title: Quark (dairy product)

text: Although quark is sometimes referred to loosely as a type of "cottage cheese", they can be distinguished by the different production aspects and textural quality, with the cottage cheese grains described as more chewy or meaty.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: The word "Quark" (Late Middle High German: "quarc", "twarc", "zwarg"; Lower Saxon: "dwarg"), with usage in German documented since the 14th century, is thought to derive from a West Slavic equivalent, such as Lower Sorbian "twarog", Upper Sorbian "twaroh", Polish "twaróg", Czech and Slovak "tvaroh". The word is also cognate with Russian "tvorog" () and Belarusian: "tvaroh" (тварог).


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: The original Old Slavonic "tvarogъ" (тварогъ) is supposed to be related to the Church Slavonic "творъ", tr. "tvor", meaning "form". The meaning can thus be interpreted as "milk that solidified and took a form". The word formation is thus similar to that of the Italian "formaggio" and French "fromage".


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: The Slavic words may also be cognate with the Greek name for cheese, "τῡρός" ("tūrós"). A cognate term for quark, "túró", is used in Hungarian.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: Cognates also occur in Scandinavia (Danish "kvark", Norwegian and Swedish "kvarg") and the Netherlands (Dutch "kwark"). The Old English form is .


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: In several languages quark is also known as "white cheese" (, southern or , , , , ), as opposed to any rennet-set "yellow cheese". Another French name for it is "fromage frais" (fresh cheese), where the difference to "fromage blanc" is defined by French legislation: a product named "fromage frais" must contain live cultures when sold, whereas with "fromage blanc" fermentation has been halted. In Swiss French, it is usually called "séré".


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: In Israel, "gevina levana" denotes the creamy variety similar to the German types of quark. The firmer version which was introduced to Israel during the Aliyah of the 1990s by immigrants from the former Soviet Union is differentiated as "tvorog".


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: In Austria, the name "Topfen" (pot cheese) is common. In Flanders, it is called "plattekaas" (runny cheese). In Finnish, it is known as "rahka", while in Estonian as "kohupiim" (foamy milk), in Lithuanian as "varškės sūris" (curd cheese), in Ukrainian it is frequently called "cир", and in Latvian is known as "biezpiens" (thick milk). Its Italian name is "giuncata" or "cagliata" (curd). Among the Albanians quark is known as "gjizë".


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: Quark is a member of the acid-set cheese group, whose coagulation mainly relies on the acidity produced by lactic acid bacteria feeding on the lactose. But moderate amounts of rennet have also been in use, both at the home consumption level and the industrial level.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: Manufacture of quark normally uses pasteurized skim milk as the main ingredient, but cream can be added later to adjust fat content. The lactic acid bacteria are introduced in the form of mesophilic "Lactococcus" starter cultures. In the dairy industry today, quark is mostly produced with a small quantity of rennet, added after the culture when the solution is still only slightly acidic (ph 6.1). The solution will then continue to acidify, allowed to reach an approximate pH of 4.6. At this point, the acidity causes the casein proteins in the milk to begin precipitating.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: In Germany, it is continuously stirred to prevent hardening, resulting in a thick, creamy texture. According to German regulations on cheese ("Käseverordnung"), "fresh cheeses" ("Frischkäse") such as quark or cottage cheese must contain at least 73% water in the fat-free component. German quark is usually sold in plastic tubs. This type of quark has the firmness of sour cream but is slightly drier, resulting in a somewhat crumbly texture (like ricotta).


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: Basic quark contains about 0.2% fat; this basic quark or skimmed quark ("Magerquark") must under German law have less than 10% fat by dry mass. Quark with higher fat content is made by adding cream after cooling. It has a smooth and creamy texture, and is slightly sweet (unlike sour cream). A firmer version called "Schichtkäse" (layer cheese) is often used for baking. Schichtkäse is distinguished from quark by having an added layer of cream sandwiched between two layers of quark.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: Quark may be flavored with herbs, spices, or fruit. In general, the dry mass of quark has 1% to 40% fat; most of the rest is protein (80% of which is casein), calcium, and phosphate.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: In the 19th century, there was no industrial production of quark (as end-product) and it was produced entirely for home use. In the traditional home-made process, the milk would be allowed to let stand until it soured naturally by the presence of naturally occurring bacteria, although the hardening could be encouraged with the addition of some rennet.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: Some or most of the whey is removed to standardize the quark to the desired thickness. Traditionally, this is done by hanging the cheese in a muslin bag or a loosely woven cotton gauze called cheesecloth and letting the whey drip off, which gives quark its distinctive shape of a wedge with rounded edges. In industrial production, however, cheese is separated from whey in a centrifuge and later formed into blocks.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: Variations in quark preparation occur across different regions of Germany and Austria. Most of the Austrian and other Central and Eastern European varieties contain less whey and are therefore drier and more solid than the German and Scandinavian ones.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: In the Netherlands, many products labelled "kwark" are not based on quark as described in this article (fresh acid-set cheese), but instead a thick yogurt-like product made using yogurt bacteria (such as "Streptococcus thermophilus" and "Lactobacillus acidophilus") in a quicker process using a centrifuge.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: Under Russian governmental regulations, "tvorog" is distinguished from cheeses, and classified as a separate type of dairy product. Typical "tvorog" usually contain 65–80% water out of the total mass.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: Various cuisines feature quark as an ingredient for appetizers, salads, main dishes, side dishes and desserts.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: In Germany, quark is sold in cubic plastic tubs and usually comes in three different varieties, "Magerquark" (skimmed quark, <10% fat by dry mass.), "regular" quark (20% fat in dry mass) and "Sahnequark" ("creamy quark", 40% fat in dry mass) with added cream. Similar gradations in fat content are also common in Eastern Europe.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: While "Magerquark" is often used for baking or is eaten as breakfast with a side of fruit or muesli, "Sahnequark" also forms the basis of a large number of quark desserts (called when homemade or when sold in German).


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: Much like yoghurts in some parts of the world, these foods mostly come with fruit flavoring ("Früchtequark", fruit quark), sometimes with vanilla and are often also simply referred to as quark.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: One common use for quark is in making cheesecake called "Käsekuchen" or "Quarkkuchen" in Germany. Quark cheesecake is called "Topfenkuchen" in Austria. The "Quarktorte" in Switzerland may be equivalent, though this has also been described as a torte that combines quark and cream.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: In neighboring Netherlands there is a different variant; these cakes, called "kwarktaart" in Dutch, usually have a cookie crumb crust, and the quark is typically mixed with whipped cream, gelatine, and sugar. These cakes do not require baking or frying, but instead are placed in the refrigerator to firm up. They may be made with quark or with the yogurt-like quark that is common in the Netherlands (see above).


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: In Austria, "Topfen" is commonly used in baking in popular desserts like "Topfenkuchen" as already mentioned, Topfenstrudel and Topfen-Palatschinken (a form of crepes).


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: Quark is also often used as an ingredient for sandwiches, salads, and savory dishes. Quark, vegetable oil and wheat flour are the ingredients of a popular kind of dough, called "Quarkölteig", used in German cuisine as an alternative to yeast-leavened dough in home baking, since it is considerably easier to handle and requires no rising period. The resulting baked goods look and taste very similar to yeast-leavened goods, although they do not last as long and are thus usually consumed immediately after baking.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: In Germany, quark mixed with chopped onions and herbs such as parsley and chives is called . Kräuterquark is commonly eaten with boiled potatoes and has some similarity to tzatziki which is based on yoghurt. Quark with linseed oil and potatoes is the national dish of the Sorbs in Lusatia and an iconic dish in Brandenburg and parts of Saxony. Quark also has been used among Ashkenazi Jews.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: Desserts using quarks (Russian: "tvorog", etc.) in Slavic regions include the "tvarohovník" in Slovakia, "tvarožník" in Czech Republic, "sernik" in Poland, and "syrnyk" in Ukraine) and cheese pancakes ("syrnyky" in Russia and Ukraine).


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: In Poland, "twaróg" is mixed with mashed potatoes to produce a filling for "pierogi". "Twaróg" is also used to make gnocchi-shaped dumplings called "leniwe pierogi" ("lazy pierogi"). Ukrainian recipes for "varenyky" or "lazy varenyky" are similar but "tvorog" and mashed potatoes are different fillings which are usually not mixed together.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: In Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus, "tvorog" (Russian: творог) is highly popular and is bought frequently by almost every family. In Russian families, it is especially recommended for growing babies. It can be enjoyed simply with sour cream, or jam, sugar, sugar condensed milk, or as a breakfast food. It is often used as a stuffing in "blinchiki" offered at many fast-food restaurants. It is also commonly used as the base for making Easter cakes. It is mixed with eggs, sugar, raisins and nuts and dried into a solid pyramid-shaped mass called "paskha". The mass can also be fried, then known as "syrniki".


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: In Latvia, quark is eaten savory mixed with sour cream and scallions on rye bread or with potatoes. In desserts, quark is commonly baked into "biezpiena plātsmaize", a crusted sheet cake baked with or without raisins. A sweetened treat "biezpiena sieriņš" (small curd cheese) is made of small sweetened blocks of quark dipped in chocolate.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: Estonian Quark is evaluated on olfaction, vision, taste, after taste, and texture and is distributed nationally as well as to nearby regions.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: Although common in continental Europe, manufacturing of quark is rare in the Americas. A few dairies manufacture it, such as the Vermont Creamery in Vermont, and some specialty retailers carry it. Lifeway Foods manufactures a product under the title "farmer cheese" which is available in a variety of metropolitan locations with Jewish, as well as former Soviet populations. Elli Quark, a Californian manufacturer of quark, offers soft quark in different flavors.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: In Canada, the firmer East European variety of quark is manufactured by Liberté Natural Foods; a softer German-style quark is manufactured in the Didsbury, Alberta, plant of Calgary-based Foothills Creamery. Glengarry Fine Cheesemaking in Lancaster (Eastern Ontario) also produces Quark. Also available in Canada is the very similar Dry Curd Cottage Cheese manufactured by Dairyland. Quark may also be available as "baking cheese", "pressed cottage cheese", or "fromage frais".


