title: Village

text: After Dan Fodio's Jihad in 1804, political structure of the North became Islamic where emirs were the political, administrative and spiritual leaders of their people. These emirs appointed a number of people to assist them in running the administration and that included villages.


title: Village

text: Every Hausa village was reigned by Magaji (Village head) who was answerable to his Hakimi (mayor) at the town level. The Magaji also had his cabinet who assisted him in ruling his village efficiently, among whom was Mai-Unguwa (Ward Head).


title: Village

text: With the creation of Native Authority in Nigerian provinces, the autocratic power of village heads along with all other traditional rulers was subdued hence they ruled 'under the guidance of colonial officials'.


title: Village

text: Even though the constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria has not recognised the functions of traditional rulers, they still command respect in their villages and political office holders liaise with them almost every time to reach people.


title: Village

text: In Hausa language, village is called "ƙauye" and every local government area is made up of several small and large "ƙauyuka" (villages). For instance, Girka is a village in Kaita town in Katsina state in Nigeria. They have mud houses with thatched roofing though, like in most of the villages in the North, zinc roofing has become a common sight.


title: Village

text: Still in many villages in the North, people do not have access to portable water. So they fetch water from ponds and streams. Others are lucky to have wells within a walking distance. Women rush in the morning to fetch water in their clay pots from wells, boreholes and streams. However, the government is now providing them with water bore holes.


title: Village

text: Electricity and GSM network are reaching more and more villages in the North almost every day. So bad feeder roads may lead to remote villages with electricity and unstable GSM network.


title: Village

text: Village dwellers in the Southeastern region lived separately in "clusters of huts belonging to the patrilinage". As the rainforest region is dominated by Igbo speaking people, the villages are called "ime obodo" (inside town) in Igbo language. A typical large village might have a few thousand persons who shared the same market, meeting place and beliefs.


title: Village

text: In South Africa the majority of people in rural areas reside in villages. They vary in size from having a population of less than 500 to around 1000.


title: Liberty Phoenix

text: Liberty Mariposa Phoenix ( Bottom; July 5, 1976) is a former actress. She is the older sister of Summer Phoenix and the younger sister of River Phoenix, Rain Phoenix, and Joaquin Phoenix.


title: Liberty Phoenix

text: Her mother, Arlyn Sharon (née Dunetz), was born in New York to Jewish parents who emigrated from Russia and Hungary. Her father, John Lee Bottom, was from California and has English, German, and French ancestry.


title: Liberty Phoenix

text: Between 1982 and 1986 Phoenix appeared in two TV productions. The two productions were "Kate's Secret" and "Seven Brides for Seven Brothers" episode "Christmas Song", after which she stopped acting.


title: Liberty Phoenix

text: She founded a punk band with her sisters Rain and Summer Phoenix, called The Causey Way, which no longer exists. However, she occasionally supported Rain's band the Papercranes with her backup vocals.


title: Liberty Phoenix

text: In 2005, Phoenix designed a line of dresses and skirts, selling them to Some Odd Rubies, a boutique in Manhattan. In March 2007, she opened her own eco-friendly Indigo Green Store in Gainesville, Florida.


title: Liberty Phoenix

text: Phoenix is married to Andy Lord. She works for the organization River Phoenix Center for Peacebuilding, which was founded by her mother.


title: Godsmack

text: Godsmack is an American rock band from Lawrence, Massachusetts, formed in 1995. The band is composed of lead singer and rhythm guitarist Sully Erna, bassist Robbie Merrill, lead guitarist Tony Rombola and drummer Shannon Larkin. Since its formation, Godsmack has released seven studio albums, one EP ("The Other Side"), four DVDs, one compilation album ("Good Times, Bad Times... Ten Years of Godsmack"), and one live album ("Live & Inspired").


title: Godsmack

text: The band has released three consecutive number-one albums ("Faceless", "IV" and "The Oracle") on the "Billboard" 200. The band also has 25 top ten rock radio hits, including 18 songs in the top five. The band's seventh album, "When Legends Rise" was released on April 27, 2018.


title: Godsmack

text: Since its inception, Godsmack has toured with Ozzfest on more than one occasion and has toured with many other large tours and festivals, including supporting its albums with its own arena tours. In honor of the band's success and the release of their sixth studio album, "1000hp", Mayor Marty Walsh declared August 6 as "Godsmack Day" in the city of Boston.


title: Godsmack

text: In February 1995, Sully Erna decided to start a new band as the lead singer after playing the drums for more than 23 years, including more than two years in the now-defunct band Strip Mind. His new band, The Scam, formed with Erna on vocals, Robbie Merrill on bass, local guitarist and friend Lee Richards on guitar, and Tommy Stewart on drums. The Scam quickly changed its name to Godsmack, after recording one demo. The newly formed band started playing small bars in their hometown of Boston. Locally popular songs such as "Keep Away" and "Whatever" soon brought them to the top of the hit charts in the Boston/New England area.


title: Godsmack

text: Many people think the band's name stemmed from an Alice in Chains song, but according to Erna, the band's name came from a small and personal incident. "I was making fun of [our drummer at the time] who had a cold sore on his lip and the next day I had one myself and somebody said, 'It's a god smack.' The name stuck. We were aware of the Alice In Chains song but didn't really think much about it." In 1996, Tony Rombola joined as the guitarist after Richards left upon learning he had a six-year-old child and Stewart left due to personal differences. In the same year, the band entered New Alliance Studio in Boston to record its debut album, "All Wound Up...". The CD was recorded in just three days for $2,600 and was self-released in February 1997 through the band's own record label, E. K. Records Company. In May 1997, Joe D'Arco joined to replace Stewart on drums.


title: Godsmack

text: Eventually, Godsmack's CD landed in the hands of Rocko, the night-time DJ for Boston radio station WAAF (FM). The radio station put "Keep Away" into heavy rotation and the song rose to the number one spot at the station very quickly. Newbury Comics, a New England record store chain, agreed to sell the CD on consignment. Shortly after the success of "Keep Away", Godsmack went back into the studio and recorded a single titled "Whatever", which became the new local favorite on WAAF (FM). In an interview Sully Erna stated, "We had been selling maybe 50 copies a month at the time WAAF picked up the album. All of a sudden we started moving over a thousand records a week. (...) I was doing all this from my bedroom. After years of grinding away, things finally started taking off." In April 1998, D'Arco was dismissed from the band. He was replaced by former drummer Tommy Stewart, who returned after expressing a desire to be in the band again.


title: Godsmack

text: In June 1998, Universal/Republic Records signed the band to their label. The band's first album "All Wound Up..." was slightly edited to remove unlicensed samples, fully re-mastered and given a new artwork and layout; the finished self-titled album "Godsmack" was released to the public six weeks later on August 25, 1998. This led to the band's first headlining tour, "The Godsmack Tour" with Jim Rose Circus as the opening act. After the album's release the band went on the road playing club shows as well as playing at Ozzfest and Woodstock '99. This was followed by a tour in Europe supporting Black Sabbath. Roxanne Blanford from Allmusic gave the album three out of five stars, stating, "Godsmack confidently brought metal into the technological age". The album entered the "Billboard" 200 at number twenty-two, and was certified 4× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America in 2001 after being initially certified gold in 1999.


title: Godsmack

text: The album sold well despite being initially pulled from the shelves in some stores due to concerns over some of its lyrical content.The band and its record label later added a Parental Advisory sticker to the album, and some stores ordered amended copies of the album. Erna commented in "Rolling Stone" magazine stating, "Our record has been in the marketplace for more than a year now without a parental advisory sticker and this is the one and only complaint ... Stickers and lyrics are by nature subjective ... We have decided to put a sticker on the record." This controversy did not appear to adversely affect album sales but, according to Erna, helped; "It's almost taunting kids to go out and get the record to see what we're saying on it." The album also had four successful singles which were "Whatever", "Keep Away", "Voodoo" and "Bad Religion".


title: Godsmack

text: In 2000, Godsmack returned to the studio after the multi-platinum success of "Godsmack" to start recording "Awake". The album was released on , 2000. The album debuted at number five on the "Billboard" 200, and has been certified 2× platinum by the RIAA. "Vampires", a song on the album, also earned the band a Grammy nomination for Best Rock Instrumental Performance in 2002. With the release of "Awake", Godsmack toured Europe supporting Limp Bizkit. Erna said at the time, "We've been touring nonstop since August 1998, So most of "Awake" was written on tour while we were ping-ponging between America and Europe, building up the band. "Ozzfest" was actually the only big tour where we rode under someone else's wings; we did a lot of work on our own." The band played Ozzfest in 2000 again as they had in 1999. On July 19, 2001, Godsmack released their first live DVD titled "Live". The DVD has since been certified Gold by the RIAA for selling 50,000 copies in the United States.


title: Godsmack

text: Two of the songs on the album were used in United States Navy commercials ("Sick of Life" and "Awake") as background music. Erna stated, "Someone in the military is a fan, and they asked if they could use the music, and we accepted". However, Erna insisted in an interview that Godsmack does not support any war.


title: Godsmack

text: In 2002, Erna was asked to write and perform a song for the soundtrack to "The Scorpion King". The song Godsmack wrote and performed was titled "I Stand Alone" and the song became the number 1 single at Rock Radio and the most played Active Rock song in 2002 for 14 weeks straight. It was also used in the game "".


title: Godsmack

text: With Shannon Larkin (ex Ugly Kid Joe, Souls at Zero, Wrathchild America, MF Pitbulls) replacing Tommy Stewart, who left due to personal differences for the second time, Godsmack went back into the studio later that year to record a new album that was released in 2003. "Faceless" debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200, selling 269,000 copies in its first week, and the album would go on to sell over one million copies in the United States. "Faceless" also debuted at number nine on the Top Canadian Albums and at number one on the Top Internet Albums and remained at that position for two weeks. A massive Tour of America and Europe supporting Metallica followed.


title: Godsmack

text: The lead single "Straight Out of Line" received a Grammy Award nomination for "Best Hard Rock Performance". The award went to Evanescence's single "Bring Me to Life". The album got its name after a swimming-pool incident. However, in a later interview Merrill stated otherwise, making it unclear of how the album's title came to be, "It came from the band's feeling that, despite our radio and sales success, we still flew a bit under the radar".


