title: Glaucus atlanticus

text: This species looks similar to, and is closely related to, "G. marginatus", which is now understood to be not one species, but a cryptic species complex of four separate species that live in the Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean. It shares the common name "blue dragon" with "Pteraeolidia ianthina" and "G. marginatus".


title: Glaucus atlanticus

text: At maturity "G. atlanticus" can be up to in length, though larger specimens have been found. It can live up to a year under the right conditions. It is silvery grey on its dorsal side and dark and pale blue ventrally. It has dark blue stripes on its head. It has a flat, tapering body and six appendages that branch out into rayed, finger-like cerata.


title: Glaucus atlanticus

text: Cerata, also known as papillae, extend laterally from three different pairs of peduncles. The papillae are placed in a single row (uniseriate) and may be up to 84 inches total, (Forster, 1777).


title: Glaucus atlanticus

text: "Glaucus atlanticus" is usually found in tropical/subtropical areas, floating at the ocean's surface due to the stored gulped air inside their stomachs. They usually feed on cnidarians, which can be noisy due to air escaping their stomachs as they feed.


title: Glaucus atlanticus

text: The radula of this species bears serrated teeth which, paired with a strong jaw and denticles, allows it to grasp and "chip down" parts of its prey.


title: Glaucus atlanticus

text: With the aid of a gas-filled sac in its stomach, "G. atlanticus" floats at the surface. Due to the location of the gas sac, this species floats upside down. The upper surface is actually the foot (the underside in other slugs and snail), and this has either a blue or blue-white coloration. The true dorsal surface (carried downwards in "G. atlanticus") is completely silver-grey. This coloration is an example of countershading, which helps protect it from predators that might attack from below and from above. The blue coloration is also thought to reflect harmful UV sunlight.


title: Glaucus atlanticus

text: This nudibranch is pelagic, and there is some evidence that it occurs throughout the world's oceans, in temperate and tropical waters. It has been recorded from the east and south coasts of South Africa, European waters, the east coast of Australia, and Mozambique. The "G. atlanticus" species geographical range increased northward by 150 km in the Gulf of California.


title: Glaucus atlanticus

text: "Glaucus atlanticus" was recently found in the Humboldt Current ecosystem in Peru in 2013, and off Andhra Pradesh in India in 2012. This is in line with the known habitat characteristics of the species: they thrive in warm temperate climates in the Southern Pacific, and in circumtropical and Lusitanian environments. Before finding "G. atlanticus" off Andhra Pradesh, these nudibranchs were documented as having been seen in the Bay of Bengal and off the coast of Tamil Nadu, India, over 677 kilometers apart. "Glaucus atlanticus" was also recently found off Bermuda in January 2016, and uncommonly washes ashore on east coast beaches at Barbados, Lesser Antilles.


title: Glaucus atlanticus

text: Although these sea slugs live on the open ocean, they sometimes accidentally wash up onto the shore, and therefore they may be found on beaches. In April 2022, specimens were found in the Gulf of Mexico along the Texas coast.


title: Glaucus atlanticus

text: "Glaucus atlanticus" preys on other larger pelagic organisms. The sea slugs can move toward prey or mates by using their cerata to make slow swimming movements. They are known to prey on the dangerously venomous Portuguese man o' war ("Physalia physalis"); the by-the-wind-sailor ("Velella velella"); the blue button ("Porpita porpita"); and the violet snail, "Janthina janthina". Occasionally, individuals attack and eat other individuals in captivity.


title: Glaucus atlanticus

text: The species is able to feed on the Portuguese man o' war due to its immunity to the venomous nematocysts. The slug consumes chunks of the organism and appears to select and store the most venomous nematocysts for its own use against future prey. The nematocysts are collected in specialized sacs (cnidosacs) at the tip of the animal's cerata, the thin feather-like "fingers" on its body. Because "G. atlanticus" concentrates the venom, it can produce a more powerful and deadly sting than the man o' war on which it feeds.


title: Glaucus atlanticus

text: Like almost all heterobranchs, blue dragons are hermaphrodites and their male reproductive organs have evolved to be especially large and hooked to avoid their partner's venomous cerata. Unlike most nudibranchs, which mate with their right sides facing, sea swallows mate with ventral sides facing. After mating, both individuals are able to lay eggs and can release up to 20 on an egg string, often laying them in wood pieces or carcasses. On average, "G. atlanticus" can lay 55 egg strings per hour. Studies have indicated that the "G. atlanticus" is not globally panmictic, but is localized within ocean basins. Gene flow among Afro-Eurasian and American populations is thus hindered by physical obstructions and water temperatures in the Arctic and Southern Oceans.


title: Glaucus atlanticus

text: "Glaucus atlanticus" is able to swallow the venomous nematocysts from siphonophores such as the Portuguese man o' war, and store them in the extremities of its finger-like cerata. Picking up the animal can result in a painful sting, with symptoms similar to those caused by the Portuguese man o' war. The symptoms that may appear after being stung are nausea, pain, vomiting, acute allergic contact dermatitis, erythema, urticarial papules, potential vesicle formation and post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation.


title: Tengu

text: Buddhism long held that the "Tengu" were disruptive demons and harbingers of war. Their image gradually softened, however, into one of protective and even manifestations of Buddhist deities, if still dangerous, spirits of the mountains and forests. "Tengu" are associated with the ascetic practice of Shugendō, and they are usually depicted in the garb of its followers, the "yamabushi".


title: Tengu

text: The "tengu" in art appears in a variety of shapes. It usually falls somewhere in between a large, monstrous bird and a wholly anthropomorphized being, often with a red face or an unusually large or long nose. Early depictions of tengu show them as kite-like beings who can take a human-like form, often retaining avian wings, heads, or beaks. The "tengu's" long nose seems to have been conceived in the 14th century, likely as a humanization of the original bird's bill. This feature allies them with the Sarutahiko Ōkami, who is described in the 720 CE text the "Nihon Shoki" with a similar nose measuring seven hand-spans in length. In village festivals, the two figures are often portrayed with identical red phallic-nosed mask designs.


title: Tengu

text: Some of the earliest representations of "tengu" appear in Japanese picture scrolls, such as the , painted c. 1296, which parodies high-ranking priests by endowing them the hawk-like beaks of "tengu" demons.


title: Tengu

text: Tengu is often pictured as taking the shape of some sort of priest. Beginning in the 13th century, tengu came to be associated in particular with yamabushi, the mountain ascetics who practice Shugendō. The association soon found its way into Japanese art, where tengu are most frequently depicted in the yamabushi's unique costume, which includes a distinctive headwear called the " tokin" and a . Due to their priestly aesthetic, they are often shown wielding the khakkhara, a distinct staff used by Buddhist monks, called a "shakujō" in Japanese.


title: Tengu

text: Tengu is commonly depicted holding a magical . In folk tales, these fans sometimes can grow or shrink a person's nose, but usually, they have attributed the power to stir up great winds. Various other strange accessories may be associated with "tengu", such as a type of tall, one-toothed "geta" sandal often called "tengu-geta".


title: Tengu

text: The term "tengu" and the characters used to write it are borrowed from the name of a fierce demon from Chinese folklore called "tiāngǒu" though this still has to be confirmed. Chinese literature assigns this creature a variety of descriptions, but most often it is a fierce and anthropophagous canine monster that resembles a shooting star or comet. It makes a noise like thunder and brings war wherever it falls. One account from the "Shù Yì Jì" (, "A Collection of Bizarre Stories"), written in 1791, describes a dog-like "tiāngǒu" with a sharp beak and an upright posture, but usually "tiāngǒu" bear little resemblance to their Japanese counterparts.


title: Tengu

text: The 23rd chapter of the "Nihon Shoki", written in 720, is generally held to contain the first recorded mention of "tengu" in Japan. In this account a large shooting star appears and is identified by a Buddhist priest as a "heavenly dog", and much like the "tiāngǒu" of China, the star precedes a military uprising. Although the Chinese characters for "tengu" are used in the text, accompanying phonetic furigana characters give the reading as "amatsukitsune" ("heavenly fox"). M. W. de Visser speculated that the early Japanese meaning for the characters used to write Tengu may represent a conglomeration of two Chinese spirits: the "tiāngǒu" and the fox spirits called "huli jing" before the nuances of meaning were expanded to include local Japanese kami, therefore the true Tengu in appearance


title: Tengu

text: Some Japanese scholars have speculated that the "tengu's" image derives from that of the Hindu eagle deity Garuda, who was pluralized in Buddhist scripture as one of the major races of non-human beings. Like the "tengu", the "garuda" are often portrayed in a human-like form with wings and a bird's beak. The name "tengu" seems to be written in place of that of the "garuda" in a Japanese sutra called the "Emmyō Jizō-kyō" (), but this was likely written in the Edo period, long after the "tengu's" image was established. At least one early story in the "Konjaku Monogatari" describes a "tengu" carrying off a dragon, which is reminiscent of the "garuda's" feud with the "nāga" serpents. In other respects, however, the "tengu's" original behavior differs markedly from that of the "garuda", which is generally friendly towards Buddhism. De Visser has speculated that the "tengu" may be descended from an ancient Shinto bird-demon which was syncretized with both the "garuda" and the "tiāngǒu" when Buddhism arrived in Japan. However, he found little evidence to support this idea.


title: Tengu

text: A later version of the "Kujiki", an ancient Japanese historical text, writes the name of Amanozako, a monstrous female deity born from the god Susanoo's spat-out ferocity, with characters meaning "tengu deity" (). The book describes Amanozako as a raging creature capable of flight, with the body of a human, the head of a beast, a long nose, long ears, and long teeth that can chew through swords. An 18th-century book called the suggests that this goddess may be the true predecessor of the "tengu", but the date and authenticity of the "Kujiki", and of that edition, in particular, remain disputed.


title: Tengu

text: The "Konjaku Monogatarishū", a collection of stories published in the late Heian period, contains some of the earliest tales of "tengu", already characterized as they would be for centuries to come. These "tengu" are the troublesome opponents of Buddhism, who mislead the pious with false images of the Buddha, carry off monks and drop them in remote places, possess women in an attempt to seduce holy men, rob temples, and endow those who worship them with unholy power. They often disguise themselves as priests or nuns, but their true form seems to be that of a kite.