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: In Australia, Ukrainian traditional quark is produced by Blue Bay Cheese in the Mornington Peninsula. It is also sometimes available from supermarkets labelled as quark or quarg.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: In New Zealand, European traditional Kwark is produced by Karikaas in North Canterbury. It is available in 350 g pots and available online and in speciality stores such as Moore Wilsons.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: In the United Kingdom, fat-free quark is produced by several independent manufacturers based throughout the country. All the big four supermarkets in the UK sell their own branded quark, as well as other brands of quark.


title: Quark (dairy product)

text: In Finland, quark ("rahka") is commonly available in supermarkets, both in plain and flavored forms. It is produced by Arla, Valio and is also sold under private labels by Kesko and S Group. It is often used as a dessert when mixed with berries and whipped cream. Karelians have a dish called "piimäpiirakka", which is a quark pie.


title: Twilight

text: Twilight is light produced by sunlight scattering in the upper atmosphere, when the Sun is below the horizon, which illuminates the lower atmosphere and the Earth's surface. The word twilight can also refer to the periods of time when this illumination occurs.


title: Twilight

text: The lower the Sun is beneath the horizon, the dimmer the twilight (other factors such as atmospheric conditions being equal). When the Sun reaches 18° below the horizon, the twilight's brightness is nearly zero, and evening twilight becomes nighttime. When the Sun again reaches 18° below the horizon, nighttime becomes morning twilight. Owing to its distinctive quality, primarily the absence of shadows and the appearance of objects silhouetted against the lit sky, twilight has long been popular with photographers and painters, who often refer to it as the blue hour, after the French expression "l'heure bleue".


title: Twilight

text: By analogy with evening twilight, the word "twilight" is also sometimes used metaphorically, to imply that something is losing strength and approaching its end. For example, very old people may be said to be "in the twilight of their lives". The collateral adjective for "twilight" is "crepuscular", which may be used to describe the behavior of animals that are most active during this period.


title: Twilight

text: Twilight is defined according to the solar elevation angle "θ", which is the position of the geometric center of the Sun relative to the horizon. There are three established and widely accepted "subcategories" of twilight: civil twilight (nearest the horizon), nautical twilight, and astronomical twilight (farthest from the horizon).


title: Twilight

text: Morning civil twilight begins when the geometric center of the Sun is 6° below the horizon and ends at sunrise. Evening civil twilight begins at sunset and ends when the geometric center of the sun reaches 6° below the horizon. In the United States' military, the initialisms BMCT (begin morning civil twilight, "i.e." civil dawn) and EECT (end evening civil twilight, "i.e." civil dusk) are used to refer to the start of morning civil twilight and the end of evening civil twilight, respectively. Civil dawn is preceded by morning nautical twilight and civil dusk is followed by evening nautical twilight.


title: Twilight

text: Under clear weather conditions, civil twilight approximates the limit at which solar illumination suffices for the human eye to clearly distinguish terrestrial objects. Enough illumination renders artificial sources unnecessary for most outdoor activities. At civil dawn and at civil dusk sunlight clearly defines the horizon while the brightest stars and planets can appear. As observed from the Earth (see apparent magnitude), sky-gazers know Venus, the brightest planet, as the "morning star" or "evening star" because they can see it during civil twilight.


title: Twilight

text: Lawmakers have enshrined the concept of civil twilight. Such statutes typically use a fixed period after sunset or before sunrise (most commonly 20–30 minutes), rather than how many degrees the Sun is below the horizon. Examples include when drivers of automobiles must turn on their headlights (called lighting-up time in the UK), when hunting is restricted, or when the crime of burglary is to be treated as nighttime burglary, which carries stiffer penalties in some jurisdictions.


title: Twilight

text: The period may affect when extra equipment, such as anti-collision lights, is required for aircraft to operate. In the US, civil twilight for aviation is defined in Part 1.1 of the Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) as the time listed in the American Air Almanac.


title: Twilight

text: Morning nautical twilight (nautical dawn) begins when the geometric center of the Sun is 12 degrees below the horizon in the morning and ends when the geometric center of the Sun is 6 degrees below the horizon in the morning.Evening nautical twilight (nautical dusk) begins when the geometric center of the Sun is 6 degrees below the horizon in the evening and ends when the geometric center of the Sun is 12 degrees below the horizon in the evening.


title: Twilight

text: Before nautical dawn and after nautical dusk, sailors cannot navigate via the horizon at sea as they cannot clearly see the horizon. At nautical dawn and nautical dusk, the human eye finds it difficult, if not impossible, to discern traces of illumination near the sunset or sunrise point of the horizon ("first light" after nautical dawn but before civil dawn and "nightfall" after civil dusk but before nautical dusk).


title: Twilight

text: Under good atmospheric conditions with the absence of other illumination, during nautical twilight, the human eye may distinguish general outlines of ground objects but cannot participate in detailed outdoor operations.


title: Twilight

text: Nautical twilight has military considerations as well. The initialisms BMNT (begin morning nautical twilight, "i.e." nautical dawn) and EENT (end evening nautical twilight, "i.e." nautical dusk) are used and considered when planning military operations. A military unit may treat BMNT and EENT with heightened security, e.g. by "standing to", in which everyone assumes a defensive position.


title: Twilight

text: Astronomical dawn is the moment when the geometric center of the Sun is 18 degrees below the horizon in the morning. Astronomical dusk is the moment when the geometric center of the Sun is 18 degrees below the horizon in the evening. After astronomical dusk and before astronomical dawn, the sky is not illuminated by the Sun.


title: Twilight

text: Morning astronomical twilight begins (astronomical dawn) when the geometric center of the Sun is 18° below the horizon in the morning and ends when the geometric center of the Sun is 12° below the horizon in the morning. Evening astronomical twilight begins when the geometric center of the Sun is 12° below the horizon in the evening and ends (astronomical dusk) when the geometric center of the Sun is 18° below the horizon in the evening.


title: Twilight

text: In some places (away from urban light pollution, moonlight, auroras, and other sources of light), where the sky is dark enough for nearly all astronomical observations, astronomers can easily make observations of point sources such as stars both during and after astronomical twilight in the evening and both before and during astronomical twilight in the morning. However, some critical observations, such as of faint diffuse items such as nebulae and galaxies, may require observation beyond the limit of astronomical twilight. Theoretically, the faintest stars detectable by the naked eye (those of approximately the sixth magnitude) will become visible in the evening at astronomical dusk, and become invisible at astronomical dawn.


title: Twilight

text: However, in other places, especially those with skyglow, astronomical twilight may be almost indistinguishable from night. In the evening, even when astronomical twilight has yet to end and in the morning when astronomical twilight has already begun, most casual observers would consider the entire sky fully dark. Because of light pollution, observers in some localities, generally in and near large cities, may never have the opportunity to view anything but the brightest stars, irrespective of the presence of any twilight at all, nor to experience anything close to a truly dark sky.


title: Twilight

text: Observers within 48°34' of the Equator (within 50° of the Equator in May or November, within 57° of the Equator in April or October) and within 72° of the Equator on the equinoxes can view twilight twice each day on every date of the year between astronomical dawn, nautical dawn, or civil dawn, and sunrise as well as between sunset and civil dusk, nautical dusk, or astronomical dusk. This also occurs for most observers at higher latitudes on many dates throughout the year, except those around the summer solstice. However, at latitudes closer than 9 degrees (between 81° and 90°) to either Pole, the Sun cannot rise above the horizon nor sink more than 18 degrees below it on the same day on any date, this example of twilight cannot occur because the angular difference between solar noon and solar midnight elevates less than 18 degrees.


title: Twilight

text: At latitudes greater than 48°34' North or South, on dates near the summer solstice, twilight can last from sunset to sunrise, since the Sun does not sink more than 18 degrees below the horizon, so complete darkness does not occur even at solar midnight. These latitudes include many densely populated regions of the Earth, including the entire United Kingdom and other countries in northern Europe and even parts of central Europe.


title: Twilight

text: In Arctic and Antarctic latitudes in wintertime, the polar night only rarely produces complete darkness for 24 hours each day. This can occur only at locations within 5.5 degrees of latitude of the Pole, and there only on dates close to the winter solstice. At all other latitudes and dates, the polar night includes a daily period of twilight, when the Sun is not far below the horizon. Around winter solstice, when the solar declination changes slowly, complete darkness lasts several weeks at the Pole itself, e.g., from May 11 to July 31 at Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station. North Pole has the experience of this from November 13 to January 29.


title: Twilight

text: At latitudes within 9 degrees of either Pole, as the Sun's angular elevation difference is less than 18 degrees, twilight can last for the entire 24 hours. This occurs for one day at latitudes near 9 degrees from the Pole and extends up to several weeks the further toward the Pole one goes. The only permanent settlement to experience this condition is Alert, Nunavut, Canada, where it occurs for a week in late February, and again in late October.


title: Twilight

text: The duration of twilight depends on the latitude and the time of the year. The apparent travel of the Sun occurs at the rate of 15 degrees per hour (360° per day), but sunrise and sunset happen typically at oblique angles to the horizon and the actual duration of any twilight period will be a function of that angle, being longer for more oblique angles. This angle of the Sun's motion with respect to the horizon changes with latitude as well as the time of year (affecting the angle of the Earth's axis with respect to the Sun).


title: Twilight

text: At Greenwich, England (51.5°N), the duration of civil twilight will vary from 33 minutes to 48 minutes, depending on the time of year. At the equator, civil twilight can last as little as 24 minutes. This is true because at low latitudes the Sun's apparent movement is perpendicular to the observer's horizon. But at the poles, civil twilight can be as long as 2–3 weeks. In the Arctic and Antarctic regions, twilight (if there is any) can last for several hours. There is no astronomical twilight at the poles near the winter solstice (for about 74 days at the North Pole and about 80 days at the South Pole). As one gets closer to the Arctic and Antarctic circles, the Sun's disk moves toward the observer's horizon at a lower angle. The observer's earthly location will pass through the various twilight zones less directly, taking more time.