title: Godsmack

text: On March 16, 2004 "The Other Side", an acoustic EP, was released. The album debuted at number five on the "Billboard" 200, a relatively high position for an acoustic EP. It included several previously released songs re-recorded as acoustic versions, as well as three new acoustic tracks. One new song, "Touché", featured Godsmack's first guitar player, Lee Richards, as well as John Kosco, who were at that time in the now defunct band Dropbox, The other two new acoustic tracks were "Running Blind" and "Voices". The song "Asleep" is actually an acoustic version of "Awake" from the band's second album "Awake". Godsmack shifted from its "heavy" sound to a more mellow acoustic sound on this EP in the same manner Alice in Chains did in the "Sap" and "Jar of Flies" EPs, one of many similarities to Alice in Chains for which the band has been criticized.


title: Godsmack

text: In 2004, Godsmack opened for Metallica's "Madly in Anger with the World tour", and headlined the tour along with Dropbox. Afterwards, in autumn 2004, the band played several acoustic shows to promote "The Other Side", while at the same time continuing to open for Metallica.


title: Godsmack

text: Throughout 2005, The band was in the studio recording and writing material for a new album. On April 25, 2006, Godsmack released its fourth studio album simply titled "IV", followed by a tour that would continue until August 2007, titled "The IV tour". The album was produced by Erna and engineered by the well known producer and engineer Andy Johns, known for engineering Led Zeppelin's "Led Zeppelin IV". The first single from the album, "Speak" was released on , 2006. The album debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200, selling 211,000 copies in its first week.


title: Godsmack

text: "IV" has since been certified gold. The band had written over forty songs for the album, but the final track listing had eleven tracks, Larkin commented, "it's Sully's band and his vision.[...]When it comes time to pick the songs it's all Sully". The album's minimalist name "IV" derives not only from its being the band's fourth studio album, but also from a running piece of backstage humor, as related by Larkin and Erna in an interview.


title: Godsmack

text: To celebrate ten years as a band, Godsmack released a greatest hits album entitled "Good Times, Bad Times... Ten Years of Godsmack" on , 2007. The album debuted at number thirty-five on the "Billboard" 200, selling 40,000 copies in the first week of release. It includes a cover of the Led Zeppelin song "Good Times Bad Times", as well as a DVD of Godsmack's acoustic performance in Las Vegas at House of Blues. The album was originally intended to be a boxed set, but the band scrapped the plans so they could release a best of album. Godsmack will follow the release of the album with an acoustic tour. Despite rumors of the band going on hiatus as a result of releasing a greatest hits album, Erna was quoted as saying, "we're not going away, we are just gonna take a break and enjoy our 10th year anniversary and kind of recharge our batteries. And then Godsmack will be back, and we will come back bigger and badder than ever."


title: Godsmack

text: In November 2008, Larkin announced that the band would be reforming and recording a new album. The following summer, the band toured as support to Mötley Crüe's Crüe Fest 2 tour and released a non-album single, "Whiskey Hangover". After the tour, Godsmack started production for their new album. The album, titled "The Oracle" was released on , 2010. Arriving to popular reception, "The Oracle" was Godsmack's third straight full-length studio album to debut at No. 1 with 117,000 sold in the first week of release. Erna had this to say about the early sound album, "It's gonna be really heavy. I mean, it's very aggressive. I'm not really sure; it's very premature right now. Right now we just finished one track for the Crüe Fest this Summer. But as far as the whole record goes, I think it's going to be a lot more in your face. I don't think there's going to be any 'Voodoo's or 'Serenity's on this one. We decided to go balls out!".


title: Godsmack

text: Godsmack headlined the fourth annual Mayhem Festival alongside Disturbed. The band entered the studio in January 2012 to mix a live album plus record several covers for an upcoming release. They then went on tour in the spring with Staind. In February 2012, Godsmack finished an EP of cover songs. Godsmack released their new live album "Live & Inspired" on May 15, 2012. The set included a bonus EP of cover tracks. In December of the same year, Sully said in an interview that Godsmack would take a break during 2013, stating "We're going to take some time away now because we just ran for the last two years." A month after, Erna announced a short solo tour through America.


title: Godsmack

text: In February 2014, Erna tweeted that the band had made progress in the songwriting process for its next studio album, tentatively scheduled for a late 2014 release. He also mentioned that the band finished 11 songs for the new record in two weeks. In April, the band announced that they had recorded 15 songs, ten of which would make the final cut. In May, Erna announced that the album would be titled "1000hp" (1000 Horsepower). The album's title track was released as a single the following month. The album was released on August 5, 2014, and sold around 58,000 copies in the United States in its first week of release to land at position No. 3 on The Billboard 200 chart. Since release the album has spawned the singles "Something Different" and "What's Next". The band have unified a campaign to aid military veterans with their latest single "What's Next".


title: Godsmack

text: Godsmack also headlined the 2014 Uproar Festival. They were announced on August 20, 2014, to be part of the Soundwave Festival in Australia. In July 2015, the band revealed dates for an upcoming North American fall headline tour. The run included dates with Sevendust. Also in August 2015 Godsmack announced a new leg of North American dates that would keep the band busy through mid-November.


title: Godsmack

text: On October 14, 2015, Godsmack released a digital single called "Inside Yourself" available for a limited free download. The song was released on iTunes on November 20, 2015.


title: Godsmack

text: On September 9, 2016, Erna confirmed that the band had officially left Universal/Republic, and signed a deal with BMG.


title: Godsmack

text: The band began work on a seventh studio album in 2017. The album, "When Legends Rise", was released on April 27, 2018. The album's first single, "Bulletproof", was released ahead of the album on February 28, 2018. The band toured across North America from May through October 2018. They played at several festivals before embarking on a co-headlining summer tour with Shinedown. The band then toured Europe in October and November 2018 in support of their new album. However, On October 17, 2018, it was announced that the band postponed their fall 2018 Europe tour, following death of Tony Rombola's son and plan to reschedule in early 2019.


title: Godsmack

text: On July 25, 2019, the song "Under Your Scars" hit number 1 for two weeks for the first time on the "Billboard" Mainstream Rock Songs chart.


title: Godsmack

text: On April 8, 2020, the band released a music video for the song "Unforgettable". 400 aspiring musicians from middle school students across New England to take part in the video. The video, directed by Noah Berlow, again sent the song to the top of the charts for five weeks, setting a new record most constitutive at number 1 in its category.


title: Godsmack

text: News of a follow-up to the album began circulating as early as August 2019 when frontman Sully Erna revealed in an interview with Canada's iHeartRadio that the band has been preparing to begin the songwriting process for the album.


title: Godsmack

text: It was later revealed that Godsmack would be working on two new releases for 2021: an acoustic EP and a full length album. That plan has since been scrapped with Sully admitting that the band was being "a little bit more ambitious" at the time.


title: Godsmack

text: With just one album to focus on, Godsmack drummer Shannon Larkin said on "The Metal Teddy Bear Experience" podcast that the band intended for the album to be released in 2022. In an April 23, 2022, interview with WJRR, frontman Sully Erna said that the band has finished recording the new album with a new single expected to hit the airwaves in mid-to-late summer and that the album could be the band's last.


title: Godsmack

text: On September 28, 2022, the band released the single titled "Surrender". Shortly after the release of the new single, Sully Erna revealed in an interview with 93X Radio's Pablo that the title of the album would be "Lighting Up the Sky" and that it would indeed be the band's last record. A second single for the album “You and I” was released on November 11, 2022. The album is scheduled to be released on February 24, 2023.


title: Godsmack

text: Godsmack has been described as post-grunge, hard rock, nu metal, alternative metal, and heavy metal. The band's primary influences include Aerosmith, Alice in Chains, Black Sabbath, Led Zeppelin, Metallica, Pantera and Rush according to Erna, Larkin, and Rombola. Erna has cited Layne Staley as his primary influence.


title: Godsmack

text: The overall sound of the band's first two albums have been compared to Alice in Chains' album "Dirt". However, Godsmack has attempted to distance themselves from the Alice in Chains comparison with Erna stating in an interview with Matt Ashare, "I've just never really heard that in our music." Explaining that Godsmack is a more original band than people give credit for, and that they are not a mere Alice In Chains clone. But that he understands the comparisons by saying: "These are some of the bands that we grew up listening to, or enjoy today, and sometimes it triggers an idea. So, there could be hints of influences there, but that kind of got on my nerves for a while. But with a name like GODSMACK, how could people not go there?"


title: Godsmack

text: The band's music is often compared to Alice in Chains which the band cites as an influence. Adrien Begrand of "PopMatters" states, "Erna perfectly mimics the late Layne Staley's low, guttural, sinister singing and snarly, metal-inspired growls" and, "The band's music is a faithful retread of Jerry Cantrell's churning, tuned-down hard rock".


title: Godsmack

text: Erna's singing style has been stated as "the snarl of James Hetfield", and "composed of dark harmony that sounds a lot like Alice in Chains". Merrill's bass style has been described as "bulldozer bottom with occasional slap-bass reverb". Larkin's drumming is thought to "worship at the twin altars of Neil Peart and John Bonham". And Rombola's guitar playing style has been praised as "guitars that sound like percussion instruments".


title: Choi Si-won

text: Choi Si-won (; born 7 April 1986), known mononymously as Siwon, is a South Korean singer, songwriter, model, and actor known for his work as a member of South Korean boy group Super Junior. Choi committed as special representative of UNICEF Korea for children’s issues over the last four years before he was chosen as UNICEF regional ambassador for East Asia and Pacific in November 2019.


title: Choi Si-won

text: Aside from being a member of Super Junior, Choi has also ventured into solo activities, mainly acting. He played lead roles in the Korean dramas "Oh! My Lady" (2010), "Poseidon" (2011), "Revolutionary Love" (2017), and "My Fellow Citizens!" (2019) and had supporting roles in "" (2010), "The King of Dramas" (2012) and "She Was Pretty" (2015). Choi has also participated in various Chinese language films such as "Helios", "To the Fore" and "Dragon Blade".


