title: Ra.One

text: Upon release, "Ra.One" received mixed reviews from critics in India and generally positive reviews overseas. Review aggregator "Rotten Tomatoes" reported a 61% approval rating, based on 23 reviews with an average rating of 5.41/10. On "Metacritic", which assigns a weighted mean from film reviews, "Ra.One" holds a rating of 60% based on eight reviews, signifying "mixed or average reviews".


title: Ra.One

text: Positive reviews described the film as an ambitious initiative and a technological success, with some critics thinking that "Ra.One" had put Indian films on par with Hollywood. The visual effects received near-universal praise, though dissenting opinions stated that they were "all over the place". The action sequences were also widely praised. Other aspects of the film received more polarising opinions, and one very positive review was criticised for "over-rating" the film. Mixed views were opined regarding the plot's gaming concept, with some critics deeming it "far-fetched" and others lauding the "gaming-style aesthetics". Similarly, some critics called the emotional scenes "fulfilling" while others felt them to be "lacking in connect with the audience". Raja Sen of "Rediff.com" gave a 1.5 out of 5 star rating explaining that ""Ra.One" is a subpar superhero film with a mediocre soundtrack and occasionally terrific effects. For those of you looking to compare, it's well below "Krrish" on the super-pecking order, and far, far below "Robot"."


title: Ra.One

text: The story was negatively received by several critics, with a number of them deeming it to be disappointing and lacking in originality; one critic praised the original idea but criticised its "Bollywoodization". The direction was criticised in a number of reviews, though a few critics praised Sinha's pacing of the film and the execution of the action sequences. Some critics pointed to the presence of scenes which were not child-friendly, despite "Ra.One" being promoted as a children's film. Particular reviews criticised the lack of character development and the film's "incoherently hackneyed morality". A few critics panned the film as a whole, describing it as a "mess"; one review commented, "It's convenient to say that if you have no expectations from the film, you wouldn't be disappointed."


title: Ra.One

text: After its release, "Ra.One" received numerous nominations and awards in India and abroad, a majority of them for its technical aspects. The film notably won the National Film Award and the Filmfare Award for Best Special Effects, and four International Indian Film Academy Awards. The film also received several business awards for its marketing and distribution.


title: Ra.One

text: The budget of "Ra.One" was the subject of significant speculation prior to its release. A number of estimates placed the budget between and . It was universally accepted that the film was the most expensive Bollywood film of all time, with certain sources stating that the film was the most expensive Indian film ever. The original budget was revealed to be after promotional expenses. Khan stated that he had "worked very hard" to finance the film without borrowing money, and reportedly hosted a just to finance the film. "Ra.One" earned from pre-release revenue sources, setting a new record for Bollywood films.


title: Ra.One

text: The extensive marketing campaign greatly increased audience expectations of the film. "Ra.One" set records for the level of pre-release buzz for a Bollywood film, and also topped a number of polls gauging the most awaited Bollywood films of the year. Anticipation for the film was equally high among the trade analysts, with some commenting that the film would pass the mark in one week and the mark in over three weeks. Advance bookings commenced on 20 October 2011 on a limited scale, and expanded later. While initial ticket sales were low, they picked up considerably near the release date. A few days prior to the release, the advance booking was described as "phenomenal", with an overall advance booking rate of 20–25% across the country. A number of advantages of the film's release were pointed out, such as the festive season and higher 3D ticket prices, though there had been doubt regarding the timely release of the 3D version.


title: Ra.One

text: In India, "Ra.One" debuted at the beginning of the five-day Diwali weekend, and subsequently broke the Diwali opening day record. The film then set the records for the biggest single-day net revenue and the biggest three-day opening weekend earned by a Bollywood film, breaking the previous records held by "Bodyguard".


title: Ra.One

text: Subsequently, the film began to suffer significant drops in its collections, with its five-day extended weekend and nine-day extended week coming second to the records of "Bodyguard". The film faced an 84 percent drop in collections in its second week and fell a further 90 percent in its third week, the latter primarily due to the release of "Rockstar". The dubbed versions showed similar trends. The Tamil and Telugu versions together earned around nett.


title: Ra.One

text: In overseas markets, "Ra.One" earned the highest three-day and five-day opening weekends among the Bollywood releases of 2011; by its second weekend, the film had become the highest-grossing Bollywood film of 2011 in overseas markets, but the collections suffered drops throughout. In general, families and children formed the major portion of the film's audience, and the 3D version is regarded as a success.


title: Ra.One

text: Reports of a planned sequel of "Ra.One" began surfacing prior to the film's release, though the extent of real progress on the sequel is unknown. Both Khan and Sinha admitted to formulating plans for a sequel, though the former noted that it would be "presumptuous" to start the sequel before the first film's release. Khan later refuted the speculations, saying that a sequel was unlikely due to his other commitments. After "Ra.One" won a National Award, an "overjoyed" Khan said that the film's world could be further explored. He stated that the sequel, if made, would be titled "G.One" and not "Ra.Two", and that he would make it "faster, bigger and better" than "Ra.One". Khan was reported to be looking for a script, without a fixed release date. In April 2012, Mushtaq Sheikh said that the pre-production of the sequel had begun. A number of reports stated that Kareena Kapoor would not be a part of the sequel.


title: Ra.One

text: Despite Khan's enthusiasm for the idea of a sequel, the film industry expressed mixed opinions regarding it. Filmmaker Rajkumar Gupta commented, "It would be challenging to take forward a story that has not worked earlier." Producer Ramesh Taurani responded negatively to the idea, saying, "It is important for the film to be appreciated so that a sequel can be made." Trade analyst Atul Mohan called the sequel "a bad idea". Conversely, others were supportive of the sequel. Producer Goldie Behl brushed aside arguments about the success of the first film, saying, "If the people think that they can earn some more, then it doesn't matter how big or small the hit was." Director Kunal Kohli also reacted positively, saying, "Certain ideas naturally lend themselves to sequels. So why not use that investment of your time and effort to make a sequel that will take the brand further?"


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: On January 29, 2019, American actor Jussie Smollett approached the Chicago Police Department and reported a hate crime that he had staged earlier that morning. He planned the hate crime with two Nigerian brothers, Abimbola and Olabinjo Osundairo, who had worked as extras on the set of television drama "Empire", in which Smollett was a cast member. During the staged attack, which took place on East Lower North Water Street in Chicago's Streeterville neighborhood, the disguised brothers shouted racial and homophobic slurs while one poured bleach on Smollett and the other placed a noose around his neck. In addition to falsely reporting that he had been attacked by two unknown individuals, Smollett described one of them as a white male. He also told police the men shouted "MAGA country" during the attack, a reference to the Trumpist political slogan "Make America Great Again". The brothers later testified that Smollett staged the attack near a surveillance camera so that video of it could be publicized.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: On February 13, 2019, Chicago police raided the home of the Osundairo brothers and found records indicating they had been paid $3,500 by Smollett. They had purchased the rope found around Smollett's neck at a hardware store in Ravenswood over the weekend of January 25, and were also seen in security camera footage in the clothing store where they bought gloves, ski masks, and a red hat that police said was used in the attack. On February 20, Smollett was indicted for disorderly conduct for paying the brothers to stage a fake hate crime and filing a false police report. His defense team reached a deal with prosecutors on March 26, 2019, in which all charges were dropped in return for Smollett performing community service and forfeiting his $10,000 bond.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: On April 12, 2019, the city of Chicago sued Smollett for the $130,000 cost of the investigation. In November he countersued, alleging he was the victim of "mass public ridicule and harm".


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: On February 11, 2020, after further investigation by a special prosecutor was completed, Smollett was indicted again by a Cook County grand jury on six counts pertaining to making four false police reports. In December 2021, Smollett was convicted on five felony counts. On March 10, 2022, Smollett was sentenced to 150 days in county jail and was ordered to pay $120,106 in restitution for the overtime spent by Chicago police officers investigating his false reports. Smollett's attorneys immediately filed an appeal and he was released, pending the outcome of his appeal, on March 16 after posting a personal recognizance bond.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: On January 22, 2019, a letter arrived at the Chicago studio of Smollett's employer. The letter was addressed to Smollett and had a drawing depicting a stick figure hanging from a tree with a gun pointing towards it, as well as lettered magazine clippings reading "Smollett, Jussie you will die" and "MAGA". The letter also contained a white powder determined to be Tylenol.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: On January 29, Smollett announced that he had been attacked early that morning on the 300 block of East Lower North Water Street in Chicago's Streeterville neighborhood, in what was initially investigated as a hate crime. Chicago police later alleged that Smollett himself was responsible for staging the attack.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: Smollett told police that he was attacked by two men, who were "yelling out racial and homophobic slurs" and who "poured an unknown chemical substance on [him]". He described one of the assailants as white, while in reality, both are black. They allegedly began to beat Smollett about the face, using their hands, feet, and teeth as weapons in the assault. According to a statement released by Chicago police, the two suspects then "poured an unknown chemical substance on the victim" and at some point during the incident "wrapped a rope around the victim's neck". Smollett said that he fought them off. There were surveillance cameras at the location that Smollett assumed had captured the incident, but as it turned out they were facing in the wrong direction. A witness who was near the scene of Smollett's alleged incident at the time said she heard nothing.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: According to Gloria Rodriguez, the lawyer for the assailants, Smollett first drove them to the spot where the attack was supposed to occur for a "dress rehearsal" and told them, "Here's a camera, there's a camera and here's where you are going to run away". The assailants explained that Smollett's plan was to post the footage on social media, and that he became very upset when police told him that no cameras had recorded the attack. Smollett was treated at Northwestern Memorial Hospital. Not seriously injured, he was released "in good condition" later that morning.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: The police had been called after 2:30 am by Smollett's manager, Frank Gatson, which infuriated the actor because he did not want to involve law enforcement. When they arrived around 2:40 am, Smollett had a white rope around his neck. He later admitted removing the rope and then putting it back on before the police arrived after Gatson told him to do so. Smollett said that the attack may have been motivated by his criticism of the Trump administration and that he believed that the alleged assault was linked to the threatening letter that had been sent to him earlier that month. The FBI would later investigate whether Smollett was involved in composing the letter.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: On January 30, 2019, public figures expressed support for Smollett on social media. Entertainment industry figures, including Shonda Rhimes and Viola Davis, tweeted their outrage over the attack and support for Smollett. Democratic Senators and presidential candidates Kamala Harris and Cory Booker both described the attack as an attempted modern-day lynching. Booker urged Congress to pass a federal anti-lynching bill co-sponsored by him and Harris. In an interview with April Ryan of AURN, President Donald Trump was asked about Smollett being attacked and said, "I think that's horrible. It doesn't get worse." Smollett faced skepticism regarding his claim of being attacked; he responded by saying that he believed that, if he had said his attackers were Mexicans, Muslims, or black people, "the doubters would have supported me much more ... And that says a lot about the place that we are in in our country right now."


