title: Macedonian language

text: The government of Bulgaria, Bulgarian academics, the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and the general public have and continue to widely consider Macedonian part of the Bulgarian dialect area. During the Communist era, Macedonian was recognized as a minority language in Bulgaria and utilized in education from 1946 to 1948. Subsequently, it was described as a dialect of Bulgarian. In 1956 the Bulgarian government signed an agreement on mutual legal defense with Yugoslavia, where the Macedonian language is named as one of the languages to be used for legal purposes, together with Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian. The same year Bulgaria revoked its recognition of Macedonian nationhood and language and implicitly resumed its prewar position of their non-existence. In 1999 the government in Sofia signed a in the official languages of the two countries, marking the first time it agreed to sign a bilateral agreement written in Macedonian. Dialect experts of the Bulgarian language refer to the Macedonian language as "македонска езикова норма" (Macedonian linguistic norm) of the Bulgarian language. As of 2019, disputes regarding the language and its origins are ongoing in academic and political circles in the two countries.


title: Macedonian language

text: The Greek scientific and local community opposed using the denomination Macedonian to refer to the language in light of the Greek-Macedonian naming dispute. Instead, the language is often called "Slavic", "Slavomacedonian" (translated to "Macedonian Slavic" in English), "makedonski", "makedoniski" ("Macedonian"), "slaviká" (Greek: "Slavic"), "dópia" or "entópia" (Greek: "local/indigenous [language]"), "balgàrtzki" (Bulgarian) or "Macedonian" in some parts of the region of Kastoria, "bògartski" ("Bulgarian") in some parts of Dolna Prespa along with "naši" ("our own") and "stariski" ("old"). However, with the Prespa agreement signed in June 2018 and ratified by the Greek Parliament on 25 January 2019, Greece officially recognized the name "Macedonian" for the language. Additionally, on 28 July 2022, in a landmark ruling, the Greek Court registered "The Centre for Macedonian Language in Greece" as a non-governmental organization. This is the first time that a cultural organization promoting the Macedonian language is legally approved in Greece and the first legal recognition of the Macedonian language in Greece since at least 1928.


title: Linen

text: Linen is very strong, absorbent, and dries faster than cotton. Because of these properties, linen is comfortable to wear in hot weather and is valued for use in garments. It also has other distinctive characteristics, notably its tendency to wrinkle.


title: Linen

text: Linen textiles appear to be some of the oldest in the world; their history goes back many thousands of years. Dyed flax fibers found in a cave in Southeastern Europe (present-day Georgia) suggest the use of woven linen fabrics from wild flax may date back over 30,000 years. Linen was used in ancient civilizations including Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, and linen is mentioned in the Bible. In the 18th century and beyond, the linen industry was important in the economies of several countries in Europe as well as the American colonies.


title: Linen

text: Textiles in a linen weave texture, even when made of cotton, hemp, or other non-flax fibers, are also loosely referred to as "linen".


title: Linen

text: The word "linen" is of West Germanic origin and cognate to the Latin name for the flax plant, "linum", and the earlier Greek λινόν ("linón").


title: Linen

text: This word history has given rise to a number of other terms in English, most notably "line," from the use of a linen (flax) thread to determine a straight line. It is also etymologically related to a number of other terms, including lining, because linen was often used to create an inner layer for clothing, and lingerie, from French, which originally denoted underwear made of linen.


title: Linen

text: People in various parts of the world began weaving linen at least several thousand years ago. It was also recovered from Qumran Cave 1 near the Dead Sea.


title: Linen

text: The discovery of dyed flax fibers in a cave in Southern Caucasus, West Asia (modern day Georgia) dated to 36,000 years ago suggests that ancient people used wild flax fibers to create linen-like fabrics from an early date.


title: Linen

text: Fragments of straw, seeds, fibers, yarns, and various types of fabrics, including linen samples, dating to about 8,000 BC have been found in Swiss lake dwellings.


title: Linen

text: Woven flax textile fragments have been "found between infant and child" in a burial at Çatalhöyük, a large settlement dating to around 7,000 BC. To the southwest, in ancient Mesopotamia, flax was domesticated and linen was produced. It was used mainly by the wealthier class of the society, including priests. The Sumerian poem of the courtship of Inanna mentions flax and linen.


title: Linen

text: In ancient Egypt, linen was used for mummification and for burial shrouds. It was also worn as clothing on a daily basis; white linen was worn because of the extreme heat. For example, the Tarkhan dress, considered to be among the oldest woven garments in the world and dated to between 3482 and 3102 BC, is made of linen. Plutarch wrote that the priests of Isis also wore linen because of its purity. Linen was sometimes used as a form of currency in ancient Egypt. Egyptian mummies were wrapped in linen as a symbol of light and purity, and as a display of wealth. Some of these fabrics, woven from hand-spun yarns, were very fine for their day, but are coarse compared with modern linen. When the tomb of the Pharaoh Ramses II, who died in 1213 BC, was discovered in 1881, the linen wrappings were in a state of perfect preservation after more than 3000 years. In the Ulster Museum, Belfast there is the mummy of 'Takabuti' the daughter of a priest of Amun, who died 2,500 years ago. The linen on this mummy is also in a perfect state of preservation.


title: Linen

text: The earliest written documentation of a linen industry comes from the Linear B tablets of Pylos, Greece, where linen is depicted as an ideogram and also written as "li-no" (Greek: λίνον, "linon"), and the female linen workers are cataloged as "li-ne-ya" (λίνεια, "lineia").


title: Linen

text: By the Middle Ages, there was a thriving trade in German flax and linen. The trade spread throughout Germany by the 9th century and spread to Flanders and Brabant by the 11th century. The Lower Rhine was a center of linen making in the Middle Ages. Flax was cultivated and linen used for clothing in Ireland by the 11th century. Evidence suggests that flax may have been grown and sold in Southern England in the 12th and 13th centuries.


title: Linen

text: Linen continued to be valued for garments in the 16th century and beyond. Specimens of linen garments worn by historical figures have survived. For example, a linen cap worn by Emperor Charles V was carefully preserved after his death in 1558.


title: Linen

text: There is a long history of the production of linen in Ireland. When the Edict of Nantes was revoked in 1685, many of the Huguenots who fled France settled in the British Isles and elsewhere. They brought improved methods for linen production with them, contributing to the growth of the linen industry in Ireland in particular. Among them was Louis Crommelin, a leader who was appointed overseer of the royal linen manufacture of Ireland. He settled in the town of Lisburn near Belfast, which is itself perhaps the most famous linen producing center throughout history; during the Victorian era the majority of the world's linen was produced in the city, which gained it the name Linenopolis. Although the linen industry was already established in Ulster, Louis Crommelin found scope for improvement in weaving, and his efforts were so successful that he was appointed by the Government to develop the industry over a much wider range than the small confines of Lisburn and its surroundings. The direct result of his good work was the establishment, under statute, of the Board of Trustees of the Linen Manufacturers of Ireland in the year 1711. Several grades were produced including coarse lockram. The Living Linen Project was set up in 1995 as an oral archive of the knowledge of the Irish linen industry, which was at that time still available within a nucleus of people who formerly worked in the industry in Ulster.


title: Linen

text: The linen industry was increasingly critical in the economies of Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries. In England and then in Germany, industrialization and machine production replaced manual work and production moved from the home to new factories.


title: Linen

text: Linen was also an important product in the American colonies, where it was brought over with the first settlers and became the most commonly used fabric and a valuable asset for colonial households. The homespun movement encouraged the use of flax to make home spun textiles. Through the 1830s, most farmers in the northern United States continued to grow flax for linen to be used for the family's clothing.


title: Linen

text: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, linen was very significant to Russia and its economy. At one time it was the country's greatest export item and Russia produced about 80% of the world's fiber flax crop.


title: Linen

text: In December 2006, the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed 2009 to be the International Year of Natural Fibres in order to raise people's awareness of linen and other natural fibers.


title: Linen

text: One study suggests that the functional properties of linen fabric can be improved by incorporating chitosan-citric acid and phytic acid thiourea. The effects of this process include improved levels of antibacterial activity, increased wrinkle resistance, flame retardancy, UV protection, and antioxidant properties. Additionally, the linen fabric was able to retain durability for about 20 washes.


title: Linen

text: There are many references to linen throughout the Bible, reflecting the textile's entrenched presence in human cultures.


title: Linen

text: In Judaism, the only law concerning which fabrics may be interwoven together in clothing concerns the mixture of linen and wool, called "shaatnez"; it is restricted in "Thou shalt not wear a mingled stuff, wool and linen together" and , "...neither shall there come upon thee a garment of two kinds of stuff mingled together." There is no explanation for this in the Torah itself and it is categorized as a type of law known as "chukim", a statute beyond man's ability to comprehend. First-century Romano-Jewish historian Josephus suggested that the reason for the prohibition was to keep the laity from wearing the official garb of the priests, while medieval Sephardic Jewish philosopher Maimonides thought that the reason was that heathen priests wore such mixed garments. Others explain that it is because God often forbids mixtures of disparate kinds, not designed by God to be compatible in a certain way, with mixing animal and vegetable fibers being similar to having two different types of plowing animals yoked together; also, such commands serve both a practical as well as allegorical purpose, perhaps here preventing a priestly garment that would cause discomfort (or excessive sweat) in a hot climate.


title: Linen

text: Linen is also mentioned in the Bible in Proverbs 31, a passage describing a noble wife. says, "She makes coverings for her bed; she is clothed in fine linen and purple." Fine white linen is also worn by angels in the New Testament ().


title: Linen

text: Many products can be made with linen: aprons, bags, towels (swimming, bath, beach, body and wash towels), napkins, bed linens, runners, chair covers, and men's and women's wear. It is used especially in sailcloth and lent cloth, sewing threads, handkerchiefs, table cloth, sheets, collars, cuffs etc..


title: Linen

text: Today, linen is usually an expensive textile produced in relatively small quantities. It has a long staple (individual fiber length) relative to cotton and other natural fibers.