title: Choi Si-won

text: Choi Si-won is a representative for Audi Korea. In 2015, Choi Si-won was chosen by the luxury watchmaker brand Piaget as their youngest Asian model. As in 2016, Choi Si-won is listed in Forbes magazine "30 Under 30 Asia". Si-won is described as "one of South Korea’s most sought-after singers and actors".


title: Choi Si-won

text: Choi Si-won will be producer of an upcoming film. In 2015, Choi Siwon with EnterMedia Pictures (CEO Lee Dong Hoon) purchased the rights to the 2011 Daum webtoon "Interview," authored by Rude Vico (romanized from the Korean 루드비코).


title: Choi Si-won

text: Choi was born in Seoul, South Korea, on 10 February 1987. He has one younger sister, Ji-won. His father was the former CEO of Boryung Medicine, a pharmaceutical company.


title: Choi Si-won

text: Choi was scouted by a talent agent from SM Entertainment when he was 16 as he was waiting for friends in front of his high school. The agent recommended him to audition for the company's "Starlight Casting System". He auditioned without his parents' approval; his parents were notified only after he passed the auditions. Although his parents allowed him to sign a contract with SM Entertainment, they did not give him any help because they wanted him to take responsibility for his actions.


title: Choi Si-won

text: He later moved into dormitories with fellow trainees and was trained in areas of singing, acting, dancing as well as languages. He was featured in a music video of The Grace's Dana whilst he was being trained as a solo singer in 2003. A year after, Choi made a brief appearance in family drama, "Precious Family" and again in 2005 in the KBS romance comedy drama "Eighteen, Twenty-Nine" as young Kang Bong-man, while in 2006 he played the supporting role of Park Sang-woo in romance melodrama "Spring Waltz".


title: Choi Si-won

text: Not long after Choi's first television appearance, SM Entertainment released an announcement that he would debut as one of the twelve members in a boy band. A few months before the debut of Super Junior 05, Choi made his first media appearance with bandmate Han Geng as one of the runway models in a fashion show by Bum Suk.


title: Choi Si-won

text: Choi debuted as part of 12-member rotational project group "Super Junior 05" on 6 November 2005 on SBS' music program "Popular Songs", performing their first single, "Twins (Knock Out)". Their debut album "Twins" was released a month later on 5 December 2005 and debuted at number three on the monthly MIAK K-pop album charts.


title: Choi Si-won

text: In March 2006, SM Entertainment began to recruit new members for the next Super Junior generation. However, plans changed and the company declared a halt in forming future Super Junior generations. Following the addition of thirteenth member Kyuhyun, the group dropped the suffix "05" and became officially credited as Super Junior. The re-polished group's first CD single "U" was released on 7 June 2006, which was their most successful single until the release of "Sorry, Sorry" in March 2009, which helped them achieve global success.


title: Choi Si-won

text: In April 2008, Choi was put into seven-member sub-group Super Junior-M, a Mandopop subgroup of Super Junior for the Chinese music industry. They debuted in China at the 8th Annual Music Chart Awards, simultaneously with the release of their first music video, "U" on 8 April 2008. This was followed by the release of the debut Chinese-language studio album, "Me" in selected provinces in China on 23 April and 2 May in Taiwan.


title: Choi Si-won

text: In 2006, Choi was cast in the Hong Kong epic film "A Battle of Wits", playing the role of the Liang Prince. This also marks his film debut. Choi received praise from co-star Andy Lau, who stated that Choi sets a good example for Hong Kong actors.


title: Choi Si-won

text: In 2007, Choi starred in "Attack on the Pin-Up Boys" along with other Super Junior members. The same year, he was cast in MBC's two-episode mini series "Legend of Hyang Dan".


title: Choi Si-won

text: After a three-year hiatus, Choi returned to the screen with SBS' romantic comedy "Oh! My Lady". The same year, he starred in the big-budget spy series "", a spin-off to the 2009 hit drama "Iris". He plays a data analyst and rookie elite agent.


title: Choi Si-won

text: In 2011, Choi headlined KBS' action drama "Poseidon". The same year, he starred in his first taiwanese drama "Skip Beat!" with Ivy Chen and fellow band member Donghae. The series is a live-action adaptation of Japanese shōjo manga titled "Skip Beat!" by Yoshiki Nakamura.


title: Choi Si-won

text: In 2012, Choi starred in SBS' comedy satire drama "The King of Dramas", based around Korean television production. He plays Kang Hyun-min, a top celebrity with a prickly personality.


title: Choi Si-won

text: Choi starred in multiple projects in 2015. He co-starred in Hong Kong historical-action film "Dragon Blade" with Jackie Chan, crime thriller "Helios" and sports drama "To the Fore" alongside Eddie Peng and Shawn Dou. He also starred in the Chinese romance drama "Fall In Love With You Again" and was cast in "Billion Dollar Heir", a Chinese adaptation of the 2013 hit drama "The Heirs".


title: Choi Si-won

text: Back in Korea, Choi starred as the second male lead in MBC's romantic comedy "She Was Pretty". He received critical acclaim for his acting performance and comedic portrayal of the character, and experienced a rise in popularity. He released a single for the drama titled "Only You", which ranked atop the music charts.


title: Choi Si-won

text: In October 2017, Choi started in the tvN's youth romance drama "Revolutionary Love" alongside Kang So-ra. This marked his first project after releasing from his mandatory military enlistment on 18 August 2017.


title: Choi Si-won

text: Choi graduated from Apgu Jeong High School in February 2006 and from Inha University in February 2012 alongside fellow member Kim Ryeowook.


title: Choi Si-won

text: Choi is well known as a devout Protestant Christian, and has said in an interview that after his career, he would like to become a missionary. He frequently posts Bible quotes on his Twitter and Weibo accounts. He has also collaborated with the Christian singing group "3rd Wave Music" along with other K-pop artists.


title: Choi Si-won

text: In 2008, Choi appeared on Chinese postage stamps, one of the first four South Korean artists to do so. The stamps were sold as a charity event to raise funds for victims of an earthquake which happened in China earlier that year.


title: Choi Si-won

text: Choi enlisted as a conscripted policeman on 19 November 2015. He was discharged from mandatory military service on 18 August 2017.


title: Choi Si-won

text: On 10 December 2021, Siwon tested positive for COVID-19, and did not attend the 2021 Mnet Asian Music Awards.


title: Choi Si-won

text: On 30 September 2017, an untied French bulldog owned by Choi's family bit their neighbor, 53-year-old businesswoman Kim who ran Hanilkwan, an upscale Korean cuisine restaurant. This resulted in the death of the victim six days after the incident. The cause was identified as sepsis, brought on by the bite. Choi and his father separately wrote letters of apology on their Instagram accounts on 21 October 2017. Although a family member of the deceased told media that the family were not willing to take any legal action, the Choi family received severe backlash from the public for not taking any precautionary measures with their dog.


title: Choi Si-won

text: Choi has joined many UNICEF campaigns since 2010. He was appointed as the special representative of the South Korea committee for UNICEF on 12 November 2015.


title: Choi Si-won

text: Upon his release from the military, Choi confirmed to volunteer for a UNICEF campaign in Vietnam from 21 to 25 August 2017, alongside fellow labelmate Jaemin of NCT Dream. The campaign is named as "SMile for U" which is a music education programme for children with disabilities conducted in partnership with Choi's agency.


title: Bell 206

text: The Bell 206 is a family of two-bladed, single- and twin-engined helicopters, manufactured by Bell Helicopter at its Mirabel, Quebec, plant. Originally developed as the Bell YOH-4 for the United States Army's Light Observation Helicopter program, it was not selected by the Army. Bell redesigned the airframe and successfully marketed the aircraft commercially as the five-place Bell 206A JetRanger. The new design was eventually selected by the Army as the OH-58 Kiowa.


title: Bell 206

text: Bell also developed a seven-place LongRanger, which was later offered with a twin-engined option as the TwinRanger, while Tridair Helicopters offers a similar conversion of the LongRanger called the Gemini ST. The ICAO-assigned model designation "B06" is used on flight plans for the JetRanger and LongRanger, and the designation "B06T" is used for the twin-engined TwinRangers.


title: Bell 206

text: On October 14, 1960, the United States Navy solicited responses from 25 aircraft manufacturers to a request for proposals (RFP) on behalf of the Army for the Light Observation Helicopter (LOH). Bell entered the competition along with 12 other manufacturers, including Hiller Aircraft and Hughes Tool Co., Aircraft Division. Bell submitted the "D-250" design, which would be designated as the "YHO-4". On May 19, 1961, Bell and Hiller were announced as winners of the design competition.


title: Bell 206

text: Bell developed the D-250 design into the Bell 206 aircraft, redesignated as YOH-4A in 1962, and produced five prototype aircraft for the Army's test and evaluation phase. The first prototype flew on December 8, 1962. The YOH-4A also came to be known as "The Ugly Duckling" in comparison to the other contending aircraft. Following a fly-off of the Bell, Hughes and Fairchild-Hiller prototypes, the Hughes OH-6 was selected in May 1965.


title: Bell 206

text: When the YOH-4A was eliminated by the Army, Bell went about solving the problem of marketing the aircraft. In addition to the image problem, the helicopter lacked cargo space and only provided cramped seating for the planned three passengers. The solution was a redesigned fuselage, sleeker and aesthetically appealing, adding 16 ft (0.45 m) of cargo space in the process. A Bell executive contributed to this redesign by drawing on a sketch two lines extending the fuselage to where it meets the tail. The redesign was designated Bell 206A, and Bell President Edwin J. Ducayet named it the JetRanger, denoting an evolution from the popular Model 47J Ranger.


title: Bell 206

text: Bell Helicopter ended production of the Bell 206B-3 version in 2010. In 2011, used 206B-3s sold for around $1.4 million depending upon the equipment and configuration. Bell intends for the Bell 505 Jet Ranger X to replace the 206 five-seat versions from around 2015 and compete with the Robinson R66.