title: Twilight

text: Within the polar circles, twenty-four-hour daylight is encountered in summer, and in regions very close to the poles, twilight can last for weeks on the winter side of the equinoxes. Outside the polar circles, where the angular distance from the polar circle is less than the angle which defines twilight (see above), twilight can continue through local midnight near the summer solstice. The precise position of the polar circles, and the regions where twilight can continue through local midnight, varies slightly from year to year with Earth's axial tilt. The lowest latitudes at which the various twilights can continue through local midnight are approximately 60.561° (60°33′43″) for civil twilight, 54.561° (54°33′43″) for nautical twilight and 48.561° (48°33′43″) for astronomical twilight.


title: Twilight

text: These are the largest cities of their respective countries where the various twilights can continue through local solar midnight:


title: Twilight

text: Although Helsinki, Oslo, Stockholm, Tallinn, and Saint Petersburg also enter into nautical twilight after sunset, they do have noticeably lighter skies at night during the summer solstice than other locations mentioned in their category above, because they do not go far into nautical twilight. A white night is a night with only civil twilight which lasts from sunset to sunrise.


title: Twilight

text: At the winter solstice within the polar circle, twilight can extend through solar noon at latitudes below 72.561° (72°33′43″) for civil twilight, 78.561° (78°33′43″) for nautical twilight, and 84.561° (84°33′43″) for astronomical twilight.


title: Twilight

text: Twilight on Mars is longer than on Earth, lasting for up to two hours before sunrise or after sunset. Dust high in the atmosphere scatters light to the night side of the planet. Similar twilights are seen on Earth following major volcanic eruptions.


title: Twilight

text: In Christian practice, "vigil" observances often occur during twilight on the evening before major feast days or holidays. For example, the "Easter Vigil" is held in the hours of darkness between sunset on Holy Saturday and sunrise on Easter Day — most commonly in the evening of Holy Saturday or midnight — and is the first celebration of Easter, days traditionally being considered to begin at sunset.


title: Twilight

text: Twilight is sacred in Hinduism. It is called गोधूळिवेळ "gōdhūḷivēḷ" in Sanskrit or गोधूलिवेला "godhūlivelā" in Hindi, గొధూళివేళ "godhoolivela" in Telugu, literally "cow dust time". Many rituals, including Sandhyavandanam and Puja, are performed at twilight hour. Eating of food is not advised during this time. Sometimes it is referred to as Asurasandhya vela. It is believed that Asuras are active during these hours. One of the avatars of Lord Vishnu, Narasimha, is closely associated with the twilight period. According to Hindu scriptures, a daemonic king, Hiranakashipa, performed penance and obtained a boon from Brahma that he could not be killed during day or night and neither by human nor animal. Lord Vishnu appeared in a half-man half-lion form (neither human nor animal), ended the life of Hiranakashipa during twilight (neither day nor night).


title: Twilight

text: Twilight is important in Islam as it determines when certain universally obligatory prayers are to be recited. Morning twilight is when morning prayers ("Fajr") are done, while evening twilight is the time for evening prayers ("Maghrib prayer"). Also during Ramadhan, the time for "suhoor" (morning meal before fasting) ends at morning twilight, while fasting ends after sunset. There is also an important discussion in Islamic jurisprudence between "true dawn" and "false dawn".


title: Twilight

text: In Judaism, twilight is considered neither day nor night; consequently it is treated as a safeguard against encroachment upon either. It can be considered a liminal time. For example, the twilight of Friday is reckoned as Sabbath eve, and that of Saturday as Sabbath day; and the same rule applies to festival days.


title: Petrichor

text: Petrichor () is the earthy scent produced when rain falls on dry soil. The word is constructed , the ethereal fluid that is the blood of the gods in Greek mythology.


title: Petrichor

text: Long before this phenomenon received its name in 1964, it had been noticed and discussed in scientific circles.


title: Petrichor

text: On 17 April 1891, a brief note on the phenomenon, by (1833–1908), appeared in "The Chemical News"—it was re-published in its entirety, a month later, in "The Scientific American"—in which he wrote, "This subject, with which I was occupied more than twenty-five years ago, appears from a paragraph in a late number of the "Chemical News" to have recently attracted the attention of Professor Berthelot and [Monsieur G.] Andre."


title: Petrichor

text: Phipson was referring to a short paper read by Berthelot and André at the meeting of the French Académie des Sciences on 23 April 1891, and printed in Volume 112 (1891) of "Comptes Rendus", entitled "Sur l'Odeur propre de la Terre" ("On the earth's own smell").


title: Petrichor

text: Phipson continues, "I find, on referring to my old notes, which are dated 1865, that it is doubtful whether I ever published the results of these observations; and as the distinguished chemists I have just named have not quite solved the problem, I hasten to give the results I obtained so long ago." He then theorizes that the odour "... was due to the presence of organic substances closely related to the essential oils of plants ..." and that these substances consist of "... the fragrance emitted by thousands of flowers ..." absorbed into the pores of the soil, and only released when displaced by rain. After attempts to isolate it, he found that it "... appeared to be very similar to, if not identical with, bromo-cedren derived from essence of cedar."


title: Petrichor

text: The phenomenon was first scientifically described in a March 1964 paper by Australian researchers Isabel Bear and Dick Thomas, published in the journal "Nature". Thomas coined the term "petrichor" to refer to what had previously been known as "argillaceous odour". In the article, the authors describe how the smell derives from an oil exuded by certain plants during dry periods, whereupon it is absorbed by clay-based soils and rocks. During rain, the oil is released into the air along with another compound, geosmin, a metabolic by-product of certain actinobacteria, such as streptomyces, which is emitted by wet soil, producing the distinctive scent; ozone may also be present if there is lightning. In a follow-up paper, Bear and Thomas (1965) showed that the oil slows seed germination and early plant growth.


title: Petrichor

text: When a raindrop lands on a porous surface, air from the pores forms small bubbles, which float to the surface and release aerosols. Such aerosols carry the scent, as well as bacteria and viruses from the soil. Raindrops that move at a slower rate tend to produce more aerosols; this serves as an explanation for why petrichor is more common after light rains. Members of the Actinomycetes order of Fungi are responsible for producing these aerosols.


title: Petrichor

text: The human nose is sensitive to geosmin and is able to detect it at concentrations as low as 0.4 parts per billion. Some scientists believe that humans appreciate the rain scent because ancestors may have relied on rainy weather for survival. Camels in the desert also rely on petrichor to locate sources of water such as oases.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: Ronen Rubinstein ( , ; born ) is an American actor, environmental activist and lead singer of the rock band Nights in Stereo. He is best known for his roles as T.K Strand in "," Matt Webb in the spinoff series "American Horror Stories", both created by Ryan Murphy, and as Nathan in the Netflix series "Orange Is The New Black."


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: Rubinstein was born in Rehovot, Israel, the son of Russian Jewish immigrants from the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic, part of then Soviet Union (now Kazakhstan). His older sister also immigrated from the USSR to Israel. His father, a dentist, served in the Israeli army and did not want the same for his children. When Rubinstein was five years old, he moved with his parents and older sister to the United States, where he grew up in the Staten Island borough of New York City. In an interview, Rubinstein said he felt like an outsider growing up as an immigrant, taking English as a Second Language classes and having difficulty adapting to the American culture.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: He was introduced to acting in his sophomore year of high school when his guidance counselor suggested he try theater as a form of therapy and escape from the opioid epidemic in his neighborhood. He briefly worked as a dental assistant in his father's dental office, but chose not to follow in his footsteps and become a doctor. After attending New Dorp High School, he decided to pursue an acting career and graduated from the New York Film Academy.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: At 16, Rubinstein wrote "Something In the Way", his first short film he later directed, produced and starred in. It follows a young Vietnam war veteran who struggles with post-traumatic stress disorder after returning to his civilian life.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: He made his screen debut at the age of 17 as a teenage rebel named Gangsta in the 2011 psychological drama film "Detachment", starring Bryan Cranston, Adrien Brody, and James Caan.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: In his senior year of high school, Rubinstein landed a leading role in "It Felt Like Love", Eliza Hittman's coming-of-age film shot in intimate close-ups with minimal dialogue, which premiered at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival. He portrayed Sammy, a tough, misogynistic college boy from a working-class Brooklyn neighborhood, described by "The New York Times" as a "weed-smoking, pornography-watching bad boy whose contempt for women is as potent as his pheromones". The film received a nomination for best cinematography at the Film Independent Spirit Awards as well as nominations at the Gotham Awards.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: In the following year, he was cast as the lead in "Some Kind of Hate", portraying a young introverted victim of severe bullying. He also appeared in another Sundance Film Festival drama film "Jamie Marks Is Dead", starring Cameron Monaghan and Liv Tyler.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: In 2015, Rubinstein guest starred in episode 10, season 3 of Netflix's most-watched original series "Orange Is the New Black", portraying the respectful and caring Nathan, Tiffany "Pennsatucky" Doggett's love interest, which brought him to mainstream attention.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: In 2018, he appeared in the role of Mike in the comedy drama "Dude" alongside Lucy Hale and Awkwafina. The film was Olivia Milch's directional debut. Rubinstein, having worked with several first-time female directors (which he called "an absolute honor"), advocated for gender equality in filmmaking and praised Milch as "a future star director". The film also had a female cinematographer which he called "so rare", stating that "there is not enough women in the industry".


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: His other credits include a supporting role in the comedy drama "Smartass" (2017) opposite Joey King, a supporting role in "Less Than Zero", a 2019's adaptation of Bret Easton Ellis's debut novel, as well as a lead role in the anthology film "Brooklyn Love Stories" (2019), available on demand on February 2, 2021.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: In 2020, he starred as an openly gay firefighter and recovering opioid addict Tyler Kennedy "TK" Strand in Ryan Murphy's Fox series "", alongside Rob Lowe, who plays Captain Owen Strand, TK's father, and Liv Tyler. The series has become Fox's most watched new show of 2020 among 18-49 adults and has received acclaim for its interracial gay storyline and diverse characters, such as a hijab-wearing Muslim female firefighter and a black transgender male firefighter (portrayed by the transgender actor Brian Michael Smith).


