title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: According to Ubisoft, the game adopted a "games as a service" approach, as they would provide long-term support for the game and offer post-release content to keep players engaged. The management team initially doubted the idea but eventually decided to approve it. The title was supported with many updates upon launch, with the company introducing fixes to bugs and improvements on both matchmaking and general gameplay mechanics. To enable players' involvement in the game's continued development, Ubisoft introduced the R6Fix programme in 2018. It allows players to submit bug reports to Ubisoft, which would fix the bug and award the player in-game items. They also introduced an auto-kick system, which automatically removes players from a match when they kill friendly players and launched the BattlEye system in August 2016 to punish cheaters. To counter toxicity within the game's community, in mid 2018 Ubisoft began issuing bans to any player who has used racist and homophobic slurs. All downloadable content maps were released to all players for free. All downloadable operators can be unlocked using the in-game currency though purchasing the season pass enables players to gain instant access to them. Players can purchase cosmetic items using real-world money, but the team did not wish to put gameplay content behind a paywall in order to be more player-friendly. The team avoided adding more modes to the game because most would not fit well with the game's close-quarter combat. Downloadable content for the game was divided into several seasons, with a Mid-Season Reinforcement patch which added new weapons and modified some of the operators' core abilities. This post-release content was developed by the Montreal studio in conjunction with Blue Byte in Germany. Ubisoft announced that they would keep supporting the game and adding new playable characters for 10 more years. As a result, no sequel was planned.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: In January 2018, Ubisoft announced the introduction of 'Outbreak Packs', which are loot boxes that can be unlocked with R6 credits (which can be purchased with microtransactions) to gain character items. The company also announced that the base version of the game will be replaced by a bundle named "The Advanced Edition", which includes the base game and a small number of outbreak packs and R6 credits. The changes resulted in players' backlash, as existing players have to pay for new content while new players do not. Ubisoft compensated players by giving players a free premium skin for free and announced plans to change the Standard Edition so that players can unlock new operators at a faster pace. In July 2018, Ubisoft announced the introduction of a limited time pack named 'Sunsplash Packs', which are available to purchase with R6 credits and contain cosmetics that have an association with the season of Summer. In October 2018, Ubisoft unveiled the Crimsonveil packs, which added a Halloween themed weapon skin, charm, headgear, and uniform for 4 operators, plus a seasonal weapon skin and a charm that was themed with the skin.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: Ubisoft also envisioned the game as an esports game. The company had their first meeting with David Hiltscher, vice president of ESL, in late 2013. ESL offered feedback on the game's balancing and helped the developer to ensure that the game was suitable for competitive play. The team focused on introducing new operators to provide variety for esports viewers after the game's release, a decision inspired by modern multiplayer online battle arena games such as "Dota 2", as this type of game often has 80–100 playable characters. ESL and Ubisoft officially announced Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Pro League, a global tournament for Windows and Xbox One players. The competition was held at Intel Extreme Masters eSports tournament on March 4, 2016. A European team, PENTA Sports, became the champion of the first season of Rainbow Six Pro League after defeating another team, GiFu, at the final of the tournament held in May 2016. In 2017, it was revealed that Pro League Year Two would return, but Xbox One tournaments would not be featured. Ubisoft also held the Six Invitational tournaments in 2017 and 2018, in which top teams competed for the top prize. The 2018 tournament attracted 321,000 viewers on Twitch. Both Nathan Lawrence from Red Bull and Richie Shoemaker from Eurogamer compared the game favourably with "", with both being hopeful that "Siege" can dethrone "Global Offensive"'s status as the most successful competitive esports first-person shooter in the future. Rainbow Six Siege Year 3 Season 4 was announced on November 18 at the Pro League Season 8 Finals in Rio de Janeiro and was set in Morocco.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: The Six Invitational 2020, in February 2020, had the highest prize pool in all of Rainbow Six with $3,000,000 split among 16 teams, with the victors, Spacestation Gaming from North America, taking home the lion's share of $1,000,000. The Six Invitational 2020 also announce enormous changes to both the game itself and the competitive scene. The changes included the end of Pro League and a new points-based system. These changes to the competitive scene have been compared to that of "Dota 2" and "League of Legends".