title: Linen

text: Linen fabric has been used for table coverings, bed coverings and clothing for centuries. The significant cost of linen derives not only from the difficulty of working with the thread but also because the flax plant itself requires a great deal of attention. In addition, flax thread is not elastic, and therefore it is difficult to weave without breaking threads. Thus linen is considerably more expensive to manufacture than cotton.


title: Linen

text: The collective term "linens" is still often used generically to describe a class of woven or knitted bed, bath, table and kitchen textiles traditionally made of flax-based linen but today made from a variety of fibers. The term "linens" refers to lightweight undergarments such as shirts, chemises, waist-shirts, lingerie (a cognate with "linen"), and detachable shirt collars and cuffs, all of which were historically made almost exclusively out of linen. The inner layer of fine composite cloth garments (as for example dress jackets) was traditionally made of linen, hence the word "lining".


title: Linen

text: Over the past 30 years the end use for linen has changed dramatically. Approximately 70% of linen production in the 1990s was for apparel textiles, whereas in the 1970s only about 5% was used for fashion fabrics.


title: Linen

text: Linen uses range across bed and bath fabrics (tablecloths, bath towels, dish towels, bed sheets); home and commercial furnishing items (wallpaper/wall coverings, upholstery, window treatments); apparel items (suits, dresses, skirts, shirts); and industrial products (luggage, canvases, sewing thread). It was once the preferred yarn for hand-sewing the uppers of moccasin-style shoes (loafers), but has been replaced by synthetics.


title: Linen

text: A linen handkerchief, pressed and folded to display the corners, was a standard decoration of a well-dressed man's suit during most of the first part of the 20th century.


title: Linen

text: Nowadays, linen is one of the most preferred materials for bed sheets due to its durability and hypoallergenic properties. Linen can be up to three times stronger than cotton. This is because the cellulose fibers in linen yarn are slightly longer and wrapped tighter than those found in cotton yarn. This gives it great durability and allows linen products to be long-lasting.


title: Linen

text: Currently researchers are working on a cotton/flax blend to create new yarns which will improve the feel of denim during hot and humid weather. Conversely, some brands such as 100% Capri specially treat the linen to look like denim.


title: Linen

text: Linen fabric is one of the preferred traditional supports for oil painting. In the United States cotton is popularly used instead, as linen is many times more expensive there, restricting its use to professional painters. In Europe, however, linen is usually the only fabric support available in art shops; in the UK both are freely available with cotton being cheaper. Linen is preferred to cotton for its strength, durability and archival integrity.


title: Linen

text: Linen is also used extensively by artisan bakers. Known as a couche, the flax cloth is used to hold the dough into shape while in the final rise, just before baking. The couche is heavily dusted with flour which is rubbed into the pores of the fabric. Then the shaped dough is placed on the couche. The floured couche makes a "non stick" surface to hold the dough. Then ridges are formed in the couche to keep the dough from spreading.


title: Linen

text: In the past, linen was also used for books (the only surviving example of which is the Liber Linteus). Due to its strength, in the Middle Ages linen was used for shields, gambesons, and bowstrings; in classical antiquity it was used to make a type of body armour, referred to as a linothorax. Additionally, linen was commonly used to make riggings, sail-cloths, nets, ropes, and canvases because the tensility of the cloth would increase by 20% when wet.


title: Linen

text: Because of its strength when wet, Irish linen is a very popular wrap of pool/billiard cues, due to its absorption of sweat from hands.


title: Linen

text: In 1923, the German city Bielefeld issued banknotes printed on linen. United States currency paper is made from 25% linen and 75% cotton.


title: Linen

text: Linen is a bast fiber. Flax fibers vary in length from about 25 to 150 mm (1 to 6 in) and average 12–16 micrometers in diameter. There are two varieties: shorter tow fibers used for coarser fabrics and longer line fibers used for finer fabrics. Flax fibers can usually be identified by their “nodes” which add to the flexibility and texture of the fabric.


title: Linen

text: The cross-section of the linen fiber is made up of irregular polygonal shapes which contribute to the coarse texture of the fabric.


title: Linen

text: Linen fabric feels cool to touch, a phenomenon which indicates its higher conductivity (the same principle that makes metals feel "cold"). It is smooth, making the finished fabric lint-free, and gets softer the more it is washed. However, constant creasing in the same place in sharp folds will tend to break the linen threads. This wear can show up in collars, hems, and any area that is iron creased during laundering. Linen's poor elasticity means that it easily wrinkles.


title: Linen

text: Mildew, perspiration, and bleach can damage the fabric, but because it is not made from animal fibers (keratin) it is impervious to clothes moths and carpet beetles. Linen is relatively easy to take care of, since it resists dirt and stains, has no lint or pilling tendency, and can be dry-cleaned, machine-washed, or steamed. It can withstand high temperatures, and has only moderate initial shrinkage.


title: Linen

text: Linen should not be dried too much by tumble drying, and it is much easier to iron when damp. Linen wrinkles very easily, and thus some more formal garments require ironing often, in order to maintain perfect smoothness. Nevertheless, the tendency to wrinkle is often considered part of linen's particular "charm", and many modern linen garments are designed to be air-dried on a good clothes hanger and worn without the necessity of ironing.


title: Linen

text: A characteristic often associated with linen yarn is the presence of "slubs", or small, soft, irregular lumps, which occur randomly along its length. In the past, slubs were traditionally considered to be defects, and were associated with low-quality linen. However, in the case of many present-day linen fabrics, particularly in the decorative furnishing industry, slubs are considered as part of the aesthetic appeal of an expensive natural product. In addition, slubs do not compromise the integrity of the fabric, and therefore they are not viewed as a defect. However, the very finest linen has very consistent diameter threads, with no slubs at all.


title: Linen

text: The standard measure of bulk linen yarn is the "lea", which is the number of yards in a pound of linen divided by 300. For example, a yarn having a size of 1 lea will give 300 yards per pound. The fine yarns used in handkerchiefs, etc. might be 40 lea, and give 40x300 = 12,000 yards per pound. This is a specific length therefore an indirect measurement of the fineness of the linen, i.e., the number of length units per unit mass. The symbol is NeL. The metric unit, Nm, is more commonly used in continental Europe. This is the number of 1,000 m lengths per kilogram. In China, the English Cotton system unit, NeC, is common. This is the number of 840 yard lengths in a pound.


title: Linen

text: The quality of the finished linen product is often dependent upon growing conditions and harvesting techniques. To generate the longest possible fibers, flax is either hand-harvested by pulling up the entire plant or stalks are cut very close to the root. After harvesting, the plants are dried, and then the seeds are removed through a mechanized process called “rippling” (threshing) and winnowing.


title: Linen

text: The fibers must then be loosened from the stalk. This is achieved through retting. This is a process which uses bacteria to decompose the pectin that binds the fibers together. Natural retting methods take place in tanks and pools, or directly in the fields. There are also chemical retting methods; these are faster, but are typically more harmful to the environment and to the fibers themselves.


title: Linen

text: After retting, the stalks are ready for scutching, which takes place between August and December. Scutching removes the woody portion of the stalks by crushing them between two metal rollers, so that the parts of the stalk can be separated. The fibers are removed and the other parts such as linseed, shives, and tow are set aside for other uses. Next the fibers are heckled: the short fibers are separated with heckling combs by 'combing' them away, to leave behind only the long, soft flax fibers.


title: Linen

text: After the fibers have been separated and processed, they are typically spun into yarns and woven or knit into linen textiles. These textiles can then be bleached, dyed, printed on, or finished with a number of treatments or coatings.


title: Linen

text: An alternate production method is known as “cottonizing” which is quicker and requires less equipment. The flax stalks are processed using traditional cotton machinery; however, the finished fibers often lose the characteristic linen look.


title: Linen

text: Flax is grown in many parts of the world, but top quality flax is primarily grown in Western European countries and Ukraine. In recent years bulk linen production has moved to Eastern Europe and China, but high-quality fabrics are still confined to niche producers in Ireland, Italy and Belgium, and also in countries including Poland, Austria, France, Germany, Sweden, Denmark, Belarus, Lithuania, Latvia, the Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland, Britain and Kochi in India. High-quality linen fabrics are now produced in the United States for the upholstery market and in Belgium.


