title: Batgirl

text: Schwartz stated that he had been asked to develop a new female character in order to attract a female viewership to the "Batman" television series of the 1960s. Executive producer William Dozier suggested that the new character would be the daughter of Gotham City's Police Commissioner James Gordon, and that she would adopt the identity of Batgirl. When Dozier and producer Howie Horowitz saw rough concept artwork of the new Batgirl by artist Carmine Infantino during a visit to DC offices, they optioned the character in a bid to help sell a third season to the ABC television network. Infantino reflected on the creation of Batgirl, stating "Bob Kane had had a Bat-Girl for about three stories in the ’50s but she had nothing to do with a bat. She was like a pesky girl version of Robin. I knew we could do a lot better, so Julie and I came up with the real Batgirl, who was so popular she almost got her own TV show." Yvonne Craig portrayed the character in the show's third season. Barbara Gordon and her alter ego Batgirl debuted in "Detective Comics" #359, "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" (1967). In the debut story, while driving to a costume ball dressed as a female version of Batman, Barbara Gordon intervenes in a kidnapping attempt on Bruce Wayne by the supervillain Killer Moth, attracting Batman's attention and leading to a crimefighting career. Although Batman insists she give up crimefighting because of her gender, Batgirl disregards his objections.


title: Batgirl

text: In her civilian identity, Dr. Barbara Gordon Ph.D. is depicted as a career woman with a doctorate in library science, as well as being head of the Gotham City Public Library, "presumably one of the largest public libraries in the DC Comics version of reality." She was given a regular back-up slot in "Detective Comics" starting with issue #384 (February 1969), alternating issues with Robin until issue #404, after which she had the back-up slot to herself. Frank Robbins wrote nearly all of these back-ups, which were penciled first by Gil Kane and later by Don Heck. Barbara Gordon's Batgirl exceeded the earlier Bat-Girl and Batwoman characters in popularity, and readers requested for her to appear in other titles. Although some readers requested that Batwoman also continue to appear in publication, DC responded to the fan-based acclaim and criticism of the new character in an open letter in "Detective Comics" #417 (1971), stating: "I'd like to say a few words about the reaction some readers have to Batgirl. These are readers who remember Batwoman and the other Bat-girls from years back ... They were there because romance seemed to be needed in Batman's life. But thanks to the big change and a foresighted editor, these hapless females are gone for good. In their place stands a girl who is a capable crime-fighter, a far cry from Batwoman who constantly had to be rescued [by] Batman."


title: Batgirl

text: Batgirl continued to appear in DC Comics publications throughout the late 1960s and 1970s as a supporting character in "Detective Comics", in addition to guest appearances in various titles such as "Justice League of America", "World's Finest Comics",


title: Batgirl

text: In the early-1970s, Batgirl reveals her secret identity to her father (who had already discovered it on his own) and serves as a member of the United States House of Representatives. She moves to Washington, D.C., intending to give up her career as Batgirl, and in June 1972 appeared in a story entitled "Batgirl's Last Case." Julius Schwartz brought her back a year later in "Superman" #268 (1973) in which she has a blind date with Clark Kent, establishing their friendship, and fights alongside Superman. Batgirl and Superman team up twice more, in "Superman" #279 and "DC Comics Presents" #19. Batgirl also guest-starred in other Superman related titles, such as #453 of "Adventure Comics" and in "Superman Family" #171, where she teams up with Supergirl.


title: Batgirl

text: The character is given a starring role in DC's "Batman Family" comic book which debuted in 1975. The original Robin, Dick Grayson, became her partner in the series, with the two frequently referred to as the "Dynamite Duo: Batgirl & Robin". Batgirl meets Batwoman in "Batman Family" #10, when the retired superhero briefly returns to crimefighting (before the Bronze Tiger murders Kane). The two fight Killer Moth and the Cavalier, and learn each other's secret identities. Batwoman retires once again at the conclusion of the story, leaving Batgirl to continue crimefighting. Although this series ended after three years of publication, Batgirl continued to appear in back-up stories published in "Detective Comics" through issue #519 (October 1982).


title: Batgirl

text: "Crisis on Infinite Earths", a limited series published in 1985, was written in order to reduce the complex history of DC Comics to a single continuity. Although Batgirl is a featured character, her role is relatively small—she delivers Supergirl's eulogy in issue #7 of the 12-part series. The conclusion of "Crisis on Infinite Earths" changed DC Universe continuity in many ways. Following the reboot, Barbara Gordon is born to Roger and Thelma Gordon, and she is Jim Gordon's niece and adopted daughter in post - crisis continuity. Post-"Crisis", Supergirl does not arrive on Earth until after Gordon has established herself as Oracle, and many of the adventures she shared with Batgirl are retroactively described as having been experienced by Power Girl. In "Secret Origins" (vol. 2) #20 (1987), Barbara Gordon's origin is rebooted by author Barbara Randal. Within the storyline, Gordon recounts the series of events that led to her career as Batgirl, including her first encounter with Batman as a child, studying martial arts under the tutelage of a sensei, memorizing maps and blueprints of the city, excelling in academics in order to skip grades, and pushing herself to become a star athlete.


title: Batgirl

text: DC officially retired the hero in the one-shot comic "Batgirl Special" #1 (July 1988), written by Barbara Kesel. Later that year, she appears in Alan Moore's "Batman: The Killing Joke". In this graphic novel, the Joker shoots and paralyzes Barbara Gordon in an attempt to drive her father insane, thereby proving to Batman that anyone can lose their minds after having "one bad day". She is deployed as a plot device to cement the Joker's vendetta against Commissioner Gordon and Batman. In 2006, during an interview with "Wizard", Moore expressed regret over his treatment of the character, calling it "shallow and ill-conceived". He stated prior to writing the graphic novel, "I asked DC if they had any problem with me crippling Barbara Gordon—who was Batgirl at the time—and if I remember, I spoke to Len Wein, who was our editor on the project", and following a discussion with then-Executive Editorial Director Dick Giordano, "Len got back onto the phone and said, ‘Yeah, okay, cripple the bitch.'"


title: Batgirl

text: Although there has been speculation as to whether or not editors at DC specifically intended to have the character's paralysis become permanent, Brian Cronin, author of "Was Superman A Spy?: And Other Comic Book Legends Revealed" (2009) noted that DC had hired Barbara Kesel to write the "Batgirl Special" specifically to retire the character and set her in place for "The Killing Joke". Gail Simone included the character's paralysis in a list of "major female characters that had been killed, mutilated, and depowered", dubbing the phenomenon "Women in Refrigerators" in reference to a 1994 Green Lantern story where the title character discovers his girlfriend's mutilated body in his refrigerator. Following the release of the graphic novel, comic book editor and writer Kim Yale discussed how distasteful she found the treatment of Barbara Gordon with her husband, fellow comic writer John Ostrander. Rather than allow the character to fall into obscurity, the two decided to revive her as a character living with a disability—the information broker called the Oracle.


title: Batgirl

text: Eleven years after the editorial retirement of Barbara Gordon as Batgirl, a new version of the character was introduced in "Batman: Shadow of the Bat" #83 during the multi-title story arc "No Man's Land" (1999). In "" #120 (1999), the new Batgirl is revealed to be Helena Bertinelli, an established DC comics superhero alternatively known as the Huntress. Bertinelli is eventually forced to abandon the mantle by Batgirl. "No Man's Land" also marks the introduction of Cassandra Cain in "Batman" #567 (1999). Depicted as a martial arts child prodigy, Cassandra Cain is written as a young woman of partly Asian descent who succeeds Helena Bertinelli as Batgirl, with the approval of both Batman and the Oracle.


title: Batgirl

text: The first "Batgirl" monthly comic was published in 2000, with Cassandra Cain as the title character. Raised by assassin David Cain, Cassandra Cain was not taught spoken language, but instead was taught to "read" physical movement. Subsequently, Cain's only form of communication was body language. The parts of the character's brain normally used for speech were trained so Cain could read other people's body language and predict, with uncanny accuracy, their next move. This also caused her brain to develop learning functions different from most, a form of dyslexia that hampers her abilities to read and write.


title: Batgirl

text: Despite Cain's disability, author Andersen Gabrych describes the character's unique form of language as the key factor in what makes Cain an excellent detective; the ability to walk into a room and "know" something is wrong based on body language. During the first arc of the "Batgirl" comic book series entitled "Silent Running", Cassandra Cain encounters a psychic who "reprograms" her brain, enabling her to comprehend verbal language, while simultaneously losing the ability to predict movements. This issue is resolved during the second arc of the series, "A Knight Alone", when Batgirl encounters the assassin Lady Shiva who agrees to teach her how to predict movement once again. Six years after its debut, DC Comics cancelled the "Batgirl" comic book series with issue #73 (2006), ending with Cain relinquishing her role as Batgirl.


title: Batgirl

text: When DC Comics continuity skipped forward one year after the events of the limited series "Infinite Crisis", Cassandra Cain is revived as the leader of the League of Assassins, having abandoned her previous characterization as an altruist. The character's progression from hero to villain angered some of her fans and was accompanied by heavy criticism. Cain reprised her role as Batgirl in the "Titans East" (2007) storyline of "Teen Titans", where it was discovered that she had been influenced by a mind-altering drug administered by supervillain Deathstroke the Terminator. Following the conclusion of the storyline, DC Comics has restored Cain's original characterization as a superhero and the character has been given a supporting role in the comic book series "Batman and the Outsiders".


title: Batgirl

text: Following the events of , Cassandra, acting under her mentor's orders in the event of his death, handed over the Batgirl mantle to Stephanie Brown, the former Spoiler and Robin. After declining an offer from Tim Drake to reclaim the Batgirl mantle from Stephanie, Cassandra rejoined the Batman Family under the new identity of the Blackbat. She currently acts as the Hong Kong representative of Batman Inc.


title: Batgirl

text: Stephanie Brown, formerly the Spoiler and briefly the fourth Robin, takes up the mantle of Batgirl after Cassandra Cain gives Brown her costume under Batman's orders. Eventually, Barbara Gordon approves of Brown as her newest successor — and she gives Brown her own Batgirl costume and becomes her mentor for a period. Brown is the fourth in-continuity Batgirl and the second Batgirl to star in her own ongoing "Batgirl" comic book series.