title: Tengu

text: Throughout the 12th and 13th centuries, accounts continued of "tengu" attempting to cause trouble in the world. They were now established as the ghosts of angry, vain, or heretical priests who had fallen on the ""tengu"-realm" (, "tengudō"). They began to possess people, especially women and girls, and speak through their mouths ("kitsunetsuki"). Still the enemies of Buddhism, the demons also turned their attention to the royal family. The Kojidan tells of an Empress who was possessed, and the Ōkagami reports that Emperor Sanjō was made blind by a "tengu", the ghost of a priest who resented the throne.


title: Tengu

text: One notorious "tengu" from the 12th century was himself the ghost of an emperor. The "Hōgen Monogatari" tells the story of Emperor Sutoku, who was forced by his father to abandon the throne. When he later raised the Hōgen Rebellion to take back the country from Emperor Go-Shirakawa, he was defeated and exiled to Sanuki Province in Shikoku. According to legend he died in torment, having sworn to haunt the nation of Japan as a great demon, and thus became a fearsome "tengu" with long nails and eyes like a kite's.


title: Tengu

text: In stories from the 13th century, "tengu" began to abduct young boys as well as the priests they had always targeted. The boys were often returned, while the priests would be found tied to the tops of trees or other high places. All of the "tengu's" victims, however, would come back in a state near death or madness, sometimes after having been tricked into eating animal dung.


title: Tengu

text: The "tengu" of this period were often conceived of as the ghosts of the arrogant, and as a result, the creatures have become strongly associated with vanity and pride. Today the Japanese expression "tengu ni naru" ("becoming a "tengu"") is still used to describe a conceited person.


title: Tengu

text: In the "Genpei Jōsuiki", written in the late Kamakura period, a god appears to Go-Shirakawa and gives a detailed account of "tengu" ghosts. He says that they fall onto the "tengu" road because, as Buddhists, they cannot go to Hell, yet as people with bad principles, they also cannot go to Heaven. He describes the appearance of different types of "tengu": the ghosts of priests, nuns, ordinary men, and ordinary women, all of whom in life possessed excessive pride. The god introduces the notion that not all "tengu" are equal; knowledgeable men become , but ignorant ones become .


title: Tengu

text: The philosopher Hayashi Razan lists the greatest of these "daitengu" as Sōjōbō of Kurama, Tarōbō of Atago, and Jirōbō of Hira. The demons of Kurama and Atago are among the most famous "tengu".


title: Tengu

text: "Daitengu" are often pictured in a more human-like form than their underlings, and due to their long noses, they may also be called . "Kotengu" may conversely be depicted as more bird-like. They are sometimes called , or . Inoue Enryō described two kinds of "tengu" in his "Tenguron": the great "daitengu", and the small, bird-like "konoha-tengu" who live in "Cryptomeria" trees. The "konoha-tengu" are noted in a book from 1746 called the , as bird-like creatures with wings two meters across which were seen catching fish in the Ōi River, but this name rarely appears in literature otherwise.


title: Tengu

text: Creatures that do not fit the classic bird or "yamabushi" image are sometimes called "tengu". For example, "tengu" in the guise of wood-spirits may be called , but this word can also refer to "tengu" with canine mouths or other features. The people of Kōchi Prefecture on Shikoku believe in a creature called , but this is a small childlike being who loves "sumō" wrestling and sometimes dwells in the water, and is generally considered one of the many kinds of "kappa". Another water-dwelling "tengu" is the of the Greater Tokyo Area. This creature is rarely seen, but it is believed to create strange fireballs and be a nuisance to fishermen.


title: Tengu

text: In Yamagata Prefecture among other areas, thickets in the mountains during summer, there are several tens of tsubo of moss and sand that were revered as the "nesting grounds of tengu," and in mountain villages in the Kanagawa Prefecture, they would cut trees at night and were called "tengu daoshi" (天狗倒し, tengu fall), and mysterious sounds at night of a tree being cut and falling, or mysterious swaying sounds despite no wind, were considered the work of mountain tengu. It is also theorized that shooting a gun three times would make this mysterious sound stop. Besides this, in the Tone District, Gunma Prefecture, there are legends about the "tengu warai" (天狗笑い, tengu laugh) about how one would hear laughter out of nowhere, and if one simply presses on further, it'd become an even louder laugh, and if one tries laughing back, it'd laugh even louder than before, and the "tengu tsubute" (天狗礫, tengu pebble) (said to be the path that tengu go on) about how when walking on mountain paths, there'd be a sudden wind, the mountain would rumble, and stones would come flying, and places tengu live such as "tenguda" (天狗田, tengu field), "tengu no tsumetogi ishi" (天狗の爪とぎ石, tengu scratching stone), "tengu no yama" (天狗の山, tengu mountain), "tengudani" (天狗谷, tengu valley), etc., in other words, "tengu territory" (天狗の領地) or "tengu guest quarters" (狗賓の住処). In Kanazawa's business district Owari in Hōreki 5 (1755), it is said that a "tengu tsubute" (天狗つぶて) was seen. In Mt. Ogasa, Shizuoka Prefecture, a mysterious phenomenon of hearing the sound of hayashi from the mountains in the summer was called "tengubayashi" (天狗囃子), and it is said to be the work of the tengu at Ogasa Jinja. On Sado Island (Sado, Niigata Prefecture), there were "yamakagura" (山神楽, mountain kagura), and the mysterious occurrence of hearing kagura from the mountains was said to be the work of a tengu. In Tokuyama, Ibi District, Gifu Prefecture (now Ibigawa), there were "tengu taiko" (天狗太鼓), and the sound of taiko (drums) from the mountains was said to be a sign of impending rain.


title: Tengu

text: The "Shasekishū", a book of Buddhist parables from the Kamakura period, makes a point of distinguishing between good and bad "tengu". The book explains that the former are in command of the latter and are the protectors, not opponents, of Buddhism – although the flaw of pride or ambition has caused them to fall onto the demon road, they remain the same good, "dharma"-abiding persons they were in life.


title: Tengu

text: The "tengu's" unpleasant image continued to erode in the 17th century. Some stories now presented them as much less malicious, protecting and blessing Buddhist institutions rather than menacing them or setting them on fire. According to a legend in the 18th-century , a "tengu" took the form of a "yamabushi" and faithfully served the abbot of a Zen monastery until the man guessed his attendant's true form. The "tengu's" wings and huge nose then reappeared. The "tengu" requested a piece of wisdom from his master and left, but he continued, unseen, to provide the monastery with miraculous aid.


title: Tengu

text: In the 18th and 19th centuries, "tengu" came to be feared as the vigilant protectors of certain forests. In the 1764 collection of strange stories , a tale tells of a man who wanders into a deep valley while gathering leaves, only to be faced with a sudden and ferocious hailstorm. A group of peasants later tell him that he was in the valley where the "guhin" live, and anyone who takes a single leaf from that place will surely die. In the , written in 1849, the author describes the customs of the wood-cutters of Mino Province, who used a sort of rice cake called "kuhin-mochi" to placate the "tengu", who would otherwise perpetrate all sorts of mischief. In other provinces a special kind of fish called "okoze" was offered to the "tengu" by woodsmen and hunters, in exchange for a successful day's work. The people of Ishikawa Prefecture have until recently believed that the "tengu" loathe mackerel, and have used this fish as a charm against kidnappings and hauntings by the mischievous spirits.


title: Tengu

text: "Tengu" are worshipped as beneficial "kami" ("gods" or "revered spirits") in various Japanese religious cults. For example, the "tengu" Saburō of Izuna is worshipped on that mountain and various others as , one of the primary deities in the "Izuna Shugen" cult, which also has ties to fox sorcery and the Dakini of Tantric Buddhism. Izuna Gongen is depicted as a beaked, winged figure with snakes wrapped around his limbs, surrounded by a halo of flame, riding on the back of a fox and brandishing a sword. Worshippers of "tengu" on other sacred mountains have adopted similar images for their deities, such as or of Akiba and of Saijō-ji Temple in Odawara.


title: Tengu

text: "Tengu" appear frequently in the orally transmitted tales collected by Japanese folklorists. As these stories are often humorous, they tend to portray "tengu" as ridiculous creatures who are easily tricked or confused by humans. Some common folk tales in which "tengu" appear include:


title: Tengu

text: During the 14th century, the "tengu" began to trouble the world outside of the Buddhist clergy, and like their ominous ancestors the "tiāngǒu", the "tengu" became creatures associated with war. Legends eventually ascribed to them great knowledge in the art of skilled combat.


title: Tengu

text: This reputation seems to have its origins in a legend surrounding the famous warrior Minamoto no Yoshitsune. When Yoshitsune was a young boy going by the name of Ushiwaka-maru, his father, Yoshitomo, was assassinated by the Taira clan. Taira no Kiyomori, head of the Taira, allowed the child to survive on the grounds that he be exiled to the temple on Mount Kurama and become a monk. But one day in the Sōjō-ga-dani Valley, Ushiwaka encountered the mountain's "tengu", Sōjōbō. This spirit taught the boy the art of swordsmanship so that he might bring vengeance on the Taira.


title: Tengu

text: Originally the actions of this "tengu" were portrayed as another attempt by demons to throw the world into chaos and war, but as Yoshitsune's renown as a legendary warrior increased, his monstrous teacher came to be depicted in a much more sympathetic and honorable light. In one of the most famous renditions of the story, the Noh play "Kurama Tengu", Ushiwaka is the only person from his temple who does not give up an outing in disgust at the sight of a strange "yamabushi". Sōjōbō thus befriends the boy and teaches him out of sympathy for his plight.


title: Tengu

text: Two stories from the 19th century continue this theme: In the "Sōzan Chomon Kishū", a boy is carried off by a "tengu" and spends three years with the creature. He comes home with a magic gun that never misses a shot. A story from Inaba Province, related by Inoue Enryō, tells of a girl with poor manual dexterity who is suddenly possessed by a "tengu". The spirit wishes to rekindle the declining art of swordsmanship in the world. Soon a young samurai appears to whom the "tengu" has appeared in a dream, and the possessed girl instructs him as an expert swordsman.


title: Tengu

text: "Tengu" continue to be popular subjects in modern fiction, both in Japan and other countries. They often appear among the many characters and creatures featured in Japanese cinema, animation, comics, role-playing games, and video games.


title: Tengu

text: "Tengu Man" is one of the eight Robot Master bosses in "Mega Man 8" (1996) and "Mega Man and Bass" (1998). He also has a Netnavi counterpart, present in "Mega Man Battle Network 6" (2005), although only in the "Cybeast Falzar" version. He is substituted by Slashman in the opposite version, "Cybeast Gregar".