title: Linen

text: In 2018, according to the United Nations' repository of official international trade statistics, China was the top exporter of woven linen fabrics by trade value, with a reported $732.3 million in exports; Italy ($173.0 million), Belgium ($68.9 million) and the United Kingdom ($51.7 million) were also major exporters.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: The Telugu Desam Party (; TDP) is an Indian regional political party operating in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana at the state and central level. Since its founding by N. T. Rama Rao (often referred to as NTR) on 29 March 1982, the party has focused on supporting Telugu speakers. Since 1995, NTR's son-in-law, N. Chandrababu Naidu, has led the party. The TDP currently holds three Lok Sabha seats, one Rajya Sabha seat, and is the main opposition party in both houses of Andhra Pradesh's legislature.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: Soon after its founding, the TDP won a majority in the 1983 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly elections. As the state's 10th Chief Minister, NTR was the first officeholder not affiliated with the Indian National Congress (INC). In the 1984 Indian general election, the party won 30 Lok Sabha seats despite the INC's national landslide victory, making the 8th Lok Sabha, held from 1984 to 1989, the only session to have a regional party as the main opposition.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: On 16 March 2018, the TDP quit the National Democratic Alliance over the Bharatiya Janata Party not allocating special funding to Andhra Pradesh.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: The Telugu Desam Party follows a pro-Telugu ideology. It was founded as an alternative to the Congress hegemony, by emphasizing Telugu regional pride and serving as the party for farmers, backward castes and middle-class people. Since the 1990s, it has followed an economically liberal policy that has been seen as pro-business and pro-development.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: The TDP uses yellow as the background colour for the flag with a hut, wheel and plough symbol in the foreground. The party's official symbol is a bicycle.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: Since 2014, every active member is eligible for a life insurance policy of ₹2 lakh to be paid to their family in cases of death or permanent total disability (loss of two limbs/eyes) due to accidents ranging from terror attacks to wildlife encounters with additional payouts of ₹5,000 per child (up to two) for educational costs. Active members are also reimbursed for up to ₹50,000 to cover hospital treatment from such accidents.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: In 1982, N. T. Rama Rao subsidized the cost of rice to ₹2/kg to support food access. The INC's failed attempt at undercutting their prices led the TDP to a landslide victory in the 1983 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly elections.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: Telugu Ganga Project is an inter-state project formulated to irrigate 5.75 Lakh acres in drought-prone areas of Kurnool, Kadapa and Chittoor Districts of Rayalaseema and upland areas of Nellore District in Andhra Pradesh.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: It conveys 15 TMC of Krishna water to Chennai City for drinking purposes from the contribution of three Krishna River basin States, Maharashtra, Karnataka and erstwhile Andhra Pradesh with 5 TMC from each State. In 1983, the Hon’ble Chief Minister of A.P., Sri N.T.Rama Rao and the Hon’ble Chief Minister of T.N., Sri M.G.Ramachandran laid the foundation stone of the S.P.V.B. Reservoir of Telugu Ganga Project, which was inaugurated by the then-Prime Minister of India, Smt. Indira Gandhi.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: The Deepam scheme to provide LPG cooking gas connections to rural women created one million LPG connections.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: Janmabhoomi Programme (First C.M in India to launch it in February 1996): The Janmabhoomi Programme is designed to involve people in the reconstruction and revitalization of society. It plans to identify problems through Gram Sabha discussions with regional officers, especially in villages. The core concentrated areas are community work, primary school education, drinking water, health and hospitals, family welfare, and environmental protection through watershed and joint forest management activities.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: HITEC City: In November 1998, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, then prime minister of India, and Chandrababu Naidu inaugurated the HITEC City (nicknamed Cyberabad) by opening the Cyber Towers, a landmark building in Hyderabad.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: The Hyderabad Information Technology and Engineering Consultancy City, abbreviated as HITEC City, is an Indian information technology, engineering, health informatics, bioinformatics and business district located in Hyderabad, Telangana, India.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: It was commissioned for the promotion of Information Technology in the erstwhile combined state of Andhra Pradesh, by the then Chief Minister N. Chandrababu Naidu, and was inaugurated by the then Prime Minister of India Atal Bihari Vajpayee on 22 November 1998.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: It is spread across 81 ha (200 acres) of land including the suburbs of Madhapur, Gachibowli, Kondapur, Manikonda, Nanakramguda and Shamshabad. The combined technology township is also known as Cyberabad.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: Cyber Towers was the first tower to be built for the promotion of Information Technology (IT) within 14 months. The attractive, unique design was selected by N. Chandrababu Naidu in 1997 to stand as a monument in the city of Hyderabad and as an architectural masterpiece in the center of Cyberabad, as well as to transform the City of Pearls, Hyderabad into the City of Destiny for IT and Pharmaceutical companies. The city also set up a separate Cyberabad Metropolitan Police Commissionerate and revamped policing under safety and surveillance. HITEC City has emerged as the symbolic heart of cosmopolitan Hyderabad.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: E-governance: (First C.M) Launched e-Seva centers in 2001 for paperless and speedy delivery of results to applicants. These e-Seva centers were one-stop solutions providing all government information and services online such as utility bills, banking services, issuing birth and death certificates, written test for drivers licence, government orders, and APSRTC tours and travel operators booking.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: As per the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014, Hyderabad became the capital of the then newly formed state of Telangana, post bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh. However, Hyderabad would remain as the joint capital of both states for a period not exceeding ten years. Amaravati is a proposed city and the capital of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. Chief Minister Sri Nara Chandrababu Naidu envisioned Amaravati to be the people-centric pioneer Smart City of India, built around sustainability and livability principles, and to be the happiest city in the world. The Andhra Pradesh Capital Region Development Authority (APCRDA) was setup to Develop and implement economic development policies for Amaravathi & Capital Region, promote Amaravati & Capital Region for investments from across the globe. Facilitate investments in Amaravati & Capital Region. The Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi laid the foundation stone at a ceremonial event in Uddandarayunipalem village on 22 October 2015. Among the innovative features on the drawing board are navigation canals around the city and connecting to an island in the Krishna River. The Government has envisaged an investment needed of US$2–4 billion for the development of the city.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: The State Government identified the Capital City area between Vijayawada and Guntur cities on the Southern bank of River Krishna upstream of Prakasam Barrage. The Amaravati Capital City has an area of 217.23 km2 and is spread across 25 villages in 3 mandals (Thulluru, Mangalagiri and Tadepalli) of Guntur district. The 25 villages in the Capital City area have about 1 lakh population in about 27,000 households. The Andhra Pradesh State Cabinet meeting passed a resolution of 1 September 2014 to locate the Capital City in a central place of the state, around Vijayawada, and to go for decentralized development of the state with 3 Mega Cities and 14 Smart Cities. The government under the leadership of Sri Nara Chandrababu Naidu, has found a solution to the problem to the troubles of land acquisition in building a new capital city using “Land Pooling” scheme. It is the world's largest successful voluntary land pooling, with 27,956 farmers offering 33,920 acres within three months, launching the project. The city is being designed to have 51% green space and 10% of water bodies, with a plan to house some of the most iconic buildings there. It is being modeled on Singapore, with the master plan being prepared by two Singapore government-appointed consultants.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: Hundreds of multistoried residential quarters for All India Services officers, legislators, state government employees and Secretariat staff, besides villas and other residential bungalows for high court judges constructed during the Naidu regime of which many were nearing completion, were immediately halted by the Jagan government in May 2019. The Amaravati project has substantially slowed with no deadline in sight. As of July 2019, the World Bank dropped funding for Amaravati. As of 2020, the fate of Amaravati as the sole capital of Andhra Pradesh hangs in balance as the incumbent YSRCP government under the leadership of Y.S. Jagan Reddy has proposed to move the Executive and Judicial components of the capital to Visakhapatnam and Kurnool respectively. There has been a continuing backlash from the farmers of the region against this decision of the Government for the past 800 days. The agitators are still awaiting the Chief Minister's appointment for a plausible solution.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: Narendra Modi being briefed about 'Master Plan 2050 of Amaravathi City' - the new Capital of Andhra Pradesh. The Union Minister for Urban Development, Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation and Parliamentary Affairs.jpg


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: Aims to provide pension of ₹1,000 per month to more than 40 lakh people who are in their old age, widow, physically challenged.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: His ambition was to make Amaravati one of the happiest cities, encompassing the highest standards of livability and infrastructure with a thriving economic environment. It is the world's largest successful voluntary land pooling, with 27,956 farmers offering 33,920 acres within three months, launching the project.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: Applicable for members from economically weak families of Kapu Community of Andhra Pradesh who aspire to do their Graduate (only MBBS), Post Graduate, MS or Ph.D. Courses abroad. Financial assistance of Rs 1,000,000 (Rs Ten Lakh) shall be granted to the selected applicants through the prescribed process.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: Irrigation projects Completed 9 irrigation projects like gandikota, thotapalli, pattiseema, gollapalli, purushottama patnam, muchumarri project, siddapur project, remaining 7 projects will coompleted by ending of 2018.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: Polavaram project works are restarted in and almost 80% of work done. If that project completes, it can serve water for all over state.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: Handri-Neeva project completed the first phase and distributing water to rayalaseema. Second phase work also completed by around 70%.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: Godavari -Penna interlinking project phase 1 started. With this Guntur and Prakasham can get enough water.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: Roads: As Of Now 17,000 km of roads are laid in andhra pradesh which is an all-time record in India.tirupati,vizag,amaravti got swach awards in India as best swach cities


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: REVENUE Revenue of AP in 2015 is around 90 thousand crores whereas in Telangana it is around 1lakh crores. At the end of CBN's governance revenue is 1,50,000 crores whereas in Telangana it is 1,40,000 crores. Ap got almost 40% growth of revenue under CBN


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: Hero motors, Apollo Tyres, Isuzu Motors, Cadbury, Asian Paints and many more Industries have rallied to Andhra Pradesh considering the 24*7 power, abundance of water and good governance in Andhra Pradesh.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: Direct flights to Singapore, Malaysia, Dubai and Sri Lanka have started from Vizag to make it more accessible to the world.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: ISUZU, HERO, KIA ($2 Billion has been invested into Andhra Pradesh by Kia Motors), REDMI, Koran city in Anathapur and


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: Hud Hud cyclone is brutally hitted the vizag at that time It need the biggest need of leadership. CBN rose above everyone and helped Vizag recover at jet speed.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: Rythu Runa Mafi Yojana: Farm loan waiver scheme under which the Andhra Pradesh state government has waived-off farmers loan in the state under 3 phases.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: NTR Sujala has been implemented in various places across the state where clean water is made accessible at very low cost of only Rs. 2 for 20 Litres of Water.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: In 2017, Bill Gates again met Naidu at Vishakhapatnam, Addressing the valedictory of the three-day AP AgTech Summit 2017, the co-chair of Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation where he recalled that he was really excited at meeting Andhra Pradesh Chief Minister N. Chandrababu Naidu for the first time over 20 years ago.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: While addressing the people he said "Andhra Pradesh is taking bold steps. I expect we will be accelerating it (technology usage). More than half of India's population engaged in growth in the agriculture, and three-fourths of rural women are engaged in agriculture. Apart from gender equality, research has shown that having more women also increases production by 20 to 30 per cent," Gates said at the valedictory session of the AP Ag Tech Summit-2017. He also added “e economy will not only lead to a higher Gross Domestic Product (GDP) but also lift people out of poverty.”