title: Bell 206

text: The 206L LongRanger is a stretched variant with seating for seven. The fuselage, stretched a total of , adds two rear-facing seats between the front and rear seats. Since 1975, Bell has produced more than 1,700 LongRangers across all variant types. In 1981, a military version, the 206L TexasRanger was released. The original 206L used an Allison 250-C20B engine, and a series of model upgrades replaced this engine with more powerful versions; the 206L-1 used a 250-C28, and the 206L-3 and 206L-4 used the 250-C30P.


title: Bell 206

text: In both applications, the 250-C30P is derated from 650 hp for takeoff and 501 hp continuous. The 206L-3 is transmission-limited to 435 hp for take-off, and the 206L-4 is transmission-limited to 495 hp. The derating of the C30P produces an advantage in hot-day and high-altitude operations as it can produce the rated horsepower at higher altitudes and temperatures where applications that use the maximum rating of the engine at sea level suffer accelerated performance deterioration with increases in temperature and altitude. The 206L-3 and L-4 have not been offered in a twin configuration under those model designations.


title: Bell 206

text: In 2007, Bell announced an upgrade program for the 206L-1 and 206L-3 which is designed to modify the aircraft to the 206L-4 configuration; modified aircraft are designated 206L-1+ and 206L-3+. Modifications include strengthened airframe structural components (including a new tailboom), improved transmission, upgraded engine for the L-1, all of which result in a maximum gross weight increase of 300 pounds and increased performance.


title: Bell 206

text: The "TwinRanger" name dates from the mid-1980s when Bell developed the "Bell 400 TwinRanger", but it never entered production.


title: Bell 206

text: In 1989, Tridair Helicopters began developing a twin-engine conversion of the LongRanger, the "Gemini ST". The prototype's first flight was on January 16, 1991, while full FAA certification was awarded in November. Certification covers the conversion of LongRanger 206L-1s, L-3s and L-4s to Gemini ST configuration. In mid-1994 the Gemini ST was certificated as the first Single/Twin aircraft, allowing it to operate either as a single or twin engine aircraft throughout all phases of flight.


title: Bell 206

text: The "Bell 206LT TwinRanger" was a new-build production model equivalent to Tridair's Gemini ST, and was based on the 206L-4. Thirteen 206LTs were built, the first being delivered in January 1994, and the last in 1997. The TwinRanger was replaced in Bell's lineup by the mostly-new "Bell 427".


title: Bell 206

text: The first Bell 206A flew on January 10, 1966, and the aircraft was revealed later that month at the Helicopter Association of America (HAA) convention. On October 20, 1966, the JetRanger received FAA certification. Delivery of the JetRanger to customers began on January 13, 1967, with the first aircraft being purchased by Harry Holly, CEO of the Hollymatic Corporation and previous owner of a Bell Ranger. In 1968, the United States Navy selected the 206A as its primary trainer, the TH-57 Sea Ranger. The Army also eventually selected the 206A for a light observation helicopter as the OH-58 Kiowa.


title: Bell 206

text: The basic shape and design of the JetRanger remained unchanged since 1967, but Bell introduced the 206B JetRanger II in 1971. In 1977, the 206B-3 JetRanger III was introduced with its modified tail rotor and more powerful engine. The JetRanger is popular with news media for traffic and news reporting. The LongRanger is commonly used as an air ambulance and as a corporate transport. On September 1, 1982, pilots H. Ross Perot, Jr. and Jay Coburn departed Dallas, Texas in the "Spirit of Texas", a Bell 206L-2 (N3911Z). They returned on 30 September, 29 days and 3 hours later, completing the first around-the-world helicopter flight.


title: Bell 206

text: In 1983, Australian businessman Dick Smith became the first helicopter pilot to complete a solo trip around the world in 260 flight hours. During the trip, he landed his 206B-3 (S/N 3653; VH-DIK) on prepositioned container ships to refuel between Japan and the Aleutian Islands.


title: Bell 206

text: In 1993, the U.S. Army chose the Bell 206B-3 as the winner of the New Training Helicopter competition, to serve as its primary training helicopter, the TH-67 Creek. The number of TH-67s being divested by the Army is too small to impact civilian markets.


title: Bell 206

text: On July 22, 1994, Ron Bower landed his 206B-3 (N206AJ) at Hurst, Texas, setting a new record for around-the-world flight by a helicopter. Bower had departed on June 24 and returned 24 days, 4 hours, 36 minutes and 24 seconds later, averaging 35.62 knots (40.99 mph, 65.97 km/h). Bower had added a auxiliary fuel tank, which doubled the JetRanger III's range.


title: Bell 206

text: On August 1, 1977, famous U-2 spy plane pilot Francis Gary Powers was piloting a helicopter for KNBC Channel 4 over West Los Angeles, California when the aircraft crashed, killing him and cameraman George Spears. They had been video recording brush fires in Santa Barbara County in the station's helicopter and were leaving the area.


title: Bell 206

text: On August 27, 1990, musician Stevie Ray Vaughan, pilot Jeff Brown, and three members of Eric Clapton's crew, Bobby Brooks, Nigel Browne, and Colin Smythe, were killed in a fatal 206B crash.


title: Bell 206

text: On March 9, 2009, Bangladesh Army's General Officer, Commander of Jessore Area and his pilot was killed when his Bell 206 crashed at Tangail Area of Bangladesh.


title: Bell 206

text: On February 11, 2019, Brazilian journalist Ricardo Boechat and the pilot were killed when Bell 206B, PT-HPG, crashed into a truck while attempting an emergency landing on a highway.


title: Wright Flyer

text: The Wright Flyer (also known as the Kitty Hawk, Flyer" I or the 1903 "Flyer) made the first sustained flight by a manned heavier-than-air powered and controlled aircraft—an airplane—on 17 December 1903. Invented and flown by Orville and Wilbur Wright, it marked the beginning of the pioneer era of aviation.


title: Wright Flyer

text: The Wright brothers flew the "Wright Flyer" four times that day on land now part of the town of Kill Devil Hills, about south of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. The aircraft was preserved and is now exhibited in the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C.


title: Wright Flyer

text: The "Flyer" was based on the Wrights' experience testing gliders at Kitty Hawk between 1900 and 1902. Their last glider, the 1902 Glider, led directly to the design of the "Wright Flyer".


title: Wright Flyer

text: The Wrights built the aircraft in 1903 using spruce for straight members of the airframe (such as wing spars) and ash wood for curved components (wing ribs). The wings were designed with a 1-in-20 camber. Since they could not find a suitable automobile engine for the task, they commissioned their employee Charlie Taylor to build a new design from scratch, a lightweight gasoline engine, weighing , with a fuel tank. A sprocket chain drive, borrowing from bicycle technology, powered the twin propellers, which were also made by hand. In order to avoid the risk of torque effects from affecting the aircraft handling, one drive chain was crossed over so that the propellers rotated in opposite directions.


title: Wright Flyer

text: The long propellers were based on airfoil number 9 from their wind tunnel data, which provided the best "gliding angle" for different angles of attack. The propellers were connected to the engine by chains from the Indianapolis Chain Company, with a sprocket gear reduction of 23-to-8. Wilbur had calculated that slower turning blades generated greater thrust, and two of them were better than a single blade turning faster. Made from three laminations of spruce, the tips were covered with duck canvas, and the entire propeller painted with aluminum paint.


title: Wright Flyer

text: On 5 November 1903, the brothers tested their engine on the "Wright Flyer" at Kitty Hawk, but before they could tune the engine, the propeller hubs came loose. The drive shafts were sent back to Dayton for repair, and returned on 20 November. A hairline crack was discovered in one of the propeller shafts. Orville returned to Dayton on 30 November to make new spring steel shafts. On 12 December, the brothers installed the new shafts on the "Wright Flyer" and tested it on their launching rail system that included a wheeled launching dolly. According to Orville:


title: Wright Flyer

text: In practice tests, they were able to achieve a propeller rpm of 351, with a thrust of , more than enough for their flyer.


title: Wright Flyer

text: The "Wright Flyer" was a canard biplane configuration, with a wingspan of , a camber of 1-20, a wing area of , and a length of . The right wing was longer because the engine was heavier than Orville or Wilbur. Unoccupied, the machine weighed . As with the gliders, the pilot flew lying on his stomach on the lower wing with his head toward the front of the craft in an effort to reduce drag. The pilot was left of center while the engine was right of center. He steered by moving a hip cradle in the direction he wished to fly. The cradle pulled wires to warp the wings, and simultaneously turn the rudder, for coordinated flight. The pilot operated the elevator lever with his left hand, while holding a strut with his right. The "Wright Flyer"s "runway" was a track of 2x4s, which the brothers nicknamed the "Junction Railroad". The "Wright Flyer" skids rested on a launching dolly, consisting of a plank, with a wheeled wooden section. The two tandem ball bearing wheels were made from bicycle hubs. A restraining wire held the plane back, while the engine was running and the propellers turning, until the pilot was ready to be released.


title: Wright Flyer

text: The "Wright Flyer" had three instruments onboard. A Veedor engine revolution recorder measured the number of propeller turns. A stopwatch recorded the flight time, and a Richard hand anemometer, attached to the front center strut, recorded the distance covered in meters.


title: Wright Flyer

text: Upon returning to Kitty Hawk in 1903, the Wrights completed assembly of the "Flyer" while practicing on the 1902 Glider from the previous season. On 14 December 1903, they felt ready for their first attempt at powered flight. With the help of men from the nearby government life-saving station, the Wrights moved the "Flyer" and its launching rail to the incline of a nearby sand dune, Big Kill Devil Hill, intending to make a gravity-assisted takeoff. The brothers tossed a coin to decide who would get the first chance at piloting, and Wilbur won. The airplane left the rail, but Wilbur pulled up too sharply, stalled, and came down after covering in 3 seconds, sustaining little damage.


title: Wright Flyer

text: Repairs after the abortive first flight took three days. When they were ready again on 17 December, the wind was averaging more than , so the brothers laid the launching rail on level ground, pointed into the wind, near their camp. This time the wind, instead of an inclined launch, provided the necessary airspeed for takeoff. Because Wilbur had already had the first chance, Orville took his turn at the controls. His first flight lasted 12 seconds for a total distance of – shorter than the wingspan of a Boeing 747.