title: Batgirl

text: In September 2011, following the company-wide relaunch, Barbara Gordon stars in a new "Batgirl" series—one of "The New 52" titles featuring the company's most iconic characters. The conclusion of the limited series "Flashpoint" (2011) establishes a new continuity within the DC Universe, with all characters regressing to an earlier age and stage in their careers, while remaining in a modern timeline. DC Senior VP of Sales, Bob Wayne, explained that with each of their titles reverting to issue #1, "our creative teams have the ability to take a more modern approach—not only with each character, but with how the characters interact with one another and the universe as a whole, and focus on the earlier part of the careers of each of our iconic characters." Barbara Gordon is biological daughter of James Gordon and Barbara Eileen Gordon in this continuity. Wayne also stated that ""The Killing Joke" still happened and she was Oracle. Now she will go through physical rehabilitation and become a more seasoned and nuanced character because she had these incredible and diverse experiences. Dan DiDio, Co-Publisher of DC Comics explained the decision by stating that "she'll always be the most recognizable [Batgirl]." Series writer Gail Simone stated: "For many years, I got to write the character as Oracle, and there is to this day, no character who means more to me. This is classic Barbara as she was originally conceived, with a few big surprises. It's a bit of a shock, to be sure, but we’re doing everything we can to be respectful to this character's amazing legacy, while presenting something thrilling that a generation of comics readers will be experiencing for the first time ...Barbara Gordon leaping, fighting, and swinging over Gotham. Now, when citizens of that city look up, they are going to see BATGIRL. And that is absolutely thrilling."


title: Batgirl

text: In the new, revised continuity, the events of "The Killing Joke" took place three years before the current storyline, and while it is established she was paraplegic during that time, Barbara Gordon is written as having regained her mobility after undergoing experimental surgery at a South African clinic. Although she resumes her work as Batgirl one year after her recovery, she continues to suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder, causing her to hesitate in battle when exposed to gunfire that could result in suffering new spinal damage. The character also exhibits survivor guilt due to the fact she has made a full recovery from her paralysis while others have not. Series writer Gail Simone stated that while the character is "one of the smartest and toughest women in comics ...One thing the book is truly about, is that the after-effects of something like PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder) or other trauma-related syndromes, can strike even very smart, very intellectually tough people, even soldiers and cops", a subject that is generally overlooked in comic books. She also explained the method of the character's recovery is based upon real life experiences in that "some of the best real world work in the field of mobility rehabilitation is coming from South Africa. People have been talking about this as if it's some sort of mystical thing like returning from the dead, but there are treatments and surgeries that can restore mobility in some cases. Barbara's spine was not severed. That makes her a candidate."


title: Batgirl

text: Prior to its release, "Batgirl" #1 sold out at the distribution level with over 100,000 copies printed in its first run according to Diamond Comic Distributors. Along with "Action Comics" #1, "Justice League" #1, "Batman" #1, "Batman and Robin" #1, "" #1, "Detective Comics" #1, "Flash" #1, "Green Lantern" #1, and "Superman" #1, retailers were required to order a second printing. Calvin Reid of "Publishers Weekly" states in a review of the first issue: "The artwork is okay though conventional, while Simone's script tries to tie up of the end of the previous Barbara Gordon/Oracle storyline and setup up the new Batgirl. Her formula: murderous villains, blood splattering violence and high flying superheroics mixed with single-white-female bonding ...plus a cliffhanger ending to the first issue that offers a nifty [segue] into the new world of Barbara Gordon and Batgirl." "The New York Times" critic George Gene Gustines wrote: "Unlike some of the other DC comics I read this week, Batgirl achieves a deft hat trick: a well-shaped reintroduction to a character, an elegant acknowledgement of fundamental history and the establishment of a new status quo. This is a must-buy series." Earning a B+ rating in a review from "Entertainment Weekly", Ken Tucker writes that Simone "[takes] her Birds of Prey storytelling powers and focuses them on the newly revived Barbara Gordon as Batgirl. The result is a burst of exhilaration, as Barbara/Batgirl revels in her new freedom even as she encounters a so-far not-terribly-chilling villain called Mirror."


title: Batgirl

text: Since the series relaunch in September 2011, "Batgirl" has remained within the top 30 of the 300 best-selling monthly comic book publications sold in North America. Monthly estimated sales figures are as follows: "Batgirl" #1 with 81,489 copies (ranked 12th overall), "Batgirl" #2 with 75,227 (ranked 14th), "Batgirl" #3 with 62,974 (ranked 18th), "Batgirl" #4 with 53,975 (ranked 23rd), "Batgirl" #5 with 51,327 (ranked 26th), and "Batgirl" #6 with 47,836 (ranked 30th). The hardcover edition of volume 1, "Batgirl: The Darkest Reflection", which collects issues #1–6, made "The New York Times" Best Seller list, alongside "Animal Man: The Hunt", "Batman & Robin: Born to Kill", "Batman: Detective Comics", "Wonder Woman: Blood", "Batwoman: Hydrology", "Green Lantern: Sinestro".


title: Batgirl

text: Additionally, Barbara Gordon makes an appearance in "Birds of Prey" #1, where the Black Canary offers her a spot on the new Birds of Prey roster. She declines the Canary's invitation, suggesting that Katana take her place instead. Series writer Duane Swierczynski has stated that Batgirl will join the team in issue #4. He commented that while she "is an essential part of this team", she is not the focus of the series, as she is hesitant to be associated with the other characters because of their status as outlaws.


title: Batgirl

text: In October 2014, the monthly Batgirl title underwent a soft reboot with the new creative team Brenden Fletcher (writer) Cameron Stewart (writer, layouts), Babs Tarr (artist) and Maris Wicks (colors). The first six-issue story explored Barbara Gordon's attempt to start a new life as a PhD student in the hip Gotham borough of Burnside. While seemingly light and engaging compared to Gail Simone's darker preceding run, the new arc ultimately dealt with Babs' inability to fully escape her and the villain was revealed as her own brain scans, an algorithm similar to the Pre-"New 52" Oracle. While the reboot was highly praised for its fun, energy, innovative use of social media, and particularly for Tarr's art, issue #37 caused controversy with its depiction of a villain named Dagger Type, which some critics saw as a transphobic caricature. In response, the creative team issued a joint apology and revised the issue for the subsequent collected edition, "Batgirl Vol. 1: The Batgirl of Burnside".


title: Batgirl

text: On March 13, 2015, DC Comics released 25 Joker-themed variant covers for its various monthly series for release that June, in celebration of the character's 75th anniversary. Among them was a cover to "Batgirl" #41 by artist Rafael Albuquerque that took its inspiration from "The Killing Joke". The cover depicts the Joker standing next to a tearful Batgirl, who has a red smile painted across her mouth. The Joker has one hand holding a revolver draped over Batgirl's shoulder and is pointing to her cheek with the other hand, as if gesturing to shoot her.


title: Batgirl

text: The cover quickly drew criticism for highlighting a dark period in the character's history, especially when juxtaposed with the youthful, more optimistic direction of the series at the time. The hashtag #changethecover drew dozens of posts on Twitter and Tumblr asking DC to not release the variant. DC ultimately withdrew the cover from publication at the request of Albuquerque, who stated, "My intention was never to hurt or upset anyone through my art...For that reason, I have recommended to DC that the variant cover be pulled."


title: Batgirl

text: In March 2016, DC Comics announced it would be re-launching all of its monthly titles under the "DC Rebirth" event. The relaunch restores elements of the Pre-"Flashpoint" DC continuity while maintaining elements of "The New 52" as well. Among the new titles and creative teams announced, volume 5 of "Batgirl" written by Hope Larson and volume 1 of "Batgirl and the Birds of Prey" written by Julie Benson and Shawna Benson were included. In the critically celebrated fifth volume of "Batgirl", Barbara Gordon is a student attending Burnside College in the trendy Burnside neighborhood of Gotham City. The comic was praised for its fun, fresh approach to the character and for Batgirl's realistic new costume design.


title: Batgirl

text: In 2021, DC's Infinite Frontier relaunch presented a new status quo, where Barbara has returned to the role of Oracle, suiting up as Batgirl only occasionally. For the most part, she supports Cassandra Cain and Stephanie Brown to operate as Batgirls, sharing the title.


title: Batgirl

text: Various alterations of Barbara Gordon as Batgirl have appeared in storylines published in and out of mainstream continuity titles. Variants of the character within continuity often appear in stories which involve time travel, such as the crossover limited series "Zero Hour: Crisis in Time", a follow-up story preceded by the 1985 limited series "Crisis on Infinite Earths" which altered mainstream continuity. Notable imprints of DC Comics such as "Elseworlds" and "All Star DC Comics" have also featured alternate versions of the character.


title: Batgirl

text: The "Elseworlds" imprint takes the company's iconic characters and places them in alternate timelines, places and events making heroes "as familiar as yesterday seem as fresh as tomorrow". As Batgirl, Barbara Gordon has made several appearances in "Elseworlds" comics since 1997. The character is given starring roles in the noir-style storyline "Thrillkiller" (1997), its sequel "Thrillkiller '62" (1998), and the one-shot comic "" (1998).


title: Batgirl

text: In 2005, DC Comics launched its "All Star" imprint—an ongoing series of comics designed to pair the company's most iconic characters with the most acclaimed writers and artists in the industry. Similar to "Elseworlds", "All Star" is not restricted to mainstream continuity and establishes a fresh perspective for the latest generation of readership. According to Dan DiDio, "[t]hese books are created to literally reach the widest audience possible, and not just the comic book audience, but anyone who has ever wanted to read or see anything about Superman or Batman."


title: Batgirl

text: An alternate Barbara Gordon was adapted into Frank Miller's "All Star Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder" (2005) as a teenage Batgirl. In addition, another variation of the character had been set to star in an eponymous "All Star Batgirl" title, written by Geoff Johns; however, the series was cancelled prior to publication.


title: Batgirl

text: Alternate versions of Batgirl aside from Barbara Gordon have also appeared in publications by DC Comics. In "Batman Beyond Unlimited" #18 (set in the continuity of the animated series "Batman Beyond"), the new Batgirl is a 15-year-old girl named Nissa. In "" #1 (Nov. 2014), set in an alternate future, a trio of Batgirls include Cassandra Cain, Stephanie Brown and newcomer Tiffany Fox—the daughter of Lucius Fox and the first African American character to be portrayed as Batgirl.