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: The summit focused on innovative ideas, technologies and global best practices to push agricultural transformation in the state.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: The total number of Lok Sabha seats in (previously undivided) Andhra Pradesh (1956-2014) was 42. After the 2014 bifurcation of the state, there are 25 Lok Sabha seats in Andhra Pradesh and 17 Lok Sabha seats in Telangana. The National United Front was formed with N. T. Rama Rao as chairperson. Under the leadership of Chandrababu Naidu the NDA government was formed with Atal Bihari Vajpayee as the Prime Minister of India. The TDP had G. M. C. Balayogi as the 12th Speaker of the Lok Sabha. TDP was the second largest party in 1984 Indian General Elections, winning 30 seats with 4.31% of votes, thus achieving the distinction of becoming the first regional party to become a national opposition party. However, in the next election they were reduced to only 2 seats out of 42 contested, which has to this day remained the biggest defeat for the party.


title: Telugu Desam Party

text: Currently, there are 4 National General Secretaries. The youngest person in the history of TDP to hold this position is Ram Mohan Naidu Kinjarapu, followed by Nara Lokesh,


title: Ghusl

text: The washing is also recommended (i.e. it is "mustahabb") before Jumu'ah and Eid prayers, before entering the "ihram" in preparation for "Hajj", after having lost consciousness and after formally converting. Sunni Muslims also perform the ablution before "Namaz-e-tawbah" (Prayer of Repentance).


title: Ghusl

text: "Ghusl" is often translated as "full ablution", as opposed to the "partial ablution" of "wudu" that Muslims perform after lesser impurities such as urination, defecation, flatulence, deep sleep, and light bleeding.


title: Ghusl

text: Ghusl becomes obligatory for seven causes, and the "ghusl" for each of these different causes has different names:


title: Ghusl

text: Ghusl requires clean, odourless water that has not been used for a previous ritual and begins with the declaration of the intention of purity and worship.


title: Ghusl

text: The phrase translated as 'intercourse' in this verse has been interpreted by Hanafi scholars to mean sexual contact, while Shafi'i scholars interpret it to mean both physical and sexual contact. Hence, the Hanafi school of thought does not require one to take wudu if there is non-sexual contact with a member of the opposite sex, while the Shafi'i school of thought does require wudu before salah and so on.


title: Ghusl

text: There are three "faraid" (obligatory) acts. If one of these acts is omitted, it must be returned to and completed before the remaining acts.


title: Ghusl

text: In Islam, "ghusl" requires the washing of the full body. There are some differences in details between the Sunni and the Shia schools of thought.


title: Ghusl

text: If, after Ghusl, one recalls that a certain portion of the body is left dry, it is not necessary to repeat the Ghusl, but merely wash the dry portion. It is not sufficient to pass a wet hand over the dry place. If one has forgotten to rinse the mouth or the nostrils, these too could be rinsed when recalled after Ghusl has been performed.


title: Ghusl

text: In another hadith, Ibn Abbas stated that Maimuna said that Muhammad was given a towel after "ghusl", but he shook off the water instead of rubbing his body with it. In addition, Ibn Abbas recorded the following hadith on the authority of his mother's sister.


title: Ghusl

text: There are two methods of performing "ghusl". One is known as "ghusl tartibi", and the other is known as "ghusl irtimasi".


title: Ghusl

text: After washing away the "najasat" (e.g., semen or blood) from the body and after "niyyat", the body has to be washed in three stages: head down to the neck; then the right side of the body from the shoulder down to the foot; then the left side of the body.


title: Ghusl

text: Each part should be washed thoroughly in such a way that the water reaches the skin. Special care should be taken while washing the head; the hair should be combed (e.g., with your fingers) so that water reaches the hair-roots. While washing the right side of the body, some part of the left side must be washed too, and vice versa.


title: Ghusl

text: ""Ghusl irtimasi"" means a bath involving immersion of the whole body in the water. It can only be done in a body of water, e.g., a pool, river, lake or sea. After washing away the semen or blood from the body and after "niyyat", the whole body should be completely immersed in the water all at once, not gradually. One has to make sure that the water reaches all parts of the body, including hair and the skin under it.


title: Ghusl

text: What has been mentioned above are the "wajib" acts of "ghusl"; there are things which are recommendable (mustahabb, sunnat) during the "ghusl". These recommendable acts are five:


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The Bay of Bengal is the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean, bounded on the west and northwest by India, on the north by Bangladesh, and on the east by Myanmar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India. Its southern limit is a line between Sangaman Kanda, Sri Lanka, and the north westernmost point of Sumatra, Indonesia. It is the largest water region called a bay in the world. There are countries dependent on the Bay of Bengal in South Asia and Southeast Asia. During the existence of British India, it was named as the Bay of Bengal after the historic Bengal region. At the time, the Port of Kolkata served as the gateway to the Crown rule in India. Cox's Bazar, the longest sea beach in the world and Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest and the natural habitat of the Bengal tiger, are located along the bay.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The Bay of Bengal occupies an area of . A number of large rivers flow into the Bay of Bengal: the Ganges–Hooghly, the Padma, the Brahmaputra–Yamuna, the Barak–Surma–Meghna, the Irrawaddy, the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Brahmani, the Baitarani, the Krishna and the Kaveri.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The bay gets its name from the historical Bengal region (modern-day Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal, Tripura and the Barak valley of Southern Assam). In Ancient Indian scriptures, this water body may have been referred to as 'Mahodadhi'" (Sanskrit: महोदधि, ) while it appears as Sinus Gangeticus or Gangeticus Sinus", meaning "Gulf of the Ganges", in some old European maps.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The other Sanskrit names for Bay of Bengal are 'Vaṅgopasāgara'" (Sanskrit: वङ्गोपसागर, ), 'Vaṅgasāgara'" (Sanskrit: वङ्गसागर, ), 'Pūrvapayodhi' (Sanskrit: पूर्वपयोधि, ).


title: Bay of Bengal

text: Northern Circars occupied the western coast of the Bay of Bengal and is now considered to be India's Odisha and Andhra Pradesh state. Chola dynasty (9th century to 12th century) when ruled by Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I occupied and controlled the Bay of Bengal with Chola Navy circa AD 1014, the Bay of Bengal was also called the Chola Sea or Chola Lake.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The Kakatiya dynasty reached the western coastline of the Bay of Bengal between the Godavari and the Krishna rivers. Kushanas about the middle of the 1st century AD invaded northern India perhaps extending as far as the Bay of Bengal. Chandragupta Maurya extended the Maurya Dynasty across northern India to the Bay of Bengal. Hajipur was a stronghold for Portuguese Pirates. In the 16th century the Portuguese built trading posts in the north of the Bay of Bengal at Chittagong (Porto Grande) and Satgaon (Porto Pequeno).


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The earliest sign of Muslims in the region came from the textile trade routes where one targeted the east Arabian Sea influencing migration of Arabs and Persians and another to the west causing Buddhist Bengalis to culturally mix with Islam.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: Maritime archaeology or marine archaeology is the study of how ancient peoples interacted with the sea and waterways. A specialized branch, archaeology of shipwrecks, studies the salvaged artifacts of ancient ships. Stone anchors, amphorae shards, elephant tusks, hippopotamus teeth, ceramic pottery, a rare wood mast and lead ingots are examples which may survive submerged for centuries for archaeologists to discover, study, and place their salvaged findings into the timeline of history. Coral reefs, tsunamis, cyclones, mangrove swamps, battles, and a criss-cross of sea routes in a high trading area combined with piracy have all contributed to shipwrecks in the Bay of Bengal.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: One of the first trading ventures along the Bay of Bengal was The Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies, more commonly referred to as the British East India Company. Gopalpur-on-Sea was one of their main trading centers. Other trading companies along the Bay of Bengal shorelines were the English East India Company and the French East India Company.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation) supports free trade internationally around the Bay of Bengal between Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project is a new venture proposed which would create a channel for a shipping route to link the Gulf of Mannar with the Bay of Bengal. This would connect India from east to west without the necessity of going around Sri Lanka.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: Thoni and catamaran fishing boats of fishing villages thrive along the Bay of Bengal shorelines. Fishermen can catch between 26 and 44 species of marine fish. In one year, the average catch is two million tons of fish from the Bay of Bengal alone. Approximately 31% of the world's coastal fishermen live and work on the bay.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The Bay of Bengal is centrally located in South and Southeast Asia. It lies at the center of two huge economic blocks, the SAARC and ASEAN. It influences China's southern landlocked region in the north and major sea ports of India and Bangladesh. China, India, and Bangladesh have forged naval cooperation agreements with Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia to increase cooperation in checking terrorism in the high seas. The Bay of Bengal's connection of South Asia to East Asia has aided in Bangladesh's efficiency of distributing natural gas to the Asia Pacific.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: Its outlying islands (the Andaman and Nicobar Islands) and, most importantly, major ports such as Paradip Kolkata, Chennai, Visakhapatnam, Tuticorin, Chittagong, and Mongla, along its coast with the Bay of Bengal added to its importance.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: China has recently made efforts to project influence into the region through tie-ups with Myanmar and Bangladesh. The United States has held major exercises with Bangladesh, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and recently India. The largest ever wargame in Bay of Bengal, known as Malabar 2007, was held in 2007 and naval warships from US, Bangladesh, Thailand, Singapore, Japan and Australia took part. India was a participant.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: Large deposits of natural gas in the areas within Bangladesh's sea zone incited a serious urgency by India and Myanmar into a territorial dispute. Disputes over rights of some oil and gas blocks have caused brief diplomatic spats between Myanmar and India with Bangladesh.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The disputed maritime boundary between Bangladesh and Myanmar resulted in military tensions in 2008 and 2009. Bangladesh is pursuing a settlement with Myanmar and India to the boundary dispute through the International Tribunal on the Law of the Sea.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The Bay of Bengal in the stretch of Swargadwar, the gateway to heaven in Sanskrit, in the Indian town of Puri is considered holy by Hindus.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The Samudra arati is a daily tradition started by the present Shankaracharya of Puri 9 years ago to honour the sacred sea. The daily practise includes prayer and fire offering to the sea at Swargadwar in Puri by disciples of the Govardhana matha of the Shankaracharya. On Paush Purnima of every year the Shankaracharya himself comes out to offer prayers to the sea.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The islands in the bay are numerous, including the Andaman Islands, Nicobar Islands and Mergui Archipelago of India and Myanmar. The Cheduba group of islands, in the north-east, off the Burmese coast, are remarkable for a chain of mud volcanoes, which are occasionally active.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: Great Andaman is the main archipelago or island group of the Andaman Islands, whereas Ritchie's Archipelago consists of smaller islands. Only 37, or 6.5%, of the 572 islands and islets of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are inhabited.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: Many major Rivers of India and Bangladesh flow west to east before draining into the Bay of Bengal. The Ganga is the northernmost of these rivers. Its main channel enters and flows through Bangladesh, where it is known as the Padma River, before joining the Meghna River. However, the Brahmaputra River flows from east to west in Assam before turning south and entering Bangladesh where it is called the Jamuna River. This joins the Padma where upon the Padma joins the Meghna River that finally drains into Bay of Bengal. The Sundarbans is a mangrove forest in the southern part of the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta which lies in the Indian state of West Bengal and in Bangladesh. The Brahmaputra at is the 15th longest River in the world. It originates in Tibet. The Hooghly River, another channel of the Ganga that flows through Kolkata drains into Bay of Bengal at Sagar in West Bengal, India.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The Ganga–Brahmaputra-Barak rivers deposit nearly 1000 million tons of sediment every year. The sediment from these three rivers form the Bengal Delta and the submarine fan, a vast structure that extends from Bengal to south of the Equator, is up to thick, and contains at least 1,130 trillion tonnes of sediment, which has accumulated over the last 17 million years at an average rate of 665 million tons per annum. The fan has buried organic carbon at a rate of nearly 1.1 trillion mol/yr (13.2 million t/yr) since the early Miocene period. The three rivers currently contribute nearly 8% of the total organic carbon (TOC) deposited in the world's oceans. Due to high TOC accumulation in the deep sea bed of the Bay of Bengal, the area is rich in oil and natural gas and gas hydrate reserves. Bangladesh can reclaim land substantially and economically gain from the sea area by constructing sea dikes, bunds, causeways and by trapping the sediment from its rivers.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: Further southwest of Bengal, the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri Rivers also flow from west to east across Deccan Plateau in Peninsular India and drain into the Bay of Bengal forming deltas. Many small rivers also drain directly into the Bay of Bengal forming estuaries; the shortest of them is the Cooum River at .


