they set the standards of early heavy metal and inspired various doom metal bands. In the early 1970s, both Black Sabbath and Pentagram (also as side band "Bedemon") composed and performed this heavy and dark music, which would in the 1980s begin to be known and referred to as "doom metal" by subsequent musicians, critics and fans. Bobby Liebling, Pentagram's vocalist, also cite bands like Black Widow, Night Sun, Iron Claw, Toe Fat and Taste as pionners of the doom metal sound.


title: Doom metal

text: Aside from Pentagram and Black Sabbath, other groups from the 1970s would heavily influence the genre's development. Blue Cheer is often hailed as one of the first stoner metal bands. Through the use of loud amplifiers and guitar feedback, their debut "Vincebus Eruptum" created a template for other artists to follow. Though lacking the pessimistic lyrical content of their contemporaries, Welsh heavy metal band Budgie would also produce heavy songs which were amongst the loudest of their day, stylistically influencing various doom metal acts. Led Zeppelin's No Quarter is considered as one of the earliest examples of a doom metal song made by a rock band. Early doom metal was also influenced by Japan's Flower Travellin' Band, particularly their albums "Kirikyogen" and "Satori". Bang's 1971 self-titled debut is considered an important forerunner to doom metal. Other notable groups include Sir Lord Baltimore, Buffalo, Necromandus, Lucifer's Friend, and Leaf Hound.


title: Doom metal

text: During the early-mid-1980s, bands from England and the United States contributed much to the formation of doom metal as a distinct genre. In 1982, English pioneers Witchfinder General released their debut album "Death Penalty". During 1984, two American pioneers also released their debuts—Saint Vitus released their eponymous album and Trouble released "Psalm 9". That same year, American band Cirith Ungol (formed in 1971) released their second studio album, "King of the Dead"—regarded by many as an early influence on doom. The following year, American band Pentagram would go on to release their debut, "Relentless". The Swedish Candlemass would also prove influential with their first record "Epicus Doomicus Metallicus" in 1986, from which epic doom metal takes its name.


title: Doom metal

text: Some doom metal bands were also influenced by the underground gothic rock and post-punk scene of the 1980s, showing similarities with the dark themes addressed through lyrics and the atmosphere both music styles deal with. A doom metal band like Mindrot was often described as a cross-over between death metal and gothic rock.


title: Doom metal

text: Like other extreme metal genres, doom metal also has regionally based scenes, with their own particular characteristics:


title: Doom metal

text: In one of the greatest doom metal outputs, Finnish groups focus more on the depressive mood of the genre, evoking an intense grieving feeling. The bands play with very slow tempos and melodic tones, creating an atmosphere of darkness and melancholia. This scene was kick-started by the band Rigor Mortis (which, due to an older US band with the same name, changed their name to Spiritus Mortis), which originated in 1987. Notable bands include Reverend Bizarre, Minotauri, Dolorian, Shape of Despair, Thergothon, Skepticism, and Unholy.


title: Doom metal

text: Regarded as sludge metal's birthplace by "Allmusic", this scene originated in New Orleans in the late 1980s. The bands of this scene employ some punk influences, like harsh vocals, guitar distortion and downtuned sound. This scene was pioneered by Exhorder, who was the first band to combine doom metal with a punk-influenced metal sound. In the 90s, several sludge and stoner metal bands arose in the state, mainly influenced by bands like Black Sabbath and Melvins, also mixing their sound with genres like hardcore punk and Southern rock. Notable bands include Eyehategod, Down Exhorder, Crowbar, and Acid Bath.


title: Doom metal

text: This scene formed in the early 1970s and was kickstarted by Pentagram and the Obsessed. Various doom/stoner bands, mostly from Washington, D.C. and its metropolitan area on Maryland and Virginia (thus also being labelled ""Maryland doom sound""), formed in this region being heavily influenced by early hard rock and heavy metal bands, like UFO, Blue Cheer, Black Sabbath, Uriah Heep and Sir Lord Baltimore. This scene is also known as ""Hellhound sound"" for being closely related to the late Hellhound Records, who signed with many important bands of the scene like Saint Vitus, Internal Void, Iron Man, Revelation, Wretched and Unorthodox. Other notable bands include Evoken, Spirit Caravan, Earthride, and the Hidden Hand.