title: Batgirl

text: In the alternate history "DC Comics Bombshells" universe, there is no singular Batgirl. Instead, there exists a group of young female vigilantes known as "", whose ranks consist of a Batwoman fan named Harper Row, an African American mechanic named Kathy Duquesne, a young Caucasian girl named Nell Little, and a Singaporean-American dancer named Alysia Yeoh. In Digital Issue #42 (collected in Print Issue #14), Harley Quinn tells Pamela Isley about encountering "the ", who appears to be a vampire version of Batgirl. "DC Comics Bombshells Annual" #1, published on 31 August 2016, reveals that was a French fighter pilot during World War I. After she lost her boyfriend during the war, she traveled to Louisiana and did indeed become a vampire.


title: Batgirl

text: Batgirl has officially been represented by four different characters – and two claimants – beginning with her introduction in 1961.


title: Batgirl

text: During the Silver Age, a female character was introduced as a love interest for Robin. Betty Kane as "Bat-Girl" was depicted as the niece of, and Robin-like sidekick to, the original Batwoman. In 1964, however, editor Julius Schwartz asserted that Bat-Girl and other characters in the Bat-Family should be removed considering the decline in sales and restored the Batman mythology to its original conception of heroic vigilantism. During the "Crisis on Infinite Earths" storyline, Betty Kane was retconned out of existence.


title: Batgirl

text: Mary Elizabeth "Bette" Kane is a reinvented version of the Betty Kane character during the Silver Age. As her original characterization was retconned out of existence during the "Crisis on Infinite Earths" storyline, a discrepancy arose where her Bat-Girl character had joined the West Coast version of the Teen Titans, but simply disappeared. The character was reintroduced as Bette Kane and the alias of Flamebird. Following "Infinite Crisis", the character's past as Batgirl was hinted at as being a part of continuity. However, that reference included a revamped origin of the character and it may or may not have been the current Bette Kane.


title: Batgirl

text: During the run of the Batman television series, DC editorial was approached about adding a female character back into the Batman family. Revising the character history and motivation, Julius Schwartz created Barbara Gordon. This character held the role of Batgirl from 1967 to 1988 when she was retired by DC editorial decision. The character's role was changed to a paraplegic source of information for all members of the Batman family and codenamed the "Oracle". She was later restored as Batgirl during "The New 52" relaunch of the entire DC publication line in 2011. This was also the case with the DC Rebirth (2016). After the suicide of her psychopathic brother James Gordon Jr., Barbara ponders her role as Batgirl, becomes Oracle and continues to support the Batman family behind the computer screen, with the option to occasionally return to the role of Batgirl. Above all, she takes on the role of mentor for Cassandra Cain and Stephanie Brown, who now share the title of Batgirl.


title: Batgirl

text: During the "" storyline, Cassandra Cain was given the role of Batgirl under the guidance of Batman and Oracle. Written as the daughter of assassins David Cain and Lady Shiva, she is trained from early childhood to read human body language instead of developing verbal and written communication skills as part of her father's conditioning to mold her into the world's deadliest assassin. However, after committing her first murder, she vows to never again use her martial-arts prowess to kill. In 2000, she became the first Batgirl to star in an eponymous monthly comic book series, as well as one of the most prominent characters of Asian descent to appear in American comics. The series was cancelled in 2006 and Cassandra Cain abandoned the role of Batgirl shortly thereafter. Years later, Cassandra rejoined the Batman family under the moniker the Blackbat. In "The New 52", Cassandra reappeared in the comic series "Batman and Robin Eternal" with a slightly different history. Here she is also the murderer of Harper Row's mother, an ally of Batman. She called herself Orphan for a while and became part of the Batman family as well as the Outsiders. She later shares the name Batgirl with her friend Stephanie Brown.


title: Batgirl

text: Stephanie Brown was formerly known as the Spoiler and then as the first in-continuity female Robin until her apparent death in 2006. Following her return to comics in 2009, she assumed the role of Batgirl. She maintained this position until 2011, the relaunch of the DC imprint under "The New 52". The character reappeared in the DCU in "Batman" (vol. 3) #28, as the Spoiler. Stephanie reappears in the series "Batman Eternal", where she again goes by Spoiler in an attempt to thwart her father's machinations. After "DC Rebirth", she joined Batman's new team of vigilantes where she became the girlfriend of Tim Drake aka Red Robin before they break up. Eventually she shares the title Batgirl with her friend Cassandra Cain.


title: Batgirl

text: For a brief time during 1999's "No Man's Land" storyline, Helena Bertinelli assumed the mantle of Batgirl. After violating Batman's code against extreme violence, she was stripped of the mantle and returned to her alias of the Huntress.


title: Batgirl

text: After Cassandra Cain abandoned the role, a mystery character appeared as the new Batgirl in the "Birds of Prey" comic. Possessing superpowers, the teen claimed the empty mantle in an attempt to honor the character. However, Barbara Gordon quickly dissuaded the teen from continuing in the role. Charlie Gage-Radcliffe acquiesced, but modified her costume and changed her name to the Misfit.


title: Batgirl

text: While Barbara Gordon and Cassandra Cain have both been the subject of academic analysis regarding the portrayal of women in comics, commentary on Barbara Gordon's Batgirl has focused on her character's connection to the women's liberation movement, doctoral degree and career as a librarian, while analysis of Cassandra Cain's Batgirl has focused on the character's double minority status as a woman and a person of color. Since her debut in DC Comics publication, and fueled by her adaptation into the "Batman" television series in 1967, Barbara Gordon's Batgirl has been listed among fictional characters that are regarded as cultural icons. Author Brian Cronin, in "Was Superman A Spy?: And Other Comic Book Legends Revealed" (2009) notes that following her 1967 debut, "Batgirl was soon popular enough to appear regularly over the next two decades and Yvonne Craig certainly made an impression on many viewers with her one season portraying young Ms. Gordon." In 2011, IGN ranked Barbara Gordon 17th in the Top 100 Comic Books Heroes. Cassandra Cain's Batgirl has become one of the most prominent Asian characters to appear in American comic books, and her understated sexuality is notable as being contrary to the common sexual objectification of female characters, especially those of Asian descent.


title: Batgirl

text: In "The Supergirls: Fashion, Feminism, Fantasy, and the History of Comic Book Heroines" (2009), author Mike Madrid states that what set Barbara Gordon as Batgirl apart from other female characters was her motivation for crime-fighting. Unlike Batwoman who preceded her, "she wears his symbol on her chest, but she is not his girlfriend or faithful handmaiden." Because of the fact she does not pursue a romantic interest in Batman, "Batgirl is a female Batman can actually regard as a brilliant peer and a partner in the war on crime, the same way he would a male." Historian Peter Sanderson observed that Barbara Gordon's Batgirl reflected the Women's liberation movement of the 1960s.


title: Batgirl

text: During the 1980s, Barbara Kesel, after writing a complaint to DC Comics over the negative portrayal of female characters, was given the opportunity to write for Barbara Gordon in "Detective Comics". Robin Anne Reid, in "Women in Science Fiction and Fantasy: Overviews" (2009) wrote that "Kesel's version of Batgirl established her as a character separate from Batman and Robin: a woman motivated to do what men do, but alone and in her own way. Her "Secret Origins" (1987) and "Batgirl Special" (1988) countered the victimized and objectified presentation of Barbara Gordon/Batgirl in Alan Moore's acclaimed "The Killing Joke" (1988)." She notes that Kesel's interpretation of the character emphasized her intelligence, technological skill, and ability to overcome fear.


title: Batgirl

text: Gail Simone included the character's paralysis in a list of "major female characters that had been killed, mutilated, and depowered", dubbing the phenomenon "Women in Refrigerators" in reference to a 1994 Green Lantern story where the title character discovers his girlfriend's mutilated body in his refrigerator. Simone highlighted the gender difference regarding the treatment of Batman and Batgirl regarding paralysis by stating that "[b]oth had their backs broken [Batman broke his in a dramatic Batcave confrontation with the villain Bane; Batgirl broke hers when she was ambushed in her home and shot in the spine by the Joker, never given a chance to fight]. Less than a year later, Batman was fine. Batgirl—now named Oracle—was in a wheelchair and remained so for many years."


title: Batgirl

text: In "Superheroes and Superegos: Analyzing the Minds Behind the Masks" (2010), author Sharon Packer wrote that "[a]nyone who feels that feminist critics overreacted to [Gordon's] accident is advised to consult the source material", calling the work "sadistic to the core".


title: Batgirl

text: Brian Cronin noted that "[many] readers felt the violence towards Barbara Gordon was too much, and even Moore, in retrospect, has expressed his displeasure with how the story turned out." Jeffrey A. Brown, author of "Dangerous Curves: Action Heroines, Gender, Fetishism, and Popular Culture" (2011) noted "The Killing Joke" as an example of the "inherent misogyny of the male-dominated comic book industry" in light of the "relatively unequal violence [female characters] are subjected to." While male characters may be critically injured or killed, they are more than likely to be returned to their original conception, while female characters are more likely to receive permanent damage. Reid states that although speculation behind the editorial decision to allow the paralysis of the character to become permanent included the idea she had become outdated, "if audiences had grown tired of Batgirl, it was not because she was a bad character but because she had been written badly."


title: Batgirl

text: Despite views that present the character's Batgirl persona as a symbol of female empowerment, a long-held criticism is that she was originally conceived as an uninspired variation of Batman "rather than standing alone as leader, such as Wonder Woman" who had no pre-existing male counterpart. In analyzing stereotypes in gender, Jackie Marsh noted that male superheroes (such as Batman) are depicted as hyper-masculine and anti-social, "while female superheroes are reduced to a childlike status by their names" such as the Batgirl character.


title: Batgirl

text: In "The Image and Role of the Librarian" (2002), Wendi Arant and Candace R. Benefiel argue that Batgirl's portrayal as a librarian is considered to be significant to the profession, in that it is represented as a valuable and honorable career. Even in light of the fact that the character abandons it in order to run for United States Congress, Barbara Gordon is seen as being given a "career switch that even most librarians would consider a step up." In the essay "Librarians, Professionalism and Image: Stereotype and Reality" (2007), Abigail Luthmann views the character less favorably, stating that "[t]he unassuming role of librarian is used as a low-visibility disguise for her crime-fighting alter-ego, and while her information-locating skills may have been useful to her extra-curricular activities no direct examples are given."