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: In a 2020 interview, Rubinstein said: "I think people for the first time, at least on network television, are seeing themselves on screen, and they feel represented, and they feel represented in a really positive, lovely, good way." His role of a gay firefighter inspired real life gay first responders to come out to him through social media.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: He has praised Ryan Murphy and the writers for normalizing a same-sex relationship on primetime television without including a coming out story: "A lot of times you'd see a gay couple on television there's something really dramatic and usually sad involved with it. And this is just like, 'Yeah, this is just normal. This is just how it is'." The series has earned the 32nd GLAAD Media Awards nomination for Outstanding Drama Series.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: Rubinstein stars as the antagonist Alexei in "Follow Me", a thriller about the dangers of influencer culture on social media, which had an international theatrical release on July 16, and was released in the United States and on demand on September 18 under the title "No Escape". He speaks Russian in the film.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: Rubinstein is the lead in Bret Easton Ellis's "Smiley Face Killers", a thriller film based on true events that support the smiley face murder theory about an organized gang of serial killers committing murders of young, handsome athletic men throughout the United States. It was released in late 2020.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: In 2021, Rubinstein joined the cast of Ryan Murphy's "American Horror Stories" for the fifth episode, starring alongside Billie Lourd.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: In January 2022, Rubinstein announced the release of the first single "Open Door" by his band Nights in Stereo that he formed with Rodrigo R. Rodarte and Jon Shoer. In summer 2022 the band announced their second single "Underwater". The songs are available on Spotify.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: The actor is an outdoor enthusiast. He has played basketball since he was a child and has named Kobe Bryant as his biggest idol, role model, and "the first American thing" he knew after moving to the United States from Israel.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: He is a devout fan of Red Hot Chili Peppers, Kings of Leon, and has expressed his admiration for Harry Styles' work and his "own identity and the way he presents himself."


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: Rubinstein explained his family's heritage: "We didn’t grow up religious but my parents instilled pride in us in the traditions, the history and the culture of the Jewish people," he said. "We observe the holidays every year, but my parents are in New York and my sister is in Seattle so it’s hard to get everyone together."


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: On August 14, 2022, he married Canadian actress Jessica Parker Kennedy in a small Jewish ceremony on a farm in Calgary Alberta, Canada, two months after their engagement in Portofino, Italy. They started dating in 2017. As of 2022, they reside together in Los Angeles, California.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: Rubinstein is a survivor of Hurricane Sandy, which led him to become a climate activist and sustainability advocate. In July 2020, he described that the hurricane caused devastation to his entire neighborhood in Staten Island, destroying his family's home and everything inside it. He has stated it was "the most horryfying moment" of his life. With nowhere to live, he stayed at a friend's house, and was provided with food and clothing from the Red Cross. The hurricane killed 24 of his neighbors.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: Rubinstein, who was eighteen years old at that time, has stated that his acting career "will coincide with trying to save the planet". He made it his "mission" to raise awareness for the urgency of environmental issues, promoting sustainable living and using his platform and publicity to educate the public. He has garnered attention for his vintage and sustainable fashion choices, of which he has stated that he is trying to be "as eco-friendly as possible", and has praised Stella McCartney for recognizing the importance of sustainability in the fashion industry.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: He is an ambassador for The Ocean Cleanup, a non-profit engineering organization developing a giant C-shaped device to purge the world's oceans of plastic waste. He is also an ambassador for Project Zero, a global movement to protect and restore the ocean, and marched with protesters in the September 2019 climate strikes, the largest global climate protest in world history. He also has supported the Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: In April 2020, he was one of the environmental activists who participated in Earth Day Live, a three-day climate mobilization that was streamed online amid the COVID-19 pandemic. In his segment, he highlighted the importance of transitioning from fossil fuel to clean energy by switching to zero-emissions fuel cell electric vehicles, which run on hydrogen and omit only water and heat. He himself drives this type of zero-emissions cars as an ambassador for DriveH2, an initiative dedicated to promoting the transition to a clean transportation system.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: In June of 2022, Rubinstein became an official board member of the non-profit Environmental organization Environmental Media Association.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: On the 75th anniversary of the United Nations, Rubinstein co-launched Half the World, the United Nations Development Programme's campaign that aims to shed light on the increasing poverty and inequalities caused by COVID-19 and climate change.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: In addition to sustainability advocacy, Rubinstein has lent his support to the National Fallen Firefighters Foundation, the No Kid Hungry campaign, the Black Lives Matter movement, Marsha P. Johnson Institute protecting the human rights of black transgender people, Feeding America, Mercy for Animals, the Humane Society, as well as Rebecca Corry's Stand Up for Pits Foundation, working on rescuing and ending the abuse of pit bull dogs.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns in March 2020, Rubinstein created a global charitable candle light initiative in support of the healthcare workers and first responders on the frontlines of the pandemic.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: He participated in live reading adaptations of Shakespeare's "Hamlet" and Jane Austen's "Pride & Prejudice" to help raise funds for non-profit charities on Acting for a Cause, a live classic play and screenplay reading series, created, directed and produced by Brando Crawford during the 2020 pandemic.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: In August 2020, Rubinstein teamed up with When We All Vote, Michelle Obama's non-partisan voter registration organization which aims to increase participation in elections.


title: Ronen Rubinstein

text: In 2020, "Los Angeles" included Rubinstein on the New Hollywood A-List, its list of the ten young Hollywood's most exceptional new talents.


title: Greaser (subculture)

text: Greasers are a youth subculture that emerged in the 1950s and early 1960s from predominantly working class and lower-class teenagers and young adults in the United States. The subculture remained prominent into the mid-1960s and was particularly embraced by certain ethnic groups in urban areas, particularly Italian Americans and Latino Americans.


title: Greaser (subculture)

text: The etymology for the term "greaser" is unknown. It is speculated that the word originated in the late 19th century in the United States as a derogatory label for poor laborers, specifically those of Italian, Greek or Mexican descent. The similar term "greaseball" is a slur for individuals of Italian or Greek descent, though to a lesser extent it has also been used more generally to refer to all Mediterranean, Latino, or Hispanic people. By the time of the Civil War, the word was understood to carry racist and segregationist meanings.


title: Greaser (subculture)

text: It was later used to reference automotive mechanics. It was not used in writing to refer to the American subculture of the mid-20th century until the mid-1960s, though in this sense it still evoked a pejorative ethnic connotation and a relation to machine work. The name was applied to members of the subculture partly because of their characteristic greased-back hair.


title: Greaser (subculture)

text: Within Greater Baltimore during the 1950s and early 1960s, greasers were colloquially referred to as drapes and drapettes.


title: Greaser (subculture)

text: The greaser subculture may have emerged in the post-World War II era among the motorcycle clubs and street gangs of the late 1940s in the United States, though it was certainly established by the 1950s, when it was increasingly adopted by ethnic urban youth. The original greasers (often coming from “ethnic” backgrounds) were aligned by a feeling of working class and lower class disillusionment with American popular culture either through a lack of economic opportunity in spite of the or a marginalization enacted by the general domestic shift towards homogeneity in the 1950s. Most were male, usually ethnic or white working class outsiders, and were often interested in hotrod culture or motorcycling. A handful of middle-class youth were drawn to the subculture for its rebellious attitude.


title: Greaser (subculture)

text: The weak structural foundation of the greasers can be attributed to the subculture's origins in working-class youth possessing few economic resources with which to participate in American consumerism. Greasers, unlike motorcyclists, did not explicitly have their own interest clubs or publications. As such, there was no business marketing geared specifically towards the group. Their choice in clothing was largely drawn from a common understanding of the empowering aesthetic of working-class attire, rather than a cohesive association with similarly dressed individuals. Many greasers were in motorcycle clubs or in street gangs—and conversely, some gang members and bikers dressed like greasers—though such membership was not necessarily an inherent principle of the subculture.


title: Greaser (subculture)

text: Ethnically, original greasers were composed mostly of Italian Americans in the Northeast and Mexican American Chicanos in the Southwest. Since both of these groups were mostly olive skinned, the "greaser" label assumed a quasi-racial status that implied an urban, ethnic, lower-class masculinity and delinquency. This development led to an ambiguity in the racial distinction between poor Italian Americans and Puerto Ricans in New York City during the 1950s and 1960s. Greasers were also perceived as being predisposed to perpetrating sexual violence, evoking fear in middle-class males but also titillation in middle-class females.


title: Greaser (subculture)

text: Though the television show "American Bandstand" helped to "sanitize" the negative image of greasers in the 1960s and 1970s, sexual promiscuity was still seen as a key component of the modern character. By the mid-1970s, the greaser image had become a quintessential part of 1950s nostalgia and cultural revival.


title: Greaser (subculture)

text: The most notable physical characteristic of greasers was the greased-back hairstyles they fashioned for themselves through use of hair products such as pomade or petroleum jelly, which necessitated frequent combing and reshaping to maintain. Males sported coiffures adopted from early rock 'n' roll and rockabilly


title: Greaser (subculture)

text: performers such as Elvis Presley, among them the Folsom, Pompadour, Elephant's trunk, and Duck's ass, while females commonly backcombed, coiffed, or teased their hair.


title: Greaser (subculture)

text: Male greasers typically wore loose work pants such as cotton twill trousers, common among the working class; dark slacks, or dark blue Levi's jeans, widely popular among all American youth in the 1950s. The latter were often cuffed over ankle-high black or brown leather boots, including steel-toed engineer or combat boots, Harness boots, work boots, and (especially in the Southwest) cowboy boots. Other footwear choices included Chuck Taylor All-Stars, pointed Italian dress shoes, brothel creepers, and winklepickers. Male shirts were typically solid black or white T-shirts, ringer T-shirts, or sometimes sleeveless undershirts or tank tops (which would have been retailed as underwear). Choices of outerwear included denim or leather jackets (including Perfecto motorcycle jackets). Female greaser dress included leather jackets and risque clothing, such as tight and cropped capris and pedal pushers (broadly popular during the time period).