title: Tengu

text: The Touhou Project series of games have various characters based on tengu, most notably Aya Shameimaru from Phantasmagoria of Flower View (2005) and Momiji Inubashiri from Mountain of Faith (2007).


title: Tengu

text: In the Dead or Alive video game series, most notably "Dead or Alive 5" (2014)", Dead or Alive Xtreme 3" (2016)"," and "Dead or Alive 6" (2019), the playable character Nyotengu is based on Tengu, the name Nyotengu literally meaning "Female Tengu" when translated in English.


title: Tengu

text: "Karasu Tengu" is an enemy present in the video game "Nioh" (2017) and its sequel "Nioh 2" (2020). They are depicted as a "yōkai" with crow-like wings who wield the power of the wind.


title: Tengu

text: "Sakonji Urokodaki", from the anime "", wears a "tengu" mask and he is the Mentor of "Tanjiro Kamado".


title: Subnetwork

text: A subnetwork or subnet is a logical subdivision of an IP network. The practice of dividing a network into two or more networks is called subnetting.


title: Subnetwork

text: Computers that belong to the same subnet are addressed with an identical most-significant bit-group in their IP addresses. This results in the logical division of an IP address into two fields: the "network number" or "routing prefix" and the "rest field" or "host identifier". The "rest field" is an identifier for a specific host or network interface.


title: Subnetwork

text: The "routing prefix" may be expressed in Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) notation written as the first address of a network, followed by a slash character ("/"), and ending with the bit-length of the prefix. For example, is the prefix of the Internet Protocol version 4 network starting at the given address, having 24 bits allocated for the network prefix, and the remaining 8 bits reserved for host addressing. Addresses in the range to belong to this network, with as the subnet broadcast address. The IPv6 address specification is a large address block with 2 addresses, having a 32-bit routing prefix.


title: Subnetwork

text: For IPv4, a network may also be characterized by its subnet mask or netmask, which is the bitmask that, when applied by a bitwise AND operation to any IP address in the network, yields the routing prefix. Subnet masks are also expressed in dot-decimal notation like an IP address. For example, the prefix would have the subnet mask .


title: Subnetwork

text: Traffic is exchanged between subnetworks through routers when the routing prefixes of the source address and the destination address differ. A router serves as a logical or physical boundary between the subnets.


title: Subnetwork

text: The benefits of subnetting an existing network vary with each deployment scenario. In the address allocation architecture of the Internet using CIDR and in large organizations, it is necessary to allocate address space efficiently. Subnetting may also enhance routing efficiency, or have advantages in network management when subnetworks are administratively controlled by different entities in a larger organization. Subnets may be arranged logically in a hierarchical architecture, partitioning an organization's network address space into a tree-like routing structure, or other structures such as meshes.


title: Subnetwork

text: Computers participating in a network such as the Internet each have at least one network address. Usually, this address is unique to each device and can either be configured automatically with the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) by a network server, manually by an administrator, or automatically by stateless address autoconfiguration.


title: Subnetwork

text: An address fulfills the functions of identifying the host and locating it on the network. The most common network addressing architecture is Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4), but its successor, IPv6, has been increasingly deployed since approximately 2006. An IPv4 address consists of 32 bits. An IPv6 address consists of 128 bits. In both systems, an IP address is divided into two logical parts, the "network prefix" and the "host identifier". All hosts on a subnetwork have the same network prefix. This prefix occupies the most-significant bits of the address. The number of bits allocated within a network to the prefix may vary between subnets, depending on the network architecture. The host identifier is a unique local identification and is either a host number on the local network or an interface identifier.


title: Subnetwork

text: This addressing structure permits the selective routing of IP packets across multiple networks via special gateway computers, called routers, to a destination host if the network prefixes of origination and destination hosts differ, or sent directly to a target host on the local network if they are the same. Routers constitute logical or physical borders between the subnets, and manage traffic between them. Each subnet is served by a designated default router but may consist internally of multiple physical Ethernet segments interconnected by network switches.


title: Subnetwork

text: The routing prefix of an address is identified by the "subnet mask", written in the same form used for IP addresses. For example, the subnet mask for a routing prefix that is composed of the most-significant 24 bits of an IPv4 address is written as .


title: Subnetwork

text: The modern standard form of specification of the network prefix is CIDR notation, used for both IPv4 and IPv6. It counts the number of bits in the prefix and appends that number to the address after a "slash" (/) character separator. This notation was introduced with Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR).


title: Subnetwork

text: For example, the IPv4 network with the subnet mask is written as , and the IPv6 notation designates the address and its network prefix consisting of the most significant 32 bits.


title: Subnetwork

text: In classful networking in IPv4, before the introduction of CIDR, the network prefix could be directly obtained from the IP address, based on its highest-order bit sequence. This determined the class (A, B, C) of the address and therefore the subnet mask. Since the introduction of CIDR, however, the assignment of an IP address to a network interface requires two parameters, the address and a subnet mask.


title: Subnetwork

text: Given an IPv4 source address, its associated subnet mask, and the destination address, a router can determine whether the destination is on a locally connected network or a remote network. The subnet mask of the destination is not needed, and is generally not known to a router. For IPv6, however, on-link determination is different in detail and requires the Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP). IPv6 address assignment to an interface carries no requirement of a matching on-link prefix and vice versa, with the exception of link-local addresses.


title: Subnetwork

text: Since each locally connected subnet must be represented by a separate entry in the routing tables of each connected router, subnetting increases routing complexity. However, by careful design of the network, routes to collections of more distant subnets within the branches of a tree hierarchy can be aggregated into a supernetwork and represented by single routes.


title: Subnetwork

text: An IPv4 subnet mask consists of 32 bits; it is a sequence of ones ("1") followed by a block of zeros ("0"). The ones indicate bits in the address used for the network prefix and the trailing block of zeros designates that part as being the host identifier.


title: Subnetwork

text: The following example shows the separation of the network prefix and the host identifier from an address () and its associated subnet mask (). The operation is visualized in a table using binary address formats.


title: Subnetwork

text: The result of the bitwise AND operation of IP address and the subnet mask is the network prefix . The host part, which is , is derived by the bitwise AND operation of the address and the one's complement of the subnet mask.


title: Subnetwork

text: Subnetting is the process of designating some high-order bits from the host part as part of the network prefix and adjusting the subnet mask appropriately. This divides a network into smaller subnets. The following diagram modifies the above example by moving 2 bits from the host part to the network prefix to form four smaller subnets each one quarter of the previous size.


title: Subnetwork

text: IPv4 uses specially designated address formats to facilitate recognition of special address functionality. The first and the last subnets obtained by subnetting a larger network have traditionally had a special designation and, early on, special usage implications. In addition, IPv4 uses the "all ones" host address, i.e. the last address within a network, for broadcast transmission to all hosts on the link.


title: Subnetwork

text: The first subnet obtained from subnetting a larger network has all bits in the subnet bit group set to zero. It is therefore called "subnet zero". The last subnet obtained from subnetting a larger network has all bits in the subnet bit group set to one. It is therefore called the "all-ones subnet".


title: Subnetwork

text: The IETF originally discouraged the production use of these two subnets. When the prefix length is not available, the larger network and the first subnet have the same address, which may lead to confusion. Similar confusion is possible with the broadcast address at the end of the last subnet. Therefore, reserving the subnet values consisting of all zeros and all ones on the public Internet was recommended, reducing the number of available subnets by two for each subnetting. This inefficiency was removed, and the practice was declared obsolete in 1995 and is only relevant when dealing with legacy equipment.


title: Subnetwork

text: Although the all-zeros and the all-ones host values are reserved for the network address of the subnet and its broadcast address, respectively, in systems using CIDR all subnets are available in a subdivided network. For example, a network can be divided into sixteen usable networks. Each broadcast address, i.e. , , …, , reduces only the host count in each subnetwork.


title: Subnetwork

text: The number of subnetworks available and the number of possible hosts in a network may be readily calculated. For instance, the network may be subdivided into the following four subnets. The highlighted two address bits become part of the network number in this process.


title: Subnetwork

text: The remaining bits after the subnet bits are used for addressing hosts within the subnet. In the above example, the subnet mask consists of 26 bits, making it 255.255.255.192, leaving 6 bits for the host identifier. This allows for 62 host combinations (2−2).


title: Subnetwork

text: In general, the number of available hosts on a subnet is 2−2, where "h" is the number of bits used for the host portion of the address. The number of available subnets is 2, where "n" is the number of bits used for the network portion of the address.


title: Subnetwork

text: There is an exception to this rule for 31-bit subnet masks, which means the host identifier is only one bit long for two permissible addresses. In such networks, usually point-to-point links, only two hosts (the endpoints) may be connected and a specification of network and broadcast addresses is not necessary.


title: Subnetwork

text: The design of the IPv6 address space differs significantly from IPv4. The primary reason for subnetting in IPv4 is to improve efficiency in the utilization of the relatively small address space available, particularly to enterprises. No such limitations exist in IPv6, as the large address space available, even to end-users, is not a limiting factor.


title: Subnetwork

text: As in IPv4, subnetting in IPv6 is based on the concepts of variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) and the Classless Inter-Domain Routing methodology. It is used to route traffic between the global allocation spaces and within customer networks between subnets and the Internet at large.


title: Subnetwork

text: A compliant IPv6 subnet always uses addresses with 64 bits in the host identifier. Given the address size of 128 bits, it therefore has a /64 routing prefix. Although it is technically possible to use smaller subnets, they are impractical for local area networks based on Ethernet technology, because 64 bits are required for stateless address autoconfiguration. The Internet Engineering Task Force recommends the use of subnets for point-to-point links, which have only two hosts.


title: Subnetwork

text: IPv6 does not implement special address formats for broadcast traffic or network numbers, and thus all addresses in a subnet are acceptable for host addressing. The all-zeroes address is reserved as the subnet-router anycast address. The subnet router anycast address is the lowest address in the subnet, so it looks like the “network address”. If a router has multiple subnets on the same link, then it has multiple subnet router anycast addresses on that link. The first and last address in any network or subnet is not allowed to be assigned to any individual host.


title: Subnetwork

text: In the past, the recommended allocation for an IPv6 customer site was an address space with a 48-bit () prefix. However, this recommendation was revised to encourage smaller blocks, for example using 56-bit prefixes. Another common allocation size for residential customer networks has a 64-bit prefix.


title: Red velvet cake

text: Red velvet cake is traditionally a red, red-brown, crimson, or scarlet-colored chocolate layer cake, layered with ermine icing. Traditional recipes do not use food coloring, with the red color due to non-Dutched, anthocyanin-rich cocoa.