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: On February 13, 2019, Chicago police raided the home of two "persons of interest" in the case. The men, Abimbola and Olabinjo Osundairo, were Nigerian immigrant brothers who'd acted as extras on "Empire", the television series in which Smollett was a main cast member. Police recovered bleach and other items from the home. The brothers were held in police custody on suspicion of battery but were not charged. According to their attorney, they knew Smollett from working on the show and had also spent time with him at a gym. The two men were released February 15 without being charged with a crime, with Chicago police spokesman Anthony Guglielmi stating their release was "due to new evidence" from the interrogations.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: Chicago police later told ABC News: "Police are investigating whether the two individuals committed the attack—or whether the attack happened at all." On February 16, two unnamed police sources informed CNN that investigators had discovered evidence indicating that Smollett had paid the two brothers $3,500 to stage the attack. Financial records indicate that the brothers purchased the rope found around Smollett's neck at a hardware store in Ravenswood over the weekend of January 25. They were seen in security camera footage in a clothing store where they bought the gloves, ski masks and a red hat that police said was used in the attack. The brothers asked specifically for a MAGA hat, which the store did not sell. Chicago Police contacted Smollett's attorney for additional questioning.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: On February 19, 2019, Cook County State's Attorney Kim Foxx said that she was recusing herself from the investigation due to her "familiarity with potential witnesses in the case", prompting criticism from her predecessor, Anita Alvarez. Foxx delegated the case to a subordinate. Foxx later acknowledged that she had been in contact with a member of Smollett's family about the case at an early stage when he was thought to have been a crime victim. Foxx added that Chicago Police Superintendent Eddie T. Johnson had reached out to the FBI about handing the Smollett case off to them, but had informed her that the agency was not interested. Foxx's office later asserted that she had not formally recused herself from the case; doing so would have required her to ask the court to appoint an outside attorney as a special prosecutor.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: On February 20, 2019, Smollett was charged by a grand jury with a class 4 felony for filing a false police report. Smollett's felony count charge in Illinois carries a maximum sentence of three years in prison. Smollett hired attorney Mark Geragos in addition to Chicago-based attorneys Todd Pugh and Victor Henderson to work on his legal defense.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: The next day, Smollett surrendered himself at the Chicago Police Department's Central Booking station; shortly thereafter, CPD spokesman Anthony Guglielmi stated that Smollett "is under arrest and in the custody of detectives". Guglielmi also said that Smollett was named as suspect in a criminal investigation for filing a fake police report, under a class 4 felony.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: Later that day, Chicago Police Superintendent Eddie T. Johnson held a press conference, gave details of the investigation, and explained how the department concluded that the alleged assault was staged. The brothers, Abimbola "Bola" (also known as Abel) and Olabinjo "Ola" Osundairo, who say they helped stage the attack, also said that Smollett came up with the idea to orchestrate the attack after the threatening letter he received did not generate as much attention as he had hoped it would. In addition to the rope around his neck, the original plan was to pour gasoline over him, but they decided to use bleach instead. Police alleged that the actor intended to further his career by tying the incident to racism in the United States and President Trump, and that Smollett sent himself the threatening letter.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: Judge John Fitzgerald Lyke Jr. set Smollett's bail at $100,000; a friend of the actor paid a $10,000 bond, and Smollett was released from custody on February 21. Smollett was required to surrender his passport.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: On March 8, Smollett was indicted on 16 felony counts of "false report of offense" related to the incident.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: In March 2019, the "New York Post" reported that Tina Tchen, a Chicago attorney who served as former first lady Michelle Obama's chief of staff, had contacted Cook County State's Attorney Kim Foxx about the Smollett case on February 1. Emails and text messages indicated that on February 1, Foxx informed both Tchen and an unnamed Smollett relative that she had asked Police Superintendent Eddie Johnson to request that the FBI take over the Smollett investigation. Foxx added that Johnson had agreed to make that request.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: On March 26, 2019, all charges filed against Smollett were dropped, with Judge Steven Watkins ordering the public court file sealed. First Assistant State's Attorney Joseph Magats said the office reached a deal with Smollett's defense team in which prosecutors would drop the charges in exchange for Smollett performing 16 hours of community service and forfeiting his $10,000 bond.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: The Illinois Prosecutors Bar Association (IPBA) said that the dismissal was "highly unusual", and that the "manner in which this case was dismissed was abnormal and unfamiliar to those who practice law in criminal courthouses across the state. Prosecutors, defense attorneys, and judges alike do not recognize the arrangement Mr. Smollett received. Even more problematic, the State's Attorney and her representatives have fundamentally misled the public on the law and circumstances surrounding the dismissal." It described several of the statements made by the State's Attorney and her representatives regarding the handling of the case as false or misleading. The National District Attorneys Association released a statement saying that a prosecutor should not take advice from politically connected friends of the accused, should not recuse herself without recusing the entire office, and noted that "a case with the consequential effects of Mr. Smollett's should not be resolved without a finding of guilt or innocence."


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: Magats made a statement saying that the decision was not an exoneration of Smollett: "We stand behind the investigation, we stand behind the decision to charge him [...] The fact that [Smollett] feels that we have exonerated him, we have not. I can't make it any clearer than that." Then-Mayor of Chicago Rahm Emanuel strongly criticized the decision, saying it was a "whitewash of justice" and that "From top to bottom, this is not on the level." Police superintendent Johnson said that justice was not served.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: On March 27, 2019, the Chicago Police Department released the redacted police reports associated with the case. It was announced that the FBI is investigating why the charges were dismissed. The hearing to expunge Smollett's record was delayed on March 27. In April 2019, mayor-elect Lori Lightfoot said in a statement: "We've got a lot of things on our plate, a lot of pressing issues that are truly affecting people's lives. This doesn't rank as a matter of any importance to me."


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: On August 23, 2019, former United States Attorney Dan K. Webb was assigned as special prosecutor to review Jussie Smollett's case and the events leading to the charges being dropped. Webb was tasked with reviewing the original case and charges surrounding Smollett's claim of being attacked. He was also allowed to look into why Foxx had dropped all of the charges against Smollett. Shortly after being assigned as special prosecutor, possible conflicts of interest were raised after a $1,000 donation to Kim Foxx's campaign had surfaced. His work was put on hiatus as a hearing was called for to decide whether Webb should continue. In court, Judge Michael Toomin defended his appointment of Webb. The judge ruled Webb could continue to investigate as special prosecutor since his donation was "a routine practice of lawyers" and that it should have "no effect on his ability to be fair and impartial".


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: On December 6, 2019, a Cook County Circuit Court judge signed search warrants ordering Google to turn over Jussie Smollett's emails, photos, location data and private messages from November 2018 to November 2019, as part of the special prosecutor's investigation.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: Webb announced new charges on February 11, 2020. Smollett was indicted on six counts of felony disorderly conduct for lying to the police. According to the special prosecutor, Smollett "faces six felony counts of disorderly conduct stemming from four separate false reports that he gave to police."


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: In March 2021, Smollett attempted to hire lawyer Nenye Uche to represent him, but prosecutors challenged the appointment with allegations of conflicts of interest. The allegations stem from claims made by the Osundairo brothers to prosecutors that Uche had spoken to them about the facts of the case in 2019, with the Osundairos later writing sworn affidavits to back up their claims. Uche has denied the allegations, saying he only met the Osundairos' mother and a family friend, and only to tell them he could not represent them because they already had representation.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: As of October 16, 2021, a judge had denied the defense's request to dismiss the case. Jury selection for Smollett's trial took place on November 29, 2021. During the trial, Smollett's defense attorney accused the judge of attempting to attack her, by physically lunging at her during a side bar, another Smollett attorney has previously made accusations of the judge making faces and snarling throughout the trial. The judge denied the claim as well as her motion for a mistrial. During the 2021 trial, the prosecution revealed video footage of Smollett and the two "attackers" in a car a few days before the attack. When questioned, Smollett testified he had arranged to work out with Abel, but cancelled the workout when Ola had shown up uninvited. Prosecutor Webb argued, in opening statements, that this was evidence of the group holding a "dress rehearsal" to devise the fake crime.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: During his testimony, Smollett claimed, for the first time, that he had engaged in a "sexual relationship" with Abimbola Osundairo, one of the two brothers he hired to stage the attack. However, during his testimony Abimbola insisted he is not gay. Ola Osundairo, who Jussie Smollett claimed is homophobic, took the stand to present evidence that he gets paid to be involved in homosexual activities, such as being employed at a bar as a bouncer and modeling at pride parades.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: On December 9, 2021, the jury found Smollett guilty on five of the six counts of felony disorderly conduct.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: In late February 2022, one of Smollett's attorneys moved for the verdict to be vacated, claiming Smollett's rights were violated when his attorneys were prevented from actively participating in jury selection, and that the court had made various errors before and during the trial.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: On March 10, 2022, Smollett was sentenced to 150 days in county jail, and was also ordered to pay $120,106 in restitution for the overtime spent by Chicago police officers. During the sentencing hearing, which lasted more than five hours, Judge James B. Linn excoriated Smollett from the bench, repeatedly calling him "narcissistic, selfish, and arrogant". Linn also indicated that Smollett perjured himself during his trial testimony. After being sentenced, Smollett engaged in several outbursts in the courtroom, during which he proclaimed his innocence. He also repeatedly shouted that he is "not suicidal".