title: Greaser (subculture)

text: In the early 1950s, there was significant greaser interest in doo-wop, a genre of African-American music from the industrial cities of the Northeast that had disseminated to mainstream American music through Italian American performers. Greasers were heavily associated with the culture surrounding rock n' roll, a musical genre that had induced feelings of a moral panic among older middle-class generations during the mid-to-late 1950s, to whom greasers epitomized the connection between rock music and juvenile delinquency professed by several important social and cultural observers of the time.


title: Zopiclone

text: Zopiclone, sold under the brand name Imovane among others, is a nonbenzodiazepine used to treat difficulty sleeping. Zopiclone is molecularly distinct from benzodiazepine drugs and is classed as a cyclopyrrolone. However, zopiclone increases the normal transmission of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the central nervous system, via modulating GABA receptors similarly to the way benzodiazepine drugs do.


title: Zopiclone

text: Zopiclone is a sedative. It works by causing a depression or tranquilization of the central nervous system. After prolonged use, the body can become accustomed to the effects of zopiclone. When the dose is then reduced or the drug is abruptly stopped, withdrawal symptoms may result. These can include a range of symptoms similar to those of benzodiazepine withdrawal. Although withdrawal symptoms from therapeutic doses of zopiclone and its isomers (i.e., eszopiclone) do not typically present with convulsions and are therefore not considered life-threatening, patients may experience such significant agitation or anxiety that they seek emergency medical attention.


title: Zopiclone

text: In the United States, zopiclone is not commercially available, although its active stereoisomer, eszopiclone is. Zopiclone is a controlled substance in the United States, Japan, Brazil, and some European countries, and may be illegal to possess without a prescription. However, it is readily available in other countries and is not a controlled substance.


title: Zopiclone

text: Zopiclone is known colloquially as a "Z-drug". Other Z-drugs include zaleplon and zolpidem and were initially thought to be less addictive than benzodiazepines. However, this appraisal has shifted somewhat in the last few years as cases of addiction and habituation have been presented. Zopiclone is recommended to be taken on a short-term basis, usually no more than a week or two. Daily or continuous use of the drug is not usually advised, and caution must be taken when the compound is used in conjunction with antidepressants, sedatives or other drugs affecting the central nervous system.


title: Zopiclone

text: Zopiclone is used for the short-term treatment of insomnia where sleep initiation or sleep maintenance are prominent symptoms. Long-term use is not recommended, as tolerance, dependence, and addiction can occur. One low-quality study found that zopiclone is ineffective in improving sleep quality or increasing sleep time in shift workers, and more research in this area has been recommended.


title: Zopiclone

text: Cognitive behavioral therapy has been found to be superior to zopiclone in the treatment of insomnia and has been found to have lasting effects on sleep quality for at least a year after therapy.


title: Zopiclone

text: Zopiclone, similar to other benzodiazepines and nonbenzodiazepine hypnotic drugs, causes impairments in body balance and standing steadiness in individuals who wake up at night or the next morning. Falls and hip fractures are frequently reported. The combination with alcohol consumption increases these impairments. Partial, but incomplete tolerance develops to these impairments.


title: Zopiclone

text: Zopiclone increases postural sway and increases the number of falls in older people, as well as cognitive side effects. Falls are a significant cause of death in older people.


title: Zopiclone

text: An extensive review of the medical literature regarding the management of insomnia and the elderly found that considerable evidence of the effectiveness and lasting benefits of nondrug treatments for insomnia exist. Compared with the benzodiazepines, the nonbenzodiazepine sedative-hypnotics, such as zopiclone, offer few if any advantages in efficacy or tolerability in elderly persons. Newer agents such as the melatonin receptor agonists may be more suitable and effective for the management of chronic insomnia in elderly people. Long-term use of sedative-hypnotics for insomnia lacks an evidence base and is discouraged for reasons that include concerns about such potential adverse drug effects as cognitive impairment (anterograde amnesia), daytime sedation, motor incoordination, and increased risk of motor vehicle accidents and falls. In addition, the effectiveness and safety of long-term use of nonbenzodiazepine hypnotic drugs remains to be determined.


title: Zopiclone

text: Patients with liver disease eliminate zopiclone much more slowly than normal patients and in addition experience exaggerated pharmacological effects of the drug.


title: Zopiclone

text: Sleeping pills, including zopiclone, have been associated with an increased risk of death. The British National Formulary states adverse reactions as follows: "taste disturbance (some report a metallic like taste); less commonly nausea, vomiting, dizziness, drowsiness, dry mouth, headache; rarely amnesia, confusion, depression, hallucinations, nightmares; very rarely light headedness, incoordination, paradoxical effects [...] and sleep-walking also reported".


title: Zopiclone

text: Zopiclone causes impaired driving skills similar to those of benzodiazepines. Long-term users of hypnotic drugs for sleep disorders develop only partial tolerance to adverse effects on driving with users of hypnotic drugs even after 1 year of use still showing an increased motor vehicle accident rate. Patients who drive motor vehicles should not take zopiclone unless they stop driving due to a significant increased risk of accidents in zopiclone users. Zopiclone induces impairment of psychomotor function. Driving or operating machinery should be avoided after taking zopiclone as effects can carry over to the next day, including impaired hand eye coordination.


title: Zopiclone

text: It causes similar alterations on EEG readings and sleep architecture as benzodiazepines and causes disturbances in sleep architecture on withdrawal as part of its rebound effect. Zopiclone reduces both delta waves and the number of high-amplitude delta waves whilst increasing low-amplitude waves. Zopiclone reduces the total amount of time spent in REM sleep as well as delaying its onset. In EEG studies, zopiclone significantly increases the energy of the beta frequency band, increasing stage 2. Zopiclone is less selective to the α1 site and has higher affinity to the α2 site than zaleplon. Zopiclone is therefore very similar pharmacologically to benzodiazepines.


title: Zopiclone

text: Zopiclone is sometimes used as a method of suicide. It has a similar fatality index to that of benzodiazepine drugs, apart from temazepam, which is particularly toxic in overdose. Deaths have occurred from zopiclone overdose, alone or in combination with other drugs. Overdose of zopiclone may present with excessive sedation and depressed respiratory function that may progress to coma and possibly death. Zopiclone combined with alcohol, opiates, or other central nervous system depressants may be even more likely to lead to fatal overdoses. Zopiclone overdosage can be treated with the GABA receptor benzodiazepine site antagonist flumazenil, which displaces zopiclone from its binding site, thereby rapidly reversing its effects. Serious effects on the heart may also occur from a zopiclone overdose when combined with piperazine.


title: Zopiclone

text: Death certificates show the number of zopiclone-related deaths is on the rise. When taken alone, it usually is not fatal, but when mixed with alcohol or other drugs such as opioids, or in patients with respiratory, or hepatic disorders, the risk of a serious and fatal overdose increases.


title: Zopiclone

text: Alcohol has an additive effect when combined with zopiclone, enhancing the adverse effects including the overdose potential of zopiclone significantly. Due to these risks and the increased risk for dependence, alcohol should be avoided when using zopiclone.


title: Zopiclone

text: Erythromycin appears to increase the absorption rate of zopiclone and prolong its elimination half-life, leading to increased plasma levels and more pronounced effects. Itraconazole has a similar effect on zopiclone pharmacokinetics as erythromycin. The elderly may be particularly sensitive to the erythromycin and itraconazole drug interaction with zopiclone. Temporary dosage reduction during combined therapy may be required, especially in the elderly.


title: Zopiclone

text: Rifampicin causes a very notable reduction in half-life of zopiclone and peak plasma levels, which results in a large reduction in the hypnotic effect of zopiclone. Phenytoin and carbamazepine may also provoke similar interactions. Ketoconazole and sulfaphenazole interfere with the metabolism of zopiclone. Nefazodone impairs the metabolism of zopiclone leading to increased zopiclone levels and marked next-day sedation.


title: Zopiclone

text: The therapeutic pharmacological properties of zopiclone include hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, and myorelaxant properties. Zopiclone and benzodiazepines bind to the same sites on GABA receptors, causing an enhancement of the actions of GABA to produce the therapeutic and adverse effects of zopiclone. The metabolite of zopiclone called desmethylzopiclone is also pharmacologically active, although it has predominately anxiolytic properties. One study found some slight selectivity for zopiclone on α1 and α5 subunits, although it is regarded as being unselective in its binding to GABA receptors containing α1, α2, α3, and α5 subunits. Desmethylzopiclone has been found to have partial agonist properties, unlike the parent drug zopiclone, which is a full agonist. The mechanism of action of zopiclone is similar to benzodiazepines, with similar effects on locomotor activity and on dopamine and serotonin turnover.


title: Zopiclone

text: A meta-analysis of randomised controlled clinical trials that compared benzodiazepines to zopiclone or other Z drugs such as zolpidem and zaleplon has found few clear and consistent differences between zopiclone and the benzodiazepines in sleep onset latency, total sleep duration, number of awakenings, quality of sleep, adverse events, tolerance, rebound insomnia, and daytime alertness.


title: Zopiclone

text: Zopiclone is in the cyclopyrrolone family of drugs. Other cyclopyrrolone drugs include suriclone. Zopiclone, although molecularly different from benzodiazepines, shares an almost identical pharmacological profile as benzodiazepines, including anxiolytic properties. Its mechanism of action is by binding to the benzodiazepine site and acting as a full agonist, which in turn positively modulates benzodiazepine-sensitive GABA receptors and enhances GABA binding at the GABA receptors to produce zopiclone's pharmacological properties. In addition to zopiclone's benzodiazepine pharmacological properties, it also has some barbiturate-like properties.


title: Zopiclone

text: After oral administration, zopiclone is rapidly absorbed, with a bioavailability around 75–80%. Time to peak plasma concentration is 1–2 hours. A high-fat meal preceding zopiclone administration does not change absorption (as measured by AUC), but reduces peak plasma levels and delays its occurrence, thus may delay the onset of therapeutic effects.