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: "Rainbow Six Siege" operators have made two appearances in another Clancy series, "Ghost Recon", in DLC missions:


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: The pre-release reception of the game was positive, with critics praising the game's design and tensions created during matches. In 2014, the game received four nominations from Game Critics Awards: Best of Show, Best PC Game, Best Action Game and Best Online Multiplayer Game. The game eventually became the winner of the Best PC Game category.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: "Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege" received "generally favorable" reviews from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic. Critics generally praised the game's destructive environment, tactical nature, map design, and its focus on teamwork. However, the lack of content and the game's microtransactions were subjected to criticism.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: The game's multiplayer was widely praised by critics. Chris Carter from "Destructoid" praised the game's open-ended nature, which made each match unpredictable and helped the experience to stay fresh even after an extended period of playing. GameSpot's Scott Butterworth appreciated the title for allowing players to make use of their creativity in approaching a mission. James Davenport from "PC Gamer" echoed this thought, and he described "Siege" as a "psychological race" in which players are constantly trying to outwit their opponents. Ryan McCaffery from IGN also praised the tactical possibilities, which make the game "tense and riveting". The large number of operators available for players to choose were praised by both Carter and Matt Bertz from "Game Informer", who commented that they added depths and variety to the game and that players could experiment to see which pairs of operators can complement each other. However, McCaffery was disappointed by the lack of variety of game modes and commented that most players usually neglect the mode's objectives and opted to simply eliminate their opponents. Terrorist Hunt received divisive opinions from critics. Carter thought that it was more relaxing, and Butterworth thought it was exhilarating. However, Bertz criticized its lack of variety, weak artificial intelligence, and its less-intense nature when compared with the player-versus-player modes. Martin Robinson from Eurogamer also noted that the mode only ran at 30 frames per second, which limited its appeal.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: The game's focus on tactics was praised. Bertz applauded the tactical nature of the game, as it fostered communications between players. However, he noted that teamwork may not be possible if players did not have a headphone and microphone. Arthur Gies from "Polygon" echoed these comments, stating that the game's over-reliance on teamwork meant that when teammates were not communicating, the game would not be fun to play. The "No Respawn" system was praised by Butterworth for making each match feel intense, as even the best player needs to think tactically in order to win. Jonathon Leack from Game Revolution enjoyed the scouting phase of a multiplayer match, which encouraged players to communicate with each other and coordinate their attacks. However, Gies noted that the placement of game objectives does not vary much, thus making the scouting phase meaningless. Both Bertz and Butterworth agreed that the game's competitive nature increases the game's replay value. Ben Griffin from GamesRadar praised the destruction mechanic for bringing tactical depth to the game.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: The gameplay received mixed reviews. Both Bertz and Griffin criticized the game's incompetent hit detection system, which made the experience unfair. Bertz described the game's gunplay as "serviceable", while Leack noticed a delay in shooting, which drags the game's pace and leads to a steep learning curve. However, Leack appreciated the game's map design, which opened many possibilities. He also praised its attention to detail and sound design, which can often make a multiplayer match feel like a "great action film". Bertz was disappointed by the lack of customization options, which did not offer long-term progression for the players. Butterworth similarly criticized the progression system for being slow. As players cannot play as the same operator in the same match, he was often forced to play as the generic "recruit" character when he was only at the beginning stage of the game. He also criticized the limited weapon customization options, which barely affect gameplay. McCaffery described customization as the "least interesting" aspect of the game and claimed that most gameplay features were locked when players started playing. Griffin, Gies, and Steven Burns from "VideoGamer.com" were annoyed by the microtransactions featured in the game, with Griffin describing it as a greedy attempt by Ubisoft to make more money, though Davenport did not mind these features as they were limited to cosmetic items and could be unlocked through earning Renown. Bertz was annoyed the lack of clan infrastructure, which may cause players troubles when they were finding matches, while Griffin thought that map rotation often felt random and was disappointed that players cannot vote to decide which map they are going to play next.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: Single-player was generally considered a disappointment by critics, with Situations receiving mixed reviews. Carter described it as one of his "favorite non-campaign additions" as the mode gave players incentive to return due to its rating system. Butterworth described it as a "surprisingly robust" mode and thought that there were great tutorial missions that help players to understand gameplay before trying multiplayer. However, Bertz criticized it for its lack of replay value, and Griffin noted their short length. McCaffery thought that it served as a competent tutorial, but its solo play nature meant that players could not practice team play and tactics. Davenport criticized the narrative in Situations, which he thought was not meaningful. Many critics were disappointed with the lack of a single-player campaign or a cooperative campaign, but Butterworth believed that the strong multiplayer components can compensate for this absence. Gies noticed certain network issues would affect the single-player.