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: On March 16, 2022, a three person Illinois appeals court consisting of Judges Thomas Hoffman, Joy Cunningham and Maureen Connors ordered, in a 2-1 decision, that Smollett be released from jail, upon his posting of a $150,000 personal recognizance bond, pending the outcome of the appeal of his conviction. Hoffman and Cunningham signed the order, while Connors opposed it. The court's ruling explained that if Smollett was not released pending appeal, it would be "unable to dispose of the instant appeal before the defendant would have served his entire sentence of incarceration". Under Illinois state law, Smollett was not required to post cash bond but must attend future hearings concerning his case. Smollett's attorneys also argued before the court that Smollett's health and safety would be in danger while he was incarcerated, an assertion that prosecutors disputed.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: , the Osundairo brothers have not been charged for their alleged role in the hoax. In December 2021, during the second trial, Abimbola took to Instagram in a post apparently mocking Smollett's claims, by posting a picture of himself with a towel wrapped around his own neck and invited his audience to caption the image, geo-tagging the image to Boystown, one of the largest LGBT communities in the midwestern United States.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: Smollett's character was subsequently removed from the final two episodes of "Empire" fifth season. The studio stated on April 30, 2019, that "at this time there are no plans for the character of Jamal to return to "Empire"." Fox announced that "Empire" would be canceled at the end of Season 6.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: Prior to his arrest, many prominent Democratic politicians, including Kamala Harris, Cory Booker, and Kirsten Gillibrand, quickly came out in support of Smollett and condemned the alleged hate crime. Following his arrest, many right-wing commentators and then-President Donald Trump denounced Smollett's actions and wondered if the Democratic politicians who supported Smollett would retract their comments. Ultimately, Democratic presidential candidates who supported Smollett backed-off their prior comments and claimed that the hoax does a disservice to victims of real hate crimes.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: Following Smollett's sentencing, Chicago Mayor Lori Lightfoot said, "The malicious and wholly fabricated claim made by Mr. Smollett resulted in over 1,500 hours of police work that cost the city over $130,000 in police overtime," and "The city feels vindicated in today's ruling that he is being held accountable and that we will appropriately receive restitution for his actions."


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: On March 28, 2019, Chicago city attorneys under the guidance of then-Mayor Rahm Emanuel and Police Superintendent Eddie Johnson, sent Smollett a demand for $130,000 expended on the investigation, threatening Smollett with criminal prosecution; the demand also cited statute law under which Smollett could potentially be liable for up to three times the city's actual damages plus its legal expenses.


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: On April 12, 2019, the city sued Smollett in the Circuit Court of Cook County for $130,000 plus $1,000 for each false statement he made to the city, plus three times the city's damages. On October 22, federal judge Virginia Kendall denied a motion for dismissal on the theory that Smollett could not have predicted the level of expenses that his false report would induce the police to incur. In November 2019, Smollett countersued, alleging he was the victim of "mass public ridicule and harm".


title: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

text: On April 23, 2019, the Osundairo brothers filed a federal defamation lawsuit against Smollett's legal team.


title: Die Glocke (conspiracy theory)

text: In his 2001 book "The Hunt for Zero Point", author Nick Cook identified claims about as having originated in the 2000 Polish book ("The Truth About The Wonder Weapon") by Igor Witkowski. Cook described Witkowski's claims of a device called "The Bell" engineered by Nazi scientists that was "a glowing, rotating contraption" rumored to have "some kind of antigravitational effect", be a "time machine", or part of an "SS antigravity program" for a flying saucer.


title: Die Glocke (conspiracy theory)

text: According to Cook, was bell-shaped, about high and in diameter, and incorporated "two high-speed, counter-rotating cylinders filled with a purplish, liquid metallic-looking substance that was supposed to be highly radioactive, code-named 'Xerum 525.'" Cook recounts claims that "scientists and technicians who worked on the bell and who did not die of its effects were wiped out by the SS at the close of the war, and the device was moved to an unknown location". Cook proposed that SS official Hans Kammler later secretly traded this technology to the U.S. military in exchange for his freedom. Fringe theorists have suggested that a concrete ring called "The Henge" near the Wenceslaus mine built in 1943 or 1944 and vaguely resembling Stonehenge was "used as a launch pad for the Bell". According to writer Jason Colavito, the structure is merely the remains of an ordinary industrial cooling tower.


title: Die Glocke (conspiracy theory)

text: Cook's publication introduced the topic in English without critically discussing the subject. More recently, historian Eric Kurlander has discussed the topic in his 2017 book on Nazi esotericism "Hitler's Monsters: A Supernatural History of the Third Reich". According to reviewer Julian Strube, Kurlander "cites from the reservoir of post-war conspiracy theories" and "heavily relies on sensationalist accounts...mixing up contemporary sources with post-war sensationalist literature, half-truths, and fictitious accounts".


title: Die Glocke (conspiracy theory)

text: According to Salon reviewer Kurt Kleiner, "It's a story that strains credulity. But unless we're after cheap laughs, our hope when we pick up a book like this is that the author will, against the odds, build a careful, reasonable and convincing case. Cook isn't that author". Kleiner criticized Cook's work as "ferreting out minor inconsistencies and odd, ambiguous details which he tries to puff up into proof", characterized the process of evaluating Cook's claims as "untangling science from pseudo-science", and concluded that "what is instructive about the book is the insight we get into how conspiracy theories seduce otherwise reasonable people".


title: Die Glocke (conspiracy theory)

text: Skeptical author Robert Sheaffer criticized Cook's book as "a classic example of how to spin an exciting yarn based on almost nothing. He visits places where it is rumored that secret UFO and antigravity research is going on...and writes about what he feels and imagines, although he discovers nothing more tangible than unsubstantiated rumors". Sheaffer notes that claims about Die Glocke are circulated by UFOlogists and conspiracy-oriented authors such as Jim Marrs, Joseph P. Farrell, and antigravity proponent John Dering.


title: Die Glocke (conspiracy theory)

text: Jason Colavito wrote that Witkowski's claims were "recycled" from 1960s rumors of Nazi occult science first published in "Morning of the Magicians", and describes Die Glocke as "a device few outside of fringe culture think actually existed. In short, it looks to be a hoax, or at least a wild exaggeration". Author Brian Dunning states that "Morning of the Magicians" helped promote belief in Die Glocke and Nazi occultism, and its absence in the historical record make it "increasingly unlikely that anything like it actually existed". According to Dunning, "all we have in the way of evidence is a third-hand anecdotal account of something that's desperately implausible, backed up by neither evidence nor even a corroborating account".


title: Die Glocke (conspiracy theory)

text: Author and historian Robert F. Dorr characterizes Die Glocke as among "the most imaginative of the conspiracy theories" that arose in post-World War II years, and typical of the fantasies of magical German weapons often popularized in pulp magazines such as "The Police Gazette".


title: Die Glocke (conspiracy theory)

text: Some theories circulating on Internet conspiracy sites claim that is located in a Nazi gold train that is buried in a tunnel beneath a mountain in Poland. Duncan Roads, editor of "Nexus" magazine, has pointed out that the "Nazis on the Moon trope" is linked to wild speculations about Nazi anti-gravitational technology, such as Witkowski's .


title: Die Glocke (conspiracy theory)

text: Journalist Patrick J. Kiger wrote that German propaganda of fictional combined with the secrecy surrounding actual advanced technology such as the V-2 rocket captured at war's end by the U.S. military helped spawn "sensational book-length exposes, web sites, and legions of enthusiasts who revel in rumors of science fiction-like weapons supposedly invented by Hitler’s scientists". According to Kiger, is a popular example of such legends and speculation, citing former aerospace scientist David Myhra's contention that if antigravity devices actually existed, the Germans, desperate to stop the Allies' advance, would have used them.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: A Scanner Darkly is a 2006 American adult animated psychological science fiction mystery drama thriller film written and directed by Richard Linklater; it is based on the 1977 novel of the same name by Philip K. Dick. The film tells the story of identity and deception in a near-future dystopia constantly under intrusive high-tech police surveillance in the midst of a drug addiction epidemic.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: The film was shot digitally and then animated using interpolated rotoscope, an animation technique in which animators trace over the original footage frame by frame, for use in live-action and animated films, giving the finished result a distinctive animated look. Principal photography began on May 17, 2004, and lasted six weeks.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: The film features performances by Keanu Reeves, Robert Downey Jr., Woody Harrelson, and Winona Ryder. Steven Soderbergh and George Clooney are among the executive producers. "A Scanner Darkly" had a limited release on July 7, 2006, and then a wider release later that month by Warner Independent Pictures. The film was screened at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival and the 2006 Seattle International Film Festival, and was a finalist for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form in 2007. The film receives generally positive reviews, with praise for its performances and animation.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: The United States has lost the war on drugs. Substance D, a powerful drug that causes bizarre hallucinations, has swept the country. Approximately 20% of the total population is addicted. In response, the government has developed an invasive, high-tech surveillance system and a network of undercover officers and informants.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: Bob Arctor is one of these undercover agents, assigned to immerse himself in the drug's underworld and infiltrate up the supply chain. Arctor has a vision of being in his house with a wife and two children in Anaheim, California; today he has two drug-addicted, layabout housemates: Luckman and Barris. The three spend time taking D and having complex, possibly paranoiac examinations of their experiences. At the police station, Arctor maintains privacy by wearing a "scramble suit" that constantly changes every aspect of his appearance and voice; he is known only by the code name "Fred." Arctor's senior officer, "Hank", and all other undercover officers, also wear scramble suits, protecting their identities even from each other.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: Since going undercover, Arctor himself has become addicted to Substance D, and buys from Donna, who Arctor hopes to purchase large enough quantities of D from so that she is forced to introduce him to her own supplier. They have a tense, at times caring romantic relationship, but she rebuffs his physical advances.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: At work, Hank orders "Fred" to increase surveillance on Arctor himself and his associates. Arctor's house is now at the center of his own investigation, since this is where Donna and the other addicts spend time. Arctor is inexpertly negotiating a double life, and his prolonged use of D is damaging his brain. Barris is informing on Arctor to Hank, arguing that Arctor is a terrorist, and angling to be hired as a cop himself. However, Barris unknowingly conveys this information in the presence of Arctor himself, whose identity at the time is hidden behind his scramble suit.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: Hank reveals to "Fred" that he has long known that he is Arctor. Arctor seems legitimately surprised, and repeats his own name in a disoriented, unfamiliar tone. Hank informs him that the real purpose of the surveillance was to catch Barris, and that the police were deliberately increasing Barris' paranoia until he attempted to cover his tracks. Hank reprimands Arctor for becoming addicted to Substance D, and warns him that he will be disciplined. Hank explains how seriously brain damaged Arctor has become from D, and Hank "phones" Donna, asking her to come pick up Arctor and take him to New-Path, a corporation that runs a series of rehabilitation clinics. Hank immediately leaves, and in private removes his scramble suit, revealing Donna. At the New-Path clinic, Arctor and other D addicts show serious cognitive deficiencies.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: "Donna", now known as Audrey, meets with Mike, a fellow police officer. They discuss how New-Path is secretly responsible for the manufacture and distribution of Substance D. Audrey expresses her growing ethical aversion to their police work, in which they deliberately recruited Arctor — without his knowledge — to become addicted to D; his health sacrificed so that he might eventually enter a New-Path rehabilitation center unnoticed as a genuine addict, and collect incriminating evidence of New-Path's D farms. Audrey and Mike debate whether Arctor's mind will recover enough to grasp the situation.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: New-Path sends Arctor to a labor camp at an isolated farm, where he mindlessly repeats what others tell him. Tending to corn crops, Arctor discovers hidden rows of the blue flowers that produce D. He secretly hides one flower in his boot, to bring to his friends at his next holiday from the farm.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: Originally, Richard Linklater toyed with adapting the Philip K. Dick novel "Ubik" but stopped early on because he was unable to obtain the rights and he "couldn't quite crack it".