title: Batgirl

text: The Cassandra Cain version of Batgirl, depicted as a biracial character (half White and half Chinese), is notable as one of the most prominent characters of Asian descent to appear in American comic books. Jeffrey A. Brown states that while her ethnicity is rarely mentioned in the comic books, Asian women have had a long history in comics of being portrayed as martial artists and are often exploited as sex objects. However, in the case of Batgirl, "Cassandra's racial identity is treated more implicitly than explicitly. Her costume design actually conceals her entire body so that while in her guise as Batgirl her ethnicity is completely unapparent." The fact that her sexuality is also understated represents a shift away from the typical portrayals of women, and Asian women in particular. The most controversial aspect of her character came about during the "One Year Later" event, when she is reintroduced as a villain. The abrupt shift in her character brought about negative criticism from readership. When questioned about the change in characterization, writer Adam Beechen stated: "They didn't present me with a rationale as to why Cassandra was going to change, or a motivating factor. That was left for me to come up with and them to approve. And we did that. But as far as to why the editors and writers and whoever else made the decision decided that was a good direction, I honestly couldn't answer."


title: Batgirl

text: Portrayed by Yvonne Craig, the character's first adaptation outside of comic books took place in the third season of "Batman" (1967), Barbara Gordon having been discussed months earlier by her father and Batman in the second-season episodes "Batman's Waterloo" and "The Duo Defy". Les Daniels, in "Batman: The Complete History" (2004), wrote that the goal of ABC was to "attract new audience members, especially idealistic young girls and less high-minded older men." According to Craig: "I used to think the reason they hired me was because they knew I could ride my own motorcycle ... I realized they hired me because I had a cartoon voice." A shared criticism of Batgirl and other female superheroes in television that came later (such as Wonder Woman and the Bionic Woman), is that she was not allowed to engage in hand-to-hand combat on screen. As such, "her fights were choreographed carefully to imitate the moves of a Broadway showgirl through the use of a straight kick to her opponent's face rather than the type of kick a martial artist would use." However, Craig has also stated: "I meet young women who say Batgirl was their role model ... They say it's because it was the first time they ever felt girls could do the same things guys could do, and sometimes better. I think that's lovely." During the early 1970s, Craig portrayed Batgirl once again in a public service announcement to advocate equal pay for women.


title: Batgirl

text: Since "Batman", the character has had a long history of appearances in television and other media. As Batgirl, Barbara Gordon plays a supporting role in a string of animated series, voiced by Jane Webb in "The Batman/Superman Hour" (1968), Melendy Britt in "The New Adventures of Batman" (1977), Melissa Gilbert in "" (1992), Tara Strong in "The New Batman Adventures" (1997), Danielle Judovits in "The Batman" (2004), Mae Whitman in "" (2008), and Briana Cuoco in "Harley Quinn" (2019). In 2012, Batgirl starred alongside Supergirl and Wonder Girl in "Super Best Friends Forever", a series of shorts developed by Lauren Faust for the "DC Nation" block on Cartoon Network.


title: Batgirl

text: Barbara Gordon makes two cameo appearances in the first season of the animated series "Young Justice", and is added as a recurring character in season two where she has adopted her Batgirl persona. Dina Meyer starred as Barbara Gordon in the television series "Birds of Prey" (2002). Although this series focused on her role as the Oracle, the series included flashbacks of the character's history as Batgirl.


title: Batgirl

text: In the film "Batman & Robin", Alicia Silverstone played a variation of the character: Barbara Wilson, Alfred Pennyworth's niece. She appears in "The Lego Batman Movie" voiced by Rosario Dawson. The character is introduced as Barbara Gordon taking over from her father Jim Gordon to become the new Police Commissioner of Gotham. Towards the end of the film, she dons her cowl and teams up with Batman as Batgirl in addition to her role as Commissioner.


title: Batgirl

text: In "The Dark Knight" trilogy, James Gordon's wife is named Barbara Gordon, portrayed by Ilyssa Fradin in "Batman Begins" and Melinda McGraw in "The Dark Knight". This is not a reference to Batgirl Barbara Gordon. It's been long established, most notably in the famous Batman: Year One, that the wife of James Gordon is named Barbara.


title: Batgirl

text: In addition to live-action television and animation, the character has appeared in a number of video games included in the Batman franchise. She appears in "The Adventures of Batman & Robin" and "" voiced by Tara Strong. She also appears in "" for the PC, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Wii, DS, and PlayStation Portable. In "", The Barbara Gordon incarnation of Batgirl appears when Maxwell heads to Arkham Asylum to battle the Scarecrow. The other three Batgirls (Bette Kane, Stephanie Brown and Cassandra Cain) can be spawned and all three are playable in the Wii U version. Barbara Gordon has been featured in all four main games of the critically acclaimed , though she is only seen as Batgirl in the "A Matter of Family" DLC for the last game, "" (2015), in which she is playable. Set before the events of the series' , the DLC's plot revolves around Batgirl and Robin attempting to save the former's father, along with other police officers, from the Joker at an abandoned amusement park located on an oil rig. Barbara Gordon as Batgirl is one of the four main playable characters in the video game, "Gotham Knights" (2022).


title: Batgirl

text: A child version of Barbara Gordon made an appearance in the television series "Gotham". Actor Ben McKenzie teased about seeing Batgirl as a child in the series. Film director Nicolas Winding Refn revealed in an interview with Collider that he would like to direct a Batgirl movie.


title: Batgirl

text: Savannah Welch portrays Barbara Gordon in the third season of the 2018 live-action television series "Titans".


title: Batgirl

text: In March 2017, it was announced that Joss Whedon would write, direct and produce a Batgirl film as part of the DC Extended Universe. The film would center on Barbara Gordon as Batgirl, with Gail Simone's "The New 52" Batgirl comics used as "a starting point" for the film. In February 2018, it was announced that Whedon would be leaving the project as writer and director, citing that "[he] didn't really have a story". In April 2018, Warner Bros. announced that screenwriter Christina Hodson had been tapped to write the screenplay for Batgirl. After Whedon's exit, the studio said that it was actively looking for a female director. In May 2021, it was revealed that Adil El Arbi and Bilall Fallah had joined the project as co-directors. It was also revealed that the film is going to be an HBO Max Exclusive. In July 2021, actress and singer Leslie Grace was cast as Batgirl. The film was subsequently cancelled in August 2022.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: (;, ; 30 November 1858 – 23 November 1937) was a biologist, physicist, botanist and an early writer of science fiction. He was a pioneer in the investigation of radio microwave optics, made significant contributions to botany, and was a major force behind the expansion of experimental science on the Indian subcontinent. Bose is considered the father of Bengali science fiction. He invented the crescograph, a device for measuring the growth of plants. A crater on the moon was named in his honour. He founded Bose Institute, a premier research institute in India and also one of its oldest. Established in 1917, the institute was the first interdisciplinary research centre in Asia. He served as the Director of Bose Institute from its inception until his death.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: Born in Munshiganj, Bengal Presidency, during British governance of India (now in Bangladesh), Bose graduated from St. Xavier's College, Calcutta (now Kolkata, West Bengal, India). He attended the University of London to study medicine, but had to give it up due to health problems. Instead, he conducted research with Nobel Laureate Lord Rayleigh at the University of Cambridge. Bose returned to India to join the Presidency College of the University of Calcutta as a professor of physics. There, despite racial discrimination and a lack of funding and equipment, Bose carried on his scientific research. He made progress in his research into radio waves in the microwave spectrum and was the first to use semiconductor junctions to detect radio waves.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: Bose made pioneering discoveries in plant physiology. He used his own invention, the crescograph, to measure plant response to various stimuli and proved parallelism between animal and plant tissues. Bose filed for a patent for one of his inventions because of peer pressure, but he was generally critical of the patent system. To facilitate his research, he constructed automatic recorders capable of registering extremely slight movements; these instruments produced some striking results, such as quivering of injured plants, which Bose interpreted as a power of feeling in plants. His books include "Response in the Living and Non-Living" (1902) and "The Nervous Mechanism of Plants" (1926). He spent the last years of his life in Giridih. Here he lived in the house located near Jhanda Maidan. This building was named Jagdish Chandra Bose Smriti Vigyan Bhavan. It was inaugurated on 28 February 1997 by the then Governor of Bihar AR Kidwai. In a 2004 BBC poll to name the "Greatest Bengali of all time", Bose placed seventh.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: Jagadish Chandra Bose was born in a Bengali Kayastha family in Munsiganj (Bikrampur), Bengal Presidency (present-day Bangladesh) on 30 November 1858, to Bama Sundari Bose and Bhagawan Chandra Bose. His father was a leading member of the Brahmo Samaj and worked as a civil servant with the title Deputy Magistrate and Assistant Commissioner of Police (ACP) in several places, including Faridpur and Bardhaman.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: Bose's father sent Bose to a Bengali language school for his early education, as it was important to him that his son should study in his native language and culture before studying in English. Speaking at the Bikrampur Conference in 1915, Bose described the effect this early education had on him:


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: Bose joined the Hare School in Kolkata in 1869, followed by St. Xavier's School, also in Kolkata. In 1875, he passed the entrance examination of the University of Calcutta and was admitted to St. Xavier's College, Kolkata. There, he met Jesuit Father Eugene Lafont, who played a significant role in developing his interest in natural sciences. He received a BA from the University of Calcutta in 1879.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: Bose wanted to follow his father into the Indian Civil Service, but his father forbid it, saying his son should be a scholar who would “rule nobody but himself.” Bose went to England to study medicine at the University of London, but had to quit because of allergies & ill health, possibly worsened by the chemicals used in the dissection rooms.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: Through the recommendation of Anandamohan Bose, his brother-in-law and the first Indian Wrangler at the University of Cambridge, Bose secured admission in Christ's College, Cambridge to study natural sciences. In 1884 he received a BA (Natural Sciences Tripos) from the University of Cambridge as well as a BSc from the University College London affiliated under University of London in 1883.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: Among Bose's teachers at Cambridge were Lord Rayleigh, Michael Foster, James Dewar, Francis Darwin, Francis Balfour, and Sidney Vines. While at Cambridge, he met University of Edinburgh student Prafulla Chandra Roy, with whom he became intimate friends. In 1887, Bose married feminist and social worker Abala Bose.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: After obtaining a degree from the University of Cambridge Bose returned to India. Henry Fawcett had given Bose an introduction to Lord Ripon, the Viceroy of India, who recommended him for a post to the Director of Public Instruction in Kolkata. In those days such posts in the Imperial Education Service were usually reserved for Europeans. Bose was appointed as an officiating professor of physics at Presidency College. Although the principal Charles Henry Tawney and Director of Education Alfred Woodley Croft were reluctant to appoint him, Bose took up his post in January of 1885.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: At that time, an Indian professor was paid two thirds the salary of a European and since his appointment was considered temporary, his salary was further halved, making his salary one-third that of his European peers. As a protest, Bose did not accept his salary and worked without remuneration for the first three years at Presidency College.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: He was popular among the students for his teaching style and demonstration of experiments. He got rid of the roll call. After three years’ work in this temporary post, the value of his professorial work was recognized by the principal Tawney and the director Croft, making Bose’s appointment permanent, with retrospective effect. Bose received his full pay for the last three years in a lump sum. But another source states that his appointment was made permanent on 21 September 1903, some 8 years after his joining the college.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: Bose used his own money to fund his different research projects as well as receiving funding and support from the social activist nun Sister Nivedita.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: Bose became interested in radio following the 1894 publication of British physicist Oliver Lodge's demonstrations on how to transmit and detect radio waves. He began his own research in the new field in November 1894, setting up his equipment in small 20 ft sq room at Presidency College. Wanting to study the light-like properties of radio waves, hard to study using long radio waves, he managed to reduce the waves to the millimetre level (in the microwave range of about 5 mm wavelength).


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: Bose’s research was not initially appreciated by his department at the college. They felt he should focus only on teaching and that research involved neglect of his duties as a teacher, in spite of Bose giving 26 hours of weekly lectures. Later, when interest was generated in the wider scientific community, the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal proposed a research post to help Bose. But this scheme was withdrawn when Bose voted against the government’s stance during a university meeting. The Lieutenant-Governor persevered to have a Rs.2500 annual grant issued. Despite this Bose found it hard to find time for research due to his teaching duties.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: Bose submitted his first scientific paper, "On polarisation of electric rays by double-refracting crystals," to the Asiatic Society of Bengal in May 1895. He submitted his second paper, "On a new electro-polariscope," to the Royal Society of London in October 1895, and it was published by "The Electrician" in December 1895. This may have been the first papers to be published by an Indian in western scientific periodicals. The paper described Bose's plans for a "coherer", a term coined by Lodge referring to radio wave receivers, which he intended to "perfect" but never patented. The paper was well received by "The Electrician" and "The Englishman", which in January 1896 (commenting on how this new type of wall and fog penetrating "invisible light" could be used in lighthouses) wrote:


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: In November 1895 at a public demonstration at the Town Hall of Kolkata, Bose showed how the millimetre range wavelength microwaves could travel through the human body (of Lieutenant Governor Sir William Mackenzie), and over a distance 23 metres through two intervening walls where they trigger apparatus he had set up to ring a bell and ignited gunpowder in a closed room.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: Wanting to meet other scientists in Europe, Bose was given a six month scientific deputation in 1896. Bose went to London on a lecture tour and met Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi, who had been developing a radio wave wireless telegraphy system for over a year and was trying to market it to the British post service. He was also congratulated by William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin and received an honorary Doctor of Science ( DSc) from the University of London. In an interview, Bose expressed his disinterest in commercial telegraphy and suggested others use his research work.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: In 1899, Bose announced the development of an ""iron-mercury-iron coherer with telephone detector"" in a paper presented at the Royal Society, London.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: Bose's work in radio microwave optics was specifically directed towards studying the nature of the phenomenon and was not an attempt to develop radio into a communication medium. His experiments took place during this same period (from late 1894 on) when Guglielmo Marconi was making breakthroughs on a radio system specifically designed for wireless telegraphy and others were finding practical applications for radio waves, such as Russian physicist Alexander Stepanovich Popov radio wave based lightning detector, also inspired by Lodge's experiment. Although Bose's work was not related to communication he, like Lodge and other laboratory experimenters, probably had an influence on other inventors trying to develop radio as communications medium. Bose was not interested in patenting his work and openly revealed the operation of his galena crystal detector in his lectures. A friend in the US persuaded him to take out a US patent on his detector but he did not actively pursue it and allowed it to lapse."


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: Bose was the first to use a semiconductor junction to detect radio waves, and he invented various now-commonplace microwave components. In 1954, Pearson and Brattain gave priority to Bose for the use of a semi-conducting crystal as a detector of radio waves. In fact, further work at millimetre wavelengths was almost non-existent for the following 50 years. In 1897, Bose described to the Royal Institution in London his research carried out in Kolkata at millimetre wavelengths. He used waveguides, horn antennas, dielectric lenses, various polarisers and even semiconductors at frequencies as high as 60 GHz. Much of his original equipment is still in existence, especially at the Bose Institute in Kolkata. A 1.3 mm multi-beam receiver now in use on the NRAO 12  Metre Telescope, Arizona, US, incorporates concepts from his original 1897 papers.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: Sir Nevill Mott, Nobel Laureate in 1977 for his own contributions to solid-state electronics, remarked that "J.C. Bose was at least 60 years ahead of his time. In fact, he had anticipated the existence of P-type and N-type semiconductors."


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: Bose conducted most of his studies in plant research on "Mimosa pudica" and "Desmodium gyrans" plants. His major contribution in the field of biophysics was the demonstration of the electrical nature of the conduction of various stimuli (e.g., wounds, chemical agents) in plants, which were earlier thought to be of a chemical nature. In order to understand the heliotropic movements of plants (the movement of a plant towards a light source), Bose invented a torsional recorder. He found that light applied to one side of the sunflower caused turgor to increase on the opposite side. These claims were later proven experimentally. He was also the first to study the action of microwaves in plant tissues and corresponding changes in the cell membrane potential. He researched the mechanism of the seasonal effect on plants, the effect of chemical inhibitors on plant stimuli and the effect of temperature.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: Bose performed a comparative study of the fatigue response of various metals and organic tissue in plants. He subjected metals to a combination of mechanical, thermal, chemical, and electrical stimuli and noted the similarities between metals and cells. Bose's experiments demonstrated a cyclical fatigue response in both stimulated cells and metals, as well as a distinctive cyclical fatigue and recovery response across multiple types of stimuli in both living cells and metals.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: Bose documented a characteristic electrical response curve of plant cells to electrical stimulus, as well as the decrease and eventual absence of this response in plants treated with anaesthetics or poison. The response was also absent in zinc treated with oxalic acid. He noted a similarity in reduction of elasticity between cooled metal wires and organic cells, as well as an impact on the recovery cycle period of the metal.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: In 1896, Bose wrote "Niruddesher Kahini (The Story of the Missing One)", a short story that was later expanded and added to "Abyakta (অব্যক্ত)" collection in 1921 with the new title "Palatak Tuphan (Runaway Cyclone)". It was one of the first works of Bengali science fiction.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: In 1917 Bose established the Bose Institute in Kolkata, West Bengal, India. Bose served as its Director for its first twenty years until his death. Today it is a public research institute of India and also one of its oldest. Bose in his inaugural address on 30 November 1917 dedicated the institute to the nation saying:


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: As a child Bose was very impressed by the character of Karna, from Mahabharata. Talking about Karna, Bose said: He always played and fought fair! So his life, though a series of disappointments and defeats to the very end - his slaying by Arjuna - appealed to me as a boy as the greatest of triumphs. He identified Karna with the character of his father regarding whom he said: Always in struggle for the uplift of the people, yet with so little success, such frequent failures, that to most he seemed a failure. All this too gave me a lower and lower idea of all worldly success - how small its so-called victories are! - and higher and higher idea of conflict and defeat; and of true success born of defeat. In such ways I have come to feel one with the highest spirit of my race; with every fibre thrilling with the emotion of the past. That is its noblest teaching - that the only real and spiritual advantage is to fight fair, never to take crooked ways, but keep to the straight path, whatever be in the way.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: Bose's place in history has now been re-evaluated. His work may have contributed to the development of radio communication. He is also credited with discovering millimetre length electromagnetic waves and being a pioneer in the field of biophysics.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: Many of his instruments are still on display and remain largely usable now, over 100 years later. They include various antennas, polarisers, and waveguides, which remain in use in modern forms today.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: To commemorate his birth centenary in 1958, the JBNSTS scholarship programme was started in West Bengal. In the same year, India issued a postage stamp bearing his portrait. The same year "Acharya Jagdish Chandra Bose", a documentary film directed by Pijush Bose, was released. It was produced by the Government of India's Films Division. Films Division also produced another documentary film, again titled "Acharya Jagdish Chandra Bose", this time directed by the prominent Indian filmmaker Tapan Sinha.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: On 14 September 2012, Bose's experimental work in millimetre-band radio was recognised as an IEEE Milestone in Electrical and Computer Engineering, the first such recognition of a discovery in India.