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: Many critics generally had a positive opinion on the package. Bertz thought that the game's multiplayer design had laid a great foundation for the game, but it was not taken advantage of due to the small number of game modes. Leack felt that "Siege"s tight focus on tactical gameplay had "provided something unlike any other game on the market". Butterworth found the game very unique and that there was "nothing else like it" when he put aside the game's minor annoyances. Griffin wrote that the title felt very fresh, as most games in the market did not value tactics. Davenport similarly praised the game for being very concentrated and making no compromises on gameplay design, which in turn make the title one of the best tactical multiplayer shooters on the market. Gies recognized the game's potential but thought that they were overshadowed by the game's numerous technical annoyances, frustrating progression system and its lack of content. Robinson was impressed by the game's multiplayer mode, and that the overall package could be considered as the year's best multiplayer game. However, he questioned Ubisoft for releasing the game with so little content while still selling it at full-price. By December 2020, the game had more than 70 million registered players.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: In May 2015, CEO of Ubisoft Yves Guillemot announced that the company expected the game to outsell 's seven million sales over the course of its lifetime because of post-launch support. At the game's launch, it debuted at number six in UK Software Charts, selling 76,000 retail copies across all three platforms. Critics thought that the launch performance was underwhelming and lacklustre. However, through continued post-release support and updates, the player base had doubled since the game's launch. Following the summer 2016 launch of the third DLC, "Skull Rain", the size of the player base had a 40% increase, and the title had more than 10 million registered players. Two years after launch, the game remained as one of the top 40 best-selling retail games in the UK. The strong performance of "Siege", along with "Tom Clancy's The Division" (2016) and "Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon Wildlands" (2017) boosted the total number of players of the "Tom Clancy's" franchise to 44 million in 2017. In August 2017, Ubisoft announced that the game had passed 20 million players and that the game was played by 2.3 million players every day. Two years after the game's launch, Ubisoft announced that the game has passed 25 million registered players. As of February 2019, the game had more than 45 million registered players.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: Critics agreed that while the game suffered a rocky launch, Ubisoft's efforts in updating the game and fixing bugs have increased the game's quality and had transformed the game into a better experience. "IGN" and "Eurogamer" re-reviewed the game in 2018 and both concluded that the game had improved significantly since its launch. Several years after the game's launch, "Siege" was regarded as one of the best multiplayer games released for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One by some critics, with praise being directed to its distinctiveness and the similarities it shares with multiplayer online battle arena games and hero shooters.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: According to Remy, the team focused on players retention in the year after the game's launch, but the growth of the game's player base exceeded their expectations. He called the game "a testament" to the games as a service model. Jeff Grubb from "VentureBeat" attributed "Siege"'s high player retention rate and successful eSports events to Ubisoft's continuous and frequent updates to the game. "GameSpot" described "Siege" as "one of modern AAA gaming's biggest comebacks", and the best proof to show that the "games-as-a-service" model works well, attributing its success to Ubisoft's continuous updates and the thriving community. Haydn Taylor from "Gameindustry.biz" praised Ubisoft's monetization methods, which was less aggressive than other gaming companies like Electronic Arts. Unlike titles such as "Star Wars Battlefront II" (2017), the game's monetization methods and the use of loot boxes generated minimal amount of backlash from players. He added that Ubisoft had showed, with "Siege", "the delicate and reasoned approach that's been missing from the industry's clumsy, heavy-handed adoption of the games-as-a-service model". The post-launch success for "Siege" further solidified Ubisoft's belief in the model. Future Ubisoft multiplayer-focused titles – such as "For Honor" – adopted this structure, in which the company would provide free DLC and updates several years after the game's official release.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: On November 2, 2018, Ubisoft Montreal announced they were going to make "aesthetic changes" to "Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege" by removing references to death, sex, and gambling in order to comply with regulations of Asian countries. However, the announcement generated opposition from the gaming community who believed the changes were going to be made for the game's upcoming release in China, likening the move to censorship. Because of pressure from the community, Ubisoft Montreal announced on November 21 that they were reversing the decision to make the changes, "We have been following the conversation with our community closely over the past couple of weeks, alongside regular discussions with our internal Ubisoft team, and we want to ensure that the experience for all our players, especially those that have been with us from the beginning, remains as true to the original artistic intent as possible."