title: Red velvet cake

text: Common ingredients include buttermilk, butter, cocoa, vinegar, and flour. Beet juice or red food coloring may be used for the color.


title: Red velvet cake

text: Velvet cake is thought to have originated in Maryland in the early 20th century. In the 19th century, "velvet" cake, a soft and velvety crumb cake, came to be served as a fancy dessert, in contrast to what had been the more common, coarser-crumbed cake. Around the turn of the 20th century, devil's food cake was introduced, which is how some believe that red velvet cake came about. The key difference between the two cakes is that devil's food cake uses chocolate and red velvet cake uses cocoa.


title: Red velvet cake

text: When foods were rationed in the US during World War II, bakers used boiled beet juices to enhance the color of their cakes. Beet was and is used in some recipes as a filler or to retain moisture. Adams Extract is credited with bringing the red velvet cake to kitchens across America during the Great Depression era, by being one of the first to sell red food coloring and other flavor extracts with the use of point-of-sale posters and tear-off recipe cards. The cake and its original recipe are well known in the United States from New York City's famous Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, which has been dubbed the confection Waldorf-Astoria cake. However, it is widely considered a Southern recipe. Traditionally, red velvet cake is iced with a French-style butter ermine icing (also called roux icing though, while containing butter and flour, it is not made from a roux), which is very light and fluffy, but time-consuming to prepare. Cream cheese frosting and buttercream frosting are variations that have increased in popularity.


title: Red velvet cake

text: In Canada, the cake was a well-known dessert in the restaurants and bakeries of the Eaton's department store chain in the 1940s and 1950s. Promoted as an exclusive Eaton's recipe, with employees who knew the recipe sworn to silence, many mistakenly believed the cake was the invention of the department store matriarch, Lady Eaton.


title: Red velvet cake

text: In recent years, red velvet cake and red velvet cupcakes have become increasingly popular in the US and many European countries, especially around Christmas and more recently Valentine's Day. A resurgence in the popularity of this cake is attributed by some to the 1989 film "Steel Magnolias", which included a red velvet groom's cake made in the shape of an armadillo. Magnolia Bakery in Manhattan has served it since its opening in 1996, as did restaurants known for their Southern cooking like Amy Ruth's in Harlem, which opened in 1998. In 2000, Cake Man Raven opened one of the first bakeries devoted to the cake in Brooklyn.


title: Red velvet cake

text: Ingredients vary based on the era and area of the world. James Beard's reference, "American Cookery" (1972), describes three red velvet cakes varying in the amounts of shortening, butter, and vegetable oil. All used red food coloring. The reaction of acidic vinegar and buttermilk tends to better reveal the red anthocyanin in cocoa and keeps the cake moist, light, and fluffy. This natural tinting may have been the source for the name "red velvet", as well as "Devil's food" and similar names for chocolate cakes. Today, chocolate often undergoes Dutch processing, which prevents the color change of the anthocyanins. A reconstruction of the original red velvet cake involves reducing or eliminating the vinegar and colorants and using a non-Dutched cocoa to provide the needed acidity and color.


title: Red velvet cake

text: In addition to the many variations of red velvet cake, there are various red velvet-flavored products, including protein powder, tea, lattes, Pop-Tarts, waffles, and alcoholic beverages. The scent is used for candles and air fresheners as well. For dietary restrictions, such as those due to allergies and ingredient sensitivity, vegan, gluten-free, and dairy-free variations are available.


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou ( or , ; , , ), also romanized as Hangchow, is the capital and most populous city of Zhejiang, China. It is located in the northwestern part of the province, sitting at the head of Hangzhou Bay, which separates Shanghai and Ningbo. Hangzhou grew to prominence as the southern terminus of the Grand Canal and has been one of China's most renowned and prosperous cities for much of the last millennium. It is a major economic and e-commerce hub within China, and the second biggest city in Yangtze Delta after Shanghai. Hangzhou is classified as a sub-provincial city and forms the core of the Hangzhou metropolitan area, the fourth-largest in China after Guangzhou-Shenzhen Pearl River agglomeration, Shanghai-Suzhou-Wuxi-Changzhou conurbation and Beijing. As of 2019, the Hangzhou metropolitan area was estimated to produce a gross metropolitan product (nominal) of 3.2 trillion yuan ($486.53 billion), making it larger than the economy of Nigeria (the largest in Africa). As of the 2020 Chinese census, it had a total population of 11,936,010 inhabitants. However, its metropolitan area, populated by 13.035 million people over an area of , consists of all urban districts in Hangzhou and 3 urban districts of the city of Shaoxing.


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou has been repeatedly rated as the best commercial city in mainland China by "Forbes" and the Chinese city with the highest growth potential by the Economist Intelligence Unit, and it boasts the eight largest GDP among cities in mainland China with a GDP of around 1.8 trillion RMB ($280 billion). Home to the headquarters of large global tech companies such as the Alibaba Group, Ant Group and NetEase, Hangzhou is known for attracting professionals and entrepreneurs who work in information technology. Since 2014, its rapid population growth has led to a steady increase in local housing prices. According to the 2020 Hurun Global Rich List, Hangzhou ranks 11th in the world and 6th in China (after Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Shenzhen and Guangzhou) in the number of resident billionaires.


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou is a major city for scientific research in the Asia-Pacific, ranking 19th globally by scientific outputs. It hosts several notable universities, including Zhejiang, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou Normal, Hangzhou Dianzi, Zhejiang A&F, Zhejiang Sci-Tech, Zhejiang Chinese Medical, Westlake, China Jiliang and Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics. In September 2015, Hangzhou was awarded the 2022 Asian Games. Its West Lake, a UNESCO World Heritage Site west of the city, is among its best-known attractions. A study conducted by PwC and China Development Research Foundation ranked Hangzhou first among "Chinese Cities of Opportunity". According to the Globalization and World Cities Research Network (GaWC), the city is classified as Beta (global second-tier) city, together with Chongqing, Nanjing and Tianjin in China. Hangzhou is also one of the world's top 100 financial centers, according to the Global Financial Centres Index. It will be the third Chinese city to host the Asian Games, after Beijing 1990 and Guangzhou 2010. Hangzhou also hosted the 11th G20 summit in 2016.


title: Hangzhou

text: The celebrated neolithic culture of Hemudu is known to have inhabited Yuyao, south-east of Hangzhou, as far back as seven thousand years ago. It was during this time that rice was first cultivated in southeast China. Excavations have established that the jade-carving Liangzhu culture (named for its type site just northwest of Hangzhou) inhabited the area immediately around the present city around five thousand years ago. The first of Hangzhou's present neighborhoods to appear in written records was Yuhang, which probably preserves an old Baiyue name.


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou was made the seat of the prefecture of Hang in , entitling it to a city wall which was constructed two years later. By a longstanding convention also seen in other cities like Guangzhou and Fuzhou, the city took on the name of the area it administered and became known as Hangzhou. Hangzhou was at the southern end of China's Grand Canal which extends to Beijing. The canal evolved over centuries but reached its full length by 609.


title: Hangzhou

text: In the Tang dynasty, Bai Juyi was appointed governor of Hangzhou. Already an accomplished poet, his deeds at Hangzhou have led to his being praised as a great governor. He noticed that the farmland nearby depended on the water of West Lake, but due to the negligence of previous governors, the old dyke had collapsed, and the lake so dried out that the local farmers were suffering from severe drought. He ordered the construction of a stronger and taller dyke, with a dam to control the flow of water, thus providing water for irrigation and mitigating the drought problem. The livelihood of local people of Hangzhou improved over the following years. Bai Juyi used his leisure time to enjoy the West Lake, visiting it almost daily. He then had willows and other trees planted along the dyke, making it a beautiful landmark.


title: Hangzhou

text: It is listed as one of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China. It was first the capital of the Wuyue Kingdom from 907 to 978 during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Named Xifu () at the time, it was one of the three great bastions of culture in southern China during the tenth century, along with Nanjing and Chengdu. Leaders of Wuyue were noted patrons of the arts, particularly of Buddhist temple architecture and artwork. The dyke built to protect the city by KingQian Liu gave the Qiantang its modern name. Hangzhou also became a cosmopolitan center, drawing scholars from throughout China and conducting diplomacy with neighboring Chinese states, and also with Japan, Goryeo, and the Khitan Liao dynasty.


title: Hangzhou

text: In 1089, while another renowned poet Su Shi (Su Dongpo) was the city's governor, he used 200,000 workers to construct a long causeway across West Lake. The lake was once a lagoon tens of thousands of years ago. Silt then blocked the way to the sea and the lake was formed. A drill in the lake-bed in 1975 found the sediment of the sea, which confirmed its origin. Artificial preservation prevented the lake from evolving into a marshland. The Su Causeway built by Su Shi a Song dynasty poet who was once the governor of Hangzhou, built out of mud dredged from the lake bottom. The lake is surrounded by hills on the northern and western sides. The Baochu Pagoda sits on the Baoshi Hill to the north of the lake.