title: Wright Flyer

text: Taking turns, the Wrights made four brief, low-altitude flights that day. The flight paths were all essentially straight; turns were not attempted. Each flight ended in a bumpy and unintended landing. The last flight, by Wilbur, covered in 59 seconds, much longer than each of the three previous flights of 120, 175 and 200 feet (, and ) in 12, 12, and 15 seconds respectively. The fourth flight's landing broke the front elevator supports, which the Wrights hoped to repair for a possible flight to Kitty Hawk village. Soon after, a heavy gust picked up the "Flyer" and tumbled it end over end, damaging it beyond any hope of quick repair. It was never flown again.


title: Wright Flyer

text: In 1904, the Wrights continued refining their designs and piloting techniques in order to obtain fully controlled flight. Major progress toward this goal was achieved with a new machine called the Wright Flyer II in 1904 and even more decisively in 1905 with the third, Wright Flyer III, in which Wilbur made a 39-minute, nonstop circling flight on 5 October.


title: Wright Flyer

text: The Flyer series of aircraft were the first to achieve controlled heavier-than-air flight, but some of the mechanical techniques the Wrights used to accomplish this were not influential for the development of aviation as a whole, although their theoretical achievements were. The "Flyer" design depended on wing-warping controlled by a hip cradle under the pilot, and a foreplane or "canard" for pitch control, features which would not scale and produced a hard-to-control aircraft. The Wrights' pioneering use of "roll control" by twisting the wings to change wingtip angle in relation to the airstream led to the more practical use of ailerons by their imitators, such as Glenn Curtiss and Henri Farman. The Wrights' original concept of simultaneous coordinated roll and yaw control (rear rudder deflection), which they discovered in 1902, perfected in 1903–1905, and patented in 1906, represents the solution to controlled flight and is used today on virtually every fixed-wing aircraft. The Wright patent included the use of hinged rather than warped surfaces for the forward elevator and rear rudder. Other features that made the "Flyer" a success were highly efficient wings and propellers, which resulted from the Wrights' exacting wind tunnel tests and made the most of the marginal power delivered by their early homebuilt engines; slow flying speeds (and hence survivable accidents); and an incremental test/development approach. The future of aircraft design lay with rigid wings, ailerons and rear control surfaces. A British patent of 1868 for aileron technology had apparently been completely forgotten by the time the 20th century dawned.


title: Wright Flyer

text: After a single statement to the press in January 1904 and a failed public demonstration in May, the Wright Brothers did not publicize their efforts, and other aviators who were working on the problem of flight (notably Alberto Santos-Dumont) were thought by the press to have preceded them by many years. After their successful demonstration flight in France on 8 August 1908, they were accepted as pioneers and received extensive media coverage.


title: Wright Flyer

text: The issue of patent control was correctly seen as critical by the Wrights, and they acquired a wide American patent, intended to give them ownership of basic aerodynamic control. This was fought in both American and European courts. European designers were little affected by the litigation and continued their own development. The legal fight in the U.S. had a crushing effect on the nascent American aircraft industry, and even by the time of America's entry into World War I, in 1917, the U.S. had no suitable military aircraft and had to purchase French and British models.


title: Wright Flyer

text: The "Wright Flyer" was conceived as a control-canard, as the Wrights were more concerned with control than stability. It was found to be unstable and barely controllable. During flight tests near Dayton the Wrights added ballast to the nose of the aircraft to move the center of gravity forward and reduce pitch instability. The Wright Brothers did not understand the basics of pitch stability of the canard configuration. F.E.C. Culick stated, "The backward state of the general theory and understanding of flight mechanics hindered them... Indeed, the most serious gap in their knowledge was probably the basic reason for their unwitting mistake in selecting their canard configuration."


title: Wright Flyer

text: According to Combs, "Wright designs incorporated a 'balanced' forward elevator...the movable surface extending an equal distance on both sides of its hinge or pivot axis, as opposed to an 'in-trail' configuration...which would have enhanced controllability in flight." Orville wrote of the elevator, which the brothers called a "front rudder", "I found the control of the front rudder quite difficult on account of its being balanced too near the center and thus had a tendency to turn itself when started so that the rudder was turned too far on one side and then too far on the other." Thus, these early flights suffered from overcontrol.


title: Wright Flyer

text: The Wright Brothers returned home to Dayton for Christmas after the flights of the Kitty Hawk "Flyer". While they had abandoned their other gliders, they realized the historical significance of the "Flyer". They shipped the heavily damaged craft back to Dayton, where it remained stored in crates behind a Wright Company shed for nine years. The Great Dayton Flood of March 1913 covered the flyer in mud and water for 11 days.


title: Wright Flyer

text: Charlie Taylor relates in a 1948 article that the "Flyer" nearly got disposed of by the Wrights. In early 1912 Roy Knabenshue, the Wrights Exhibition team manager, had a conversation with Wilbur and asked Wilbur what they planned to do with the "Flyer". Wilbur said they most likely will burn it, as they had the 1904 machine. According to Taylor, Knabenshue talked Wilbur out of disposing of the machine for historical purposes.


title: Wright Flyer

text: In 1910 the Wrights offered the "Flyer" as an exhibit at the Smithsonian Institution, but the Smithsonian declined, saying it would be willing to display other aeronautical artifacts from the brothers. Wilbur died in 1912, and in 1916 Orville brought the "Flyer" out of storage and prepared it for display at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He replaced parts of the wing covering, the props, and the engine's crankcase, crankshaft, and flywheel. The crankcase, crankshaft, and flywheel of the original engine had been sent to the Aero Club of America in New York for an exhibit in 1906 and were never returned to the Wrights. The replacement crankcase, crankshaft and flywheel came from the experimental engine Charlie Taylor had built in 1904 and used for testing in the bicycle shop. A replica crankcase of the flyer is on display at the visitor center at the Wright Brothers National Memorial.


title: Wright Flyer

text: The Smithsonian Institution, and primarily its then-secretary Charles Walcott, refused to give credit to the Wright Brothers for the first powered, controlled flight of an aircraft. Instead, they honored the former Smithsonian Secretary Samuel Pierpont Langley, whose 1903 tests of his Aerodrome on the Potomac were not successful. Walcott was a friend of Langley and wanted to see Langley's place in aviation history restored. In 1914, Glenn Curtiss had recently exhausted the appeal process in a patent infringement legal battle with the Wrights. Curtiss sought to prove Langley's machine, which failed piloted tests nine days before the Wrights' successful flight in 1903, capable of controlled, piloted flight in an attempt to invalidate the Wrights' wide-sweeping patents.


title: Wright Flyer

text: The Aerodrome was removed from exhibit at the Smithsonian and prepared for flight at Keuka Lake, New York. Curtiss called the preparations "restoration" claiming that the only addition to the design was pontoons to support testing on the lake but critics including patent attorney Griffith Brewer called them alterations of the original design. Curtiss flew the modified "Aerodrome", hopping a few feet off the surface of the lake for 5 seconds at a time.


title: Wright Flyer

text: Between 1916 and 1928, the "Wright Flyer" was prepared and assembled for exhibition under the supervision of Orville by Wright Company mechanic Jim Jacobs several times. It was briefly exhibited at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1916, the New York Aero Shows in 1917 and 1919, a Society of Automotive Engineers meeting in Dayton, Ohio in 1918, and the National Air Races in Dayton in 1924.


title: Wright Flyer

text: In 1925, Orville attempted to pressure the Smithsonian by warning that he would send the "Flyer" to the Science Museum in London if the Institution refused to recognize his and Wilbur's accomplishment. The threat did not achieve its intended effect, and on January 28, 1928, Orville shipped the "Kitty Hawk" to London for display at the museum. It remained there in "the place of honour", except during World War II when it was moved to an underground storage facility away, near Corsham.


title: Wright Flyer

text: In 1942, the Smithsonian Institution, under a new secretary, Charles Abbot, published a list of 35 Curtiss modifications to the "Aerodrome" and a retraction of its long-held claims for the craft. Abbot went on to list four regrets including the role the Institution played in supporting unsuccessful defendants in patent litigation by the Wrights, misinformation about modifications made to the Aerodrome after "Wright Flyer"s first flight, and public statements attributing the "first aeroplane capable of sustained free flight with a man" to Secretary Langley. The entry in the 1942 Annual Report of Smithsonian Institution begins with the statement "It is everywhere acknowledged that the Wright brothers were the first to make sustained flights in a heavier-than-air machine at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, on December 17, 1903" and closes with a promise that "Should Dr. Wright decide to deposit the plane ... it would be given the highest place of honor which it is due"


title: Wright Flyer

text: The following year, Orville, after exchanging several letters with Abbott, agreed to return the "Flyer" to the United States. The "Flyer" stayed at the Science Museum until a replica could be built, based on the original. This change of heart by the Smithsonian is also mired in controversy – the "Flyer" was sold to the Smithsonian under several contractual conditions, one of which reads:


title: Wright Flyer

text: On October 18, 1948, the official handover of the "Kitty Hawk" was made to Livingston L. Satterthwaite, the American Civil Air Attaché at a ceremony attended by representatives of the various flying organizations in the UK and by some British aviation pioneers such as Sir Alliott Verdon-Roe.


title: Wright Flyer

text: On November 11, 1948, the "Kitty Hawk" arrived in North America onboard the "Mauretania" with 1,111 passengers. When the liner docked at Halifax, Nova Scotia, Paul E. Garber of the Smithsonian's National Air Museum met the aircraft and took command of the proceedings, overseeing its transfer to the US Navy aircraft carrier, the USS "Palau", which repatriated the aircraft by way of New York Harbor. The rest of the journey to Washington continued on flatbed truck. While in Halifax Garber met John A. D. McCurdy, at the time the Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia. McCurdy as a young man had been a member of Alexander Graham Bell's team Aerial Experiment Association, which included Glenn Curtiss, and later a famous pioneer pilot. During the stay at Halifax, Garber and McCurdy reminisced about the pioneer aviation days and the Wright Brothers. McCurdy also offered Garber any assistance he needed to get the "Flyer" home.