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: Ubisoft filed a lawsuit against the Chinese developers Ejoy as well as Apple and Google in May 2020, based on Ejoy's mobile game "Area F2", which Ubisoft claimed was a clone of "Siege". Ubisoft stated that "Virtually every aspect of ["Area F2"] is copied from ["Siege"], from the operator selection screen to the final scoring screen and everything in between". Ubisoft claimed they had attempted to have the game removed from Apple and Google's respective app stores but they failed to grant the removal, and as "Area F2" was a free-to-play game with microtransactions, the two companies were financially benefiting from the copyright violation, and thus included in the lawsuit.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: During the Six Invitational 2022, Ubisoft announced that one of its upcoming majors for the game would take place in the United Arab Emirates, drawing criticism because of the UAE's treatment of LGBTQ+ people and concern for the safety of Ubisoft's LGBTQ+ personnel and players. Days later, Ubisoft announced their "decision to move the Six Major of August 2022 to another...region" due to the response from the fanbase.


title: Erica Lindbeck

text: Erica Lindbeck (born May 29, 1992) is an American voice actress known for her work with Bang Zoom!, Studiopolis, and NYAV Post in voicing characters in English-dubbed anime and video games. She was the voice of the Barbie dolls and merchandise, succeeding Kelly Sheridan, from 2015 to 2017, and is the voice of Loona in the animated web series "Helluva Boss".


title: Erica Lindbeck

text: In anime, Lindbeck has voiced main characters Kaori Miyazono from "Your Lie in April", Eli Ayase from the "Love Live!" series, Irene Urzaiz in "The Asterisk War", Ibara Naruse from "Coppelion", Kanae Kotonami from "Skip Beat!" and Oei from "Miss Hokusai". She graduated from UCLA School of Theater, Film and Television in 2014. She and fellow voice actress Mela Lee host their own web series called "Lindbeck and Lee" with local voice actor guests.


title: Erica Lindbeck

text: In 2018, Lindbeck voiced the character Felicia Hardy, otherwise known as the Black Cat, in Insomniac's "Spider-Man" video game. She later voiced as Ashley in WarioWare Gold.


title: Erica Lindbeck

text: In 2019, she voiced Cassie Cage in NetherRealm's "Mortal Kombat 11" video game. Blaze the Cat and Omochao in "Sonic the Hedgehog" series. She also voiced Millie and Loona in 2019's "Helluva Boss" pilot, returning in the role of Loona for the continuation of the "Helluva Boss" series (2020–present).