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The Irrawaddy (or Ayeyarwady) River in Myanmar flows into the Andaman Sea of the Bay of Bengal and once had thick mangrove forests of its own.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: Indian ports on the bay include Paradip Port, Kolkata Port, Haldia Port, Chennai, Visakhapatnam, Kakinada, Pondicherry, Dhamra Port, and Gopalpur-on-Sea. Bangladeshi ports on the Bay are Chittagong, Mongla, Payra Port. Sri Lankan ports include Jaffna, Kankesanthurai, Batticaloa, and Trincomalee. Myanmar's main sea port includes Akyab (Sittwe).


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The lithosphere of the earth is broken up into what are called tectonic plates. Underneath the Bay of Bengal, which is part of the great Indo-Australian Plate and is slowly moving north east. This plate meets the Burma Microplate at the Sunda Trench. The Nicobar Islands and the Andaman Islands are part of the Burma Microplate. The India Plate subducts beneath the Burma Plate at the Sunda Trench or Java Trench. Here, the pressure of the two plates on each other increase pressure and temperature resulting in the formation of volcanoes such as the volcanoes in Myanmar, and a volcanic arc called the Sunda Arc. The Sumatra-Andaman earthquake and Asian tsunami was a result of the pressure at this zone causing a submarine earthquake which then resulted in a destructive tsunami.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: A zone 50 m wide extending from the island of Sri Lanka and the Coromandel coast to the head of the bay, and thence southwards through a strip embracing the Andaman and Nicobar islands, is bounded by the 100 fathom line of sea bottom; some 50 m. beyond this lies the 500-fathom limit. Opposite the mouth of the Ganges, however, the intervals between these depths are very much extended by deltaic influence.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: Swatch of No Ground is a 14 km-wide deep sea canyon of the Bay of Bengal. The deepest recorded area of this valley is about 1340 m. The submarine canyon is part of the Bengal Fan, the largest submarine fan in the world.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: Submarine fan is also known as abyssal fan. Bay of Bengal fan, known as Bengal Fan, also known as the Ganges Fan is world's largest abyssal fan, also known as deep-sea fans, underwater deltas, and submarine fans. The fan is about long, wide with a maximum thickness of . The fan resulted from the uplift and erosion of the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau produced by the collision between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. Most of the sediment is supplied by the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers which supply the Lower Meghna delta in Bangladesh and the Hoogly delta in West Bengal (India). Several other large rivers in Bangladesh and India provide smaller contributions. Turbidity currents have transported the sediment through a series of submarine canyons, some of which are more than in length, to be deposited in the Bay of Bengal up to 30 degrees latitude from where it began. To date, the oldest sediments recovered from the Bengal fan are from Early Miocene age. Their mineralogical and geochemical characteristics allow to identify their Himalayan origin and demonstrate that the Himalaya was already a major mountain range 20 million years ago.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The fan completely covers the floor of the Bay of Bengal. It is bordered to the west by the continental slope of eastern India, to the north by the continental slope of Bangladesh and to east by the northern part of Sunda Trench off Myanmar and the Andaman Islands, the accretionary wedge associated with subduction of the Indo-Australian Plate beneath the Sunda Plate and continues along the west side of the Ninety East Ridge. The Nicobar Fan, another lobe of the fan, lies east of the Ninety East Ridge.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The fan is now being explored as a possible source of fossil fuels for the surrounding developing nations.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The fan was first identified by bathymetric survey in the sixties by Bruce C. Heezen and Marie Tharp which identified the abyssal cone and canyon structures. It was delineated and named by Joseph Curray and David Moore following a geological and geophysical survey in 1968.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: Coastal regions bordering the Bay of Bengal are rich in minerals. Sri Lanka, Serendib, or "Ratna – Dweepa" which means Gem Island. Amethyst, beryl, ruby, sapphire, topaz, and garnet are just some of the gems of Sri Lanka. Garnet and other precious gems are also found in abundance in the Indian states of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. A 2014 study found that as a result of ocean acidification, there was reduced shell thickness of marine animals and breaking strength compared to normal shells. The study also showed that the pH in Bay of Bengal fell to 7.75 compared in 1994 when it averaged 7.95.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: From January to October, the current is northward flowing, and the clockwise circulation pattern is called the "East Indian Current". The Bay of Bengal monsoon moves in a northwest direction striking the Nicobar Islands, and the Andaman Islands first end of May, then coast of Mainland India by end of June.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The remainder of the year, the counterclockwise current is southwestward flowing, and the circulation pattern is called the East Indian Winter Jet. September and December see very active weather, season varsha (or monsoon), in the Bay of Bengal producing severe cyclones which affect eastern India. Several efforts have been initiated to cope with storm surge.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The Bay of Bengal is full of biological diversity, diverging amongst coral reefs, estuaries, fish spawning and nursery areas, and mangroves. The Bay of Bengal is one of the World's 64 largest marine ecosystems.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: "Kerilia jerdonii" is a sea snake of the Bay of Bengal. Glory of Bengal cone ("Conus bengalensis") is just one of the seashells which can be photographed along beaches of the Bay of Bengal. An endangered species, the olive ridley sea turtle can survive because of the nesting grounds made available at the Gahirmatha Marine Wildlife Sanctuary, Gahirmatha Beach, Odisha, India. Marlin, barracuda, skipjack tuna, ("Katsuwonus pelamis"), yellowfin tuna, Indo-Pacific humpbacked dolphin ("Sousa chinensis"), and Bryde's whale ("Balaenoptera edeni") are a few of the marine animals. Bay of Bengal hogfish ("Bodianus neilli") is a type of wrasse which live in turbid lagoon reefs or shallow coastal reefs. Schools of dolphins can be seen, whether they are the bottle nose dolphin ("Tursiops truncatus"), pantropical spotted dolphin ("Stenella attenuata") or the spinner dolphin ("Stenella longirostris"). Tuna and dolphins usually reside in the same waters. In shallower and warmer coastal waters the Irrawaddy dolphins ("Orcaella brevirostris") can be found.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve provides sanctuary to many animals some of which include the saltwater crocodile ("Crocodylus porosus"), giant leatherback sea turtle ("Dermochelys coriacea"), and Malayan box turtle ("Cuora amboinensis kamaroma") to name a few.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: Another endangered species royal Bengal tiger is supported by Sundarbans a large estuarine delta that holds a mangrove area in the Ganges River Delta.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: A transboundary issue is defined as an environmental problem in which either the cause of the problem and/or its impact is separated by a national boundary; or the problem contributes to a global environmental problem and finding regional solutions is considered to be a global environmental benefit. The eight Bay of Bengal countries have (2012) identified three major transboundary problems (or areas of concern) affecting the health of the Bay, that they can work on together. With the support of the Bay Of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem Project (BOBLME), the eight countries are now (2012) developing responses to these issues and their causes, for future implementation as the Strategic Action Programme.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: Fisheries production in the Bay of Bengal is six million tonnes per year, more than seven percent of the world's catch. The major transboundary issues relating to shared fisheries are: a decline in the overall availability of fish resources; changes in species composition of catches; the high proportion of juvenile fish in the catch; and changes in marine biodiversity, especially through loss of vulnerable and endangered species. The transboundary nature of these issues are: that many fish stocks are shared between BOBLME countries through the transboundary migration of fish, or larvae. Fishing overlaps national jurisdictions, both legally and illegally – overcapacity and overfishing in one location forces a migration of fishers and vessels to other locations. All countries (to a greater or lesser degree) are experiencing difficulties in implementing fisheries management, especially the ecosystem approach to fisheries. Bay of Bengal countries contribute significantly to the global problem of loss of vulnerable and endangered species.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The main causes of the issues are: open access to fishing grounds; Government emphasis on increasing fish catches; inappropriate government subsidies provided to fishers; increasing fishing effort, especially from trawlers and purse seiners; high consumer demand for fish, including for seed and fishmeal for aquaculture; ineffective fisheries management; and illegal and destructive fishing.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The Bay of Bengal is an area of high biodiversity, with many endangered and vulnerable species. The major transboundary issues relating to habitats are: the loss and degradation of mangrove habitats; degradation of coral reefs; and the loss of, and damage to, seagrasses. The transboundary nature of these major issues are: that all three critical habitats occur in all BOBLME countries. Coastal development for several varying uses of the land and sea are common in all BOBLME countries. Trade in products from all the habitats is transboundary in nature. Climate change impacts are shared by all BOBLME countries.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The main causes of the issues are: food security needs of the coastal poor; lack of coastal development plans; increasing trade in products from coastal habitats; coastal development and industrialization; ineffective marine protected areas and lack of enforcement; upstream development that affects water-flow; intensive upstream agricultural practices; and increasing tourism.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The Asian brown cloud, a layer of air pollution that covers much of South Asia and the Indian Ocean every year between January and March, and possibly also during earlier and later months, hangs over the Bay of Bengal. It is considered to be a combination of vehicle exhaust, smoke from