title: Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: The Bank of England has decided to redesign the 50 UK Pound currency note with a prominent scientist. Jagadish Chandra Bose has been featured in that nomination list for his pioneering work on Wifi technology.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: Southpaw is a 2015 American sports drama film directed by Antoine Fuqua, written by Kurt Sutter and starring Jake Gyllenhaal, Forest Whitaker and Rachel McAdams. The film follows a boxer who sets out to get his life back on track after losing his wife in an accident and later his young daughter to child protective services. The film was released on July 24, 2015, by The Weinstein Company. The film received mixed reviews from critics, while Gyllenhaal and Oona Laurence's performances received positive reviews.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: The movie was set in New York City, but it was filmed in Pittsburgh and the nearby town of Indiana, Pennsylvania.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: The film marked one of the last films to be scored by James Horner and the first of three posthumous releases to feature his music (the other two being "The 33" and "The Magnificent Seven"). The film and the film's soundtrack album are dedicated to his memory.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: Billy "The Great" Hope (Jake Gyllenhaal) is a professional boxer, and the reigning champion in the Light Heavyweight division with an Orthodox stance and a won-loss record of 42-0, living in New York City with his wife Maureen (Rachel McAdams) and their only daughter Leila (Oona Laurence). During his match against Darius Jones (Cedric D. Jones) at Madison Square Garden, Maureen is scared as Billy takes several horrific hits to the face, resulting in profuse bleeding out of his eye. Billy wins the match by knockout and retains the light heavyweight title, despite nasty injuries.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: As the press surrounds Billy, a younger upstart boxer, Miguel "Magic" Escobar (Miguel Gomez), taunts Billy to fight him. Upon returning home, Maureen fears for Billy's safety and urges him to quit. Later at the Hope house, Maureen talks to Billy's manager Jordan Mains (50 Cent), and disagrees with his plan to get Billy to sign a two-year deal for three more fights.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: Billy and Maureen go to a fundraiser ball where Billy gives a speech, acknowledging Maureen, Leila, Jordan and his friends. Miguel is in attendance as well, and as Billy is leaving, Miguel goads him by insulting Maureen and saying he will take his titles away from him, leading to a brawl. A shot (from Miguel's brother Hector) rings out and Billy sees that Maureen has been shot. Hector flees while Maureen dies in Billy's arms.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: Billy begins abusing alcohol and drugs. Billy meets with Jordan, who suggests selling the house to solve his financial problems. Jordan then books Billy a fight against Kalil Turay, in which Billy gets beaten up so badly that his corner throws in the towel. Blinded by damage due to headshots, Billy accidentally headbutts the referee in the face. Billy is suspended for a year and has no income, while he owes the ref and the networks damages. His house and belongings are repossessed. Both Jordan and longtime trainer Eli Frost abandon him to work with Miguel.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: Billy runs his car into the tree outside his home one night. Leila finds Billy bleeding on the floor and calls 911. Billy wakes up in the hospital to learn that Leila is being put in the care of Child Protective Services officer Angela Rivera (Naomie Harris). With nowhere left to go, Billy visits the Wills Gym where he meets former boxer Tick Wills (Forest Whitaker), who is blind in one eye after his last fight left him injured. Billy wants Tick to get him back on his feet, but Tick knows about his drug problems and declines to train him. He offers Billy a janitorial job.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: Billy meets with Angela to see Leila. However, Leila blames him for their problems and refuses to see him. Billy returns to the gym and accepts the janitorial job. While working there, he befriends a boy named Hoppy (Skylan Brooks), who is also an aspiring boxer. He learns that Hoppy's father abuses his mother, which he reports to Tick. As he starts to make amends in his life, Billy continues visiting Leila, and his persistence wins her over. After winning a charity match, Billy is visited by Jordan. He now manages Miguel, who recently won the championship from Kalil Turay. Jordan wants to book a fight between the two within six weeks, knowing that Billy will not have enough time to train. Billy thinks he can make a comeback and wants Tick to train him, but Tick refuses, believing Billy just wants revenge.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: Billy later learns from Tick that Hoppy has died after trying to defend his mother from his father, who shot him. Lamenting that he could not save Hoppy, Tick decides to help Billy train for the upcoming fight. Noting his efforts to turn his life around, the judge grants Billy custody of Leila and she moves back in with him. Visiting Maureen's grave together, Billy tells Leila he is going to fight again, and grants her wish of letting her remain present.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: On the night of the fight, Angela brings Leila into the dressing room where they watch it on TV. Miguel takes the early upper hand. Both fighters trade furious punches, round after round. Miguel then insults Maureen, causing Billy to lose concentration. In a fit of rage, Billy lashes out and almost stops the fight. Tick cautions Billy not to let Miguel control him. Billy controls his anger and in the final round, gains the upper hand against Miguel. In the final seconds, Billy blocks a jab from Miguel and lands a shot to the face before turning southpaw and, with a furious uppercut, sends Miguel to the canvas. Miguel gets up at the last second and both corners are filled with two teams' staffs.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: Despite a split decision(final score 344-341 Billy had 3 points over Miguel) giving the first rounds to Miguel, Billy is announced as the new champion. Billy then collapses in the corner, thanking Maureen and committing himself to Leila. Tick and the team lift him up on their shoulders as he closes his eyes tearfully and smiles. After the fight, Leila meets Billy in the dressing room, where they hug for the first time since Maureen's death. Billy says Maureen would be proud of her and she tells him she loves him.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: Eminem was originally supposed to play the role of Billy Hope. The film's screenwriter Kurt Sutter said the project was inspired by the rapper's personal struggles. He stated that he had taken meetings with Eminem's producing partners over the past seven years, looking for something to do together. "I know he's very selective and doesn't do a lot. But he shared so much of his personal struggle in this raw and very honest album, one that I connected with on a lot of levels. He is very interested in the boxing genre, and it seemed like an apt metaphor, because his own life has been a brawl. In a way, this is a continuation of the "8 Mile" story, but we are doing a metaphorical narrative of the second chapter of his life. He'll play a world champion boxer who really hits a hard bottom, and has to fight to win back his life for his young daughter. At its core, this is a retelling of his struggles over the last five years of his life, using the boxing analogy. I love that the title refers to Marshall being a lefty, which is to boxing what a white rapper is to hip hop; dangerous, unwanted, and completely unorthodox. It's a much harder road for a southpaw than a right-handed boxer." Producers Alan and Peter Riche have given a slightly different story about Eminem's involvement however stating that they set out to make a boxing movie similar to "The Champ" but wanted to make the story about a father-daughter relationship as opposed to "The Champ"s father-son story. Recalling Eminem's strong relationship with his daughter, they asked him and he was immediately receptive.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: On December 13, 2010, DreamWorks acquired the script, with Eminem eyed to play the lead role, however the following August the studio dropped the project. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer picked up the film that October. in December 2012, Eminem dropped out of the film to focus instead on his music. Antoine Fuqua signed on to the project in March 2014 with Jake Gyllenhaal replacing Eminem. Other casting news was announced in May 2014 with Forest Whitaker, Lupita Nyong'o, and Rachel McAdams officially joining the cast. In August of that year, it was announced that Naomie Harris would be replacing Nyong'o. Tyrese Gibson was cast but his scenes were cut from the film.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: Gyllenhaal did research for his role by doing "tons of reading on boxers, orphan boxers, the spirit of gyms all over America, children who start early, [and] the history of foster care in America" while also spending five months training as a boxer. Eminem would later praise Gyllenhaal's performance, noting that "Jake smashed it" in an interview with Zane Lowe.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: "Southpaw" marks the first investment in an American film by Wanda Pictures, a division of Wang Jianlin's Chinese conglomerate Dalian Wanda Group. Principal photography began on June 16, 2014.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: It was originally to be set in Detroit, yet Pittsburgh was chosen for the filming and was used as a double for New York.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: The film had its world premiere at the 2015 Shanghai International Film Festival on June 15, 2015, where it was in competition, and was released on July 24, 2015, by The Weinstein Company.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: "Southpaw" grossed $52.4 million in North America and $38.5 million in other territories for a total gross of $92 million, against a budget of $25 million.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: In its opening weekend, the film grossed $16.7 million from 2,772 theaters, finishing 5th at the box office.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 60%, based on 238 reviews, with a weighted average of 6.00/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Jake Gyllenhaal delivers an impressively committed performance, but "Southpaw" beats it down with a dispiriting drama that pummels viewers with genre clichés." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 57 out of 100, based on 42 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". On CinemaScore, audiences gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: Soren Anderson of "The Seattle Times" gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying ""Southpaw", a boxing movie with a theme of redemption, is redeemed by the performances of its two main actors, Jake Gyllenhaal and Forest Whitaker." Kyle Smith of the "New York Post" gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying "It brings back every stale genre convention you can think of, then hopes you won't recognize predictability pumped up with swearing and steroids and an Eminem song during the training montage." Ty Burr of "The Boston Globe" gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "This is a genre with especially sturdy bones, and when "Southpaw" connects, which is more often than you might expect, you feel it down to your toes." Ann Hornaday of "The Washington Post" gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying ""Southpaw" may be rote, predictable and mawkish, but none of those faults lie in its star. Even when he looks like an unholy mess, he transcends the movie he's in." Steven Rea of "The Philadelphia Inquirer" gave the film three out of four stars, saying "What keeps this cornball business from getting out of hand is the commitment of Gyllenhaal, whose performance is fierce and muscular, in and out of the ring." Michael Phillips of the "Chicago Tribune" gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "The script may have hamburger for brains, but Fuqua slams it home with the help of actors who give their all – even when giving a little less might have made things more interesting."


title: Southpaw (film)

text: Peter Howell of the "Toronto Star" gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "This isn't great cinema, but it's satisfying movie-making, with nothing more on its mind than telling a heart-tugging story." A. O. Scott of "The New York Times" said, "I wish I could say "Southpaw" was a knockout, or even a contender, that it went the distance or scored on points. But it's strictly an undercard bout, displaying enough heart and skill to keep the paying customers from getting too restless." Benjamin Nugent of "The New York Times" has compared the film to Robert De Niro stating, "Pity Jake Gyllenhaal, who despite getting shredded for "Southpaw", could not outbox the shadow of Robert De Niro's "Raging Bull" performance." Chris Nashawaty of "Entertainment Weekly" gave the film a C+, saying "Just as director Antoine Fuqua starts to close in on something interesting and unexpected, he retreats to the safety of his corner and gives us what we've seen too many times before: a predictable flurry of melodramatic jabs." Barbara VanDenburgh of "The Arizona Republic" gave the film three out of five stars, saying ""Southpaw" is all about the fist. There's no delicate footwork here, no lingering grace notes. It's a film played entirely in power chords." James Berardinelli of "ReelViews" gave the film three out of four stars, saying ""Southpaw" isn't content with presenting a gallery of clichéd characters. It takes the time to put flesh on the bones." Colin Covert of the "Star Tribune" gave the film one out of four stars, slamming Gyllenhaal's performance, saying "As a troubled slugger, Gyllenhaal is impressively muscle-bound, but gives no knockout performance. His work drags on like 12 rounds of fistfight fatigue."