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: He began thinking about "A Scanner Darkly", another dark novel, while talking to producer Tommy Pallotta during the making of "Waking Life". Linklater liked "A Scanner Darkly" more than "Ubik" and felt that he could make a film out of it. According to Linklater, the challenge was to capture "the humor and exuberance of the book but not let go of the sad and tragic".


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: Linklater was not interested in turning the book into a big-budget action thriller as had been done in the past because he felt that "A Scanner Darkly" was "about these guys and what they're all doing in their alternative world and what's going through their minds is really what keeps the story moving". He wanted to keep the budget under $10 million so that he could have more creative control, remain faithful to the book, and make it an animated film.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: After completing "School of Rock", Linklater told Pallotta that he wanted to make "A Scanner Darkly" next. It was important to him that Dick's estate approve his film. Pallotta wrote a personal appeal and pitched a faithful adaptation of the novel to Russ Galen, the Philip K. Dick estate's literary agent who shared it with the late author's two daughters (Laura Leslie and Isa Hackett) who own and operate their father's trust.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: Dick's daughters were not too keen on "a cartoon version" of "A Scanner Darkly". After high-profile adaptations, "Minority Report" and "Paycheck", they took a more proactive role in evaluating every film proposal, including unusual projects like Linklater's. They read Linklater's screenplay and then met with him to discuss their respective visions of "A Scanner Darkly". They felt that it was one of their father's most personal stories and liked that Linklater was not going to treat the drug aspects lightly, that he wanted to set it in the near future and make it right away.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: For the dual roles of Arctor and Fred, Linklater thought of Keanu Reeves, but figured that the actor would have been reluctant to make another science fiction film after making "The Matrix" trilogy. Robert Downey Jr. was attracted to the film when he heard Reeves was going to star and Linklater to direct. He thought that the script was the strangest one he had ever read. Linklater wrote the role of Freck with Rory Cochrane in mind. The actor was interested but did not want to recreate his role in "Dazed and Confused". Both Woody Harrelson and Winona Ryder agreed to appear in the film based on the script. Reeves and Ryder agreed to work for the Screen Actors Guild scale rate plus any back-end profits. As with Linklater's earlier "Waking Life", controversial conspiracy theorist and broadcaster Alex Jones has a small cameo as himself.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: Linklater assembled the cast for two weeks of rehearsals in Austin, Texas before principal photography began in order to fine-tune the script. The result was a fusion of Linklater's writing, the novel and the actors' input. To prepare for their respective roles, Cochrane came up with his character five minutes before he got on the elevator to work; Downey Jr. memorized his dialogue by writing it all out in run-on sentences, studying them and then converting them to acronyms; and Reeves relied on the book, marking down each scene in the screenplay to the corresponding page.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: Principal photography began on May 17, 2004, and lasted six weeks. Arctor's house was located on Eric Circle in Southeast Austin. The previous tenants had left a month prior to filming and left the place in such a state that production designer Bruce Curtis had to make few modifications so that it looked like a run-down home. The filmmakers had looked at 60 houses before settling on this one. Linklater shot a lot of exteriors in Anaheim, California and then composited them into the Austin footage in post-production. Since the live action footage was to be animated over later, makeup, lighting and visible equipment, like boom mics, were less of a concern. However, cinematographer Shane Kelly carefully composed shots and used a color palette with the animators in mind. Sometimes, they would show up to tell Kelly what they needed. Because the movie was being shot digitally and then animated, occasionally actors forgot they would later be animated as they worked through a scene. Robert Downey Jr. noted that he completely forgot the scene would later be animated as he worked through several takes in order to produce the smoke ring that would be featured in Barris' first closeup shot.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: Extensive on-set footage of the filming of "A Scanner Darkly" was featured in a UK documentary about Richard Linklater directed by Irshad Ashraf and broadcast on Channel 4 in December 2004.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: After principal photography was finished, the film was transferred to QuickTime for an 18-month animation process: second order magnified contrast separation. "A Scanner Darkly" was filmed digitally using the Panasonic AG-DVX100 and then animated with Rotoshop, a proprietary graphics editing program created by Bob Sabiston. Rotoshop uses an animation technique called interpolated rotoscope, which was previously used in Linklater's film "Waking Life". Linklater discussed the ideas and inspiration behind his use of rotoscoping in Ashraf's documentary, linking it to his personal experiences of lucid dreaming. Rotoscoping in traditional cel animation originally involved tracing over film frame-by-frame. This is similar in some respects to the rotoscope style of filmmaker Ralph Bakshi. Rotoshop animation makes use of vector keyframes and interpolates the in-between frames automatically.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: The animation phase was a trying process for Linklater who said, "I know how to make a movie, but I don't really know how to handle the animation." He had gone the animation route because he felt that there was very little animation targeted for adults.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: Originally, the film was supposed to be released in September 2005. Most of the animators were hired locally with only a few of them having movie-making experience. Six weeks into the animation process, only a few animated sequences were close to being completed while Linklater was off making "Bad News Bears". Sabiston had divided the animators into five teams and split the work amongst them. However, there was poor communication between the teams, and the uniform animation style that Linklater wanted was not being implemented. After almost two months some animators were still learning the software, and Linklater became frustrated with the lack of progress.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: Animation and training for the 30 new artists had begun October 28, 2004. In late November, Mark Gill, head of Warner Independent Pictures, asked for a status report. There were no finished sequences, as the majority of animators were still learning to implement the film's highly detailed style. Under pressure, some animators worked 18-hour days for two weeks in order to produce a trailer, which seemed to appease Gill and Linklater. Sabiston and his team were falling behind on the studio's 6-month animation schedule and asked that the schedule be extended to a year and that the 2 million dollar animation budget be enlarged accordingly. This created tension, and in January 2005, while Sabiston and his four-person core team were strategizing at a local cafe, Pallotta changed the locks and seized their workstations, replacing them with two local artists, Jason Archer and Paul Beck. Sabiston's four team leaders Patrick Thornton, Randy Cole, Katy O'Connor, and Jennifer Drummond subsequently received the credit "additional animation" in the film, despite having worked six months designing the general look of the animation and the scramble suit, hiring and training animators, and 3D compositing.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: The studio increased the budget from $6.7 to $8.7 million and gave Linklater six months to finish the film. Pallotta took charge and instituted a more traditional Disney-esque production ethic that included a style manual, strict deadlines, and breaking the film up into smaller segments. The animation process lasted 15 months. Linklater said, in regard to the post-production problems, "There's a lot of misinformation out there... Changes took place during the early stages of us really getting going on this had everything to do with management and not art. It was a budgetary concern, essentially."


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: A test screening in December 2005 went reasonably well. A revised release date was set for March 31, 2006, but Gill felt that there would not be enough time to mount a proper promotional campaign and the date was changed to July 7, putting the film up against Pixar's "Cars" and "".


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: The score (more than an hour's worth is in the film) was provided by Austin, Texas-based composer Graham Reynolds. Linklater approached Reynolds in 2003 after a club performance and suggested Reynolds create the score for "A Scanner Darkly".


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: Linklater and Reynolds had worked previously on "Live from Shiva's Dance Floor", a 20-minute short featuring Timothy "Speed" Levitch.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: The composition and recording process took over one and a half years (the unusual time allotment was due to the film's time-consuming animation process) and was done in Reynolds' east Austin home, in his bedroom. It is not a synthesized score; all the instruments except electric guitar and bass were acoustic, though many were transformed through effects. The film also includes clips of four Radiohead songs—"Fog", "Skttrbrain (Four Tet Mix)", "The Amazing Sounds of Orgy", "Pulk/Pull Revolving Doors" (although it appears uncredited)—and one Thom Yorke solo song, "Black Swan". An early test screening featured an all-Radiohead soundtrack.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: The album is available from Lakeshore Records and includes the score by Graham Reynolds featuring the Golden Arm Trio. Additionally, the CD includes exclusive remixes of Graham's music by DJ Spooky and Jack Dangers (Meat Beat Manifesto). After finishing the film, Reynolds set to work on remixing the surround sound music into stereo. He then selected 44 minutes out of the film score in order to craft a listening CD while attempting to retain some feel of the arc of the film. Some of the shorter cues were assembled into longer CD tracks.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: "A Scanner Darkly" opened in 17 theaters and grossed $391,672 for a per-theater average of $23,039. The film saw some expansion in later weeks, but ultimately was about $1 million short of earning back its $8.7 million production budget. It grossed $5.5 million in North America and $2.1 million elsewhere.