title: Wright Flyer

text: The "Wright Flyer" was put on display in the Arts and Industries Building of the Smithsonian on 17 December 1948, 45 years to the day after the aircraft's only successful flights. (Orville did not live to see this, as he had died that January.) In 1976, it was moved to the Milestones of Flight Gallery of the new National Air and Space Museum. Since 2003 it has resided in a special exhibit in the museum titled "The Wright Brothers and the Invention of the Aerial Age," in recognition of the 100th anniversary of their first flight.


title: Wright Flyer

text: In 1981, discussion began on the need to restore the "Wright Flyer" from the aging it sustained after many decades on display. During the ceremonies celebrating the 78th anniversary of the first flights, Mrs. Harold S. Miller (Ivonette Wright, Lorin's daughter), one of the Wright brothers' nieces, presented the Museum with the original covering of one wing of the "Flyer", which she had received in her inheritance from Orville. She expressed her wish to see the aircraft restored.


title: Wright Flyer

text: The fabric covering on the aircraft at the time, which came from the 1927 restoration, was discolored and marked with water spots. Metal fasteners holding the wing uprights together had begun to corrode, marking the nearby fabric.


title: Wright Flyer

text: Work began in 1985. The restoration was supervised by Senior Curator Robert Mikesh and assisted by Wright Brothers expert Tom Crouch. Museum director Walter J. Boyne decided to perform the restoration in full view of the public.


title: Wright Flyer

text: The wooden framework was cleaned, and corrosion on metal parts removed. The covering was the only part of the aircraft replaced. The new covering was more accurate to the original than that of the 1927 restoration. To preserve the original paint on the engine, the restorers coated it in inert wax before putting on a new coat of paint. The effects of the 1985 restoration were intended to last 75 years (to 2060) before another restoration would be required.


title: Wright Flyer

text: In 1978, 23-year-old Ken Kellett built a replica "Wright Flyer" in Colorado and flew it at Kitty Hawk on the 75th and 80th anniversaries of the first flight there. Construction took a year and cost $3,000.


title: Wright Flyer

text: As the 100th anniversary on 17 December 2003, approached, the U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission along with other organizations opened bids for companies to recreate the original flight. The Wright Experience, led by Ken Hyde, won the bid and painstakingly recreated reproductions of the original "Wright Flyer", plus many of the prototype gliders and kites and subsequent Wright aircraft. The completed "Flyer" reproduction was brought to Kitty Hawk and pilot Kevin Kochersberger attempted to recreate the original flight at 10:35 on 17 December 2003, on level ground near the bottom of Kill Devil Hill. Although the aircraft had previously made several successful test flights, poor weather, rain, and weak winds prevented a successful flight on the anniversary. Hyde's reproduction is displayed at the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan.


title: Wright Flyer

text: The Los Angeles Section of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) built a full-scale replica of the 1903 "Wright Flyer" between 1979 and 1993 using plans from the original "Wright Flyer" published by the Smithsonian Institution in 1950. Constructed in advance of the 100th anniversary of the Wright Brothers' first flight, the replica was intended for wind tunnel testing to provide a historically accurate aerodynamic database of the "Wright Flyer" design. The aircraft went on display at the March Field Air Museum in Riverside, California. Numerous static display-only, nonflying reproductions are on display around the United States and across the world, making this perhaps the most reproduced single aircraft of the "pioneer" era in history, rivaling the number of copies – some of which are airworthy – of Louis Blériot's cross-Channel Bleriot XI from 1909.


title: Wright Flyer

text: In 1969, portions of the original fabric and wood from the "Wright Flyer" traveled to the Moon and its surface in Neil Armstrong's personal preference kit aboard the Apollo 11 Lunar Module "Eagle", and then back to Earth in the Command module "Columbia".


title: Wright Flyer

text: This artifact is on display at the visitors center at the Wright Brothers National Memorial in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.


title: Wright Flyer

text: In 1986, separate portions of original wood and fabric, as well as a note by Orville Wright, were taken by North Carolina native astronaut Michael Smith aboard the Space Shuttle "Challenger" on mission STS-51-L, which was destroyed soon after liftoff. The portions of wood and fabric and Wright's note were recovered from the wreck of the Shuttle and are on display at the North Carolina Museum of History.


title: Wright Flyer

text: A small piece of the "Wright Flyer"s wing fabric is attached to a cable underneath the solar panel of the helicopter "Ingenuity", which became the first vehicle to perform a controlled atmospheric flight on Mars on 19 April 2021. Before moving on for further exploration and testing, "Ingenuity"s first base on Mars was named Wright Brothers Field.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The Missouri Compromise was a federal legislation of the United States that balanced desires of northern states to prevent expansion of slavery in the country with those of southern states to expand it. It admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state and declared a policy of prohibiting slavery in the remaining Louisiana Purchase lands north of the 36°30′ parallel. The 16th United States Congress passed the legislation on March 3, 1820, and President James Monroe signed it on March 6, 1820.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: Earlier, in February 1819, Representative James Tallmadge Jr., a Democratic-Republican (Jeffersonian Republican) from New York, had submitted two amendments to Missouri's request for statehood that included restrictions on slavery. Southerners objected to any bill that imposed federal restrictions on slavery and believed that it was a state issue, as settled by the Constitution. However, with the Senate evenly split at the opening of the debates, both sections possessing 11 states, the admission of Missouri as a slave state would give the South an advantage. Northern critics including Federalists and Democratic-Republicans objected to the expansion of slavery into the Louisiana Purchase territory on the Constitutional inequalities of the three-fifths rule, which conferred Southern representation in the federal government derived from a state's slave population.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: Jeffersonian Republicans in the North ardently maintained that a strict interpretation of the Constitution required that Congress act to limit the spread of slavery on egalitarian grounds. "[Northern] Republicans rooted their antislavery arguments, not on expediency, but in egalitarian morality." "The Constitution [said northern Jeffersonians], strictly interpreted, gave the sons of the founding generation the legal tools to hasten [the] removal [of slavery], including the refusal to admit additional slave states."


title: Missouri Compromise

text: When free-soil Maine offered its petition for statehood, the Senate quickly linked the Maine and Missouri bills, making Maine admission a condition for Missouri entering the Union as a slave state. Senator Jesse B. Thomas of Illinois added a compromise proviso that excluded slavery from all remaining lands of the Louisiana Purchase north of the 36° 30' parallel. The combined measures passed the Senate, only to be voted down in the House by Northern representatives who held out for a free Missouri. Speaker of the House Henry Clay of Kentucky, in a desperate bid to break the deadlock, divided the Senate bills. Clay and his pro-compromise allies succeeded in pressuring half of the anti-restrictionist House Southerners to submit to the passage of the Thomas proviso and maneuvered a number of restrictionist House northerners to acquiesce in supporting Missouri as a slave state. While the Missouri question in the 15th Congress ended in stalemate on March 4, 1819, the House sustaining its northern antislavery position and the Senate blocking a slavery restricted statehood, it succeeded in the 16th Congress.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The Missouri Compromise was very controversial, and many worried that the country had become lawfully divided along sectarian lines. The Kansas–Nebraska Act effectively repealed the bill in 1854, and the Supreme Court declared it unconstitutional in "Dred Scott v. Sandford" (1857), both of which increased tensions over slavery and contributed to the American Civil War. The compromise both delayed the Civil War and sowed its seeds; Thomas Jefferson writing contemporaneously predicted the line it had drawn would someday tear the Union apart. 40 years later, the North and South would split closely along the 36°30′ parallel and fight for four bloody years.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The Era of Good Feelings, closely associated with the administration of President James Monroe (1817–1825), was characterized by the dissolution of national political identities. With the Federalists discredited by the Hartford Convention against the War of 1812, they were in decline nationally, and the "amalgamated" or hybridized Republicans adopted key Federalist economic programs and institutions, further erasing party identities and consolidating their victory.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The economic nationalism of the Era of Good Feelings authorized the Tariff of 1816 and incorporated the Second Bank of the United States, which portended an abandonment of the Jeffersonian political formula for strict construction of the Constitution, a limited central government, and commitments to the primacy of Southern agrarian interests. The end of opposition parties also meant the end of party discipline and the means to suppress internecine factional animosities. Rather than produce political harmony, as President James Monroe had hoped, amalgamation had led to intense rivalries among Democratic-Republicans.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: It was amid that period's "good feelings" during which Democratic-Republican Party discipline was in abeyance that the Tallmadge Amendment surfaced.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The immense Louisiana Purchase territories had been acquired through federal executive action, followed by Republican legislative authorization in 1803 under President Thomas Jefferson.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: Prior to its purchase in 1803, the governments of Spain and France had already sanctioned and promoted slavery in the region. Enslaved African Americans accounted for twenty to thirty percent of the non-Native American population in and around the main settlements of St. Louis and Ste. Genevieve. In 1804, Congress limited the further introduction of enslaved men and women to those introduced by actual settlers.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: In addition, in appointing the officials from the Indiana Territory to Upper Louisiana (as Missouri was known until 1812), Congress heightened concerns that it intended to extend some sort of prohibition on slavery's growth across the river. White Missourians objected to these restrictions, and in 1805, Congress withdrew them. The final version of the 1805 territorial ordinance omitted all references to slavery. Under the 1805 ordinance, slavery existed legally in Missouri (which included all of the Louisiana Purchase outside of Louisiana) by force of local law and territorial statute, rather than by territorial ordinance, as was the case in other territories where slavery was permitted.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: It is unknown if Congress purposely omitted any reference to slavery or Article VI in the 1805 territorial ordinance. Nonetheless, over the next fifteen years, some restrictionists – including Amos Stoddard - claimed that this omission was deliberate, intended to allow the United States government to prohibit slavery in Missouri if circumstances proved more favorable in the future.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: In 1812, Louisiana, a major cotton producer and the first to be carved from the Louisiana Purchase, had entered the Union as a slave state. Predictably, Missourians were adamant that slave labor should not be molested by the federal government. In the years after the War of 1812, the region, now known as Missouri Territory, experienced rapid settlement, led by slaveholding planters.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: Agriculturally, the land in the lower reaches of the Missouri River, from which that new state would be formed, had no prospects as a major cotton producer. Suited for diversified farming, the only crop regarded as promising for slave labor was hemp culture. On that basis, southern planters immigrated with their chattel to Missouri, and the slave population rose from 3,101 in 1810 to 10,000 in 1820. Out of the total population of 67,000, slaves represented about 15%.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: By 1819, the population of Missouri Territory was approaching the threshold that would qualify it for statehood. An enabling act was provided to Congress empowering territorial residents to select convention delegates and draft a state constitution. The admission of Missouri Territory as a slave state was expected to be more-or-less routine.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: When the Missouri statehood bill was opened for debate in the House of Representatives on February 13, 1819, early exchanges on the floor proceeded without serious incident. In the course of the proceedings, however, Representative James Tallmadge Jr. of New York "tossed a bombshell into the Era of Good Feelings" with the following amendments:


title: Missouri Compromise

text: A political outsider, the 41-year-old Tallmadge conceived his amendment based on a personal aversion to slavery. He had played a leading role in accelerating the emancipation of the remaining slaves in New York in 1817 and had campaigned against Illinois's Black Codes. Though ostensibly free-soil, the new state had a constitution that permitted indentured servitude and a limited form of slavery. As a New York Republican, Tallmadge maintained an uneasy association with Governor DeWitt Clinton, a former Republican who depended on support from ex-Federalists. Clinton's faction was hostile to Tallmadge for his spirited defense of General Andrew Jackson's contentious invasion of Florida.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: After proposing the amendment, Tallmadge fell ill, and Representative John W. Taylor, a fellow New York Republican, stepped in to fill the void. Taylor also had antislavery credentials since in February 1819, he had proposed a similar slave restriction for Arkansas Territory in the House, which was defeated 89–87. In a speech before the House during the debate on the Tallmadge Amendment, Taylor was highly critical of southern lawmakers, who frequently voiced their dismay that slavery was entrenched and necessary to their existence, and he warned that Missouri's fate would "decide the destiny of millions" in future states in the American West.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The controversy on the amendment and the future of slavery in the nation created much dissension among Jeffersonian Republicans and polarized the party. Northern Jeffersonian Republicans formed a coalition across factional lines with remnants of the Federalists. Southern Jeffersonians united in almost unanimous opposition. The ensuing debates pitted the northern "restrictionists", antislavery legislators who wished to bar slavery from the Louisiana Territory and all future states and territories, and southern "anti-restrictionists", proslavery legislators who rejected any interference by Congress that inhibited slavery expansion. The sectional "rupture" over slavery among Jeffersonian Republicans, first exposed in the Missouri Crisis, had its roots in the Revolutionary generation.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: Five Representatives in Maine were opposed to spreading slavery into new territories. Dr. Brian Purnell, a professor of Africana Studies and US history at Bowdoin College, writes in "Portland Magazine", "Martin Kinsley, Joshua Cushman, Ezekiel Whitman, Enoch Lincoln, and James Parker—wanted to prohibit slavery's spread into new territories. In 1820, they voted against the Missouri Compromise and against Maine's independence. In their defense, they wrote that, if the North, and the nation, embarked upon this Compromise—and ignored what experiences proved, namely that southern slaveholders were determined to dominate the nation through ironclad unity and perpetual pressure to demand more land, and more slaves—then these five Mainers declared Americans "shall deserve to be considered a besotted and stupid race, fit, only, to be led blindfold; and worthy, only, to be treated with sovereign contempt".


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The Missouri crisis marked a rupture in the Republican Ascendency, the national association of Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans that had dominated federal politics since the War of 1812.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The Founding Fathers had inserted both principled and expedient elements in the establishing documents. The Declaration of Independence in 1776 had been grounded on the claim that liberty established a moral ideal that made universal equality a common right. The Revolutionary generation had formed a government of limited powers in 1787 to embody the principles in the Declaration but "burdened with the one legacy that defied the principles of 1776", human bondage. In a pragmatic commitment to form the Union, the federal apparatus would forego any authority to interfere directly with the institution of slavery if it existed under local control by the states. The acknowledgment of state sovereignty provided for the participation of the states that were the most committed to slave labor. With that understanding, slaveholders had co-operated in authorizing the Northwest Ordinance in 1787 and outlawing the trans-Atlantic slave trade in 1808. The Founders sanctioned slavery but did so with the implicit understanding that the slave states would take steps to relinquish the institution as opportunities arose.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: Southern states, after the American Revolutionary War, had regarded slavery as an institution in decline except for Georgia and South Carolina. That was manifest in the shift towards diversified farming in the Upper South; the gradual emancipation of slaves in New England and more significantly in Mid-Atlantic States. In the 1790s, with the introduction of the cotton gin, to 1815, with the vast increase in demand for cotton internationally, slave-based agriculture underwent an immense revival that spread the institution westward to the Mississippi River. Antislavery elements in the South vacillated, as did their hopes for the imminent demise of human bondage.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: However rancorous the disputes were by southerners themselves over the virtues of a slave-based society, they united against external challenges to their institution. They believed that free states were not to meddle in the affairs of slave states. Southern leaders, virtually all of whom identified as Jeffersonian Republicans, denied that northerners had any business encroaching on matters related to slavery. Northern attacks on the institution were condemned as incitements to riot by slave populations, which was deemed to be a dire threat to white southerners' security.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: Northern Jeffersonian Republicans embraced the Jeffersonian antislavery legacy during the Missouri debates and explicitly cited the Declaration of Independence as an argument against expanding the institution. Southern leaders, seeking to defend slavery, renounced the document's universal egalitarian applications and its declaration that "all men are created equal."


title: Missouri Compromise

text: Article 1, Section 2, of the US Constitution supplemented legislative representation in states whose residents owned slaves. Known as the Three-Fifths Clause, or the "federal ratio", three-fifths of the slave population was numerically added to the free population. That sum was used for each state to calculate congressional districts and the number of delegates to the Electoral College. The federal ratio produced a significant number of legislative victories for the South in the years before the Missouri Crisis and raised the South's influence in party caucuses, the appointment of judges, and the distribution of patronage. It is unlikely that the ratio before 1820 was decisive in affecting legislation on slavery. Indeed, with the rising northern representation in the House, the southern share of the membership had declined since the 1790s.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: Hostility to the federal ratio had historically been the object of the Federalists, which were now nationally ineffectual, who attributed their collective decline on the "Virginia Dynasty". They expressed their dissatisfaction in partisan terms, rather than in moral condemnation of slavery, and the pro-De Witt Clinton-Federalist faction carried on the tradition by posing as antirestrictionists to advance their fortunes in New York politics.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: Senator Rufus King of New York, a Clinton associate, was the last Federalist icon still active on the national stage, a fact that was irksome to southern Republicans. A signatory to the US Constitution, he had strongly opposed the federal ratio in 1787. In the 15th Congress debates in 1819, he revived his critique as a complaint that New England and the Mid-Atlantic States suffered unduly from the federal ratio and declared himself 'degraded' (politically inferior) to the slaveholders. Federalists both in the North and the South preferred to mute antislavery rhetoric, but during the 1820 debates in the 16th Congress, King and other Federalists would expand their old critique to include moral considerations of slavery.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: Republican James Tallmadge Jr. and the Missouri restrictionists deplored the federal ratio because it had translated into political supremacy for the South. They had no agenda to remove it from the Constitution but only to prevent its further application west of the Mississippi River.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: As determined as southern Republicans were to secure Missouri statehood with slavery, the federal clause ratio to provide the margin of victory in the 15th Congress. Blocked by northern Republicans, largely on egalitarian grounds, with sectional support from Federalists, the statehood bill died in the Senate, where the federal ratio had no relevance. The balance of power between the sections and the maintenance of Southern pre-eminence on matters related to slavery resided in the Senate.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: Northern majorities in the House did not translate into political dominance. The fulcrum for proslavery forces resided in the Senate, where constitutional compromise in 1787 had provided for two senators per state, regardless of its population. The South, with its smaller free population than the North, benefited from that arrangement. Since 1815, sectional parity in the Senate had been achieved through paired admissions, which left the North and the South, during the application of Missouri Territory, at 11 states each.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The South, voting as a bloc on measures that challenged slaveholding interests and augmented by defections from free states with southern sympathies, was able to tally majorities. The Senate stood as the bulwark and source of the Slave Power, which required admission of slave states to the Union to preserve its national primacy.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: Missouri statehood, with the Tallmadge Amendment approved, would have set a trajectory towards a free state west of the Mississippi and a decline in southern political authority. The question as to whether the Congress was allowed to restrain the growth of slavery in Missouri took on great importance in slave states. The moral dimensions of the expansion of human bondage would be raised by northern Republicans on constitutional grounds.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The Tallmadge Amendment was "the first serious challenge to the extension of slavery" and raised questions concerning the interpretation of the republic's founding documents.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: Jeffersonian Republicans justified Tallmadge's restrictions on the grounds that Congress possessed the authority to impose territorial statutes that would remain in force after statehood was established. Representative John W. Taylor pointed to Indiana and Illinois, where their free state status conformed to antislavery provisions of the Northwest Ordinance.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: Further, antislavery legislators invoked Article IV, Section 4 of the Constitution, which requires states to provide a republican form of government. As the Louisiana Territory was not part of the United States in 1787, they argued that introducing slavery into Missouri would thwart the egalitarian intent of the Founders.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: Proslavery Republicans countered that the Constitution had long been interpreted as having relinquished any claim to restricting slavery in the states. The free inhabitants of Missouri in the territorial phase or during statehood had the right to establish or disestablish slavery without interference from the federal government. As to the Northwest Ordinance, southerners denied that it could serve as a lawful antecedent for the territories of the Louisiana Purchase, as the ordinance had been issued under the Articles of Confederation, rather than the US Constitution.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: As a legal precedent, they offered the treaty acquiring the Louisiana lands in 1803, a document that included a provision, Article 3, which extended the rights of US citizens to all inhabitants of the new territory, including the protection of property in slaves. When slaveholders embraced Jeffersonian constitutional strictures on a limited central government, they were reminded that Jefferson, as president in 1803, had deviated from those precepts by wielding federal executive power to double the size of the United States, including the lands under consideration for Missouri statehood. In doing so, he set a constitutional precedent that would serve to rationalize Tallmadge's federally-imposed slavery restrictions.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The 15th Congress had debates that focused on constitutional questions but largely avoided the moral dimensions raised by the topic of slavery. That the unmentionable subject had been raised publicly was deeply offensive to southern representatives and violated the long-time sectional understanding between legislators from free states and slave states.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: Missouri statehood confronted southern Jeffersonians with the prospect of applying the egalitarian principles espoused by the Revolutionary generation. That would require halting the spread of slavery westward and confine the institution to where it already existed. Faced with a population of 1.5 million slaves and the lucrative production of cotton, the South would abandon hopes for containment. Slaveholders in the 16th Congress, in an effort to come to grips with that paradox, resorted to a theory that called for extending slavery geographically so as to encourage its decline, which they called "diffusion".