title: Zopiclone

text: The plasma protein-binding of zopiclone has been reported to be weak, between 45 and 80% (mean 52–59%). It is rapidly and widely distributed to body tissues, including the brain, and is excreted in urine, saliva, and breast milk. Zopiclone is partly extensively metabolized in the liver to form an active "N"-demethylated derivative ("N"-desmethylzopiclone) and an inactive zopiclone-"N"-oxide. Hepatic enzymes playing the most significant role in zopiclone metabolism are CYP3A4 and CYP2E1. In addition, about 50% of the administered dose is decarboxylated and excreted via the lungs. In urine, the "N"-demethyl and "N"-oxide metabolites account for 30% of the initial dose. Between 7 and 10% of zopiclone is recovered from the urine, indicating extensive metabolism of the drug before excretion. The terminal elimination half-life of zopiclone ranges from 3.5 to 6.5 hours (5 hours on average).


title: Zopiclone

text: The pharmacokinetics of zopiclone in humans are stereoselective. After oral administration of the racemic mixture, C (time to maximum plasma concentration), area under the plasma time-concentration curve (AUC) and terminal elimination half-life values are higher for the dextrorotatory enantiomers, owing to the slower total clearance and smaller volume of distribution (corrected by the bioavailability), compared with the levorotatory enantiomer. In urine, the concentrations of the dextrorotatory enantiomers of the "N"-demethyl and "N"-oxide metabolites are higher than those of the respective antipodes.


title: Zopiclone

text: The pharmacokinetics of zopiclone are altered by aging and are influenced by renal and hepatic functions. In severe chronic kidney failure, the area under the curve value for zopiclone was larger and the half-life associated with the elimination rate constant longer, but these changes were not considered to be clinically significant. Sex and race have not been found to interact with pharmacokinetics of zopiclone.


title: Zopiclone

text: The melting point of zopiclone is 178 °C. Zopiclone's solubility in water, at room temperature (25 °C) are 0.151 mg/mL. The logP value of zopiclone is 0.8.


title: Zopiclone

text: Zopiclone may be measured in blood, plasma, or urine by chromatographic methods. Plasma concentrations are typically less than 100 μg/L during therapeutic use, but frequently exceed 100 μg/L in automotive vehicle operators arrested for impaired driving ability and may exceed 1000 μg/L in acutely poisoned patients. "Post mortem" blood concentrations are usually in a range of 400 to 3900 μg/L in victims of fatal acute overdose.


title: Zopiclone

text: Zopiclone was developed and first introduced in 1986 by Rhône-Poulenc S.A., now part of Sanofi-Aventis, the main worldwide manufacturer. Initially, it was promoted as an improvement on benzodiazepines, but a recent meta-analysis found it was no better than benzodiazepines in any of the aspects assessed. On April 4, 2005, the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration listed zopiclone under schedule IV, due to evidence that the drug has addictive properties similar to benzodiazepines.


title: Zopiclone

text: Zopiclone, as traditionally sold worldwide, is a racemic mixture of two stereoisomers, only one of which is active. In 2005, the pharmaceutical company Sepracor of Marlborough, Massachusetts began marketing the active stereoisomer eszopiclone under the name Lunesta in the United States. This had the consequence of placing what is a generic drug in most of the world under patent control in the United States. Generic forms of Lunesta have since become available in the United States. Zopiclone is currently available off-patent in a number of European countries, as well as Brazil, Canada, Hong Kong, and New Zealand. The eszopiclone/zopiclone difference is in the dosage—the strongest eszopiclone dosage contains 3 mg of the therapeutic stereoisomer, whereas the highest zopiclone dosage (10 mg) contains 5 mg of the active stereoisomer. The two agents have not yet been studied in head-to-head clinical trials to determine the existence of any potential clinical differences (efficacy, side effects, developing dependence on the drug, safety, etc.).


title: Zopiclone

text: Zopiclone has the potential for non-medical use, dosage escalation, and drug dependence. It is taken orally and sometimes intravenously when used non-medically, and often combined with alcohol to achieve a combined sedative hypnotic—alcohol euphoria. Patients abusing the drug are also at risk of dependence. Withdrawal symptoms can be seen after long-term use of normal doses even after a gradual reduction regimen. The Compendium of Pharmaceuticals and Specialties recommends zopiclone prescriptions not exceed 7 to 10 days, owing to concerns of addiction, tolerance, and physical dependence. Two types of drug misuse can occur: either recreational misuse, wherein the drug is taken to achieve a high, or when the drug is continued long-term against medical advice. Zopiclone may be more addictive than benzodiazepines. Those with a history of substance misuse or mental health disorders may be at an increased risk of high-dose zopiclone misuse. High dose misuse of zopiclone and increasing popularity amongst people who use substances who have been prescribed with zopiclone The symptoms of zopiclone addiction can include depression, dysphoria, hopelessness, slow thoughts, social isolation, worrying, sexual anhedonia, and nervousness.


title: Zopiclone

text: Zopiclone and other sedative hypnotic drugs are detected frequently in cases of people suspected of driving under the influence of drugs. Other sedating drugs, including benzodiazepines and zolpidem, are also found in high numbers of suspected drugged drivers. Many drivers have blood levels far exceeding the therapeutic dose range and often in combination with alcohol, illegal, or addictive prescription drugs, suggesting a high degree of potential for non-medical use of benzodiazepines, zolpidem, and zopiclone. Zopiclone, which at prescribed doses causes moderate impairment the next day, has been estimated to increase the risk of vehicle accidents by 50%, causing an increase of 503 excess accidents per 100,000 persons. Zaleplon or other nonimpairing sleep aids were recommended be used instead of zopiclone to reduce traffic accidents. Zopiclone, as with other hypnotic drugs, is sometimes used to carry out criminal acts such as sexual assaults.


title: Zopiclone

text: Zopiclone has crosstolerance with barbiturates and is able to suppress barbiturate withdrawal symptoms. It is frequently self-administered intravenously in studies on monkeys, suggesting a high risk of addictive potential.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: The 2004 Summer Olympics (, ), officially the Games of the XXVIII Olympiad (, ) and also known as Athens 2004 (), were an international multi-sport event held from 13 to 29 August 2004 in Athens, Greece. The Games saw 10,625 athletes compete, some 600 more than expected, accompanied by 5,501 team officials from 201 countries, with 301 medal events in 28 different sports. The 2004 Games marked the first time since the 1996 Summer Olympics that all countries with a National Olympic Committee were in attendance, and also marked the first time Athens hosted the Games since their first modern incarnation in 1896 as well as the return of the Olympic games to its birthplace. Athens became one of only four cities at the time to have hosted the Summer Olympic Games on two occasions (together with Paris, London and Los Angeles). A new medal obverse was introduced at these Games, replacing the design by Giuseppe Cassioli that had been used since 1928. The new design features the Panathenaic Stadium in Athens rectifying the long-running mistake of using a depiction of the Roman Colosseum rather than a Greek venue. The 2004 Games was the first of two consecutive Olympic games to be held in Southern Europe since the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, Spain, and was followed by the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: The 2004 Olympic Games were hailed as "unforgettable dream games" by then-IOC President Jacques Rogge, and left Athens with a significantly improved infrastructure, including a new airport, ring road and subway system. However, there has been debate regarding the cost of the Games and their possible contribution to the 2010–18 Greek government-debt crisis, although there is little or no evidence supporting such a correlation. The 2004 Games were generally deemed to be a success, with the rising standard of competition amongst nations across the world. The final medal tally was led by the United States, followed by China and Russia with host nation Greece at 15th place. Several world and Olympic records were also broken during these Games.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: Chile, Chinese Taipei, Dominican Republic, Georgia and Israel won their first Olympic gold medals. Eritrea and Paraguay won their first ever Olympic medals.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: Athens was chosen as the host city during the 106th IOC Session held in Lausanne, Switzerland on 5 September 1997. The Greek capital had lost its bid to organize the 1996 Summer Olympics to the American city of Atlanta nearly seven years before, during the 96th IOC Session in Tokyo, Japan on 18 September 1990. Under the direction of Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki, Athens pursued another bid, this time for the right to host the Summer Olympics in 2004. The success of Athens in securing the 2004 Games was based largely on the bid's appeal to human values, the history of the Games from ancient age and modern age and the emphasis that Athens is placed at the pivotal role that Greece and Athens could play in promoting the Modern Olympism and the Olympic Movement. Unlike the 1996 bid that was seen arrogant when the city was bidding, the 2004 bid was lauded for its low scale, humility, honest and earnestness, its focused message, and a more real and detailed bid concept. During the unsuccessful 1996 bid, concerns and criticisms were raised – primarily regarding critical subjects about the city's infrastructural readiness, its air pollution, its budget and politicization of the Games' events and their preparations. The subsequent successful organization of another events as the 1991 Mediterranean Games, the 1994 FIVB Volleyball Men's World Championship, 1994 World Fencing Championships and the successful 1997 World Championships in Athletics, one month before the Olympic host city election was crucial in allaying lingering fears and concerns among the sporting community and some IOC members about the Greek ability to host international sporting events. Another factor that contributed to the Greek capital's selection was a growing sentiment among some IOC members to restore some original values of the Olympics to the Modern Games, a component which they felt was lost during the 1996 Summer Olympics.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: After leading all voting rounds, Athens easily defeated Rome in the fifth and final vote. Cape Town, Stockholm, and Buenos Aires, the three other cities that made the IOC shortlist, were eliminated in prior rounds of voting. Six other cities submitted applications, but their bids were dropped by the IOC in 1996. These cities were Istanbul, Lille, Rio de Janeiro (the latter won the rights to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in 2009), San Juan, Seville, and Saint Petersburg.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: The 2004 Summer Olympic Games cost the Government of Greece near €9 billion to stage. According to the cost-benefit evaluation of the impact of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games presented to the Greek Parliament in January 2013 by the Minister of Finance Mr. Giannis Stournaras, the overall net economic benefit for Greece was positive.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: The Athens 2004 Organizing Committee (ATHOC), responsible for the preparation and organisation of the Games, concluded its operations as a company in 2005 with a surplus of €130.6 million. The State's contribution to the total ATHOC budget was 8% of its expenditure against an originally anticipated 14%.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: The overall revenue of ATHOC, including income from tickets, sponsors, broadcasting rights, merchandise sales etc,totalled near €2,1 million. The largest percentage of that income (38%) came from media rights.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: It was in this sense that the Greek Ministry of Finance reported in 2013 that the expenses of the Greek state for the Athens 2004 Olympic and Paralympic Games, including both infrastructure and organizational costs, reached the amount of €8.5 billion. The same report further explains that €2 billion of this amount was covered by the revenue of the ATHOC (from tickets, sponsors, broadcasting rights, merchandise sales etc.) and that another €2 billion was directly invested in upgrading hospitals and preserving archaeological sites.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: Therefore, the net infrastructure costs related to the preparation of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games was €4.5 billion, substantially lower than the reported estimates, and mainly included long-standing fixed asset investments in numerous municipal and transport infrastructures.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: On the revenue side, the same report estimates that incremental tax revenues of approximately €3.5 billion arose from the increased activities caused by the Athens 2004 Olympic Games during the period 2000 to 2004. These tax revenues were paid directly to the Greek state specifically in the form of incremental social security contributions, income taxes and VAT tax paid by all the companies, professionals, and service providers that were directly involved with the Olympic Games. Moreover, it is reported that the Athens 2004 Olympic Games have had a great economic growth impact on the Greek economy, in the words of the Greek Minister of Finance, is that "as a result from the cost-benefit analysis, we reach the conclusion that there has been a net economic benefit from the Olympic Games"