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: "A Scanner Darkly" was met with generally positive reviews. 68% of 189 reviews compiled by Rotten Tomatoes are positive. The critics' consensus on the website reads, "A faithful adaptation of Philip K. Dick's novel, "A Scanner Darkly" takes the viewer on a visual and mind-blowing journey into the author's conception of a drug-addled and politically unstable world." Its weighted score on Metacritic is 73 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: Carina Chocano of the "Los Angeles Times" found the film "engrossing" and wrote that "the brilliance of [the film] is how it suggests, without bombast or fanfare, the ways in which the real world has come to resemble the dark world of comic books".


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: In his review for "The Village Voice", J. Hoberman wrote, "What's extraordinary about Linklater's animation, computer-rotoscoped in the fashion of his 2001 "Waking Life", is just how tangible the Dickian labyrinth becomes", and praised Robert Downey Jr.'s performance: "Midway through 2006, this supporting turn is the performance to beat in what seems the year's American movie to beat".


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: Andrew Sarris, in his review for "The New York Observer", wrote, "Mr. Linklater emerges once again as the Austin auteur par excellence".


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: "Empire" magazine's Kim Newman gave the film four stars out of five and wrote, "its intelligence makes it near-essential viewing".


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: In his review for "The Washington Post", Desson Thompson wrote, "Linklater's rotoscoping process underscores this grave new world with pop-arty creepiness. Its dramatically muting effect, which shaves the highs off the more histrionic performances yet doesn't undercut the more subtle elements ... squeezes everything into a unified nightmare". Amy Biancolli from the Houston Chronicle heralded the movie as "[t]he first film to capture the author's transience and his art."


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: "Entertainment Weekly" gave the film a "C−" rating, and Owen Gleiberman was unimpressed, writing that the film is "more fun to think about than [it] is to experience", and found the film's storyline "goes nowhere".


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: In his review for "The Guardian", Peter Bradshaw wrote, "The movie is often startling and engrossing, but the question of what the heck is going on, and why, is never entirely absent from your mind".


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: Jack Mathews, in his review for "The New York Daily News", called it "a murky, dialogue-heavy tale of intrigue".


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: Roger Moore from the "Orlando Sentinel" states: "Linklater's willingness to experiment ... is laudable. But I'm not sure he's reinventing animation here, or even adequately serving that older-than-children animation audience." Tom Long from the "Detroit News" praised one aspect of the film, saying "[h]ere's a guy willing to take risks, willing to tackle challenging material, willing to assume his audience has a brain." At the same time, Long notes that "[u]nfortunately, his audience's collective brain is going to be hurting mightily for the first hour of this film". Michael Booth from the "Denver Post" states that "[t]he artiness gets in the way of thrilling plot twists; we're still trying to sort out images when we should be sorting out facts."


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: Chris Vognar from the "Dallas Morning News" stated that "[m]uch like someone who doesn't realize how high he is, "A Scanner Darkly" talks too much and doesn't say enough".


title: A Scanner Darkly (film)

text: The DVD was released in North America on December 19, 2006, and in the UK on January 22, 2007; Blu ray and HD DVD versions were released on April 10, 2007, and May 10, 2010. The following extras are included: the theatrical trailer; "Weight of the Line", an animation tales feature; "One Summer in Austin", a short documentary on the filming of the movie; and audio commentary from actor Keanu Reeves, director Richard Linklater, producer Tommy Pallotta, author Jonathan Lethem, and Philip K. Dick's daughter, Isa Dick Hackett. "Entertainment Weekly" felt that the commentary track was "friendly and aimless", but found the featurette on the rotoscoping process, "a lot more lively".


title: FC Sheriff Tiraspol

text: Fotbal Club Sheriff (), commonly known as Sheriff Tiraspol or simply Sheriff, is a Moldovan professional football club based in Tiraspol, a city located in the unrecognised breakaway state of Transnistria. Founded in 1997 as "Tiras Tiraspol" and rebranded the following year as "Sheriff", it quickly established itself within Moldovan football.


title: FC Sheriff Tiraspol

text: "The Wasps" recorded their debut in the first league in the 1998–99 season, when they also won their first trophy, the Moldovan Cup. They have since amassed twenty championship titles, eleven Cups and seven Super Cups–all competition records. On the European stage, Sheriff has reached the group stage of the UEFA Europa League on five occasions and became the first ever Moldovan side to reach the group stages of the 2021–22 UEFA Champions League, where they would go on to notch a win against eventual champions Real Madrid before eventually bowing out of the competition.


title: FC Sheriff Tiraspol

text: The club takes its current name from its main sponsor, Sheriff, a company which operates various industries in Transnistria. Home games are played in yellow and black kits at the Sheriff Stadium, to which the club moved in 2002 and which has a capacity of 12,746.


title: FC Sheriff Tiraspol

text: The club was originally established in 1996 and introduced in the Moldovan "B" Division as "FC Tiras Tiraspol". On 4 April 1997, former policeman Victor Gușan, an employee of the security corporation Sheriff which remains a key sponsor, refounded it as FC Sheriff Tiraspol.


title: FC Sheriff Tiraspol

text: Sheriff achieved promotion to the second tier of Moldovan football, the Moldovan "A" Division, and under the guidance of Ahmad Alaskarov, was charged with leading the team to the Moldovan top division. Later that year the club won the championship by 14 points, being promoted to Divizia Națională. The club won its first major honour with the 1999 Moldovan Cup. In the final at the Republican Stadium, Sheriff scored an injury-time equaliser before winning the match against Constructorul Chișinău 2–1 after extra time. Sheriff's first National Division title came in the 2000–01 season, which also included their second Moldovan Cup triumph as they beat Nistru Otaci on penalties after a goalless match. The league triumph was the first of a run of ten consecutively up to 2010, also including league-cup doubles in 2002, 2006 and 2008–10. Sheriff won each Moldovan Super Cup from 2004 to 2010, but did not have to play a match on four occasions due to winning it on default through a double. Sheriff were denied an 11th-straight title by Dacia Chișinău in 2010–11, but reclaimed the title the following season. In 2014–15, Sheriff again lost the championship despite being level with both Milsami Orhei and Dacia Chișinău at the top of the table with 55 points; Milsami would finish in first place because of its superior head-to-head record against both Sheriff and Dacia, with Dacia second and Sheriff third, despite Sheriff having the superior goal difference amongst the clubs.


title: FC Sheriff Tiraspol

text: The team won the Commonwealth of Independent States Cup in 2003 and 2009, becoming the first team from Moldova to win an international title. Sheriff were the first club in Moldova to sign players from Brazil and Africa.


title: FC Sheriff Tiraspol

text: From 2001–02 to 2008–09, the club tried to reach the group stage in the UEFA Champions League every year, but failed in the second qualifying round every time. Its European fortunes improved after 2009. Sheriff has appeared in three UEFA Europa League group stages (2009–10, 2010–11, 2013–14) with decent results, although they didn't manage to qualify to the knock-out stage. In 2017, they qualified to the group stage for the fourth time, after beating favorites Legia Warsaw on away goals in the play-off round.


title: FC Sheriff Tiraspol

text: In the 2009–10 season, Sheriff finally reached the third qualifying round when they defeated Inter Turku. In the next round, Sheriff defeated Slavia Prague 1–1 on aggregate, progressing via the away goal rule due to Nadson's 94th-minute strike in the second leg. They were then eliminated from the 2009–10 UEFA Champions League by Greek club Olympiacos in the qualifying play-off for a spot in the group stage. Sheriff lost 2–0 in the first leg at home, and 1–0 in the second leg away.


title: FC Sheriff Tiraspol

text: However, by virtue of losing in the play-off round, Sheriff qualified for the 2009–10 UEFA Europa League group stage, where they were drawn into Group H alongside Fenerbahçe, Twente and Steaua București. On 17 September 2009, their first Europa League match, Sheriff drew 0–0 away against Steaua. On 1 October, Sheriff's first Europa League home match, the club lost 1–0 to Fenerbahçe. On 22 October, Sheriff produced a stunning 2–0 home victory over Twente, ending Twente's 17-match unbeaten run. 2 December, Sheriff drew 1–1 at home with Steaua. Sheriff failed to progress past the group stage after finishing third in Group H with five points, ahead of Steaua.


title: FC Sheriff Tiraspol

text: In the 2010–11 UEFA Champions League, on 14–20 July 2010, Sheriff defeated Dinamo Tirana in the second qualifying round (3–1, 0–1). Then, on 4 August, the club defeated Dinamo Zagreb on penalties (6–5) after identical 1–1 draws at home and away, thereby reaching the play-off round. On 18–24 August, in the play-off round against Basel, Sheriff lost 1–0 in Switzerland before losing 3–0 at home.


title: FC Sheriff Tiraspol

text: Dropping to the 2010–11 UEFA Europa League after their play-off defeat to Basel, Sheriff was drawn into Group E alongside Dynamo Kyiv, AZ and BATE Borisov. After losing their first match 2–1 away against AZ on 15 September 2010, on 30 September, Sheriff defeated Dynamo Kyiv 2–0 at home. After losing two-straight matches against BATE – 0–1 at home and 3–1 away on 21 October and 4 November respectively – on 2 December, Sheriff drew 1–1 with AZ at home, then on 15 December, Sheriff drew 0–0 against Dynamo Kyiv away in Kyiv. Accumulating five points, Sheriff failed to progress past the group stage after finishing last in Group E.


title: FC Sheriff Tiraspol

text: In the 2013–14 UEFA Europa League, Sheriff played in a group with Tottenham Hotspur, Anzhi Makhachkala and Tromsø, in which they finished third.


title: FC Sheriff Tiraspol

text: In the 2017–18 UEFA Europa League, Sheriff played in a group with Lokomotiv Moscow, Copenhagen, Fastav Zlín, in which they finished third once more.