title: Missouri Compromise

text: On February 16, 1819, the House Committee of the Whole voted to link Tallmadge's provisions with the Missouri statehood legislation by 79–67. After the committee vote, debates resumed over the merits of each of Tallmadge's provisions in the enabling act. The debates in the House's 2nd session in 1819 lasted only three days. They have been characterized as "rancorous", "fiery", "bitter", "blistering", "furious" and "bloodthirsty".


title: Missouri Compromise

text: Representatives from the North outnumbered those from the South in House membership 105 to 81. When each of the restrictionist provisions was put to the vote, they passed along sectional lines: 87 to 76 for prohibition on further slave migration into Missouri and 82 to 78 for emancipating the offspring of slaves at 25.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The enabling bill was passed to the Senate, and both parts of it were rejected: 22–16 against the restriction of new slaves in Missouri (supported by five northerners, two of whom were the proslavery legislators from the free state of Illinois) and 31–7 against the gradual emancipation for slave children born after statehood. House antislavery restrictionists refused to concur with the Senate proslavery anti-restrictionists, and Missouri statehood would devolve upon the 16th Congress in December 1819.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The Missouri Compromise debates stirred suspicions by slavery interests that the underlying purpose of the Tallmadge Amendments had little to do with opposition to the expansion of slavery.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The accusation was first leveled in the House by the Republican anti-restrictionist John Holmes from the District of Maine. He suggested that Senator Rufus King's "warm" support for the Tallmadge Amendment concealed a conspiracy to organize a new antislavery party in the North, which would be composed of old Federalists in combination with disaffected antislavery Republicans. The fact that King in the Senate and Tallmadge and Tyler in the House, all New Yorkers, were among the vanguard for restriction on slavery in Missouri lent credibility to those charges. When King was re-elected to the US Senate in January 1820, during the 16th Congress debates and with bipartisan support, suspicions deepened and persisted throughout the crisis. Southern Jeffersonian Republican leadership, including President Monroe and ex-President Thomas Jefferson, considered it as an article of faith that Federalists, given the chance, would destabilize the Union as to restore monarchical rule in North America and "consolidate" political control over the people by expanding the functions of the federal government. Jefferson, at first unperturbed by the Missouri question, soon became convinced that a northern conspiracy was afoot, with Federalists and crypto-Federalists posing as Republicans and using Missouri statehood as a pretext.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The disarray of the Republican ascendancy brought about by amalgamation made fears abound in Southerners that a Free State Party might take shape if Congress failed to reach an understanding over Missouri and slavery and possibly threaten southern pre-eminence. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts surmised that the political configuration for just such a sectional party already existed.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: That the Federalists were anxious to regain a measure of political participation in national politics was indisputable. There was no basis, however, for the charge that Federalists had directed Tallmadge in his antislavery measures, and there was nothing to indicate that a New York-based King-Clinton alliance sought to erect an antislavery party on the ruins of the Republican Party. The allegations by Southern interests for slavery of a "plot" or that of "consolidation" as a threat to the Union misapprehended the forces at work in the Missouri crisis. The core of the opposition to slavery in the Louisiana Purchase was informed by Jeffersonian egalitarian principles, not a Federalist resurgence.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: Because it no longer wanted to be part of non-contiguous Massachusetts after the War of 1812, the northern region of Massachusetts, the District of Maine, sought and ultimately gained admission into the United States as a free state to become the separate state of Maine. That occurred only as a result of a compromise involving slavery in Missouri and in the federal territories of the American West.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The admission of another slave state would increase southern power when northern politicians had already begun to regret the Constitution's Three-Fifths Compromise. Although more than 60 percent of white Americans lived in the North, northern representatives held only a slim majority of congressional seats by 1818. The additional political representation allotted to the South as a result of the Three-Fifths Compromise gave southerners more seats in the House of Representatives than they would have had if the number was based on the free population alone. Moreover, since each state had two Senate seats, Missouri's admission as a slave state would result in more southern than northern senators. A bill to enable the people of the Missouri Territory to draft a constitution and form a government preliminary to admission into the Union came before the House of Representatives in Committee of the Whole, on February 13, 1819. James Tallmadge of New York offered the Tallmadge Amendment, which forbade further introduction of slaves into Missouri and mandated that all children of slave parents born in the state after its admission to be free at the age of 25. The committee adopted the measure and incorporated it into the bill as finally passed on February 17, 1819, by the House. The Senate refused to concur with the amendment, and the whole measure was lost.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: During the following session (1819–1820), the House passed a similar bill with an amendment, introduced on January 26, 1820, by John W. Taylor of New York, allowing Missouri into the union as a slave state. The question had been complicated by the admission in December of Alabama, a slave state, which made the number of slave and free states equal. In addition, there was a bill in passage through the House (January 3, 1820) to admit Maine as a free state.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The Senate decided to connect the two measures. It passed a bill for the admission of Maine with an amendment enabling the people of Missouri to form a state constitution. Before the bill was returned to the House, a second amendment was adopted, on the motion of Jesse B. Thomas of Illinois, to exclude slavery from the Louisiana Territory north of 36°30 north, the southern boundary of Missouri, except within the limits of the proposed state of Missouri.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The vote in the Senate was 24-20 for the compromise. The amendment and the bill passed in the Senate on February 17 and February 18, 1820. The House then approved the Senate compromise amendment, 90–87, with all of the opposition coming from representatives from the free states. The House then approved the whole bill 134–42 with opposition from the southern states.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The two houses were at odds on the issue of the legality of slavery but also on the parliamentary question of the inclusion of Maine and Missouri in the same bill. The committee recommended the enactment of two laws, one for the admission of Maine and the other an enabling act for Missouri. It also recommended having no restrictions on slavery but keeping the Thomas Amendment. Both houses agreed, and the measures were passed on March 5, 1820, and signed by President James Monroe on March 6.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The question of the final admission of Missouri came up during the session of 1820–1821. The struggle was revived over a clause in Missouri's new constitution, written in 1820, which required the exclusion of "free negroes and mulattoes" from the state. The influence of Kentucky Senator Henry Clay, known as "The Great Compromiser", an act of admission was finally passed if the exclusionary clause of the Missouri constitution should "never be construed to authorize the passage of any law" impairing the privileges and immunities of any U.S. citizen. That deliberately ambiguous provision is sometimes known as the Second Missouri Compromise.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: For decades afterward, Americans hailed the 1820 agreement as an essential compromise, almost on the sacred level of the Constitution itself. Although the Civil War broke out in 1861, historians often say that the Compromise helped postpone the war.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The disputes involved the competition between the southern and northern states for power in Congress and control over future territories. There were also the same factions emerging, as the Democratic-Republican Party began to lose its coherence. In an April 22 letter to John Holmes, Thomas Jefferson wrote that the division of the country created by the Compromise Line would eventually lead to the destruction of the Union:


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The debate over the admission of Missouri also raised the issue of sectional balance, as the country was equally divided between slave states and free states, with eleven each. To admit Missouri as a slave state would tip the balance in the Senate, which is made up of two senators per state, in favor of the slave states. That made northern states want Maine admitted as a free state. Maine was admitted in 1820, and Missouri in 1821, The trend of admitting a new free or slave state to balance the status of previous ones would continue up until 1850. The next state to be admitted would be Arkansas (slave state) in 1836, quickly followed by Michigan (free state) in 1837. In 1845, two slave states (Texas and Florida) were admitted, which was countered by the free states of Iowa and Wisconsin in 1846 and 1848.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: From the constitutional standpoint, the Missouri Compromise was important as the example of congressional exclusion of slavery from US territory acquired since the Northwest Ordinance. Nevertheless, the Compromise was deeply disappointing to blacks in both the North and the South, as it stopped the Southern progression of gradual emancipation at Missouri's southern border, and it legitimized slavery as a southern institution.


title: Missouri Compromise

text: The provisions of the Missouri Compromise forbidding slavery in the former Louisiana Territory north of the parallel 36°30′ north were effectively repealed by Stephen A. Douglas's Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854. The repeal of the Compromise caused outrage in the North and sparked the return to politics of Abraham Lincoln, who criticized slavery and excoriated Douglas's act in his "Peoria Speech" (October 16, 1854).


title: Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman

text: Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman is an American Western drama television series created and executive produced by Beth Sullivan and starring Jane Seymour, who plays Dr. Michaela Quinn, a physician who leaves Boston in search of adventure in the Old West and settles in Colorado Springs, Colorado.


title: Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman

text: The television series ran on CBS for six seasons, from January 1, 1993, to May 16, 1998. In total, 150 episodes were produced, plus two television movies which were made after the series was cancelled. It aired in over 100 countries, including Italy, Denmark (where it was aired on TV2), the United Kingdom, Poland, France, Canada (where it was aired on CTV throughout its run), Australia (on Eleven), and Bulgaria, where it was first aired on BNT and later it was aired on NOVA television. Since 1996, reruns have been shown in syndication and on Freeform (formerly ABC Family and several other previous names), PAX (now Ion), the Hallmark Channel, CBS Drama, Up, Hallmark Drama, Pluto TV, fetv and INSP.