title: Doom metal

text: The Pacific Northwest region – primarily Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia – has been host to a growing scene of doom, sludge, and stoner metal since the 1990s. It is influenced by the geographical origin of grunge music and a sound pioneered in part by the Washington band Melvins. Common visual themes include the region's cold, rainy, forested climate, and many bands utilize psychedelic imagery influenced by bands like Sleep, Karp and Harkonen. Musical styles often share crossover features with atmospheric/ambient black metal, drone metal, and post-metal as seen in Oregon's YOB, Agalloch, Witch Mountain, and Red Fang; Washington's Earth, and Sunn O))); and Vancouver's Anciients, Astrakhan, and Aaron Turner project Sumac, among various others.


title: Doom metal

text: Palm Desert, California, hosts a thriving desert rock and stoner metal scene, drawing heavy influences from psychedelia, blues and hardcore punk, often featuring distinctive repetitive drum beats, a propensity for free-form jamming, and "trance-like" or "sludgy" grooves. Because of their integration, the term "stoner rock" is sometimes used interchangeably with the term "desert rock". Notable bands include Kyuss, Queens of the Stone Age, Dali's Llama, Slo Burn, and Brant Bjork.


title: Doom metal

text: Black-doom, also known as blackened doom, is a style that combines the slowness and thicker, bassier sound of doom metal with the shrieking vocals and heavily distorted guitar sound of black metal. Black-doom bands maintain the Satanic ideology associated with black metal, while melding it with moodier themes more related to doom metal, like depression, nihilism, and nature. They also use the slower pace of doom metal in order to emphasize the harsh atmosphere present in black metal. Examples of black-doom bands include Barathrum, Forgotten Tomb, Woods of Ypres, Deinonychus, Shining, Nortt, Bethlehem, early Katatonia, Tiamat, Dolorian, October Tide, and In the Woods...


title: Doom metal

text: Pioneered by black-doom bands like Opthalamia, Katatonia, Bethlehem, Forgotten Tomb, and Shining, depressive suicidal black metal, also known as suicidal black metal, depressive black metal, or DSBM, is a style that melds the second wave-style of black metal with doom metal, with lyrics revolving around themes such as depression, self-harm, misanthrophy, suicide, and death. DSBM bands draw the lo-fi recording and highly distorted guitars of black metal, while employing the usage of acoustic instruments and non-distorted electric guitar's timbres present in doom metal, interchanging the slower, doom-like, sections with faster tremolo picking. Vocals are usually high-pitched like in black metal, but lacking of energy, simulating feelings like hopelessness, desperation, and plea. The presence of one-man bands is more proeminent in this genre compared to others. Examples of bands include Xasthur, Leviathan, Strid, Silencer, Make a Change... Kill Yourself, and I Shalt Become.


title: Doom metal

text: Blackened death-doom is a genre that combines the slow tempos and monolithic drumming of doom metal, the complex and loud riffage of death metal and the shrieking vocals of black metal. Examples of blackened death-doom bands include Morast, Faustcoven, the Ruins of Beverast, Bolzer, Necros Christos, Harvest Gulgaltha, Dragged into Sunlight, Hands of Thieves, and Soulburn.


title: Doom metal

text: Death-doom is a style that combines the slow tempos and pessimistic atmosphere of doom metal with the deep growling vocals and double-kick drumming of death metal.<ref name="Doom Metal Special: Doom/Death Terrorizer #142">"Doom Metal Special: Doom/Death", "Terrorizer #142".</ref> Influenced mostly by the early work of Hellhammer and Celtic Frost, the style emerged during the late 1980s and gained a certain amount of popularity during the 1990s. Death-doom was pioneered by bands such as Winter, Disembowelment, Paradise Lost, Autopsy, Anathema, My Dying Bride and Novembers Doom.


title: Doom metal

text: Funeral doom is a genre that crosses death-doom with funeral dirge music. It is played at an extremely slow tempo, and places an emphasis on evoking a sense of emptiness and despair. Typically, electric guitars are heavily distorted and dark ambient aspects such as keyboards or synthesizers are often used to create a "dreamlike" atmosphere. Vocals consist of mournful chants or growls and are often in the background. Funeral doom was pioneered by Mournful Congregation, Esoteric, Evoken, Funeral, Thergothon, and Skepticism.


title: Doom metal

text: Drone metal (also known as drone doom) is a style of doom metal that is largely defined by drones; notes or chords that are sustained and repeated throughout a piece of music. Typically, the electric guitar is performed with large amounts of reverb and feedback while lacking the presence of drums and vocals. Songs are often very long and lack beat or rhythm in the traditional sense. Drone metal is generally influenced by drone music, noise music, and minimalist music. The style emerged in the early 1990s and was pioneered by Earth, Boris, and Sunn O))).