title: Southpaw (film)

text: Eminem executive-produced the soundtrack, which was released by Shady Records on July 24, 2015. He had previously released his single called "Phenomenal" from the soundtrack on June 2, 2015.


title: Southpaw (film)

text: An album of James Horner's score was released through Sony Classical on July 24, 2015. This was Horner's final score (it was recorded after "The 33", although "Southpaw" was released first); he was killed in a plane crash on June 22, 2015.


title: 64-bit computing

text: In computer architecture, 64-bit integers, memory addresses, or other data units are those that are 64 bits wide. Also, 64-bit CPUs and ALUs are those that are based on processor registers, address buses, or data buses of that size. A computer that uses such a processor is a 64-bit computer.


title: 64-bit computing

text: From the software perspective, 64-bit computing means the use of machine code with 64-bit virtual memory addresses. However, not all 64-bit instruction sets support full 64-bit virtual memory addresses; x86-64 and ARMv8, for example, support only 48 bits of virtual address, with the remaining 16 bits of the virtual address required to be all 0's or all 1's, and several 64-bit instruction sets support fewer than 64 bits of physical memory address.


title: 64-bit computing

text: The term "64-bit" also describes a generation of computers in which 64-bit processors are the norm. 64 bits is a word size that defines certain classes of computer architecture, buses, memory, and CPUs and, by extension, the software that runs on them. 64-bit CPUs have been used in supercomputers since the 1970s (Cray-1, 1975) and in reduced instruction set computers (RISC) based workstations and servers since the early 1990s. In 2003, 64-bit CPUs were introduced to the mainstream PC market in the form of x86-64 processors and the PowerPC G5.


title: 64-bit computing

text: A 64-bit register can hold any of 2 (over 18 quintillion or 1.8×10) different values. The range of integer values that can be stored in 64 bits depends on the integer representation used. With the two most common representations, the range is 0 through 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 (2 − 1) for representation as an (unsigned) binary number, and −9223372036854775808 (−2) through 9223372036854775807 (2 − 1) for representation as two's complement. Hence, a processor with 64-bit memory addresses can directly access 2 bytes (16 exbibytes or EiB) of byte-addressable memory.


title: 64-bit computing

text: With no further qualification, a "64-bit computer architecture" generally has integer and addressing registers that are 64 bits wide, allowing direct support for 64-bit data types and addresses. However, a CPU might have external data buses or address buses with different sizes from the registers, even larger (the 32-bit Pentium had a 64-bit data bus, for instance).


title: 64-bit computing

text: Processor registers are typically divided into several groups: "integer", "floating-point", "single instruction, multiple data" (SIMD), "control", and often special registers for address arithmetic which may have various uses and names such as "address", "index", or "base registers". However, in modern designs, these functions are often performed by more general purpose "integer" registers. In most processors, only integer or address-registers can be used to address data in memory; the other types of registers cannot. The size of these registers therefore normally limits the amount of directly addressable memory, even if there are registers, such as floating-point registers, that are wider.


title: 64-bit computing

text: Most high performance 32-bit and 64-bit processors (some notable exceptions are older or embedded ARM architecture (ARM) and 32-bit MIPS architecture (MIPS) CPUs) have integrated floating point hardware, which is often, but not always, based on 64-bit units of data. For example, although the x86/x87 architecture has instructions able to load and store 64-bit (and 32-bit) floating-point values in memory, the internal floating point data and register format is 80 bits wide, while the general-purpose registers are 32 bits wide. In contrast, the 64-bit Alpha family uses a 64-bit floating-point data and register format, and 64-bit integer registers.


title: 64-bit computing

text: Many computer instruction sets are designed so that a single integer register can store the memory address to any location in the computer's physical or virtual memory. Therefore, the total number of addresses to memory is often determined by the width of these registers. The IBM System/360 of the 1960s was an early 32-bit computer; it had 32-bit integer registers, although it only used the low order 24 bits of a word for addresses, resulting in a 16 MiB () address space. 32-bit superminicomputers, such as the DEC VAX, became common in the 1970s, and 32-bit microprocessors, such as the Motorola 68000 family and the 32-bit members of the x86 family starting with the Intel 80386, appeared in the mid-1980s, making 32 bits something of a "de facto" consensus as a convenient register size.


title: 64-bit computing

text: A 32-bit address register meant that 2 addresses, or 4 GiB of random-access memory (RAM), could be referenced. When these architectures were devised, 4 GiB of memory was so far beyond the typical amounts (4 MiB) in installations, that this was considered to be enough "headroom" for addressing. 4.29 billion addresses were considered an appropriate size to work with for another important reason: 4.29 billion integers are enough to assign unique references to most entities in applications like databases.


title: 64-bit computing

text: Some supercomputer architectures of the 1970s and 1980s, such as the Cray-1, used registers up to 64 bits wide, and supported 64-bit integer arithmetic, although they did not support 64-bit addressing. In the mid-1980s, Intel i860 development began culminating in a (too late for Windows NT) 1989 release; the i860 had 32-bit integer registers and 32-bit addressing, so it was not a fully 64-bit processor, although its graphics unit supported 64-bit integer arithmetic. However, 32 bits remained the norm until the early 1990s, when the continual reductions in the cost of memory led to installations with amounts of RAM approaching 4 GiB, and the use of virtual memory spaces exceeding the 4 GiB ceiling became desirable for handling certain types of problems. In response, MIPS and DEC developed 64-bit microprocessor architectures, initially for high-end workstation and server machines. By the mid-1990s, HAL Computer Systems, Sun Microsystems, IBM, Silicon Graphics, and Hewlett Packard had developed 64-bit architectures for their workstation and server systems. A notable exception to this trend were mainframes from IBM, which then used 32-bit data and 31-bit address sizes; the IBM mainframes did not include 64-bit processors until 2000. During the 1990s, several low-cost 64-bit microprocessors were used in consumer electronics and embedded applications. Notably, the Nintendo 64 and the PlayStation 2 had 64-bit microprocessors before their introduction in personal computers. High-end printers, network equipment, and industrial computers, also used 64-bit microprocessors, such as the Quantum Effect Devices R5000. 64-bit computing started to trickle down to the personal computer desktop from 2003 onward, when some models in Apple's Macintosh lines switched to PowerPC 970 processors (termed "G5" by Apple), and Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) released its first 64-bit x86-64 processor.


title: 64-bit computing

text: In principle, a 64-bit microprocessor can address 16 EiB (, or about 18.4 exabytes) of memory. However, not all instruction sets, and not all processors implementing those instruction sets, support a full 64-bit virtual or physical address space.


title: 64-bit computing

text: The x86-64 architecture () allows 48 bits for virtual memory and, for any given processor, up to 52 bits for physical memory. These limits allow memory sizes of 256 TiB () and 4 PiB (), respectively. A PC cannot currently contain 4 pebibytes of memory (due to the physical size of the memory chips), but AMD envisioned large servers, shared memory clusters, and other uses of physical address space that might approach this in the foreseeable future. Thus the 52-bit physical address provides ample room for expansion while not incurring the cost of implementing full 64-bit physical addresses. Similarly, the 48-bit virtual address space was designed to provide 65,536 (2) times the 32-bit limit of 4 GiB (), allowing room for later expansion and incurring no overhead of translating full 64-bit addresses.


title: 64-bit computing

text: The Power ISA v3.0 allows 64 bits for an effective address, mapped to a segmented address with between 65 and 78 bits allowed, for virtual memory, and, for any given processor, up to 60 bits for physical memory.


title: 64-bit computing

text: The Oracle SPARC Architecture 2015 allows 64 bits for virtual memory and, for any given processor, between 40 and 56 bits for physical memory.


title: 64-bit computing

text: The ARM AArch64 Virtual Memory System Architecture allows 48 bits for virtual memory and, for any given processor, from 32 to 48 bits for physical memory.


title: 64-bit computing

text: The DEC Alpha specification requires minimum of 43 bits of virtual memory address space (8 TiB) to be supported, and hardware need to check and trap if the remaining unsupported bits are zero (to support compatibility on future processors). Alpha 21064 supported 43 bits of virtual memory address space (8 TiB) and 34 bits of physical memory address space (16 GiB). Alpha 21164 supported 43 bits of virtual memory address space (8 TiB) and 40 bits of physical memory address space (1 TiB). Alpha 21264 supported user-configurable 43 or 48 bits of virtual memory address space (8 TiB or 256 TiB) and 44 bits of physical memory address space (16 TiB).


title: 64-bit computing

text: A change from a 32-bit to a 64-bit architecture is a fundamental alteration, as most operating systems must be extensively modified to take advantage of the new architecture, because that software has to manage the actual memory addressing hardware. Other software must also be ported to use the new abilities; older 32-bit software may be supported either by virtue of the 64-bit instruction set being a superset of the 32-bit instruction set, so that processors that support the 64-bit instruction set can also run code for the 32-bit instruction set, or through software emulation, or by the actual implementation of a 32-bit processor core within the 64-bit processor, as with some Itanium processors from Intel, which included an IA-32 processor core to run 32-bit x86 applications. The operating systems for those 64-bit architectures generally support both 32-bit and 64-bit applications.


title: 64-bit computing

text: One significant exception to this is the IBM AS/400, software for which is compiled into a virtual instruction set architecture (ISA) called "Technology Independent Machine Interface" (TIMI); TIMI code is then translated to native machine code by low-level software before being executed. The translation software is all that must be rewritten to move the full OS and all software to a new platform, as when IBM transitioned the native instruction set for AS/400 from the older 32/48-bit "IMPI" to the newer 64-bit "PowerPC-AS", codenamed "Amazon". The IMPI instruction set was quite different from even 32-bit PowerPC, so this transition was even bigger than moving a given instruction set from 32 to 64 bits.


title: 64-bit computing

text: On 64-bit hardware with x86-64 architecture (AMD64), most 32-bit operating systems and applications can run with no compatibility issues. While the larger address space of 64-bit architectures makes working with large data sets in applications such as digital video, scientific computing, and large databases easier, there has been considerable debate on whether they or their 32-bit compatibility modes will be faster than comparably priced 32-bit systems for other tasks.


title: 64-bit computing

text: A compiled Java program can run on a 32- or 64-bit Java virtual machine with no modification. The lengths and precision of all the built-in types, such as codice_1, codice_2, codice_3, codice_4, codice_5, and codice_6, and the types that can be used as array indices, are specified by the standard and are not dependent on the underlying architecture. Java programs that run on a 64-bit Java virtual machine have access to a larger address space.