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: Cost per sporting event for Athens 2004 was US$9.8 million. This compares with US$14.9 million for Rio 2016, US$49.5 million for London 2012, and US$22.5 million for Beijing 2008. Average cost per event for the Summer Games since 1960 is US$19.9 million.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: Cost per athlete for Athens 2004 was US$0.3 million. This compares with US$0.4 million for Rio 2016, US$1.4 million for London 2012, and US$0.6 million for Beijing 2008. Average cost per athlete for the Summer Games since 1960 is US$0.6 million.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: Cost overrun for Athens 2004 was 49%, measured in real terms from the bid to host the Games. This compares with 51% for Rio 2016 and 76% for London 2012. Average cost overrun for the Summer Games since 1960 is 176%.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: By late March 2004, some Olympic projects were still behind schedule, and Greek authorities announced that a roof it had initially proposed as an optional, non-vital addition to the Aquatics Center would no longer be built. The main Olympic Stadium, the designated facility for the opening and closing ceremonies, was completed only two months before the Games opened. This stadium was completed with a retractable glass roof designed by Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava. The same architect also designed the Velodrome and other facilities.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: Infrastructure, such as the tram line linking venues in southern Athens with the city centre, and numerous venues were considerably behind schedule just two months before the start of the Games. The subsequent pace of preparation, however, made the rush to finish the Athens venues one of the tightest in Olympics history. The Greeks, unperturbed, maintained that they would make it all along. By July/August 2004, all venues were delivered: in August, the Olympic Stadium was officially completed and opened, joined or preceded by the official completion and openings of other venues within the Athens Olympic Sports Complex (OAKA), and the sports complexes in Faliro and Helliniko.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: Late July and early August witnessed the Athens Tram become operational, and this system provided additional connections to those already existing between Athens city centre and its waterfront communities along the Saronic Gulf. These communities included the port city of Piraeus, Agios Kosmas (site of the sailing venue), Helliniko (the site of the old international airport which now contained the fencing venue, the canoe/kayak slalom course, the 15,000-seat Helliniko Olympic Basketball Arena, and the softball and baseball stadia), and the Faliro Coastal Zone Olympic Complex (site of the taekwondo, handball, indoor volleyball, and beach volleyball venues, as well as the newly reconstructed Karaiskaki Stadium for football). The upgrades to the Athens Ring Road were also delivered just in time, as were the expressway upgrades connecting central Athens with peripheral areas such as Markopoulo (site of the shooting and equestrian venues), the newly constructed Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport, Schinias (site of the rowing venue), Maroussi (site of the OAKA), Parnitha (site of the Olympic Village), Galatsi (site of the rhythmic gymnastics and table tennis venue), and Vouliagmeni (site of the triathlon venue). The upgrades to the Athens Metro were also completed, and the new lines became operational by mid-summer.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: EMI released "Unity", the official pop album of the Athens Olympics, in the leadup to the Olympics. It features contributions from Sting, Lenny Kravitz, Moby, Destiny's Child, and Avril Lavigne. EMI has pledged to donate US$180,000 from the album to UNICEF's HIV/AIDS program in Sub-Saharan Africa.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: At least 14 people died during the work on the facilities. Most of these people were not from Greece.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: Before the Games, Greek hotel staff staged a series of one-day strikes over wage disputes. They had been asking for a significant raise for the period covering the event being staged. Paramedics and ambulance drivers also protested. They claimed to have the right to the same Olympic bonuses promised to their security force counterparts.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: The lighting ceremony of the Olympic flame took place on 25 March 2004 in Ancient Olympia. For the first time ever, the flame travelled around the world in a relay to various Summer Olympic host cities (past and future) and other large cities, before returning to Greece.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: Mascots have been a tradition at the Olympic Games since the 1968 Winter Olympics in Grenoble, France. The 2004 Olympics had two official mascots: "Athena" and "Phevos" (Greek pronunciation: Athina and Fivos). The sister and brother were named after Athena, the goddess of wisdom, strategy and war, and Phoebus, the god of light and music, respectively. They were inspired by the ancient daidala, which were toy dolls that also had religious connotations.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: For the first time, major broadcasters were allowed to serve video coverage of the Olympics over the Internet, provided that they restricted this service geographically, to protect broadcasting contracts in other areas. The International Olympic Committee forbade Olympic athletes, as well as coaches, support personnel and other officials, from setting up specialized weblogs and/or other websites for covering their personal perspective of the Games. They were not allowed to post audio, video, or photos that they had taken. An exception was made if an athlete already has a personal website that was not set up specifically for the Games. NBC launched its own Olympic website, NBCOlympics.com. Focusing on the television coverage of the Games, it did provide video clips, medal standings, live results. Its main purpose, however, was to provide a schedule of what sports were on the many stations of NBC Universal. The Games were shown on television 24 hours a day, on one network or another.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: As with any enterprise, the Organizing Committee and everyone involved with it relied heavily on technology in order to deliver a successful event. ATHOC maintained two separate data networks, one for the preparation of the Games (known as the Administrative network) and one for the Games themselves (Games Network). The technical infrastructure involved more than 11,000 computers, over 600 servers, 2,000 printers, 23,000 fixed-line telephone devices, 9,000 mobile phones, 12,000 TETRA devices, 16,000 TV and video devices and 17 Video Walls interconnected by more than 6,000 kilometers of cabling (both optical fiber and twisted pair).