title: Erica Lindbeck

text: In February 2020, Lindbeck came out as bisexual. Lindbeck dated voice actor Billy Kametz until his death from colon cancer in June 2022.


title: The Constant Gardener (film)

text: The Constant Gardener is a 2005 drama thriller film directed by Fernando Meirelles. The screenplay by Jeffrey Caine is based on John le Carré's 2001 novel of the same name. The story follows Justin Quayle (Ralph Fiennes), a British diplomat in Kenya, as he tries to solve the murder of his wife Tessa (Rachel Weisz), an Amnesty activist, alternating with many flashbacks telling the story of their love.


title: The Constant Gardener (film)

text: The film was filmed on location in Loiyangalani and the slums of Kibera, a section of Nairobi, Kenya. Circumstances in the area affected the cast and crew to the extent that they set up the Constant Gardener Trust in order to provide basic education for these villages. The plot was vaguely based on a . The DVD versions were released in the United States on 1 January 2006 and in the United Kingdom on 13 March 2006. Justin's gentle but diligent attention to his plants is a recurring background theme, from which image the film's title is derived. Hubert Koundé, Danny Huston, Bill Nighy, Pete Postlethwaite, and Donald Sumpter co-star. The film was a critical and box office success and earned four Oscar nominations, winning Best Supporting Actress for Rachel Weisz.


title: The Constant Gardener (film)

text: Justin Quayle, a British diplomat and avid horticulturalist, is confronted by Amnesty International activist Tessa during a lecture in London. They strike up a romance, and marry after she accompanies him to his posting in Kenya, where she befriends Kenyan doctor Arnold Bluhm, leading to rumors of an affair. Tessa has no qualms confronting corruption, to the chagrin of Justin's superiors, and they lose a child late in her pregnancy.


title: The Constant Gardener (film)

text: Connecting local deaths to trials of a new drug, Dypraxa, conducted by Kenyan-based company Three Bees, Tessa and Arnold write a damaging report on the drug. She gives it to Justin's colleague Sandy Woodrow, the British High Commissioner, who sends it to Sir Bernard Pellegrin, head of the Africa Desk at the Foreign Office. Pellegrin responds with an incriminating letter to Sandy, which Tessa persuades him to show her, and she steals it before departing for Loki with Arnold.


title: The Constant Gardener (film)

text: Sandy informs Justin that a white woman and black driver have been killed near Lake Turkana, and that Tessa and Arnold shared a room at Lodwar before hiring a car. Justin and Sandy identify Tessa's mutilated body, but Arnold's whereabouts remain unknown. Police confiscate Tessa's computer and files, but Justin finds her keepsake box, containing a letter from Sandy declaring his love for her and asking her to return Pellegrin's letter, and records of Three Bees' tests.


title: The Constant Gardener (film)

text: After Tessa's burial, Justin learns from his colleague Ghita that Tessa kept Arnold's secret that he was gay, as homosexuality is illegal in Kenya. Pursuing the truth about his wife's murder, Justin follows the trail of her report. He is briefly detained by police and confronts Three Bees' CEO Kenny Curtis, but receives no answers.


title: The Constant Gardener (film)

text: Returning to London, Justin's passport is confiscated. He dines with Pellegrin, who lies that Arnold must have murdered Tessa, and believes that Justin has his incriminating letter. Justin meets with Tessa's cousin and lawyer Ham, and they access her computer files to reveal her investigation into Dypraxa and its manufacturer, pharmaceutical conglomerate KDH, who hired Three Bees to test the drug on unsuspecting Kenyans.


title: The Constant Gardener (film)

text: Justin receives a threatening note, and Ham provides him with a fake passport to travel to Germany, where he meets Tessa's contact Birgit, part of a pharmaceutical watchdog group. The group has been targeted and she is reluctant to speak, and Justin is attacked in his hotel room and warned to stop investigating. Arnold's body is found tortured to death, while the announcement of a safe Dypraxa causes KDH's stock price to soar.