title: FC Sheriff Tiraspol

text: In the 2021–22 UEFA Champions League, Sheriff became the first Moldovan team to qualify for the group stages of the competition after a 3–0 aggregate win over Dinamo Zagreb. They were drawn into Group D to face Inter Milan, Real Madrid and Shakhtar Donetsk. On 15 September, Sheriff won their opening group game, 2–0 against Shakhtar Donetsk, before following it up with an upset 2–1 away victory over Real Madrid at the Santiago Bernabéu on 28 September 2021, with Sébastien Thill scoring the winning goal in the 89th minute. Despite losing their next three games against Inter Milan and Real Madrid, they secured qualification for the preliminary knockout round of the Europa League on 24 November 2021 when Shakhtar Donetsk lost to Inter Milan. They ended their campaign with a 1–1 away draw with Shakhtar Donetsk, which meant they ended up with a very respectable 7 points from their 6 games.


title: FC Sheriff Tiraspol

text: Sheriff had serious squad problems before the start of the UEFA Europa League knockout rounds. The departure of important players such as Cristiano da Silva Leite, Frank Castañeda, Danilo Arboleda, Dimitris Kolovos and Fernando Peixoto Costanza caused serious problems in the squad. Sheriff replaced all the departures with new players like Regi Lushkja, Gaby Kiki, Renan Guedes and Patrick Kpozo. However, the rules of the Moldovan championship allow teams to announce their new players from 23 February. Since the deadline for registration in the Europa League was February 2, coach Yuriy Vernydub was obliged to include players who had not played much in the starting line-up, such as Stjepan Radeljić, Stefanos Evangelou and Charles Petro.


title: FC Sheriff Tiraspol

text: They were the first ever Moldovan side to play in the knockout stages of a European competition, and were drawn against S.C. Braga of Portugal. They won 2–0 in the initial home leg - with the goalscorers being Sébastien Thill and Adama Traoré in a game where Sheriff put in a solid performance despite having a vastly different squad to the one that stunned Real Madrid. Finally, the European campaign ended with a 2-0 defeat and a dramatic penalty shootout that ended 3–2 in favour of Braga.


title: FC Sheriff Tiraspol

text: Sheriff Stadium is the home ground of Sheriff Tiraspol and is owned by the corporation Sheriff. Construction of the ground began on 1 August 2000 and was completed in May 2002, with the official opening in July 2002. It was renovated in 2011. The stadium has a seating capacity for 12,746 spectators and is eligible for FIFA/UEFA international events. Beside Sheriff, the stadium has also hosted matches for FC Tiraspol and the Moldova national team.


title: FC Sheriff Tiraspol

text: Aside from the main arena of Sheriff Sports Complex, there is also an 8,000 seater stadium, Malaya Sportivnaya Arena, also situated in the same complex, along with eight training fields, a covered training centre, housing for the players, a college for students and a five-star hotel.


title: FC Sheriff Tiraspol

text: In June 2022, UEFA ordered that no European games would be permitted to be played in Transnistria, as a direct consequence of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: FC Sheriff Tiraspol

text: As of 28 September 2021, Sheriff Tiraspol is ranked 58th in the UEFA club coefficient rankings, up from 108th the previous season.


title: Thomas Kail

text: Thomas Kail (born January 30, 1978) is an American theatre director, known for directing the Off-Broadway and Broadway productions of Lin-Manuel Miranda's musicals "In the Heights" and "Hamilton", garnering the 2016 Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical for the latter. Kail was awarded the Kennedy Center Honor in 2018.


title: Thomas Kail

text: Kail grew up in Alexandria, Virginia and graduated from Sidwell Friends School in 1995 and subsequently from Wesleyan University in 1999. He remains good friends with Lin-Manuel Miranda, with whom he co-created the freestyle hip-hop group Freestyle Love Supreme. Kail is Jewish.


title: Thomas Kail

text: Kail began a relationship with theatre actress Angela Christian in 2006; they divorced in 2019. In December 2019, it was announced that he was engaged to "Fosse/Verdon" actress Michelle Williams, who was expecting their first child together; they married in March 2020. Their son, Hart, was born by June that year. In May 2022, Williams revealed she is pregnant with their second child together.


title: Thomas Kail

text: Kail and Williams are raising their two young children with Judaism, and Williams (who is not Jewish) is studying the religion herself. Williams also has a daughter from a previous relationship.


title: Thomas Kail

text: After graduating from Wesleyan University, Kail became assistant stage manager at New Jersey's American Stage Company.


title: Thomas Kail

text: Kail directed the "24 Hour Plays" benefit performances in 2007 and 2008, where "6 short plays are written, rehearsed, directed, and performed in 24 hours." In 2007, he directed Julia Jordan's "A Bus Stop Play", and Beau Willimon's "Zusammenbruch" in 2008. Both shows played at the American Airlines Theatre on Broadway.


title: Thomas Kail

text: Kail directed the hit Broadway musical "In the Heights", which garnered him a Tony Award nomination for Best Direction of a Musical. The musical premiered on Broadway, starting in previews on February 14, 2008, with an official opening on March 9, 2008, at the Richard Rodgers Theatre.


title: Thomas Kail

text: Kail directed "Broke-ology", which played from October 5, 2009, to November 22, 2009, at the Lincoln Center Theater Off-Broadway. This play garnered Kail an AUDELCO Award nomination for Best Director of a Dramatic Production. Kail also staged the world premiere at the Williamstown Theatre Festival. In 2009, Kail also directed the New York City Center's "Encores!" production of the musical "The Wiz".


title: Thomas Kail

text: Kail directed Eric Simonson's play "Lombardi", based on Green Bay Packers coach Vince Lombardi through a week in the 1965 season, as he attempts to lead his team to the championship. "Lombardi" officially premiered on Broadway at the Circle in the Square Theatre on October 21, 2010.


title: Thomas Kail

text: He then directed the Off-Broadway run of Nathan Louis Jackson's "When I Come to Die", which ran in January and February 2011.


title: Thomas Kail

text: Kail reunited with "Lombardi" playwright Eric Simonson on "Magic/Bird", a new play chronicling the intertwined life stories of basketball Hall of Famers Larry Bird and Earvin "Magic" Johnson. The play premiered on Broadway at the Longacre Theatre on March 21, 2012, in previews, officially on April 11, 2012, and closed on May 12, 2012. Kail directed, with the cast that featured Kevin Daniels as "Magic" Johnson and Tug Coker as Larry Bird.


title: Thomas Kail

text: Kail continued his collaboration with Lin-Manuel Miranda, directing the musical "Hamilton" in 2015, both Off-Broadway and on Broadway, for which he won a Tony Award.


title: Thomas Kail

text: Kail directed "" for Paramount Television, screened live on Fox on January 31, 2016; the world premiere of "Dry Powder" with Hank Azaria, Claire Danes, John Krasinski and Sanjit De Silva which ran from March to May 2016 at The Public Theater in New York City; and "Tiny Beautiful Things", also at The Public, from November to December 2016.


title: Thomas Kail

text: On July 5, 2018, FX announced an eight-episode order for a limited-series entitled "Fosse/Verdon", with Sam Rockwell playing the role of Bob Fosse and Michelle Williams playing the role of Gwen Verdon. On October 25, 2018, it was reported that Thomas Kail would direct at least four of the series' eight episodes and he would go on to direct a total of five episodes. Kail was nominated for Outstanding Directing – Movies for Television and Limited Series by the Directors Guild of America for the episode "Nowadays."


title: Conifer

text: Conifers are a group of cone-bearing seed plants, a subset of gymnosperms. Scientifically, they make up the division Pinophyta (), also known as Coniferophyta () or Coniferae. The division contains a single extant class, Pinopsida. All extant conifers are perennial woody plants with secondary growth. The great majority are trees, though a few are shrubs. Examples include cedars, Douglas-firs, cypresses, firs, junipers, kauri, larches, pines, hemlocks, redwoods, spruces, and yews. As of 1998, the division Pinophyta was estimated to contain eight families, 68 genera, and 629 living species.


title: Conifer

text: Although the total number of species is relatively small, conifers are ecologically important. They are the dominant plants over large areas of land, most notably the taiga of the Northern Hemisphere, but also in similar cool climates in mountains further south. Boreal conifers have many wintertime adaptations. The narrow conical shape of northern conifers, and their downward-drooping limbs, help them shed snow. Many of them seasonally alter their biochemistry to make them more resistant to freezing. While tropical rainforests have more biodiversity and turnover, the immense conifer forests of the world represent the largest terrestrial carbon sink. Conifers are of great economic value for softwood lumber and paper production.


title: Conifer

text: The earliest conifers appear in the fossil record during the Late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian), over 300 million years ago. Conifers have been suggested to be most closely related to the Cordaitales"," a group of Carboniferous-Permian trees and clambering plants whose reproductive structures have some similarities to those of conifers. The most primitive conifers belong to the paraphyletic assemblage of "walchian conifers", which were small trees, and probably originated in dry upland habitats. The range of conifers expanded during the Early Permian (Cisuralian) to lowlands due to increasing aridity. Walchian conifers were gradually replaced by more advanced voltzialean or "transition" conifers. Conifers were largely unaffected by the Permian–Triassic extinction event, and were dominant land plants of the Mesozoic era. Modern groups of conifers emerged from the Voltziales during the Late Permian through Jurassic. Conifers underwent a major decline in the Late Cretaceous corresponding to the explosive adaptive radiation of flowering plants.


title: Conifer

text: "Conifer" is a Latin word, a compound of "conus" (cone) and "ferre" (to bear), meaning "the one that bears (a) cone(s)".


title: Conifer

text: The division name Pinophyta conforms to the rules of the "International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN)", which state (Article 16.1) that the names of higher taxa in plants (above the rank of family) are either formed from the name of an included family (usually the most common and/or representative), in this case Pinaceae (the pine family), or are descriptive. A descriptive name in widespread use for the conifers (at whatever rank is chosen) is Coniferae (Art 16 Ex 2).