title: Bay of Bengal

text: cooking fires, and industrial discharges. Because of this cloud, satellites attempting to track ocean acidification and other ocean health indicators in the Bay have difficulty obtaining accurate measurements.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The major transboundary issues relating to pollution and water quality are: sewage-borne pathogens and organic load; solid waste/marine litter; increasing nutrient inputs; oil pollution; persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and persistent toxic substances (PTSs); sedimentation; and heavy metals.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: The transboundary nature of these issues are: discharge of untreated/partially treated sewage being a common problem. Sewage and organic discharges from the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna River are likely to be transboundary. Plastics and derelict fishing gear can be transported long distances across national boundaries. Around 4 million tonnes of microplastics are estimated to come from India and Bangladesh travelling into Sundurban and subsequently the Bay of Bengal. High nutrient discharges from rivers could intensify largescale hypoxia. Atmospheric transport of nutrients is inherently transboundary. Differences between countries with regard to regulation and enforcement of shipping discharges may drive discharges across boundaries. Tar balls are transported long distances. POPs/PTSs and mercury, including organo-mercury, undergo long-range transport. Sedimentation and most heavy metal contamination tend to be localized and lack a strong transboundary dimension. The main causes of the issues are: increasing coastal population density and urbanization; higher consumption, resulting in more waste generated per person; insufficient funds allocated to waste management; migration of industry into BOBLME countries; and proliferation of small industries. A pertinent issue is the rapid growth of the shrimp culture industry which requires use of antibiotics and chemicals for export-quality food safety but pollutes the Bay of Bengal.


title: Bay of Bengal

text: A tropical storm with rotating winds blowing at speeds of is called a cyclone when they originate over the Bay of Bengal, and called a hurricane in the Atlantic. Between 100,000 and 500,000 residents of Bangladesh were killed because of the 1970 Bhola cyclone.


title: That's So Raven

text: That's So Raven is an American television teen sitcom that was created by Michael Poryes and Susan Sherman, and aired on Disney Channel for four seasons between January 2003 and November 2007. The series centers on Raven Baxter (Raven-Symoné), a teenager with hidden psychic abilities. Episodes show Raven experiencing visions of future events; she must also deal with the social and personal issues of her youth. Raven often misinterprets the events she foresees, and intervenes to prevent a vision from coming true or to protect her friends and families. She uses her skills in fashion design to create elaborate disguises she wears during these schemes. Raven's secret is shared with her best friends Eddie Thomas (Orlando Brown) and Chelsea Daniels (Anneliese van der Pol), along with her brother Cory (Kyle Massey) and parents Tanya (T'Keyah Crystal Keymáh) and Victor (Rondell Sheridan). The series explores supernatural elements, family, friendship, and adolescence.


title: That's So Raven

text: The Walt Disney Company created the series as its television network's first multi-camera sitcom after the success of its earlier single-camera comedy series such as "Even Stevens" and "Lizzie McGuire", the former of which executive producers David Brookwell and Sean McNamara concurrently worked on. Their joint company Brookwell McNamara Entertainment produced "That's So Raven", which premiered on January 17, 2003. The series concluded on November 10, 2007, after becoming the first program on the network to reach 100 episodes, and ended because the actors were aging beyond the show's target teenage demographic. All four seasons of the show have been distributed through digital download and on the streaming service Disney+.


title: That's So Raven

text: "That's So Raven" enjoyed high viewership on broadcast television in the United States, and gave rise to the development of merchandise, soundtrack albums, and video game adaptations. Television critics praised Raven-Symoné for her physical comedy in what is considered her breakthrough role. The series received two Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Children's Program in 2005 and 2007. A spin-off entitled "Cory in the House", which stars Massey and Sheridan, aired on Disney Channel for two seasons from 2007 to 2008. Raven-Symoné, van der Pol, Sheridan and Keymáh reprised their roles for the spin-off "Raven's Home", which premiered in 2017.


title: That's So Raven

text: Raven Baxter is a high-school student who has a secret psychic ability that allows her to experience short visions of future events. Often, she finds herself miscalculating the events she sees, resulting in trouble for herself, her friends and family. Raven keeps her supernatural ability a secret; only her close friends and family are aware of it. Raven attends school alongside her best friends Chelsea, who is described as "ditzy",and is an environmentalist and an artist; and Eddie, who is an aspiring rapper, is athletic and plays on the school basketball team. Raven lives with her younger brother Cory, an aspiring businessperson, and her parents Victor and Tanya. Victor initially works in a restaurant as a chef, and in the second season he opens his own restaurant called "The Chill Grill". Tanya halted her studies to raise her family but decided to continue studying law once her children were older; after the third season, she leaves the family to study in England. Raven is an aspiring fashion designer who frequently creates costumes to disguise her identity; she often implements schemes to rectify a situation or her own mistakes. In the fourth season, the show's format is slightly revised; Raven works as an intern for the famous fashion designer Donna Cabonna.


title: That's So Raven

text: The series explores the fantasy of wanting a supernatural power children may experience. It shares similarities with series such as "Sabrina the Teenage Witch" and other fantasy television programs in which adolescents experience and learn to deal with miraculous abilities. Disney Channel president Rich Ross stated Raven's powers are not "dark" but rather a metaphorical representation of the unpredictability of future events. The series does not explore the origin or discovery of Raven's powers; however, her grandmother Vivian also has psychic powers. Raven often intervenes in situations to prevent a vision from coming true but she does not regularly try to control her ability or take advantage of it. Her visions often represent a self-fulfilling prophecy. Many of the program's stories take place in the high-school setting.


title: That's So Raven

text: In the early 2000s, The Walt Disney Company's pay television network Disney Channel experienced success with single-camera comedy series "Even Stevens" and "Lizzie McGuire", and others that were also aimed at a pre-adolescent audience. "That's So Raven" was intended to appeal to a family audience while having a female character in the comedy lead role. Michael Poryes and Susan Sherman created the series. Sherman first conceived the idea of a buddy comedy for a pre-adolescent audience, and she and Poryes decided to base it around the idea of being able to see the future, which they thought would interest young viewers. The creators pitched the concept to network executives under the working title "The Future is On Me" and later as "Absolutely Psychic". Poryes said at her audition, Raven-Symoné read for the role of the lead character and for the comedic best-friend character Chelsea, and that she wanted to play Chelsea. Subsequently, a pilot episode in which she starred as the best friend rather than in the central role was filmed but after the test audience responded well to her and producers were impressed, the program was re-written with Raven-Symoné in the main role. Test audiences also responded favorably to the show's supernatural premise and its comedy. The series was also retitled "That's So Raven". Poryes also served as an executive producer alongside David Brookwell and Sean McNamara, who concurrently produced "Even Stevens" for Disney Channel. Their joint company, Brookwell McNamara Entertainment produced the program in association with the network. "That's So Raven" became Disney Channel's first multi-camera sitcom. The series is centered on an African American family in a deliberate attempt to represent the diversity of the network's audience.


title: That's So Raven

text: "That's So Raven" and Raven-Symoné's involvement as the titular character Raven were announced in a press release in November 2001. Twenty-one episodes were ordered for the first season, which began filming in Los Angeles, California, in the same month. The series was initially expected to premiere in early 2002 but the whole first season was filmed before it aired on television. The premiere broadcast of "That's So Raven", which included the first four episodes of the series, occurred on Friday, January 17, 2003.


title: That's So Raven

text: The program and its primary cast were announced in November 2001; Raven-Symoné was revealed to be portraying the titular character Raven; she had previously worked as a child actor on the NBC sitcom "The Cosby Show". Raven-Symoné was reported to be Disney's first African American female star, and the first African American woman to have her name in the title of a comedy series. Joshua Alston of "The A.V. Club" called her role on the show her "most successful phase" and praised her physical comedy. Marsh cited her humor and commitment to comedy as a reason for her success. She is credited as "Raven" throughout the series.


title: That's So Raven

text: The supporting cast was also first announced in November 2001. Orlando Brown portrays Raven's close friend Eddie and Anneliese van der Pol plays Chelsea, another of Raven's friends. Tricia Dixon was originally listed in the casting announcement before van der Pol joined the cast. Kyle Massey portrays Raven's younger brother, Cory. Rondell Sheridan portrays Raven's father, Victor.


title: That's So Raven

text: T'Keyah Crystal Keymáh plays Raven's mother Tanya for the first three seasons; she left the show because she had initially expected to only work on three seasons and because she was required to provide full-time care for her ailing grandmother. Within the show's storyline, it is explained Tanya has traveled to England to pursue higher education.


title: That's So Raven

text: Guest stars in the series include Jenifer Lewis as Raven's grandmother Vivian and Anne-Marie Johnson as famous fashion designer Donna Cabonna in the show's fourth season.