title: The Constant Gardener (film)

text: Returning to Kenya, Justin confronts Sandy, who admits that Tessa's report was silenced to save KDH from spending millions redeveloping the drug. Justin is approached by Curtis, who has been betrayed by KDH, and brought to a mass grave of Dypraxa test subjects. Curtis points Justin to Dr Lorbeer, Dypraxa's inventor, who has fled to Sudan. Tim Donohue, a friend in British intelligence, confirms that Pellegrin had Tessa and Arnold killed. Unable to convince Justin to return home, he gives him a gun.


title: The Constant Gardener (film)

text: Justin travels to confront Lorbeer, who is treating remote villagers to atone for the lives claimed by his drug. The village is attacked by raiders, but Justin and Lorbeer escape in a U.N. aid plane, and Lorbeer reveals that he has Pellegrin's letter; Tessa convinced him to record the truth about Dypraxa, but he changed his mind, informing KDH that Tessa and Arnold were en route to expose the company to the U.N.


title: The Constant Gardener (film)

text: Justin convinces the pilot to mail Pellegrin's letter to Ham, and to drop him off at Lake Tarkana. Removing the bullets from his gun, his final thoughts are of Tess before he is killed by KDH's henchmen. In London at Tessa and Justin's memorial service, Pellegrin lies that Justin committed suicide in the same place his wife died. Ham announces the reading of an epistle, but instead reads Pellegrin's letter, exposing the deaths caused by Dypraxa and the subsequent coverup. Pellegrin storms out as Ham implicates the British government, KDH, and public complacency regarding the human cost of medicine they take for granted.


title: The Constant Gardener (film)

text: The plot of the film is loosely based on a real-life case in Kano, Nigeria involving antibacterial testing by Pfizer on small children.


title: The Constant Gardener (film)

text: The film's title derives from Justin's gentle but diligent attention to his plants, a recurring background theme that informs his patience and persistence.


title: The Constant Gardener (film)

text: The film was shot partly in 16mm on location in Loiyangalani and the slums of Kibera, a section of Nairobi, Kenya. Circumstances in the area so affected the cast and crew that the Constant Gardener Trust was established in 2004 in order to thank the community for their help during filming.


title: The Constant Gardener (film)

text: On the film aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, "The Constant Gardener" has a "Certified Fresh" score of , based on critical reviews, with an average rating of . The consensus reads, ""The Constant Gardener" is a smart, gripping, and suspenseful thriller with rich performances from the leads." It also has a score of 82 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 39 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: The Constant Gardener (film)

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" called it "one of the year's best films." "USA Today" noted that the film's "passion, betrayal, gorgeous cinematography, social commentary, stellar performances and clever wit puts it in a special category near perfection". However, Michael Atkinson of "The Village Voice" criticized the film as "a cannonballing mélange of hack-cuts, impressionistic close-ups, and tropical swelter."


title: The Constant Gardener (film)

text: John le Carré, in the first edition of the 2001 novel on which the film is based, provided both a dedication and a personal afterword. The dedication and part of the afterword (amended) are reproduced in the closing credits of the film. The first states: "This film is dedicated to Yvette Pierpaoli and all other aid workers who lived and died giving a damn." The latter continues (in the next credit): "Nobody in this story, and no outfit or corporation, thank God, is based upon an actual person or outfit in the real world. But I can tell you this. As my journey through the pharmaceutical jungle progressed, I came to realize that, by comparison with the reality, my story was as tame as a holiday postcard." The text appears over John le Carré's name.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The deuterocanonical books (from the Greek meaning "belonging to the second canon") are books and passages considered by the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, and the Assyrian Church of the East to be canonical books of the Old Testament, but which Protestant denominations regard as apocrypha. They date from 300 BC to 100 AD, mostly from 200 BC to 70 AD, before the definite separation of the Christian church from Judaism. While the New Testament never directly quotes from or names these books, the apostles most frequently used and quoted the Septuagint, which includes them. Some say there is a correspondence of thought, and others see texts from these books being paraphrased, referred, or alluded to many times in the New Testament, depending in large measure on what is counted as a reference.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: Although there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Hebrew Bible canon was fixed, some scholars hold that the Hebrew canon was established well before the 1st century AD – even as early as the 4th century BC, or by the Hasmonean dynasty (140–40 BC).