title: Conifer

text: According to the "ICN", it is possible to use a name formed by replacing the termination "-aceae" in the name of an included family, in this case preferably Pinaceae, by the appropriate termination, in the case of this division "-ophyta". Alternatively, "descriptive botanical names" may also be used at any rank above family. Both are allowed.


title: Conifer

text: This means that if conifers are considered a division, they may be called Pinophyta or Coniferae. As a class, they may be called Pinopsida or Coniferae. As an order they may be called Pinales or Coniferae or Coniferales.


title: Conifer

text: Conifers are the largest and economically most important component group of the gymnosperms, but nevertheless they comprise only one of the four groups. The division Pinophyta consists of just one class, Pinopsida, which includes both living and fossil taxa. Subdivision of the living conifers into two or more orders has been proposed from time to time. The most commonly seen in the past was a split into two orders, Taxales (Taxaceae only) and Pinales (the rest), but recent research into DNA sequences suggests that this interpretation leaves the Pinales without Taxales as paraphyletic, and the latter order is no longer considered distinct. A more accurate subdivision would be to split the class into three orders, Pinales containing only Pinaceae, Araucariales containing Araucariaceae and Podocarpaceae, and Cupressales containing the remaining families (including Taxaceae), but there has not been any significant support for such a split, with the majority of opinion preferring retention of all the families within a single order Pinales, despite their antiquity and diverse morphology.


title: Conifer

text: , the conifers were accepted as composed of seven families, with a total of 65–70 genera and 600–630 species (696 accepted names). The seven most distinct families are linked in the box above right and phylogenetic diagram left. In other interpretations, the Cephalotaxaceae may be better included within the Taxaceae, and some authors additionally recognize Phyllocladaceae as distinct from Podocarpaceae (in which it is included here). The family Taxodiaceae is here included in family Cupressaceae, but was widely recognized in the past and can still be found in many field guides. A new classification and linear sequence based on molecular data can be found in an article by Christenhusz et al.


title: Conifer

text: The conifers are an ancient group, with a fossil record extending back about 300 million years to the Paleozoic in the late Carboniferous period; even many of the modern genera are recognizable from fossils 60–120 million years old. Other classes and orders, now long extinct, also occur as fossils, particularly from the late Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras. Fossil conifers included many diverse forms, the most dramatically distinct from modern conifers being some herbaceous conifers with no woody stems. Major fossil orders of conifers or conifer-like plants include the Cordaitales, Vojnovskyales, Voltziales and perhaps also the Czekanowskiales (possibly more closely related to the Ginkgophyta).


title: Conifer

text: Multiple studies also indicate that the Gnetophyta belong within the conifers despite their distinct appearances, either placing them as a sister group to Pinales (the 'gnepine' hypothesis) or as being more derived than Pinales but sister to the rest of the group. Most recent studies favor the 'gnepine' hypothesis.


title: Conifer

text: All living conifers are woody plants, and most are trees, the majority having monopodial growth form (a single, straight trunk with side branches) with strong apical dominance. Many conifers have distinctly scented resin, secreted to protect the tree against insect infestation and fungal infection of wounds. Fossilized resin hardens into amber. The size of mature conifers varies from less than one metre, to over 100 metres. The world's tallest, thickest, largest, and oldest living trees are all conifers. The tallest is a Coast Redwood ("Sequoia sempervirens"), with a height of 115.55 metres (although one Victorian mountain ash, "Eucalyptus regnans", allegedly grew to a height of 140 metres, although the exact dimensions were not confirmed). The thickest, meaning the tree with the greatest trunk diameter, is a Montezuma Cypress ("Taxodium mucronatum"), 11.42 metres in diameter. The largest tree by three-dimensional volume is a Giant Sequoia ("Sequoiadendron giganteum"), with a volume 1486.9 cubic metres. The smallest is the pygmy pine ("Lepidothamnus laxifolius") of New Zealand, which is seldom taller than 30 cm when mature. The oldest is a Great Basin Bristlecone Pine ("Pinus longaeva"), 4,700 years old.


title: Conifer

text: Since most conifers are evergreens, the leaves of many conifers are long, thin and have a needle-like appearance, but others, including most of the Cupressaceae and some of the Podocarpaceae, have flat, triangular scale-like leaves. Some, notably "Agathis" in Araucariaceae and "Nageia" in Podocarpaceae, have broad, flat strap-shaped leaves. Others such as "Araucaria columnaris" have leaves that are awl-shaped. In the majority of conifers, the leaves are arranged spirally, exceptions being most of Cupressaceae and one genus in Podocarpaceae, where they are arranged in decussate opposite pairs or whorls of 3 (−4).


title: Conifer

text: In many species with spirally arranged leaves, such as "Abies grandis" (pictured), the leaf bases are twisted to present the leaves in a very flat plane for maximum light capture. Leaf size varies from 2 mm in many scale-leaved species, up to 400 mm long in the needles of some pines (e.g. Apache Pine, "Pinus engelmannii"). The stomata are in lines or patches on the leaves and can be closed when it is very dry or cold. The leaves are often dark green in colour, which may help absorb a maximum of energy from weak sunshine at high latitudes or under forest canopy shade.


title: Conifer

text: Conifers from hotter areas with high sunlight levels (e.g. Turkish Pine "Pinus brutia") often have yellower-green leaves, while others (e.g. blue spruce, "Picea pungens") may develop blue or silvery leaves to reflect ultraviolet light. In the great majority of genera the leaves are evergreen, usually remaining on the plant for several (2–40) years before falling, but five genera ("Larix", "Pseudolarix", "Glyptostrobus", "Metasequoia" and "Taxodium") are deciduous, shedding their leaves in autumn. The seedlings of many conifers, including most of the Cupressaceae, and "Pinus" in Pinaceae, have a distinct juvenile foliage period where the leaves are different, often markedly so, from the typical adult leaves.


title: Conifer

text: Tree rings are records of the influence of environmental conditions, their anatomical characteristics record growth rate changes produced by these changing conditions. The microscopic structure of conifer wood consists of two types of cells: parenchyma, which have an oval or polyhedral shape with approximately identical dimensions in three directions, and strongly elongated tracheids. Tracheids make up more than 90% of timber volume. The tracheids of earlywood formed at the beginning of a growing season have large radial sizes and smaller, thinner cell walls. Then, the first tracheids of the transition zone are formed, where the radial size of cells and thickness of their cell walls changes considerably. Finally, the latewood tracheids are formed, with small radial sizes and greater cell wall thickness. This is the basic pattern of the internal cell structure of conifer tree rings.


title: Conifer

text: Most conifers are monoecious, but some are subdioecious or dioecious; all are wind-pollinated. Conifer seeds develop inside a protective cone called a strobilus. The cones take from four months to three years to reach maturity, and vary in size from 2 mm to 600 mm long.


title: Conifer

text: In Pinaceae, Araucariaceae, Sciadopityaceae and most Cupressaceae, the cones are woody, and when mature the scales usually spread open allowing the seeds to fall out and be dispersed by the wind. In some (e.g. firs and cedars), the cones disintegrate to release the seeds, and in others (e.g. the pines that produce pine nuts) the nut-like seeds are dispersed by birds (mainly nutcrackers, and jays), which break up the specially adapted softer cones. Ripe cones may remain on the plant for a varied amount of time before falling to the ground; in some fire-adapted pines, the seeds may be stored in closed cones for up to 60–80 years, being released only when a fire kills the parent tree.


title: Conifer

text: In the families Podocarpaceae, Cephalotaxaceae, Taxaceae, and one Cupressaceae genus ("Juniperus"), the scales are soft, fleshy, sweet, and brightly colored, and are eaten by fruit-eating birds, which then pass the seeds in their droppings. These fleshy scales are (except in "Juniperus") known as arils. In some of these conifers (e.g. most Podocarpaceae), the cone consists of several fused scales, while in others (e.g. Taxaceae), the cone is reduced to just one seed scale or (e.g. Cephalotaxaceae) the several scales of a cone develop into individual arils, giving the appearance of a cluster of berries.


title: Conifer

text: The male cones have structures called microsporangia that produce yellowish pollen through meiosis. Pollen is released and carried by the wind to female cones. Pollen grains from living pinophyte species produce pollen tubes, much like those of angiosperms. The gymnosperm male gametophytes (pollen grains) are carried by wind to a female cone and are drawn into a tiny opening on the ovule called the micropyle. It is within the ovule that pollen-germination occurs. From here, a pollen tube seeks out the female gametophyte, which contains archegonia each with an egg, and if successful, fertilization occurs. The resulting zygote develops into an embryo, which along with the female gametophyte (nutritional material for the growing embryo) and its surrounding integument, becomes a seed. Eventually, the seed may fall to the ground and, if conditions permit, grow into a new plant.


title: Conifer

text: In forestry, the terminology of flowering plants has commonly though inaccurately been applied to cone-bearing trees as well. The male cone and unfertilized female cone are called "male flower" and "female flower", respectively. After fertilization, the female cone is termed "fruit", which undergoes "ripening" (maturation).


title: Conifer

text: It was found recently that the pollen of conifers transfers the mitochondrial organelles to the embryo, a sort of meiotic drive that perhaps explains why "Pinus" and other conifers are so productive, and perhaps also has bearing on observed sex-ratio bias.


title: Conifer

text: Conifers are heterosporous, generating two different types of spores: male microspores and female megaspores. These spores develop on separate male and female sporophylls on separate male and female cones. In the male cones, microspores are produced from microsporocytes by meiosis. The microspores develop into pollen grains, which are male gametophytes. Large amounts of pollen are released and carried by the wind. Some pollen grains will land on a female cone for pollination. The generative cell in the pollen grain divides into two haploid sperm cells by mitosis leading to the development of the pollen tube. At fertilization, one of the sperm cells unites its haploid nucleus with the haploid nucleus of an egg cell. The female cone develops two ovules, each of which contains haploid megaspores. A megasporocyte is divided by meiosis in each ovule. Each winged pollen grain is a four celled male gametophyte. Three of the four cells break down leaving only a single surviving cell which will develop into a female multicellular gametophyte. The female gametophytes grow to produce two or more archegonia, each of which contains an egg. Upon fertilization, the diploid egg will give rise to the embryo, and a seed is produced. The female cone then opens, releasing the seeds which grow to a young seedling.