title: 64-bit computing

text: Speed is not the only factor to consider in comparing 32-bit and 64-bit processors. Applications such as multi-tasking, stress testing, and clustering – for high-performance computing (HPC) – may be more suited to a 64-bit architecture when deployed appropriately. For this reason, 64-bit clusters have been widely deployed in large organizations, such as IBM, HP, and Microsoft.


title: 64-bit computing

text: A common misconception is that 64-bit architectures are no better than 32-bit architectures unless the computer has more than 4 GiB of random-access memory. This is not entirely true:


title: 64-bit computing

text: The main disadvantage of 64-bit architectures is that, relative to 32-bit architectures, the same data occupies more space in memory (due to longer pointers and possibly other types, and alignment padding). This increases the memory requirements of a given process and can have implications for efficient processor cache use. Maintaining a partial 32-bit model is one way to handle this, and is in general reasonably effective. For example, the z/OS operating system takes this approach, requiring program code to reside in 31-bit address spaces (the high order bit is not used in address calculation on the underlying hardware platform) while data objects can optionally reside in 64-bit regions. Not all such applications require a large address space or manipulate 64-bit data items, so these applications do not benefit from these features.


title: 64-bit computing

text: x86-based 64-bit systems sometimes lack equivalents of software that is written for 32-bit architectures. The most severe problem in Microsoft Windows is incompatible device drivers for obsolete hardware. Most 32-bit application software can run on a 64-bit operating system in a compatibility mode, also termed an emulation mode, e.g., Microsoft WoW64 Technology for IA-64 and AMD64. The 64-bit Windows Native Mode driver environment runs atop 64-bit , which cannot call 32-bit Win32 subsystem code (often devices whose actual hardware function is emulated in user mode software, like Winprinters). Because 64-bit drivers for most devices were unavailable until early 2007 (Vista x64), using a 64-bit version of Windows was considered a challenge. However, the trend has since moved toward 64-bit computing, more so as memory prices dropped and the use of more than 4 GiB of RAM increased. Most manufacturers started to provide both 32-bit and 64-bit drivers for new devices, so unavailability of 64-bit drivers ceased to be a problem. 64-bit drivers were not provided for many older devices, which could consequently not be used in 64-bit systems.


title: 64-bit computing

text: Driver compatibility was less of a problem with open-source drivers, as 32-bit ones could be modified for 64-bit use. Support for hardware made before early 2007, was problematic for open-source platforms, due to the relatively small number of users.


title: 64-bit computing

text: 64-bit versions of Windows cannot run 16-bit software. However, most 32-bit applications will work well. 64-bit users are forced to install a virtual machine of a 16- or 32-bit operating system to run 16-bit applications.


title: 64-bit computing

text: Mac OS X 10.4 "Tiger" and Mac OS X 10.5 "Leopard" had only a 32-bit kernel, but they can run 64-bit user-mode code on 64-bit processors. Mac OS X 10.6 "Snow Leopard" had both 32- and 64-bit kernels, and, on most Macs, used the 32-bit kernel even on 64-bit processors. This allowed those Macs to support 64-bit processes while still supporting 32-bit device drivers; although not 64-bit drivers and performance advantages that can come with them. Mac OS X 10.7 "Lion" ran with a 64-bit kernel on more Macs, and OS X 10.8 "Mountain Lion" and later macOS releases only have a 64-bit kernel. On systems with 64-bit processors, both the 32- and 64-bit macOS kernels can run 32-bit user-mode code, and all versions of macOS up to macOS Mojave (10.14) include 32-bit versions of libraries that 32-bit applications would use, so 32-bit user-mode software for macOS will run on those systems. The 32-bit versions of libraries have been removed by Apple in macOS Catalina (10.15).


title: 64-bit computing

text: Linux and most other Unix-like operating systems, and the C and C++ toolchains for them, have supported 64-bit processors for many years. Many applications and libraries for those platforms are open-source software, written in C and C++, so that if they are 64-bit-safe, they can be compiled into 64-bit versions. This source-based distribution model, with an emphasis on frequent releases, makes availability of application software for those operating systems less of an issue.


title: 64-bit computing

text: In 32-bit programs, pointers and data types such as integers generally have the same length. This is not necessarily true on 64-bit machines. Mixing data types in programming languages such as C and its descendants such as C++ and Objective-C may thus work on 32-bit implementations but not on 64-bit implementations.


title: 64-bit computing

text: In many programming environments for C and C-derived languages on 64-bit machines, codice_3 variables are still 32 bits wide, but long integers and pointers are 64 bits wide. These are described as having an "LP64" data model, which is an abbreviation of "Long, Pointer, 64". Other models are the "ILP64" data model in which all three data types are 64 bits wide, and even the "SILP64" model where "short" integers are also 64 bits wide. However, in most cases the modifications required are relatively minor and straightforward, and many well-written programs can simply be recompiled for the new environment with no changes. Another alternative is the "LLP64" model, which maintains compatibility with 32-bit code by leaving both codice_3 and codice_4 as 32-bit. "LL" refers to the "long long integer" type, which is at least 64 bits on all platforms, including 32-bit environments.


title: 64-bit computing

text: There are also systems with 64-bit processors using an "ILP32" data model, with the addition of 64-bit long long integers; this is also used on many platforms with 32-bit processors. This model reduces code size and the size of data structures containing pointers, at the cost of a much smaller address space, a good choice for some embedded systems. For instruction sets such as x86 and ARM in which the 64-bit version of the instruction set has more registers than does the 32-bit version, it provides access to the additional registers without the space penalty. It is common in 64-bit RISC machines, explored in x86 as x32 ABI, and has recently been used in the Apple Watch Series 4 and 5.


title: 64-bit computing

text: Many 64-bit platforms today use an "LP64" model (including Solaris, AIX, HP-UX, Linux, macOS, BSD, and IBM z/OS). Microsoft Windows uses an "LLP64" model. The disadvantage of the LP64 model is that storing a codice_4 into an codice_3 truncates. On the other hand, converting a pointer to a codice_4 will “work” in LP64. In the LLP64 model, the reverse is true. These are not problems which affect fully standard-compliant code, but code is often written with implicit assumptions about the widths of data types. C code should prefer (codice_13)codice_14 instead of codice_4 when casting pointers into integer objects.


title: 64-bit computing

text: A programming model is a choice made to suit a given compiler, and several can coexist on the same OS. However, the programming model chosen as the primary model for the OS application programming interface (API) typically dominates.


title: 64-bit computing

text: Another consideration is the data model used for device drivers. Drivers make up the majority of the operating system code in most modern operating systems (although many may not be loaded when the operating system is running). Many drivers use pointers heavily to manipulate data, and in some cases have to load pointers of a certain size into the hardware they support for direct memory access (DMA). As an example, a driver for a 32-bit PCI device asking the device to DMA data into upper areas of a 64-bit machine's memory could not satisfy requests from the operating system to load data from the device to memory above the 4 gibibyte barrier, because the pointers for those addresses would not fit into the DMA registers of the device. This problem is solved by having the OS take the memory restrictions of the device into account when generating requests to drivers for DMA, or by using an input–output memory management unit (IOMMU).


title: 64-bit computing

text: Most architectures of 64 bits that are derived from the same architecture of 32 bits can execute code written for the 32-bit versions natively, with no performance penalty. This kind of support is commonly called "bi-arch support" or more generally "multi-arch support".


title: Leigh Whannell

text: Leigh Whannell (; born 17 January 1977) is an Australian screenwriter, actor, film producer, and film director. He is best known for writing films directed by his friend James Wan, including "Saw" (2004), "Dead Silence" (2007), "Insidious" (2010), and "" (2013). Whannell made his directorial debut with "" (2015), and has since directed two more films, "Upgrade" (2018) and "The Invisible Man" (2020).


title: Leigh Whannell

text: Whannell and Wan are the creators of the "Saw" franchise. Whannell wrote the first installment, co-wrote the second and third installments, was producer or executive producer for all the films, and appeared as the Adam Stanheight character in three of the installments. He was also the writer of the "Saw" video game (2009), and co-writer of the 2014 film "Cooties".


title: Leigh Whannell

text: Leigh Whannell was born on 17 January 1977, in Melbourne, Australia. He believes that he inherited his love of storytelling from his mother, and his fondness of filmmaking from his father, who was a cameraman in the television industry. Born one of two boys, he grew up with his brother in Melbourne.


title: Leigh Whannell

text: A writer since childhood, Whannell worked as a reporter and film critic for several Australian television shows, including ABC's "Recovery", a Saturday morning youth-oriented program that was hosted by Dylan Lewis. Whannell has described the show in a 2011 blog post:


title: Leigh Whannell

text: The result was that instead of following the usual "MTV" ideal of what teenagers want in a TV show—“Hey kids, coming up next we’ve got some seriously WICKED windsurfing moves!!”—"Recovery" managed to tap into the so-called “alternative” movement that was in full swing at the time by giving teenagers what they actually want: genuine, unpolished anarchy.


title: Leigh Whannell

text: Whannell had originally auditioned for the host role, but was later employed as a reporter; Whannell's first interview was with Jackie Chan and he has stated that ""Recovery" is the best job I've ever had ...".


title: Leigh Whannell

text: Whannell appeared in Episode 4, Season 1 of the RMITV production "Under Melbourne Tonight" presents "What's Goin' On There?" on 10 June 1998.


title: Leigh Whannell

text: In 2003, Whannell appeared in a minor role in "The Matrix Reloaded", as well as in the video game "Enter The Matrix" as the character "Axel".


title: Leigh Whannell

text: While in film school, Whannell met James Wan. Together, the two wrote a script for what would become "Saw". After making a short film in 2003 to showcase the intensity of the "Saw" script, the feature film version, directed by Wan, was made in 2004 and became a low-budget sleeper hit. Whannell played Adam Stanheight in the film, one of the main characters. The popularity of "Saw" led to a sequel, "Saw II", which was directed and co-written by Darren Lynn Bousman, and on which Whannell co-wrote and revised Bousman's original script, titled "The Desperate". Whannell also served as an executive producer.