title: Doom metal

text: Epic doom has a heavy classical influence. One of the main characteristics are the vocals; vocalists typically employ clean, operatic, and choral singing, accompanied by keyboarding and drumming performed in a bombastic fashion in order to evoke an "epic" sensation. Lyrics and imagery are typically inspired by fantasy or mythology. Examples of prominent epic doom bands include Candlemass, Solitude Aeturnus, Solstice, While Heaven Wept, and Doomsword.


title: Doom metal

text: Gothic-doom, also known as doom-gothic, is a style that combines more traditional elements of doom metal with gothic rock. Gothic-doom bands usually play at slow and mid-tempos and employ the usage of instruments that are more related to classical music, alongside traditional doom metal instruments, in order to create darker and meditative atmospheres. Doom-gothic lyrics combines the dramatic and romantic elements of gothic rock with the sorrowness and melancholy present in doom metal, while being more introspective and focused on personal experiences such as love, grief, irreparable loss, loss of faith, etc. Unlike in gothic metal and death-doom, gothic-doom bands prefer the use of cleaner vocals instead of employing death growls, although some of them employ harsher vocals occasionally, and avoid the usage of death metal-like riffage. Bands labelled as gothic-doom include Weeping Silence, the Foreshadowing, Grave Lines, Artrosis, Ava Inferi, Draconian, and Type O Negative.


title: Doom metal

text: Progressive doom is a fusion genre that combines elements of progressive metal and doom metal. Notable bands include King Goat, Below the Sun, Sierra, Oceans of Slumber, and Green Carnation.


title: Doom metal

text: Sludge metal (also known as sludge doom) is a style that combines doom metal and hardcore punk. Many sludge bands compose slow and heavy songs that contain brief hardcore passages. However, some bands emphasise fast tempos throughout their music. The string instruments are heavily distorted and are often played with large amounts of feedback to produce an abrasive, sludgy sound. Drumming is often performed in typical doom metal fashion, but drummers may employ hardcore d-beat or double-kick drumming during faster passages. Vocals are usually shouted or screamed, and lyrics often focus on suffering, drug abuse, politics and anger towards society. The style was pioneered in the early late 1980s by the Melvins, and in the 1990s by bands such as Eyehategod, Crowbar, Buzzov*en, Acid Bath, and Grief.


title: Doom metal

text: Sludgecore further combines sludge metal with hardcore punk, and possesses a slow pace, a low and dark pitch, and a grinding dirge-like feel. Bands regarded as sludgecore include Acid Bath, Eyehategod, and Soilent Green, Crowbar mixed "detuned, lethargic sludged-out metal with hardcore and southern elements".


title: Doom metal

text: Stoner metal or stoner doom describes doom metal that incorporates psychedelic rock and acid rock elements. Stoner metal is often heavily distorted, groove-laden bass-heavy sound, making much use of guitar effects such as fuzz, phaser, or flanger. Stoner bands typically play in slow-to-mid tempo, employing the usage of melodic vocals and "retro" production. It was pioneered in the early–mid-1990s by bands such as Kyuss, Sleep, Acid King, Electric Wizard, Orange Goblin, and Sons of Otis.


title: Doom metal

text: Desert rock combines the psychedelic elements of stoner metal with hard rock characteristics. Bands of this style include Kyuss, Fu Manchu, Queens of the Stone Age, Earthlings? and Yawning Man.


title: Doom metal

text: Influenced by 70s and 80s heavy metal, traditional doom metal bands more commonly use higher guitar tunings, and do not play as slow as many other doom bands. Traditional doom bands typically play slow to mid-tempo songs with a thick and heavy sound with the electric bass following the melody line, and sometimes employ the usage of keyboards, although assuming a secondary role on traditional doom metal songs. Vocals are usually clean with the occasional growl or scream. The lyrics in traditional doom usually are eerie and dark like other doom metal divisions. Some bands who play traditional doom metal are Orodruin, Reverend Bizarre, Witchcraft, Saint Vitus, and Count Raven.


title: Vehicle

text: A vehicle (from ) is a machine that transports people or cargo. Vehicles include wagons, bicycles, motor vehicles (motorcycles, cars, trucks, buses, mobility scooters for disabled people), railed vehicles (trains, trams), watercraft (ships, boats, underwater vehicles), amphibious vehicles (screw-propelled vehicles, hovercraft), aircraft (airplanes, helicopters, aerostats) and spacecraft.