title: That's So Raven

text: Poryes believed it was important to write the scripts with honesty rather than talking down to the young audience. The writers endeavored to present meaningful stories to children, including lessons about friendship, but tried not make the messages too "preachy". The series was written to reflect life as a typical teenager while also incorporating comedy, particularly through its central focus on physical humor. Van der Pol said the actors typically were not permitted to deviate from their scripted lines; however, Ross stated Raven-Symoné would improvise "comic bits". Alston described the show's nature as "goofy" with a "kid-friendly" comedy style, but also noted its complex stories revolving around "ethical challenges". The episodes did not typically air in the order of their production due to the lack of serialization in their stories.


title: That's So Raven

text: "That's So Raven" was recorded in front of a live studio audience in a set on a sound stage in Los Angeles. Filming of the first season began in November 2001. The series was filmed on two days each week and the child actors attended school on set. Prior to filming, the weekly schedule would also consist of script read-throughs, rewrites and rehearsals. A stunt coordinator was present for Raven-Symoné's slapstick and physical stunts.


title: That's So Raven

text: The series was renewed for a second season in April 2003. Prior to the renewal, a musical episode of "Even Stevens" was aired in 2002; its success among the show's audience led network executives to ask Brookwell and McNamara to also produce a musical episode of "That's So Raven". The musical episode of "That's So Raven", entitled "The Road to Audition", was aired as part of the second season in July 2004. The success of the musical format on both "Even Stevens" and "That's So Raven" gave executives confidence in the appeal and interest of the musical genre, and inspired the development of the television film "High School Musical".


title: That's So Raven

text: While it was originally planned for a maximum of three seasons, in June 2005, "That's So Raven" was renewed for a fourth season, which would consist of 22 episodes and bring the program's total number of episodes to 100. The announcement marked the first time an original Disney Channel series would exceed three seasons and the first to reach 100 episodes for syndication. A film adaptation was also ordered to debut in 2007. Ross called "That's So Raven" the network's "most successful series". Production on the season was expected to begin in July and the episodes would be aired over the following two years. Raven-Symoné became a producer on the show's fourth season at the age of 19;her roles included having input toward casting, scripts and special effects; however, she rejected the offer to direct an episode. Brookwell and McNamara departed the series at the end of the third season when their company was replaced with Warren & Rinsler Productions. An episode of the series was aired as part of the network crossover special "That's So Suite Life of Hannah Montana", which was aired in July 2006 as a crossover of "The Suite Life of Zack & Cody" and "Hannah Montana".


title: That's So Raven

text: Production of the series finished in January 2006, and by August, president of Disney Channels Worldwide Gary Marsh stated it was unlikely any further episodes would be produced. Due to the heavy focus on high-school stories in the series, the network decided to end the show once the characters were beginning to age beyond their teenage years.


title: That's So Raven

text: "That's So Raven" was reported to be the highest-rating original program in Disney Channel's history. The program's success led to two Primetime Emmy Awards nominations for Outstanding Children's Program, in 2005 and 2007. Alston said the success of "That's So Raven" led to Disney Channel changing its approach to original programming. He praised the chemistry between Raven-Symoné, Brown and van der Pol, which he attributed to their real-life friendships. Alston cited the episodes "A Goat's Tale" and "Out of Control" as the ones that best represent this dynamic. Raven-Symoné was widely recognized for her charisma and physical comedy in the series; Massey's "knack" for physical comedy was also praised.


title: That's So Raven

text: Jack Seiley from "DVDizzy.com" said the series adheres to the format of the network's earlier sitcoms such as "Lizzie McGuire" but does so with lower quality; he called it their worst show. Aaron Wallace also called the show "weaker" than "Lizzie McGuire" in a similar DVD review. Seiley criticized the show's concept and the cast's "over-acting". According to Wallace, the structure of the episodes is repetitive and rigid.


title: That's So Raven

text: "That's So Raven" became a successful merchandising franchise during its run; the show's merchandise includes a series of novels, dolls, board games, lunch boxes, jewelry, a fragrance and a clothing range. A line of video games was also developed; two games were released on the Game Boy Advance and "" was released on the Nintendo DS on November 2, 2006. Soundtrack albums "That's So Raven" (2004) and "That's So Raven Too!" (2006) feature recordings by some of the cast and guest performers. By 2006, merchandise based on the series had grossed over $400 million.


title: That's So Raven

text: In 2005, Disney ordered a film adaptation of "That's So Raven" alongside the program's fourth-season renewal, which was planned for a 2007 release. Van der Pol said in 2010 a script for the film had been written but that Raven-Symoné was too busy to be involved at the time of development. The plot would have depicted Raven starting a fashion line with Eddie and Chelsea in France. The film did not enter production.