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou was chosen as the new capital of the Southern Song dynasty in 1132, when most of northern China had been conquered by the Jurchens in the Jin–Song wars. The surviving imperial family had retreated south from its original capital in Kaifeng after it was captured by the Jurchens in the Jingkang Incident of 1127. Emperor Gaozong moved to Nanjing, then to modern Shangqiu, then to Yangzhou in 1128, and finally to Hangzhou in 1129. The Song government intended it to be a temporary capital, but over the decades Hangzhou grew into a major commercial and cultural center of the Song dynasty, rising from being a middling city of no special importance to being one of the world's largest and most prosperous.


title: Hangzhou

text: Once the prospect of retaking northern China had diminished, government buildings in Hangzhou were extended and renovated to better befit its status as a permanent imperial capital. The imperial palace in Hangzhou, modest in size, was expanded in 1133 with new roofed alleyways, and in 1148 with an extension of the palace walls. The city walls were built with tamped earth and stone and was 30 feet high and 10 feet thick at its base. There were 13 gates and several towers on the walls. The walls covered the city by four miles north to south and only one mile east to west. According to the Italian explorer Odoric of Pordenone, Hangzhou was the greatest city in the world. It was heavily populated and filled with large family estates. It had 12,000 bridges. Bread, pork, rice, and wine were abundant despite the large population. Arab merchants lived in Hangzhou during the Song dynasty, due to the fact that the oceangoing trade passages took precedence over land trade during this time. The Phoenix Mosque was constructed by a Persian settler in Hangzhou.


title: Hangzhou

text: From 1132 until the Mongol invasion of 1276, Hangzhou remained the capital of the Southern Song dynasty and was known as Lin'an (). It served as the seat of the imperial government, a center of trade and entertainment, and the nexus of the main branches of the civil service. During that time the city was a gravitational center of Chinese civilization: what used to be considered "central China" in the north was taken by the Jin, an ethnic minority dynasty ruled by Jurchens.


title: Hangzhou

text: Numerous philosophers, politicians, and men of literature, including some of the most celebrated poets in Chinese history such as Su Shi, Lu You, and Xin Qiji came here to live and die. Hangzhou is also the birthplace and final resting place of the scientist Shen Kuo (1031–1095 AD), his tomb being located in the Yuhang district.


title: Hangzhou

text: During the Southern Song dynasty, commercial expansion, an influx of refugees from the conquered north, and the growth of the official and military establishments, led to a corresponding population increase and the city developed well outside its 9th-century ramparts. According to the "Encyclopædia Britannica", Hangzhou had a population of over 2 million at that time, while historian Jacques Gernet has estimated that the population of Hangzhou numbered well over one million by 1276. (Official Chinese census figures from the year 1270 listed some 186,330 families in residence and probably failed to count non-residents and soldiers.) It is believed that Hangzhou was the largest city in the world from 1180 to 1315 and from 1348 to 1358.


title: Hangzhou

text: Because of the large population and densely crowded (often multi-story) wooden buildings, Hangzhou was particularly vulnerable to fires. Major conflagrations destroyed large sections of the city in 1208, 1229, 1237, and 1275. The 1237 fire alone destroyed 30,000 dwellings. However, the worst was the 1208 fire which burned for 4 days in a 3-mile diameter and burnt 58,097 houses as well as killing 59 people. To combat this threat, the city constructed storage buildings that were rented out to merchants where watchmen patrolled by night and was enclosed by water on all sides. Besides this, the government established an elaborate system for fighting fires, erected watchtowers, devised a system of lantern and flag signals to identify the source of the flames and direct the response, and charged more than 3,000 soldiers with the task of putting out fire.


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou was besieged and captured by the advancing Mongol armies of Kublai Khan in 1276, three years before the final collapse of the Southern Song. Historian Patricia Buckley Ebrey noted that the Mongol Yuan dynasty treated the Jurchen Wanyan royal family harshly, butchering them by the hundreds as well as the Tangut emperor of Western Xia when they defeated him earlier. However Patricia also noted the Mongols were totally lenient on the Han Chinese Zhao royal family of the Southern Song explicitly unlike the Jurchens during the Jingkang incident, sparing both the Southern Song royals in the capital Hangzhou like the Emperor Gong of Song and his mother as well as sparing the civilians inside it and not sacking the city, allowing them to go about their normal business, rehiring Southern Song officials. The Mongols did not take the southern Song palace women for themselves but instead had Han Chinese artisans in Shangdu marry the palace women. The capital of the new Yuan dynasty was established in the city of Dadu (Beijing), but Hangzhou remained an important commercial and administrative center for their southern territory.


title: Hangzhou

text: Yuan China was very open to foreign visitors, and several returned west describing Hangzhou—under the names Khinzai, Campsay, etc.as one of the foremost cities in the world. The Venetian merchant Marco Polo supposedly visited Hangzhou in the late 13th century. In his book, he records that the city was "greater than any in the world" and that "the number and wealth of the merchants, and the amount of goods that passed through their hands, was so enormous that no man could form a just estimate thereof." The manuscripts of Polo's account greatly exaggerate the city's size, although it has been argued that the "hundred miles" of walls would be plausible if Chinese miles were intended instead of Italian ones and that the "12,000 stone bridges" might have been a copyist error born from the city's 12 gates. In the 14th century, the Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta arrived; his later account concurred that al-Khansā was "the biggest city I have ever seen on the face of the earth." He visited Hangzhou in 1345 and noted its charm and described how the city sat on a beautiful lake and was surrounded by gentle green hills. He was particularly impressed by the large number of well-crafted and well-painted Chinese wooden ships with colored sails and silk awnings in the canals. He attended a banquet held by Qurtai, the Yuan Mongol administrator of the city, who according to Ibn Battuta, was fond of the skills of local Chinese conjurers.


title: Hangzhou

text: The city remained an important port until the middle of the Ming dynasty era, when its harbor slowly silted up. Under the Qing, it was the site of an imperial army garrison.


title: Hangzhou

text: In 1856 and 1860, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom occupied Hangzhou. The city was heavily damaged during its conquest, occupation, and eventual reconquest by the Qing army.


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou was ruled by the Republic of China government under the Kuomintang from 1927 to 1937. From 1937 to 1945, the city was occupied by Japan. The Kuomintang returned in 1945, and governed until 1949. On May 3, 1949, the People's Liberation Army entered Hangzhou and the city came under Chinese Communist Party (CCP) control. After Deng Xiaoping's reformist policies began in the end of 1978, Hangzhou took advantage of being situated in the Yangtze Delta to bolster its development. It is now one of China's most prosperous major cities.


title: Hangzhou

text: During the Cultural Revolution, Hangzhou was stage to a series of labor unrest and factional fighting known as the Hangzhou incident.


title: Hangzhou

text: In September 2015, Hangzhou was awarded the 2022 Asian Games. It will be the third city in China to host the Asian Games after Beijing 1990 and Guangzhou 2010. It also hosted the eleventh G20 summit in 2016.


title: Hangzhou

text: In February 2020, the city was under curfew measures due to the outbreak of coronavirus beginning in Wuhan that spread across China.


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou is located in northwestern Zhejiang province, at the southern end of the Grand Canal of China, which runs to Beijing, in the south-central portion of the Yangtze River Delta. Its administrative area (sub-provincial city) extends west to the mountainous parts of Anhui province, and east to the coastal plain near Hangzhou Bay. The city center is built around the eastern and northern sides of the West Lake, just north of the Qiantang River.


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou's climate is humid subtropical (Köppen "Cfa") with four distinctive seasons, characterised by long, very hot, humid summers and chilly, cloudy and drier winters (with occasional snow). The mean annual temperature is , with monthly daily averages ranging from in January to in July. The city receives an average annual rainfall of and is affected by the plum rains of the Asian monsoon in June. In late summer (August to September), Hangzhou suffers typhoon storms, but typhoons seldom strike it directly. Generally they make landfall along the southern coast of Zhejiang, and affect the area with strong winds and stormy rains. Extremes since 1951 have ranged from on 6 February 1969 up to on 9 August 2013; unofficial readings have reached , set on 29 December 1912 and 24 January 1916, up to , set on 10 August 1930. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 30% in March to 51% in August, the city receives 1,709.4 hours of sunshine annually.


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou is a city in China and had a population of 5,162,039 (including Xiaoshan and Yuhang) at the 2010 census, an increase of 4.8% per year since the 2000 census. The most recent estimates of the city's urban area population are between 6,658,000 and 6,820,000.


title: Hangzhou

text: During the 2010 Chinese census, the metropolitan area held 21.102 million people over an area of . Hangzhou prefecture had a registered population of 9,018,000 in 2015. The entire province had a population of 8,700,373, and the encompassing urban agglomeration (including Shaoxing) is estimated to have population of 8,450,000.


title: Hangzhou

text: The encompassing metropolitan area was estimated by the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) to have, , a population of 13.4 million, although other sources put the figure at over 21 million. The Hangzhou metropolitan area includes the major cities of Shaoxing, Jiaxing and Huzhou.


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou is classified as a sub-provincial city and forms the core of the Hangzhou metropolitan area, the fourth-largest in China. It is the capital and most populous city of Zhejiang Province in East China. Hangzhou comprises 10 districts, 1 county-level city, and 2 counties. The ten urban districts occupy and have a population of 8,241,000, in which there are six central urban districts and four suburban districts. The central urban districts occupy and have a population of 3,780,000 and the suburban districts occupy and have a population of 4,461,000.


title: Hangzhou

text: In the early 90s, the urban districts of Hangzhou only comprises Shangcheng, Xiacheng, Gongshu, Jianggan.


title: Hangzhou

text: On December 11, 1996, Binjiang District was established. On March 12, 2001, Xiaoshan and Yuhang, formerly two county-level cities under the administration of Hangzhou prefecture-level city, were re-organized as two districts. On December 13, 2014, and in July 2017, Fuyang and Lin'an, formerly two county-level cities under the administration of Hangzhou prefecture-level city, were re-organized as two districts. On April 9, 2021, Linping District and Qiantang District was established.


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou's economy has rapidly developed since its opening up in 1992. It is an industrial city with many diverse sectors such as light industry, agriculture, and textiles. It is considered an important manufacturing base and logistics hub for coastal China. Additionally, the city is an e-commerce and technology hub. The 2001 GDP of Hangzhou was RMB 156.8 billion, which ranked second among all of the provincial capitals after Guangzhou. The city has more than tripled its GDP since then, increasing from RMB 156.8 billion in 2001 to RMB 1.3509 trillion in 2018 and GDP per capita increasing from US$3,020 to $21,184. As of 2019, the Hangzhou metropolitan area was estimated to produce a gross metropolitan product (nominal) of 3.2 trillion yuan ($486.53 billion), making it larger than the economies of Argentina, with a GDP of $452 billion (the 26th biggest in the World) and Nigeria with a GDP of $448 billion (the largest in Africa).


title: Hangzhou

text: A study conducted by PwC and China Development Research Foundation saw Hangzhou ranked first among "Chinese Cities of Opportunity". Hangzhou is also considered a World City with a "Beta+" classification according to GaWC. Hangzhou ranked 89 in the Global Financial Centres Index in 2018. It was also ranked first in the China Emerging City Rankings of the Economist Intelligence Unit, which assesses Chinese cities growth potential, in both 2021 and 2022. Hangzhou ranks 11th in the world and 6th in China (after Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Shenzhen and Guangzhou) in terms of the number of billionaires according to the Hurun Global Rich List 2020.


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou is the headquarters of several technology companies including Alibaba Group, Ant Group, NetEase and HikVision. As a result of its internet industry, many programmers from other cities such as Shanghai or Beijing have come to Hangzhou. The city has developed many new industries, including medicine, information technology, heavy equipment, automotive components, household electrical appliances, electronics, telecommunication, fine chemicals, chemical fibre and food


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou Economic and Technological Development Zone was established and approved as a national development zone by the State Council in 1993. It covers an area of . Encouraged industries include electronic information, biological medicine, machinery and household appliances manufacturing, and food processing. Hangzhou Export Processing Zone was established on April 27, 2000, upon approval of the State Council. It was one of the first zones and the only one in Zhejiang Province to be approved by the government. Its total planned area is . It is located close to Hangzhou Xiaoshan International Airport and Hangzhou Port.