title: Vehicle

text: Land vehicles are classified broadly by what is used to apply steering and drive forces against the ground: wheeled, tracked, railed or skied. ISO 3833-1977 is the standard, also internationally used in legislation, for road vehicles types, terms and definitions.


title: Vehicle

text: There are over 1 billion bicycles in use worldwide. In 2002 there were an estimated 590 million cars and 205 million motorcycles in service in the world. At least 500 million Chinese Flying Pigeon bicycles have been made, more than any other single model of vehicle. The most-produced model of motor vehicle is the Honda Super Cub motorcycle, having passed 60 million units in 2008. The most-produced car model is the Toyota Corolla, with at least 35 million made by 2010. The most common fixed-wing airplane is the Cessna 172, with about 44,000 having been made as of 2017. The Soviet Mil Mi-8, at 17,000, is the most-produced helicopter. The top commercial jet airliner is the Boeing 737, at about 10,000 in 2018. At around 14,000 for both, the most produced trams are the KTM-5 and Tatra T3. The most common trolleybus is ZiU-9.


title: Vehicle

text: Locomotion consists of a means that allows displacement with little opposition, a power source to provide the required kinetic energy and a means to control the motion, such as a brake and steering system. By far, most vehicles use wheels which employ the principle of rolling to enable displacement with very little rolling friction.


title: Vehicle

text: It is essential that a vehicle have a source of energy to drive it. Energy can be extracted from external sources, as in the cases of a sailboat, a solar-powered car, or an electric streetcar that uses overhead lines. Energy can also be stored, provided it can be converted on demand and the storing medium's energy density and power density are sufficient to meet the vehicle's needs.


title: Vehicle

text: Human power is a simple source of energy that requires nothing more than humans. Despite the fact that humans cannot exceed for meaningful amounts of time, the land speed record for human-powered vehicles (unpaced) is , as of 2009 on a recumbent bicycle.


title: Vehicle

text: The most common type of energy source is fuel. External combustion engines can use almost anything that burns as fuel, whilst internal combustion engines and rocket engines are designed to burn a specific fuel, typically gasoline, diesel or ethanol.


title: Vehicle

text: Another common medium for storing energy is batteries, which have the advantages of being responsive, useful in a wide range of power levels, environmentally friendly, efficient, simple to install, and easy to maintain. Batteries also facilitate the use of electric motors, which have their own advantages. On the other hand, batteries have low energy densities, short service life, poor performance at extreme temperatures, long charging times, and difficulties with disposal (although they can usually be recycled). Like fuel, batteries store chemical energy and can cause burns and poisoning in event of an accident. Batteries also lose effectiveness with time. The issue of charge time can be resolved by swapping discharged batteries with charged ones; however, this incurs additional hardware costs and may be impractical for larger batteries. Moreover, there must be standard batteries for battery swapping to work at a gas station. Fuel cells are similar to batteries in that they convert from chemical to electrical energy, but have their own advantages and disadvantages.


title: Vehicle

text: Electrified rails and overhead cables are a common source of electrical energy on subways, railways, trams, and trolleybuses.


title: Vehicle

text: Solar energy is a more modern development, and several solar vehicles have been successfully built and tested, including Helios, a solar-powered aircraft.


title: Vehicle

text: Nuclear power is a more exclusive form of energy storage, currently limited to large ships and submarines, mostly military. Nuclear energy can be released by a nuclear reactor, nuclear battery, or repeatedly detonating nuclear bombs. There have been two experiments with nuclear-powered aircraft, the Tupolev Tu-119 and the Convair X-6.


title: Vehicle

text: Mechanical strain is another method of storing energy, whereby an elastic band or metal spring is deformed and releases energy as it is allowed to return to its ground state. Systems employing elastic materials suffer from hysteresis, and metal springs are too dense to be useful in many cases.


title: Vehicle

text: Flywheels store energy in a spinning mass. Because a light and fast rotor is energetically favorable, flywheels can pose a significant safety hazard. Moreover, flywheels leak energy fairly quickly and affect a vehicle's steering through the gyroscopic effect. They have been used experimentally in gyrobuses.


title: Vehicle

text: Wind energy is used by sailboats and land yachts as the primary source of energy. It is very cheap and fairly easy to use, the main issues being dependence on weather and upwind performance. Balloons also rely on the wind to move horizontally. Aircraft flying in the jet stream may get a boost from high altitude winds.


title: Vehicle

text: Compressed gas is currently an experimental method of storing energy. In this case, compressed gas is simply stored in a tank and released when necessary. Like elastics, they have hysteresis losses when gas heats up during compression.