title: Conifer

text: Conifer reproduction is synchronous with seasonal changes in temperate zones. Reproductive development slows to a halt during each winter season and then resumes each spring. The male strobilus development is completed in a single year. Conifers are classified by three reproductive cycles that refer to the completion of female strobilus development from initiation to seed maturation. All three types of reproductive cycle have a long gap between pollination and fertilization.


title: Conifer

text: One year reproductive cycle:The genera include "Abies", "Picea", "Cedrus", "Pseudotsuga," "Tsuga", "Keteleeria" "(Pinaceae)" and "Cupressus, Thuja, Cryptomeria, Cunninghamia" and "Sequoia (Cupressaceae)". Female strobili are initiated in late summer or fall in a year, then they overwinter. Female strobili emerge followed by pollination in the following spring. Fertilization takes place in summer of the following year, only 3–4 months after pollination. Cones mature and seeds are then shed by the end of that same year. Pollination and fertilization occur in a single growing season.


title: Conifer

text: Two-year reproductive cycle:The genera includes "Widdringtonia", "Sequoiadendron" ("Cupressaceae") and most species of "Pinus". Female strobilus initials are formed in late summer or fall then overwinter. Female strobili emerge and receive pollen in the first year spring and become conelets. The conelet goes through another winter rest and, in the spring of the 2nd year archegonia form in the conelet. Fertilization of the archegonia occurs by early summer of the 2nd year, so the pollination-fertilization interval exceeds a year. After fertilization, the conelet is considered an immature cone. Maturation occurs by autumn of the 2nd year, at which time seeds are shed. In summary, the 1-year and the 2-year cycles differ mainly in the duration of the pollination- fertilization interval.


title: Conifer

text: Three-year reproductive cycle: Three of the conifer species are pine species ("Pinus pinea", "Pinus leiophylla", "Pinus torreyana") which have pollination and fertilization events separated by a 2-year interval. Female strobili initiated during late summer or autumn in a year, then overwinter until the following spring. Female strobili emerge then pollination occurs in spring of the 2nd year then the pollinated strobili become conelets in the same year (i.e. the second year). The female gametophytes in the conelet develop so slowly that the megaspore does not go through free-nuclear divisions until autumn of the 3rd year. The conelet then overwinters again in the free-nuclear female gametophyte stage. Fertilization takes place by early summer of the 4th year and seeds mature in the cones by autumn of the 4th year.


title: Conifer

text: The growth and form of a forest tree are the result of activity in the primary and secondary meristems, influenced by the distribution of photosynthate from its needles and the hormonal gradients controlled by the apical meristems (Fraser et al. 1964). External factors also influence growth and form.


title: Conifer

text: Fraser recorded the development of a single white spruce tree from 1926 to 1961. Apical growth of the stem was slow from 1926 through 1936 when the tree was competing with herbs and shrubs and probably shaded by larger trees. Lateral branches began to show reduced growth and some were no longer in evidence on the 36-year-old tree. Apical growth totaling about 340 m, 370 m, 420 m, 450 m, 500 m, 600 m, and 600 m was made by the tree in the years 1955 through 1961, respectively. The total number of needles of all ages present on the 36-year-old tree in 1961 was 5.25 million weighing 14.25 kg. In 1961, needles as old as 13 years remained on the tree. The ash weight of needles increased progressively with age from about 4% in first-year needles in 1961 to about 8% in needles 10 years old. In discussing the data obtained from the one 11 m tall white spruce, Fraser et al. (1964) speculated that if the photosynthate used in making apical growth in 1961 was manufactured the previous year, then the 4 million needles that were produced up to 1960 manufactured food for about 600,000 mm of apical growth or 730 g dry weight, over 12 million mm of wood for the 1961 annual ring, plus 1 million new needles, in addition to new tissue in branches, bark, and roots in 1960. Added to this would be the photosynthate to produce energy to sustain respiration over this period, an amount estimated to be about 10% of the total annual photosynthate production of a young healthy tree. On this basis, one needle produced food for about 0.19 mg dry weight of apical growth, 3 mm wood, one-quarter of a new needle, plus an unknown amount of branch wood, bark and roots.


title: Conifer

text: The order of priority of photosynthate distribution is probably: first to apical growth and new needle formation, then to buds for the next year's growth, with the cambium in the older parts of the branches receiving sustenance last. In the white spruce studied by Fraser et al. (1964), the needles constituted 17.5% of the over-day weight. Undoubtedly, the proportions change with time.


title: Conifer

text: Wind and animal dispersals are two major mechanisms involved in the dispersal of conifer seeds. Wind born seed dispersal involves two processes, namely; local neighborhood dispersal (LND) and long-distance dispersal (LDD). Long-distance dispersal distances range from from the source.


title: Conifer

text: Birds of the crow family, Corvidae, are the primary distributor of the conifer seeds. These birds are known to cache 32,000 pine seeds and transport the seeds as far as from the source. The birds store the seeds in the soil at depths of under conditions which favor germination.


title: Conifer

text: A number of conifers originally introduced for forestry have become invasive species in parts of New Zealand, including radiata pine ("Pinus radiata"), lodgepole pine ("P. contorta"), Douglas fir ("Pseudotsuga mensiezii") and European larch ("Larix decidua").


title: Conifer

text: In parts of South Africa, maritime pine ("Pinus pinaster"), patula pine ("P. patula") and radiata pine have been declared invasive species. These wilding conifers are a serious environmental issue causing problems for pastoral farming and for conservation.


title: Conifer

text: Radiata pine was introduced to Australia in the 1870s. It is "the dominant tree species in the Australian plantation estate" – so much so that many Australians are concerned by the resulting loss of native wildlife habitat. The species is widely regarded as an environmental weed across southeastern and southwestern Australia and the removal of individual plants beyond plantations is encouraged.


title: Conifer

text: At least 20 species of roundheaded borers of the family Cerambycidae feed on the wood of spruce, fir, and hemlock (Rose and Lindquist 1985). Borers rarely bore tunnels in living trees, although when populations are high, adult beetles feed on tender twig bark, and may damage young living trees. One of the most common and widely distributed borer species in North America is the whitespotted sawyer ("Monochamus scutellatus"). Adults are found in summer on newly fallen or recently felled trees chewing tiny slits in the bark in which they lay eggs. The eggs hatch in about 2 weeks and the tiny larvae tunnel to the wood and score its surface with their feeding channels. With the onset of cooler weather, they bore into the wood making oval entrance holes and tunnel deeply. Feeding continues the following summer when larvae occasionally return to the surface of the wood and extend the feeding channels generally in a U-shaped configuration. During this time, small piles of frass extruded by the larvae accumulate under logs. Early in the spring of the second year following egg-laying, the larvae, about 30 mm long, pupate in the tunnel enlargement just below the wood surface. The resulting adults chew their way out in early summer, leaving round exit holes, so completing the usual 2-year life cycle.


title: Conifer

text: Conifers – notably "Abies" (fir), "Cedrus", "Chamaecyparis lawsoniana" (Lawson's cypress), "Cupressus" (cypress), juniper, "Picea" (spruce), "Pinus" (pine), "Taxus" (yew), "Thuja" (cedar) – have been the subject of selection for ornamental purposes (for more information see the silviculture page). Plants with unusual growth habits, sizes, and colours are propagated and planted in parks and gardens throughout the world.


title: Conifer

text: Conifers can absorb nitrogen in either the ammonium (NH) or nitrate (NO) form, but the forms are not physiologically equivalent. Form of nitrogen affected both the total amount and relative composition of the soluble nitrogen in white spruce tissues (Durzan and Steward 1967). Ammonium nitrogen was shown to foster arginine and amides and lead to a large increase of free guanidine compounds, whereas in leaves nourished by nitrate as the sole source of nitrogen guanidine compounds were less prominent. Durzan and Steward noted that their results, drawn from determinations made in late summer, did not rule out the occurrence of different interim responses at other times of the year. Ammonium nitrogen produced significantly heavier (dry weight) seedlings with higher nitrogen content after 5 weeks (McFee and Stone 1968) than did the same amount of nitrate nitrogen. Swan (1960) found the same effect in 105-day-old white spruce.


title: Conifer

text: The general short-term effect of nitrogen fertilization on coniferous seedlings is to stimulate shoot growth more so than root growth (Armson and Carman 1961). Over a longer period, root growth is also stimulated. Many nursery managers were long reluctant to apply nitrogenous fertilizers late in the growing season, for fear of increased danger of frost damage to succulent tissues. A presentation at the North American Forest Tree Nursery Soils Workshop at Syracuse in 1980 provided strong contrary evidence: Bob Eastman, President of the Western Maine Forest Nursery Co. stated that for 15 years he has been successful in avoiding winter “burn” to Norway spruce and white spruce in his nursery operation by fertilizing with 50–80 lb/ac (56–90 kg/ha) nitrogen in September, whereas previously winter burn had been experienced annually, often severely. Eastman also stated that the overwintering storage capacity of stock thus treated was much improved (Eastman 1980).


title: Conifer

text: The concentrations of nutrients in plant tissues depend on many factors, including growing conditions. Interpretation of concentrations determined by analysis is easy only when a nutrient occurs in excessively low or occasionally excessively high concentration. Values are influenced by environmental factors and interactions among the 16 nutrient elements known to be essential to plants, 13 of which are obtained from the soil, including nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur, all used in relatively large amounts (Buckman and Brady 1969). Nutrient concentrations in conifers also vary with season, age, and kind of tissue sampled, and analytical technique. The ranges of concentrations occurring in well-grown plants provide a useful guide by which to assess the adequacy of particular nutrients, and the ratios among the major nutrients are helpful guides to nutritional imbalances.


title: Conifer

text: The softwood derived from conifers is of great economic value, providing about 45% of the world's annual lumber production. Other uses of the timber include the production of paper and plastic from chemically treated wood pulp. Some conifers also provide foods such as pine nuts and Juniper berries, the latter used to flavor gin.