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou Hi-Tech Industrial Development Zone was set up with approval from the State Council as a state-level high-tech Industrial Development Zone in March 1991. The HHTZ is composed of three parts, with the main regions being the Zhijiang Sci-Tech Industrial Park and Xiasha Sci-Tech Industrial Park. HHTZ has become one of the most influential high-tech innovation and high-tech industry bases in Zhejiang Province. , HHTZ hosts more than 1,100 software developers and BPO enterprises. Major companies such as Motorola, Nokia and Siemens have established R&D centers in the zone. In 2011, the GDP of the zone rose by 13.1 percent, amounting to RMB 41.63 billion. This accounted for 5.9 percent of Hangzhou's total GDP. The HHTZ positions itself as the "Silicon Valley" of China. The Alibaba Group is headquartered in the zone.


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou is known for its historic relics and natural environment. Although Hangzhou has been through many recent urban developments, it still retains its historical and cultural heritage. Today, tourism remains an important factor for Hangzhou's economy. One of Hangzhou's most popular sights is West Lake, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The West Lake Cultural Landscape covers an area of and includes some of Hangzhou's most notable historic and scenic places. Adjacent to the lake is an area which includes historical pagodas, cultural sites, as well as the natural environment of the lake and hills, including Phoenix Mountain. There are two causeways across the lake.


title: Hangzhou

text: In March 2013 the Hangzhou Tourism Commission started an online campaign via Facebook, the 'Modern Marco Polo' campaign. Over the next year nearly 26,000 participants applied from around the globe, in the hopes of becoming Hangzhou's first foreign tourism ambassador. In a press conference in Hangzhou on 20 May 2014, Liam Bates was announced as the successful winner and won a $55,000 contract, being the first foreigner ever to be appointed by China's government in such an official role.


title: Hangzhou

text: In 1848, during the Qing dynasty, Hangzhou was described as the "stronghold" of Islam in China, the city containing several mosques with Arabic inscriptions. A Hui from Ningbo also told an Englishman that Hangzhou was the "stronghold" of Islam in Zhejiang province, containing multiple mosques, compared to his small congregation of around 30 families in Ningbo for his mosque. Within the city of Hangzhou are two notable mosques: New Hangzhou Great Mosque and the Phoenix Mosque


title: Hangzhou

text: As late as the latter part of the 16th and early 17th centuries, the city was an important center of Chinese Jewry, and may have been the original home of the Kaifeng Jewish community.


title: Hangzhou

text: There was formerly a Jewish synagogue in Ningbo, as well as one in Hangzhou, but no traces of them are now discoverable, and the only Jews known to exist in China were in Kaifeng.


title: Hangzhou

text: Two of the Three Pillars of Chinese Catholicism were from Hangzhou. There was persecution of Christians in the early 21st century in the city.


title: Hangzhou

text: The native residents of Hangzhou, like those of Zhejiang and southern Jiangsu, speak the Hangzhou dialect, which is a Wu dialect. However, Wu Chinese varies throughout the area where it is spoken, hence, Hangzhou's dialect differs from those of regions in southern Zhejiang and southern Jiangsu. As the official language defined by China's central government, Mandarin is the dominant spoken language.


title: Hangzhou

text: There are several museums located in Hangzhou with regional and national importance. China National Silk Museum (), located near the West Lake, is one of the first state-level museums in China and the largest silk museum in the world. China National Tea Museum () is a national museum with special subjects as tea and its culture. Zhejiang Provincial Museum () features collection of integrated human studies, exhibition and research with its over 100,000 collected cultural relics.


title: Hangzhou

text: Many theaters in Hangzhou host opera shows. Yue opera, originated from Shengzhou, Zhejiang Province, is the second-largest opera form in China. Also, there are several big shows themed with the history and culture of Hangzhou like Impression West Lake and the Romance of Song Dynasty.


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou has historically been an important hub for artists and scholars. In modern times, Hangzhou was home to the China Academy of Art and prominent painters such as Lin Fengmian and Fang Ganmin.


title: Hangzhou

text: Tea is an important part of Hangzhou's economy and culture. Hangzhou is best known for originating Longjing, a notable variety of green tea, the most notable type being Longjing Tea. Known as the best type of Long Jing tea, Xi Hu Long Jing is grown in Longjing village near West Lake in Hangzhou, hence its name.


title: Hangzhou

text: The local government of Hangzhou heavily invests in promoting tourism and the arts, with emphasis placed upon silk production, umbrellas, and Chinese hand-held folding fans.


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou's local cuisine is often considered to be representative of Zhejiang provincial cuisine, which is claimed as one of China's eight fundamental cuisines. The locally accepted consensus among Hangzhou's natives defines dishes prepared in this style to be "fresh, tender, soft, and smooth, with a mellow fragrance."


title: Hangzhou

text: Generally, Hangzhou's cuisines tend to be sweeter rather than savoury. Owing to the fact that Hangzhou is located near the Yangtze river, where the climate is mild, the local people enjoy a light diet incorporating river fishes. The rich history of the city provides the local people with stories revolving around the origins of local dishes.


title: Hangzhou

text: Dishes such as Pian Er Chuan Noodles (), West Lake Vinegar Fish (), Dongpo Pork (), Longjing Shrimp (), Beggar's Chicken (), Steamed Rice and Pork Wrapped by Lotus Leaves(), Braised Bamboo Shoots (), Lotus Root Pudding () and Sister Song's Fish Soup () are some of the better-known examples of Hangzhou's regional cuisine.


title: Hangzhou

text: Longjing tea is the most famous green tea and rank first among top ten famous teas in China. Those planted by the West Lake is the best Longjing tea.


title: Hangzhou

text: The Port of Hangzhou is a small river port with a cargo throughput that exceeds 100 million tons annually.


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou is served by the Hangzhou Xiaoshan International Airport, which provides direct service to many international destinations such as Thailand, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, Vietnam, Singapore, Netherlands, Qatar, Portugal and the United States. Regional routes reach Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Macau. It has an extensive domestic route network within the PRC and is consistently ranked top 10 in passenger traffic among Chinese airports. Hangzhou Xiaoshan International Airport has two terminals, Terminal A and Terminal B. The smaller Terminal A serves all international and regional flights while the larger Terminal B solely handles domestic traffic. The airport is located just outside the city in the Xiaoshan District with direct bus service linking the airport with Downtown Hangzhou. The ambitious expansion project will see the addition of a second runway and a third terminal which will dramatically increase capacity of the fast-growing airport that serves as a secondary hub of Air China. A new elevated airport express highway is under construction on top of the existing highway between the airport and downtown Hangzhou. The second phase of Hangzhou Metro Line 1 has a planned extension to the airport.


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou sits on the intersecting point of some of the busiest rail corridors in China. The city's main station is Hangzhou East station (colloquially "East Station" , official national rail translation: Hangzhoudong Station). It is one of the biggest rail traffic hubs in China, consisting of 15 platforms that house the High Speed services to Shanghai, Nanjing, Changsha, Ningbo, and beyond. The metro station beneath the rail complex building is a stop along the Hangzhou Metro Line 1 and Line 4. There are frequent departures for Shanghai with approximately 20-minute headways from 6:00 to 21:00. Non-stop CRH high-speed service between Hangzhou and Shanghai takes 50 minutes and leaves every hour (excluding a few early morning/late night departures) from both directions. Other CRH high-speed trains that stop at one or more stations along the route complete the trip in 59 to 75 minutes. Most other major cities in China can also be reached by direct train service from Hangzhou. The Hangzhou railway station (colloquially the "City Station" ) was closed for renovation in mid 2013 but has recently opened again.


title: Hangzhou

text: A second high-speed rail channel through Hangzhou is operational along with another major station, Hangzhou West,opened on September 22, 2022.


title: Hangzhou

text: Direct trains link Hangzhou with more than 50 main cities, including 12 daily services to Beijing and more than 100 daily services to Shanghai; they reach as far as Ürümqi. The China Railway High-Speed service inaugurated on October 26, 2010. The service is operated by the CRH 380A(L), CRH 380B(L) and CRH380CL train sets which travel at a maximum speed of , shortening the duration of the trip to only 45 minutes.


title: Hangzhou

text: Central (to the east of the city centre, taking the place of the former east station), north, south, and west long-distance coach stations offer frequent coach service to nearby cities/towns within Zhejiang province, as well as surrounding provinces.


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou has an efficient bus network, consisting of a modern fleet of diesel, hybrid and electric buses, as well as trolleybuses. Hangzhou was once known for its extensive bus rapid transit network expanding from downtown to many suburban areas through dedicated bus lanes on some of the busiest streets in the city. However, as of mid-2021, all but one BRT routes and feeding routes had closed or been transformed to regular routes. Only route B1 is still in operation.


title: Hangzhou

text: Bicycles and electric scooters are very popular, and major streets have dedicated bike lanes throughout the city. Hangzhou has an extensive public bike rental system, the Hangzhou Public Bicycle system. A dock-and-station system similar to those in Paris and London is adopted and users can hire a bicycle with IC card or mobile phone application. Journeys within 60 minutes are free of charge.


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou Metro has a network of 323 km as of mid-2021, not including the Hangzhou-Haining Intercity Railway which has a length of 46 km. Major expansion plans continue. It is the 17th city in China to have a rapid rail transit system. In 2018, the State Council approved the planning for 15 metro lines, including extensions to the three existing lines, scheduled to open in time for the 2022 Asian Games. By then the Hangzhou Metro system is projected have a network of .


title: Hangzhou

text: The construction of the Metro started in March 2006, and Line 1 opened on November 24, 2012. Line 1 connects city centre with suburbs. It run from Xianghu to Wenze Road with a branch to Lingping, which would later become part of Line 9. By June 2015, the southeast section of Line 2 (starts in Xiaoshan District, ends to the south of the city centre) and a short part of Line 4 (fewer than 10 stations, connecting Line 1 and Line 2) were completed. The system is expected to have 15 lines upon completion; most lines are still under construction. The extensions of Line 2 (city centre and northwest Hangzhou) and Line 4 (east of Binjiang District) opened in 2018. Line 5/6/7/8 opened their first parts in 2019 and 2020


title: Hangzhou

text: Taxis are also popular in the city, with the newest line of Hyundai Sonatas and Volkswagen Passats, and tight regulations. In early 2011, 30 electric taxis were deployed in Hangzhou; 15 were Zotye Langyues and the other 15 were Haima Freemas. In April, however, one Zoyte Langyue caught fire, and all of the electric taxis were taken off the roads later that day. The city still intends to have a fleet of 200 electric taxis by the end of 2011. In 2014, a large number of new electric taxis produced by Xihu-BYD (Xihu (westlake) is a local company which produced televisions in the past) were deployed.