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: This infrastructure was created and maintained to serve directly more than 150,000 ATHOC Staff, Volunteers, Olympic family members (IOC, NOCs, Federations), Partners & Sponsors and Media. It also kept the information flowing for all spectators, TV viewers, Website visitors and news readers around the world, prior and during the Games. The Media Center was located inside the Zappeion which is a Greek national exhibition center.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: Between June and August 2004, the technology staff worked in the Technology Operations Center (TOC) from where it could centrally monitor and manage all the devices and flow of information, as well as handle any problems that occurred during the Games. The TOC was organized in teams (e.g. Systems, Telecommunications, Information Security, Data Network, Staffing, etc.) under a TOC Director and corresponding team leaders (Shift Managers). The TOC operated on a 24x7 basis with personnel organized into 12-hour shifts.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: The opening ceremony of the games, directed by choreographer Dimitris Papaioannou and produced by Jack Morton Worldwide, led by project director David Zolkwer, was held on 13 August 2004. It began with a twenty-eight (the number of the Olympiads up to then) second countdown paced by the sounds of an amplified heartbeat. As the countdown was completed, fireworks rumbled and illuminated the skies overhead. After a drum corps and bouzouki players joined in an opening march, the video screen showed images of flight, crossing southwest from Athens over the Greek countryside to ancient Olympia. Then, a single drummer in the ancient stadium joined in a drum duet with a single drummer in the main stadium in Athens, joining the original ancient Olympic Games with the modern ones in symbolism. At the end of the drum duet, a single flaming arrow was launched from the video screen (symbolically from ancient Olympia) and into the reflecting pool, which resulted in fire erupting in the middle of the stadium creating a burning image of the Olympic rings rising from the pool. The Opening Ceremony was a pageant of traditional Greek culture and history hearkening back to its mythological beginnings. The program began as a young Greek boy sailed into the stadium on a 'paper-ship' waving the host nation's flag to aethereal music by Hadjidakis and then a centaur appeared, followed by a gigantic head of a cycladic figurine which eventually broke into many pieces symbolising the Greek islands. Underneath the cycladic head was a Hellenistic representation of the human body, reflecting the concept and belief in perfection reflected in Greek art. A man was seen balancing on a hovering cube symbolising man's eternal 'split' between passion and reason followed by a couple of young lovers playfully chasing each other while the god Eros was hovering above them. There followed a very colourful float parade chronicling Greek history from the ancient Minoan civilization to modern times.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: Although NBC in the United States presented the entire opening ceremony from start to finish, a topless Minoan priestess was shown only briefly, the breasts having been pixelated digitally in order to avoid controversy (as the "Nipplegate" incident was still fresh in viewer's minds at the time) and potential fines by the Federal Communications Commission. Also, lower frontal nudity of men dressed as ancient Greek statues was shown in such a way that the area below the waist was cut off by the bottom of the screen. Overall, NBC's coverage of the Olympics has been praised, and the company was awarded with 6 Emmy Awards for its coverage of the Games and technical production.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: Following the artistic performances, a parade of nations entered the stadium with over 10,500 athletes walking under the banners of 201 nations. The nations were arranged according to Greek alphabet making the Philippines, Finland, Fiji, Chile, and Hong Kong the last five to enter the stadium before the Greek delegation. On this occasion, in observance of the tradition that the delegation of Greece opens the parade and the host nation closes it, the Greek flag bearer opened the parade and all the Greek delegation closed it. Based on audience reaction, the emotional high point of the parade was the entrance of the delegation from Afghanistan which had been absent from the Olympics and had female competitors for the first time. The Iraqi delegation also stirred emotions. Also recognized was the symbolic unified march of athletes from North Korea and South Korea under the Korean Unification Flag. The country of Kiribati made its debut appearance at these Games and East Timor made a debut under its own flag. After the Parade of Nations, during which the Dutch DJ Tiësto provided the music, the Icelandic singer Björk performed the song "Oceania", written specially for the event by her and the poet Sjón.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: The opening ceremony culminated in the lighting of the Olympic cauldron by 1996 gold medalist windsurfer Nikolaos Kaklamanakis. Many key moments in the ceremony, including the lighting of the Olympic Cauldron, featured music composed and arranged by New Zealander composer John Psathas. The gigantic cauldron, which was styled after the Athens 2004 Olympic torch, pivoted down to be lit by the 35-year-old, before slowly swinging up and lifting the flame above the stadium. Following this, a fireworks display commenced to conclude the ceremony.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: All National Olympic Committees (NOCs) except Djibouti participated in the Athens Games. Two new NOCs had been created since 2000 and made their debut at these Games (Kiribati and East Timor). Therefore, with the return of Afghanistan (who had been banned from the 2000 Summer Olympics), the number of participating nations increased from 199 to 201. Also since 2000, Yugoslavia had changed its name to Serbia and Montenegro and its code from YUG to SCG. Georgia's new flag made its debut at the Olympics by unfurling it at the opening ceremony on 13 August. It replaces the post-Soviet flag, which had been used since Lillehammer 1994.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: In the table below, the number in parentheses indicates the number of participants contributed by each NOC.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: The sports featured at the 2004 Summer Olympics are listed below. Officially there were 301 events in 28 sports as swimming, diving, synchronised swimming and water polo are classified by the IOC as disciplines within the sport of aquatics, and wheelchair racing was a demonstration sport. For the first time, the wrestling category featured women's wrestling and in the fencing competition women competed in the sabre. American Kristin Heaston, who led off the qualifying round of women's shot put became the first woman to compete at the ancient site of Olympia.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: The demonstration sport of wheelchair racing was a joint Olympic/Paralympic event, allowing a Paralympic event to occur within the Olympics, and for the future, opening up the wheelchair race to the able-bodied. The 2004 Summer Paralympics were also held in Athens, from 17 to 28 September.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: The Games were concluded on 29 August 2004. The closing ceremony was held at the Athens Olympic Stadium, where the Games had been opened 16 days earlier. Around 70,000 people gathered in the stadium to watch the ceremony.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: The initial part of the ceremony interspersed the performances of various Greek singers, and featured traditional Greek dance performances from various regions of Greece (Crete, Pontos, Thessaly, etc.). The event was meant to highlight the pride of the Greeks in their culture and country for the world to see.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: A significant part of the closing ceremony was the exchange of the Olympic flag of the Athens Games between the mayor of Athens and the mayor of Beijing, host city of the next Olympics. After the flag exchange a presentation from the Beijing delegation presented a glimpse into Chinese culture for the world to see. Beijing University students (who were at first incorrectly cited as the Twelve Girls Band) sang Mo Li Hua (Jasmine Flower) accompanied by a ribbon dancer, then some male dancers did a routine with tai-chi and acrobatics, followed by dancers from the Peking Opera and finally, a little Chinese girl singing a reprise of Mo Li Hua and concluded the presentation by saying "Welcome to Beijing!"


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: The medal ceremony for the last event of the Olympics, the men's marathon, was conducted, with Stefano Baldini from Italy as the winner. The bronze medal winner, Vanderlei Cordeiro de Lima of Brazil, was simultaneously announced as a recipient of the Pierre de Coubertin medal for his bravery in finishing the race despite being attacked by a rogue spectator while leading with 7 km to go.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: A flag-bearer from each nation's delegation then entered along the stage, followed by the competitors "en masse" on the floor. All of them were led by Pyrros Dimas (weightlifter) and Liu Xiang (hurdler).


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: Short speeches were presented by Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki, President of the Organising Committee, and by President Dr. Jacques Rogge of the IOC, in which he described the Athens Olympics as "unforgettable, dream Games".


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: Dr. Rogge had previously declared he would be breaking with tradition in his closing speech as President of the IOC and that he would never use the words of his predecessor Juan Antonio Samaranch, who used to always say 'these were the best ever games'. Dr. Rogge had described Salt Lake City 2002 as "superb games" and in turn would continue after Athens 2004 and describe Turin 2006 as "truly magnificent games."


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: The national anthems of Greece and China were played in a handover ceremony as both nations' flags were raised. The Mayor of Athens, Dora Bakoyianni, passed the Olympic Flag to the Mayor of Beijing, Wang Qishan. After a short cultural performance by Chinese actors, dancers, and musicians directed by eminent Chinese director Zhang Yimou, Rogge declared the 2004 Olympic Games closed. The Olympic flag was next raised again on 10 February 2006 during the opening ceremony of the next Winter Olympics in Torino.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: A young Greek girl, 10-year-old Fotini Papaleonidopoulou, lit a symbolic lantern with the Olympic Flame and passed it on to other children before "extinguishing" the flame in the cauldron by blowing a puff of air. The ceremony ended with a variety of musical performances by Greek singers, including Dionysis Savvopoulos, George Dalaras, Haris Alexiou, Anna Vissi, Sakis Rouvas, Eleftheria Arvanitaki, Alkistis Protopsalti, Antonis Remos, Michalis Hatzigiannis, Marinella, and Dimitra Galani, as thousands of athletes carried out symbolic displays on the stadium floor.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: To commemorate the 2004 Olympics, a series of Greek high value euro collectors' coins were minted by the Mint of Greece, in both silver and gold. The pieces depict landmarks in Greece as well as ancient and modern sports on the obverse of the coin. On the reverse, a common motif with the logo of the Games, circled by an olive branch representing the spirit of the Games.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: Preparations to stage the Olympics led to a number of positive developments for the city's infrastructure. These improvements included the establishment of Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport, a modern new international airport serving as Greece's main aviation gateway; expansions to the Athens Metro system; the "Tram", a new metropolitan tram (light rail) system system; the "Proastiakos", a new suburban railway system linking the airport and suburban towns to the city of Athens; the "Attiki Odos", a new toll motorway encircling the city, and the conversion of streets into pedestrianized walkways in the historic center of Athens which link several of the city's main tourist sites, including the Parthenon and the Panathenaic Stadium (the site of the first modern Olympic Games in 1896). All of the above infrastructure is still in use to this day, and there have been continued expansions and proposals to expand Athens' metro, tram, suburban rail and motorway network, the airport, as well as further plans to pedestrianize more thoroughfares in the historic center of Athens.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: The Greek Government has created a corporation, Olympic Properties SA, which is overseeing the post-Olympics management, development and conversion of these facilities, some of which will be sold off (or have already been sold off) to the private sector, while some other facilities are still in use, or have been converted for commercial use or modified for other sports.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: As of 2012 many conversion schemes have stalled owing to the Greek government-debt crisis, though many of these facilities are now under the control of domestic sporting clubs and organizations or the private sector.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

text: There have been arguments (mostly in popular media) that the cost of the 2004 Athens Summer Games was a contributor to the Greek government-debt crisis that started in 2010, with a lot of focus on the use of the facilities after the Games. This argument, however, contradicts the fact that Greece's Debt to GDP ratio was essentially not affected until the 2008 world financial crisis, while the cost of the Games, spread over years of preparation, was insignificant compared to Greece's public debt and GDP. Furthermore, the aforementioned arguments do not even take into account the profits (direct and indirect) generated by the Games, which may well have surpassed the above costs. Finally, popular arguments about "rotting" of many of the facilities, appear to ignore the actual utilization of most of these structures.


title: Covariance matrix

text: In probability theory and statistics, a covariance matrix (also known as auto-covariance matrix, dispersion matrix, variance matrix, or variance–covariance matrix) is a square matrix giving the covariance between each pair of elements of a given random vector. Any covariance matrix is symmetric and positive semi-definite and its main diagonal contains variances (i.e., the covariance of each element with itself).


title: Covariance matrix

text: Intuitively, the covariance matrix generalizes the notion of variance to multiple dimensions. As an example, the variation in a collection of random points in two-dimensional space cannot be characterized fully by a single number, nor would the variances in the formula_1 and formula_2 directions contain all of the necessary information; a formula_3 matrix would be necessary to fully characterize the two-dimensional variation.


title: Covariance matrix

text: Throughout this article, boldfaced unsubscripted formula_4 and formula_8 are used to refer to random vectors, and unboldfaced subscripted formula_9 and formula_10 are used to refer to scalar random variables.


title: Covariance matrix

text: are random variables, each with finite variance and expected value, then the covariance matrix formula_5 is the matrix whose formula_13 entry is the covariance


title: Covariance matrix

text: Nomenclatures differ. Some statisticians, following the probabilist William Feller in his two-volume book "An Introduction to Probability Theory and Its Applications", call the matrix formula_5 the variance of the random vector formula_4, because it is the natural generalization to higher dimensions of the 1-dimensional variance. Others call it the covariance matrix, because it is the matrix of covariances between the scalar components of the vector formula_4.


title: Covariance matrix

text: Both forms are quite standard, and there is no ambiguity between them. The matrix formula_5 is also often called the "variance-covariance matrix", since the diagonal terms are in fact variances.


title: Covariance matrix

text: An entity closely related to the covariance matrix is the matrix of Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients between each of the random variables in the random vector formula_4, which can be written as


title: Covariance matrix

text: where formula_28 is the matrix of the diagonal elements of formula_5 (i.e., a diagonal matrix of the variances of formula_9 for formula_31).