title: That's So Raven

text: The network ordered a spin-off series entitled "Cory in the House" starring Massey and Sheridan in May 2006; this was the first time Disney Channel had developed a spin-off of an original series. The series depicts Cory and Victor moving to Washington, D.C., to live in the White House, where Victor begins work as the personal chef of a fictional President of the United States. The series aired for two seasons from 2007 to 2008. Another spin-off, which is entitled "Raven's Home", was first reported in October 2016; Raven-Symoné and van der Pol were both revealed to be reprising their roles as Raven and Chelsea, respectively. The series follows Raven as a divorced mother of children Booker, who has inherited Raven's psychic abilities, and Nia. Chelsea, also a divorced mother, moves in with Raven to raise her son Levi. Raven-Symoné is an executive producer on the series, which premiered on July 21, 2017. Sheridan is featured as a guest and returns as a regular character for the program's fifth season; Keymáh also guest-stars in the fifth-season finale. , the show has been renewed for a sixth season. An Indian adaptation of the series entitled "Palak Pe Jhalak" premiered on Disney Channel in India in September 2015, and incorporates Indian culture and languages.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: The French Revolution of 1848 (), also known as the February Revolution (), was a brief period of civil unrest in France, in February 1848, that led to the collapse of the July Monarchy and the foundation of the French Second Republic. It sparked the wave of revolutions of 1848.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: The revolution took place in Paris, and was preceded by the French government's crackdown on the campagne des banquets. Starting on 22 February as a large-scale protest against the government of François Guizot, it later developed into a violent uprising against the monarchy. After intense urban fighting, large crowds managed to take control of the capital, leading to the abdication of King Louis Philippe on 24 February and the subsequent proclamation of the Second Republic.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: Under the Charter of 1814, Louis XVIII ruled France as the head of a constitutional monarchy. Upon Louis XVIII's death, his brother, the Count of Artois, ascended to the throne in 1824, as Charles X. Supported by the ultra-royalists, Charles X was an extremely unpopular reactionary monarch whose aspirations were far more grand than those of his deceased brother. He had no desire to rule as a constitutional monarch, taking various steps to strengthen his own authority as monarch and weaken that of the lower house.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: In 1830, Charles X of France, presumably instigated by one of his chief advisers, Jules, Prince de Polignac, issued the Four Ordinances of St. Cloud. These ordinances abolished freedom of the press, reduced the electorate by 75%, and dissolved the lower house. This action provoked an immediate reaction from the citizenry, who revolted against the monarchy during the Three Glorious Days of 26–29 July 1830. Charles was forced to abdicate the throne and to flee Paris for the United Kingdom. As a result, Louis Philippe, of the Orléanist branch, rose to power, replacing the old Charter by the Charter of 1830, and his rule became known as the July Monarchy.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: Nicknamed the "Bourgeois Monarch", Louis Philippe sat at the head of a moderately liberal state controlled mainly by educated elites. Supported by the Orléanists, he was opposed on his right by the Legitimists (former ultra-royalists) and on his left by the Republicans. Louis Philippe was an expert businessman and, by means of his businesses, he had become one of the richest men in France. Still Louis Philippe saw himself as the successful embodiment of a "small businessman" ("petite bourgeoisie"). Consequently, he and his government did not look with favor on the big business (bourgeoisie), especially the industrial section of the French bourgeoisie. Louis Philippe did, however, support the bankers, large and small. Indeed, at the beginning of his reign in 1830, Jaques Laffitte, a banker and liberal politician who supported Louis Philippe's rise to the throne, said "From now on, the bankers will rule." Accordingly, during the reign of Louis Philippe, the privileged "financial aristocracy", i.e. bankers, stock exchange magnates, railroad barons, owners of coal mines, iron ore mines, and forests and all landowners associated with them, tended to support him, while the industrial section of the bourgeoisie, which may have owned the land their factories sat on but not much more, were disfavoured by Louis Philippe and actually tended to side with the middle class and laboring class in opposition to Louis Philippe in the Chamber of Deputies. Naturally, land-ownership was favored, and this elitism resulted in the disenfranchisement of much of the middle and working classes.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: By 1848 only about one percent of the population held the franchise. Although France had a free press and trial by jury, only landholders were permitted to vote, which alienated the petty bourgeoisie and even the industrial bourgeoisie from the government. Louis Philippe was viewed as generally indifferent to the needs of society, especially to those members of the middle class who were excluded from the political arena. Early in 1848, some Orléanist liberals, such as Adolphe Thiers, had turned against Louis Philippe, disappointed by his opposition to parliamentarism. A Reform Movement developed in France which urged the government to expand the electoral franchise, just as Great Britain had done with the Reform Act 1832. The more radical democrats of the Reform Movement coalesced around the newspaper, "La Réforme"; the more moderate republicans and the liberal opposition rallied around the "Le National" newspaper. Starting in July 1847 the Reformists of all shades began to hold "banquets" at which toasts were drunk to ""République française"" (the French Republic), ""Liberté, égalité, fraternité"", etc. Louis Philippe turned a deaf ear to the Reform Movement, and discontent among wide sections of the French people continued to grow. Social and political discontent sparked revolutions in France in 1830 and 1848, which in turn inspired revolts in other parts of Europe. Workers lost their jobs, bread prices rose, and people accused the government of corruption. The French revolted and set up a republic. French successes led to other revolts, including those who wanted relief from the suffering caused by the Industrial Revolution, and nationalism sprang up hoping for independence from foreign rulers.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: Alexis de Tocqueville observed, "We are sleeping together in a volcano. ... A wind of revolution blows, the storm is on the horizon." Lacking the property qualifications to vote, the lower classes were about to erupt in revolt.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: The French middle class watched changes in Britain with interest. When Britain's Reform Act 1832 extended enfranchisement to any man paying taxes of £10 or more per year (previously the vote was restricted to landholders), France's free press took interest. Meanwhile, economically, the French working class may perhaps have been slightly better off than Britain's working class. Still, unemployment in France threw skilled workers down to the level of the proletariat. The only nominally social law of the July Monarchy was passed in 1841. This law prohibited the use of labor of those children under eight years of age, and the employment of children less than 13 years old for night-time work. This law was routinely flouted.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: The year 1846 saw a financial crisis and bad harvests, and the following year saw an economic depression. A poor railway system hindered aid efforts, and the peasant rebellions that resulted were forcefully crushed. According to French economist Frédéric Bastiat, the poor condition of the railway system can largely be attributed to French efforts to promote other systems of transport, such as carriages. Perhaps a third of Paris was on social welfare. Writers such as Louis Blanc ("The right to work") and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon ("Property is theft!") proliferated.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: Bastiat, who was one of the most famous political writers of the 1840s, had written countless works concerning the economic situation before 1848, and provided a different explanation of why the French people were forced to rise in the revolt. He believed that the main reasons were primarily the political corruption, along with its very complex system of monopolies, permits, and bureaucracy, which made those who were able to obtain political favors unjustly privileged and able to dictate the market conditions and caused a myriad of businesses to collapse, as well as protectionism which was the basis for the French foreign trade at the time, and which caused businesses along the Atlantic Coast to file for bankruptcy, along with the one owned by Bastiat's family. Indeed, most of Bastiat's early works concern the situation in Bayonne and Bordeaux, two large merchant harbors before the Napoleonic Wars, gradually devastated first by Napoleon I's continental blockade, and later by the protectionist legislation of the nineteenth century. According to Bastiat's biographer, G.C. Roche, just prior to the revolution, 100,000 citizens of Lyon were described as "indigent" and by 1840 there were at least 130,000 abandoned children in France. International markets were not similarly troubled at the time, which Bastiat attributed to the freedom of trade. Indeed, a large part of French economic problems in the 1830s and 1840s were caused by the shortage and unnaturally high prices of different products which could have easily been imported from other countries, such as textiles, machines, tools, and ores, but doing so was either outright illegal at the time or unprofitable due to the system of punitive tariffs.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: Bastiat has also noted that the French legislators were entirely unaware of the reality and the effects of their radical policies. One of the members of the French Chamber of Deputies reportedly received a standing ovation when he proposed that the depression of 1847 was due primarily to "external weakness" and "idle pacifism". Nationalist tendencies caused France to severely restrict all international contacts with the United Kingdom, including the ban on importing tea, perceived as destructive to the French national spirit. As the United Kingdom was the largest economy in the world in the nineteenth century, France deprived itself of its most important economic partner, one that could have supplied France with what it lacked and bought surplus French goods.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: Such governmental policies and obliviousness to the real reasons of economic troubles were, according to Bastiat, the main causes of the French Revolution of the 1848 and the rise of socialists and anarchists in the years preceding the revolution itself.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: Because political gatherings and demonstrations were outlawed in France, activists of the largely middle class opposition to the government began to hold a series of fund-raising banquets. This campaign of banquets (Campagne des banquets), was intended to circumvent the governmental restriction on political meetings and provide a legal outlet for popular criticism of the regime. The campaign began in July 1847. Friedrich Engels was in Paris dating from October 1847 and was able to observe and attend some of these banquets. He wrote a series of articles on them, including "The Reform Movement in France" which was published in "La Rèforme" on 20 November 1847; "Split in the Camp—the "Rèforme" and the National—March of Democracy" published in "The Northern Star" on 4 December 1847; "Reform Banquet at Lille—Speech of LeDru-Rollin" published in "The Northern Star" on 16 December 1847; "Reform Movement in France—Banquet of Dijon" published in "The Northern Star" on 18 December 1847; "The Réforme and the National" published in the "Deutsche-Brüsseler-Zeitung" on 30 December 1847; and "Louis Blanc's Speech at the Dijon Banquet" published in the "Deutsche-Brusseler-Zeitung" on 30 December 1847.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: On 14 January 1848, ahead of the highly awaited next banquet in Paris, the government of prime minister François Guizot outlawed it. Nonetheless, the banquet's organizers decided that it would still be held, alongside a political demonstration, and scheduled it for 22 February.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: Aware of the political gatherings scheduled for the following day, on 21 February the French government had banned the political banquets for the second time. The ban succeeded in pressuring the organizing committee to cancel the events. However, the workers and students, mobilising in the previous days, refused to back down over the demonstrations. 22 February started quietly, and at 9 a.m., members of the Municipal Guard who had been assigned to arrest the banquet leaders were recalled to their normal duties by the Prefect of Police. Only a small number of troops remained at critical points. Shortly before noon, large crowds began flooding out onto the streets of Paris, gathering from the eastern suburbs and the Latin Quarter towards the Place de la Concorde and the Place de la Madeleine. Their appearance came as a surprise to the authorities, after the events were supposedly cancelled, and led to a confused initial response.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: The crowds, mostly unarmed, easily overcame the few Municipal Guardsmen, filling the squares and nearly invading the Palais Bourbon, the seat of the Chamber of Deputies. These demonstrations soon developed into a large-scale, popular revolt, making 22 February the first day of the Revolution. With the arrival of reinforcements in the afternoon, protesters were dispersed from the Place de la Concorde and the Place de la Madeleine. The crowds were too large to be arrested or contained, and so they spread out around the Champs-Élysées and back into southeast Paris, building the first barricades. In the evening, early skirmishes took place with the Municipal Guard.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: On 23 February, the Ministry of War requested more regular troops from outside Paris. Crowds marched past Guizot's residence shouting "Down with Guizot" ("À bas Guizot") and "Long Live the Reform" ("Vive la réforme"). The National Guard was mobilized, however its soldiers refused to engage the crowds, and instead joined them in their demonstrations against Guizot and King Louis Philippe. In the early afternoon, Louis Philippe summoned Guizot to the Tuileries Palace, the king's residence, and reluctantly asked for his resignation. Guizot returned to the Parliament where he announced his resignation as prime minister, and the King then requested Count Molé to form a new government.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: Upon Guizot's resignation, the leaders of the Movement Party (known as the "dynastic opposition"), Adolphe Thiers and Odilon Barrot, congratulated themselves on achieving a change of ministry while preserving the monarchy. After news of Guizot's resignation spread through Paris, fighting gradually ceased and the crowds began to celebrate. However, despite the fall of an unpopular government, underlying social preassures remained, and republicans still sought to secure a change of regime.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: At around 9:30 pm, a crowd of over six hundred gathered outside the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on the Boulevard des Capucines. The building was guarded by about two hundred men of the . The commanding officer ordered the crowd not to pass, but the soldiers began to be pressed by the crowd. The officer then ordered his men to fix bayonets in order to keep people at distance. However, as they were performing this, an unidentified weapon was discharged, and in response the soldiers opened fire on the crowd in a fusillade. 52 people were killed and 74 others were injured, and the crowd immediately dispersed as people fled in all directions.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: News of the massacre soon sparked anger among Parisians. After the crowd regrouped on the Boulevard des Capucines, some of the dead were loaded on to horse-drawn wagons and paraded through the streets by workers calling for vengeance, as a general call to arms. During the night between 23 and 24 February, over 1,500 barricades were erected throughout Paris, and many railways leading to the city were sabotaged.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: By 24 February, Paris was a barricaded city, and King Louis Philippe remained without a government, as first Molé, then Thiers, failed to form a cabinet. After hearing of the massacre on the Boulevard des Capucines, Louis Philippe called for a government to be installed by Barrot, who represented a significant concession to the reformists. At the same time, however, the king gave the command of the troops in Paris to Marshal Bugeaud, who was despised by the crowds for his reputation of brutality in suppressing protests. In the early morning, Bugeaud sent four columns through the city in an attempt to defeat the insurgents at the barricades. However, Louis Philippe, intending to avoid even more bloodshed, ordered the officers in charge to attempt to negotiate before opening fire. Several barracks in Paris were attacked, and a convoy of ammunition was captured by the insurgents at Vincennes. The seat of the city administration, the Hôtel de Ville, was taken by the revolutionary National Guards. Bugeaud ordered all his soldiers to fall back and consolidate the defense around the Tuileries Palace.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: During the morning, heavy fighting broke out in several parts of Paris, with the largest combat taking place at the Place du Château d'Eau. There, armed insurgents attacked the Château d'Eau, a guard post on the way to the Tuileries held by about one hundred men of the Municipal Guard and the despised 14th Line Regiment. After intense fighting, the Château d'Eau was overrun and set on fire, with the surviving soldiers throwing away their weapons in surrender.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: With the insurgents closing in on the royal palace, Thiers advised Louis Philippe to leave Paris and crush the revolution from outside with an overwhelming force of regular troops; however, this strategy was soundly rejected by Thiers' colleagues, including Barrot. While the Château d'Eau burned, the king received conflicting advices from his allies, and briefly collapsed on his study. Émile de Girardin was the first of his advisors to suggest abdication. At around noon, realizing no further defence was possible, Louis Philippe called off all resistance and formally abdicated in favor of his nine-year-old grandson Philippe, Count of Paris.


title: French Revolution of 1848

text: Louis Philippe and Queen Maria Amalia boarded a carriage awaiting at the Place de la Concorde, from where, escorted by the cavalry, they drove off and left Paris. After the royal couple's departure, the revolutionaries finally seized the now nearly deserted Tuileries Palace. On the king's throne, which would be burned the next day at the Place de la Bastille, they wrote, "The People of Paris to All Europe: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. 24 February 1848".