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou hosts many universities, most notably the Zhejiang University, which is one of the world's top 100th comprehensive public research universities. Hangzhou has a large student population with many higher education institutions based in the city. Public universities include Zhejiang University, Zhejiang University of Technology, and Hangzhou Normal University etc. Xiasha, located near the east end of the city, and Xiaoheshan, located near the west end of the city, are college towns with a cluster of several universities and colleges. The universities in Hangzhou include:


title: Hangzhou

text: Provincial key Public high schools in Hangzhou include Hangzhou No. 4 High School, Hangzhou No. 14 High School, Hangzhou NO.2 High School, Hangzhou Foreign Language School, High School Attached to Zhejiang University, High School attached to Hangzhou Normal university, Hangzhou No. 1 High School and Hangzhou Xuejun High School.


title: Hangzhou

text: Private high schools in Hangzhou include Hangzhou Green Town Yuhua School, Hangzhou Chinese International School, Hangzhou International School and Hangzhou Japanese School () (nihonjin gakkō).


title: Hangzhou

text: Hangzhou is a major city for scientific research in China, ranking 9th in Asia-Oceania region and 19th globally by the Nature Index as of 2022.


title: Hangzhou

text: This phrase has a similar meaning to the English phrases "Heaven on Earth". Marco Polo in his accounts described Suzhou as "the city of the earth" while Hangzhou is "the city of heaven". The city presented itself as "Paradise on Earth" during the G20 summit held in the city in 2016.


title: Hangzhou

text: The meaning here lies in the fact that Suzhou was renowned for its beautiful and highly civilized and educated citizens, Hangzhou for its scenery, Guangzhou for its food, and Liuzhou (of Guangxi) for its wooden coffins which supposedly halted the decay of the body (likely made from the camphor tree).


The All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (; AIADMK) is an Indian regional political party with great influence in the state of Tamil Nadu and the union territory of Puducherry. It is a Dravidian party founded by the former chief minister of Tamil Nadu M. G. Ramachandran (M.G.R.) at Madurai on 17 October 1972 as a breakaway faction from the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam after M. Karunanidhi expelled him from the party for demanding an account as the party treasurer. The party is adhering to the policy of socialism and secularism based on the principles of C. N. Annadurai (Anna) collectively coined as "Annaism" by M.G.R. The party has won a seven-time majority in the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly and has emerged as the most successful political outfit in the state's history. It is currently the main opposition party in the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly and part of the India-ruling National Democratic Alliance.


title: All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam

text: From 9 February 1989 to 5 December 2016, the AIADMK was led by the former chief minister of Tamil Nadu J. Jayalalithaa (Amma) as general secretary of the party. She was admired as the "Mother of the party" by her cadre and was highly popular among the Tamil populace until her death in 2016. From 21 August 2017 to 23 June 2022, the party was led under the dual leadership of the former chief ministers of Tamil Nadu O. Panneerselvam and Edappadi K. Palaniswami as coordinator and joint coordinator respectively.


text: From 11 July 2022, the AIADMK is led by the former chief minister of Tamil Nadu Edappadi K. Palaniswami (E.P.S.) as general secretary of the party.


text: The headquarters of the party is called Puratchi Thalaivar M.G.R. Maaligai, which is located at Avvai Shanmugam Salai, Royapettah, Chennai. The building was donated to the party in 1986 by M.G.R.'s wife V. N. Janaki Ramachandran, former chief minister of Tamil Nadu.


text: The AIADMK sought to depoliticize the education policy of the government by not insisting that education be in the Tamil language. Policies of the AIADMK were targeted at the poorer segments of Tamil society—the poor, rickshaw pullers, and destitute women—and centralising the massive noon meal scheme for children. There was ambivalence toward the reservation policy and the interests of farmers.


text: The AIADMK posted an array of welfare schemes targeting the human development index of the state. The AIADMK has schemes listed in the election manifestos covering segments of the population, including fishermen, farmers, and schoolchildren. Until the 2000s, the parties had welfare programmes such as maternity leave, subsidies for public transportation, and educational grants. After the 2000s, the parties started competing at an increasing level for the distribution of consumer goods. The AIADMK government distributed free bicycles to class 11 and 12 students during its tenure of 2001–06. In its manifesto for the 2006 assembly elections, the DMK promised free colour televisions in competition with other parties. The competition continued during the 2011 assembly elections, when both parties announced free laptops for school students and mixers, fans, and blenders for the public.


text: In the spring of 2019, the party lauded the economic policies of the Narendra Modi-led central government, stating that the centre had ushered in economic stability and made the country a "decisive player" in regional economics, and voiced support for the Goods and Services Tax (GST), which had been opposed by their rival the DMK.


text: The party was founded on 17 October 1972, as "Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam" (ADMK) by M. G. Ramachandran (M.G.R.), a veteran Tamil film star and popular politician. It was set up as a breakaway faction of the DMK led by M. Karunanidhi, then chief minister of Tamil Nadu, owing to personal differences between the two. M.G.R., who wanted to start a new party, then incorporated Anakaputhur Ramalingam into the party, which had registered under the name "ADMK". He then declared, "I joined the party started by an ordinary volunteer" and gave the post of Member of Legislative Council (MLC) to Ramalingam. Later, M.G.R. prefixed the "All India" (AI) tag to the party's name to save himself from IT raids and protect the party during the Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA). Since its inception, the relationship between the AIADMK and DMK has been marked by mutual contempt. M.G.R. used his fan network to build the party cadre; he claims his party recruited more than a million members in the first two months. C. N. Annadurai's ideologue and movie producer turned politician R. M. Veerappan was the key architect in unifying M.G.R. fan clubs and further consolidating the party structure in the 1970s. Other key leaders, such as Nanjil K. Manoharan and S. D. Somasundaram played major roles in consolidation. Pavalar M. Muthusamy was elected the first presidium chairman of the party. The party's first victories were the wins of Maya Thevar in the Dindigul parliamentary bye-election in May 1973 and of C. Aranganayagam in the Coimbatore West assembly bye-election a year later. On 2 April 1973, the AIADMK emerged as the third-largest political party in Tamil Nadu, represented by 11 MLAs in the assembly. By January 1976, the AIADMK had emerged as the second-largest political party in Tamil Nadu, with 16 MLAs in the assembly. By supporting the National Emergency between 1975 and 1977, the AIADMK grew close to the Indian National Congress party.


text: The DMK-led government was dismissed by a central prosecution on corruption charges in 1976. The AIADMK swept to power in 1977, defeating the DMK in the assembly election. M.G.R. was sworn in as the 3rd chief minister of Tamil Nadu on 30 June 1977 and he remained in power until his death on 24 December 1987, winning consecutive assembly elections held in 1980 and 1984. In 1979, the AIADMK became the first Dravidian and regional party to join the Union Cabinet. Sathiavani Muthu and A. Bala Pajanor were the members of parliament joined the short-lived Union Ministry led by then Prime Minister Charan Singh.


text: The relationship between the AIADMK and the INC slowly became strained. In the 1980 Indian general election, the INC aligned with the DMK, and the alliance won 37 out of the 39 state parliamentary seats. The AIADMK won just two seats. After returning to power, Indira Gandhi dismissed a number of state governments belonging to the opposition parties, including the AIADMK government in Tamil Nadu.


text: In the 1980 election, with the opposition DMK continuing the electoral alliance with the INC. In a massive reversal of fortunes following the Lok Sabha elections, the AIADMK won a comfortable majority in the state assembly with 129 of 234 seats. M.G.R. was sworn in as chief minister for the second time on 9 June 1980.


text: In 1984, even with M.G.R.'s failing health and hospitalization, the party won the assembly election in alliance with the INC. Many political historians consider M.G.R.'s persona and charisma at this point in time as "infallible" and a logical continuation of his on-screen "good lad" image, strengthened by his "mythical status" in the minds of the masses. M.G.R. continued to enjoy popular support in his third tenure until his death on 24 December 1987. M.G.R. continued to enjoy popular support in his third tenure until his death on 24 December 1987.


text: Following M.G.R.'s death, his wife, actress-turned-politician V. N. Janaki Ramachandran, rose to the party's leadership with the support of R. M. Veerappan and 98 MLAs. She served as the state's first female chief minister for 23 days, from 7 January 1988 until the state assembly was suspended on 30 January 1988 and President's Rule was imposed. The party began to crumble due to infighting and broke into two factions, one under Janaki Ramachandran and the other under J. Jayalalithaa, an associate of M.G.R. and another film actress-turned-politician who had starred with M.G.R. The Election Commission of India froze the "Two Leaves" symbol on 17 December 1988. The 1989 assembly election saw the DMK regain power after 13 years in opposition, with M. Karunanidhi returning as the chief minister for the third time. Due to its split, AIADMK suffered heavily in the election, with the Janaki and Jayalalithaa factions winning only 2 and 27 seats, respectively. Following AIADMK's rout in the election, the factions led by Jayalalithaa and Janaki merged under the former's leadership on 10 February 1989, as Janaki decided that politics was not her forte. On 11 February 1989, then Chief Election Commissioner R. V. S. Peri Sastri granted the Two Leaves symbol to the united AIADMK Party led by Jayalalithaa. In the 1989 general election, the AIADMK formed an alliance with the Indian National Congress (INC) and won 37 out of 39 seats in Tamil Nadu. The DMK government was dismissed in 1991 by the central government headed by then-prime minister Chandra Shekhar, an ally of the AIADMK at that time, on charges that the constitutional machinery in the state had broken down.


text: The AIADMK allied with the Indian National Congress (INC) and swept to power in the 1991 assembly election under the leadership of J. Jayalalithaa, who became the second female and fifth chief minister of the state. Political observers have ascribed the landslide victory to the anti-incumbent wave arising out of the assassination of the former prime minister Rajiv Gandhi by suspected Tamil separatists fighting for a homeland in neighbouring Sri Lanka. The ensuing government was accused of large-scale corruption, but Jayalalithaa held on to power for a full term of five years. In the 1996 assembly election, the AIADMK continued its alliance with the INC but suffered a massive rout, winning only 4 out of the 234 assembly seats, with even Jayalalithaa losing her Bargur constituency.


text: During the parliamentary election in 1998, the AIADMK formed an alliance with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (MDMK). In the Atal Bihari Vajpayee-led government between 1998 and 1999, the AIADMK shared power with the BJP, but withdrew support in early 1999, causing the BJP government to fall. Following this, the AIADMK once again allied with the INC.


text: In the 2001 assembly election, the AIADMK-led alliance, consisting of the Indian National Congress, the Tamil Maanila Congress (Moopanar) (TMC(M)), the Left Front, and the Pattali Makkal Katchi (PMK), regained power, winning 197 seats to the AIADMK's 132. Due to the proceedings in a disproportionate asset case that occurred during her previous tenure, Jayalalithaa was prevented from holding office. On 21 September 2001, O. Panneerselvam, a close confidant of Jayalalithaa, was appointed as the chief minister of Tamil Nadu for the first time. Once the Supreme Court of India overturned Jayalalithaa's conviction and sentence in the case, O. Panneerselvam resigned on 2 March 2002, and Jayalalithaa was again sworn in as chief minister for the third time.


text: Her second term was not marred by corruption scandals. She took many popular decisions, such as banning lottery tickets, restricting the liquor and sand quarrying businesses to government agencies, and banning tobacco product sales near schools and colleges. She encouraged women to join the state police force by setting up all women's police stations and commissioning 150 women into the elite level police commandos in 2003, a first in India. The women had the same training as men, which included handling weapons, detection and disposal of bombs, driving, horseback riding, and adventure sports. She dispatched a special task force to the Sathyamangalam forests in October 2004 to track down notorious sandalwood smuggler Veerappan. The operation was successful, as he was killed by the task force on 18 October 2004.


text: However, despite the popular measures taken by the government, in the 2004 general election, the party, in alliance with the BJP again, was humiliated, winning none of the 39 Lok Sabha seats from the state. The Secular Progressive Alliance (SPA), a DMK-led alliance consisting of all the major opposition parties in the state, swept the election.


text: Later, in the 2006 assembly election, in spite of media speculations of a hung assembly, the AIADMK, contesting with only the support of the MDMK and a few other smaller parties, won 61 seats compared to the DMK's 96 and was pushed out of power by the DMK-led congressional alliance of the PMK and the Left Front. The AIADMK's electoral reversals continued in the 2009 general election. However, the party's performance was better than its debacle in 2004, and it managed to win nine seats.


text: Following widespread corruption, a price rise, a power cut, and allegations of nepotism against the DMK government, in the 2011 assembly election, the party, in alliance with parties like the left and actor-turned-politician Vijayakant's Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam (DMDK), swept the polls, winning 202 seats, with the AIADMK winning 150. Jayalalithaa was sworn in as chief minister for the fourth time.


text: In the union territory of Puducherry, the AIADMK allied with N. Rangasamy's All India N.R. Congress (AINRC) and won the 2011 assembly election, which was held in parallel with the Tamil Nadu assembly election. However, it did not join the newly elected AINRC-led government.


text: The AIADMK's good electoral performance continued in the 2014 general election as well. It opted not to join any alliance and contested all seats in the state of Tamil Nadu and the union territory of Puducherry on its own. The party won an unprecedented 37 out of the 40 parliamentary constituencies it contested and emerged as the third largest party in the 16th Lok Sabha of the Indian Parliament. It was a massive victory that no other regional political party had ever achieved in the history of general elections.


text: On 29 August 2014, J. Jayalalithaa was elected as the general secretary of the party for the 7th consecutive term, making her the longest-serving general secretary of the party to date. Earlier, she was elected in the years 1988, 1989, 1993, 1998, 2003, 2008, and 2014. During her longest tenure as general secretary, V. R. Nedunchezhiyan, K. Kalimuthu, Pulamaipithan, C. Ponnaiyan, and E. Madhusudhanan served as the presidium chairmen of the party.


text: On 27 September 2014, Jayalalithaa was convicted in the disproportionate assets case by a Special Court along with her associates V. K. Sasikala, Ilavarasi, and V. N. Sudhakaran and sentenced to four years' simple imprisonment. Jayalalithaa was also fined 100 crore, and her associates were fined 10 crore each. The case had political implications as it was the first time a ruling chief minister had to step down on account of a court sentence.


text: Due to her resignation, O. Panneerselvam was sworn in as chief minister on 29 September 2014. Jayalalithaa was denied bail by the High Court and moved the Supreme Court for bail. The Supreme Court granted bail on 17 October 2014. On 11 May 2015, the High Court of Karnataka said she was acquitted from that case and was again sworn in as chief minister for the fifth time.


text: In the 2016 assembly election, running without allies, she swept the polls, winning 136 out of 234 seats. It was the most audacious decision made by her for the massive victory that no other political leader had ever made in the history of Tamil Nadu. On 23 May 2016, Jayalalithaa was sworn in as chief minister for the sixth time.


text: On 22 September 2016, she was admitted to Apollo Hospital, Chennai, due to fever and dehydration. After a prolonged illness, she died on 5 December 2016, and became the third chief minister in Tamil Nadu to die in office after Anna and her mentor M.G.R.


text: Under Jayalalithaa's regime, the party spread beyond Tamil Nadu and Puducherry. State units are established in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Kerala. The party also has a following in places like the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Maharashtra, the National Capital Territory of Delhi, and Telangana in India, as well as in other countries where Tamil people are present.


text: In Karnataka, the party had members in the state assembly from 1983 to 2004 and has influence in the Tamil-speaking areas of Bengaluru and Kolar.


text: In Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, and Maharashtra, the party contested some legislative assembly elections but did not win a single seat in any of the elections.


text: After Jayalalithaa's death on 5 December 2016, her close aide V. K. Sasikala was selected unanimously as the Acting General Secretary of the party on 31 December 2016. On 5 February 2017, she was selected as the leader of the legislative assembly as chief minister. O. Panneerselvam rebelled against Sasikala and reported that he had been compelled to resign as Chief Minister, bringing in a new twist to Tamil Nadu politics. Due to a conviction in the disproportionate assets case against Jayalalithaa, Sasikala was sentenced to 4 years' imprisonment in the Bengaluru Central Prison. Before that, she appointed Edappadi K. Palaniswami as legislative party leader (Chief Minister).


text: She also appointed her nephew and former treasurer of the party, T. T. V. Dhinakaran, as the deputy general secretary of the AIADMK party. With the support of 123 MLAs, Palaniswami became chief minister of Tamil Nadu.


text: On 23 March 2017, the Election Commission of India (ECI) gave separate party symbols to the two factions: O. Panneerselvam's faction, known as AIADMK (PURATCHI THALAIVI AMMA), and Edappadi K. Palaniswami's faction, known as AIADMK (AMMA).


text: By-polls were announced in the Dr. Radhakrishnan Nagar constituency, which was vacated due to Jayalalithaa's death. But the election commission cancelled the by-polls after evidence of large-scale bribery by the ruling AIADMK (AMMA) surfaced. On 17 April 2017, Delhi police registered a case against Dhinakaran, who was also the candidate for AIADMK (AMMA) for the by-election at Dr. Radhakrishnan Nagar, regarding an allegation of attempting to bribe the Election Commission of India for the AIADMK's election symbol. However, the Central District Tis Hazari Courts granted him bail on the grounds that the police had failed to identify the allegedly bribed public official.


text: T. T. V. Dhinakaran started his party work on 5 August 2017. However, the chief minister, Edappadi K. Palaniswami, had a fallout with Dhinakaran and announced that the appointment of Dinakaran as deputy general secretary was invalid. So he claims, "We are the real AIADMK, and 95% of its cadres are with us."


text: On 12 September 2017, the AIADMK general council, which had earlier appointed her, cancelled V. K. Sasikala's appointment as general secretary and officially expelled her from the party as a primary member.


text: Earlier on 10 August 2017, T. T. V. Dhinakaran was sacked as deputy general secretary at the meeting headed by Edappadi K. Palaniswami at Puratchi Thalaivar M.G.R. Maaligai in Chennai.


text: After completing her imprisonment at Bengaluru Central Prison, Sasikala filed a case in the City Civil Court IV of Chennai in February 2021, but it upheld her dismissal as the AIADMK general secretary in April 2022.


text: On 21 August 2017, both O. Panneerselvam and Edappadi K. Palaniswami factions of the AIADMK merged, and O. Panneerselvam was sworn in as the Deputy Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu with the portfolio of Finance and the coordinator of the AIADMK. He also holds portfolios for housing, rural housing, housing development, the slum clearance board, accommodation control, town planning, urban development, and theChennai Metropolitan Development Authority. On 4 January 2018, O. Panneerselvam was elected Leader of the House in the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly.


text: On 12 September 2017, the AIADMK general council decided to cancel V. K. Sasikala's appointment as acting general secretary and officially expel her from the party, though prominent members appointed to party posts by her were allowed to continue discharging their functions. Instead, the late J. Jayalalithaa was named the eternal general secretary of the AIADMK.


text: A day after the merger of two AIADMK factions, on 22 April 2017, 19 MLAs owing allegiance to ousted deputy general secretary T. T. V. Dhinakaran submitted letters to the governor, expressing lack of confidence in Chief Minister Edappadi K. Palaniswami and withdrawing support from the government. 18 out of those 19 MLAs were disqualified from office by the Speaker of the legislative assembly upon recommendation from the AIADMK Chief Whip. After a prolonged legal battle, the Speaker's orders were upheld by the Madras High Court, and bye-elections were held alongside the general parliamentary elections. On 23 November 2017, the Election Commission of India granted the "two leaves" symbol to the O. Panneerselvam and Edappadi K. Palaniswami camp.


text: On 14 November 2017, the AIADMK launched "News J", named after the AIADMK former general secretary J. Jayalalithaa, to replace Jaya TV. On 24 February 2018, AIADMK's new mouthpiece, "Namadhu Amma", a Tamil daily, was launched, marking the 70th birth anniversary of the AIADMK former general secretary J. Jayalalithaa.


text: Despite the popular measures taken by the government, in the 2019 Lok Sabha election, the party, in alliance with the BJP again, was humiliated, winning one of the 39 Lok Sabha seats from the state. The Secular Progressive Alliance (SPA), a DMK-led alliance consisting of all the major opposition parties in the state, swept the election by winning 38 seats.