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, which the early Christian church used as its Old Testament, included all of the deuterocanonical books. The term distinguished these books from both the protocanonical books (the books of the Hebrew canon) and the biblical apocrypha (books of Jewish origin that were sometimes read in Christian churches as scripture but which were not regarded as canonical).


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The Council of Rome (382 AD) defined a list of books of scripture as canonical. It included most of the deuterocanonical books.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The canon of modern Rabbinic Judaism excludes the deuterocanonical books. It is commonly said that Judaism officially excluded the deuterocanonicals and the additional Greek texts listed here from their scripture in the Council of Jamnia (), but this claim is disputed. Mainstream rabbinic Judaism is believed to have further codified the Hebrew Canon (Tanakh) in the early centuries of CE, although we can only be certain that such a consensus had emerged by 7–10th centuries.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The early Christian church largely relied upon the Septuagint in the canonization of the Christian Bible. However, in the 16th century, Martin Luther argued that many of the received texts of the New Testament lacked the authority of the Gospels, and therefore proposed removing a number of books from the New Testament, including Hebrews, James, Jude, and Revelation. While this proposal was never widely accepted among Protestants, he did nonetheless succeed in removing the Deuterocanonical books, which had previously been deprecated by Jewish scholars.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The deuterocanonical texts held as canonical for the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church are:


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: "Deuterocanonical" is a term coined in 1566 by the theologian Sixtus of Siena, who had converted to Catholicism from Judaism, to describe scriptural texts considered canonical by the Catholic Church, but which recognition was considered "secondary". For Sixtus, this term included portions of both Old and New Testaments (Sixtus considers the final chapter of the Gospel of Mark as 'deuterocanonical'); and he also applies the term to the Book of Esther from the canon of the Hebrew Bible. The term was then taken up by other writers to apply specifically to those books of the Old Testament which had been recognised as canonical by the Councils of Rome (382 AD), Hippo (393 AD), Carthage (397 AD and 419 AD), Florence (1442 AD) and Trent (1546 AD), but which were not in the Hebrew canon.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: Forms of the term "deuterocanonical" were adopted after the 16th century by the Eastern Orthodox Church to denote canonical books of the Septuagint not in the Hebrew Bible (a wider selection than that adopted by the Council of Trent), and also by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church to apply to works believed to be of Jewish origin translated in the Old Testament of the Ethiopic Bible; a wider selection still.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The acceptance of some of these books among early Christians was widespread, though not universal, and surviving Bibles from the early Church always include, with varying degrees of recognition, books now called "deuterocanonical". Some say that their canonicity seems not to have been doubted in the Church until it was challenged by Jews after 100 AD, sometimes postulating a hypothetical Council of Jamnia. Regional councils in the West published official canons that included these books as early as the 4th and 5th centuries.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: Meanwhile, "the protocanonical books of the Old Testament correspond with those of the Bible of the Hebrews, and the Old Testament as received by Protestants. The deuterocanonical (deuteros, "second") are those whose Scriptural character was contested in some quarters, but which long ago gained a secure footing in the Bible of the Catholic Church, though those of the Old Testament are classed by Protestants as the "Apocrypha". These consist of seven books: Tobias, Judith, Baruch, Ecclesiasticus, Wisdom, First and Second Machabees; also certain additions to Esther and Daniel."


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: "Sirach", whose Hebrew text was already known from the Cairo Geniza, has been found in two scrolls (2QSir or 2Q18, 11QPs_a or 11Q5) in Hebrew. Another Hebrew scroll of "Sirach" has been found in Masada (MasSir). Five fragments from the "Book of Tobit" have been found in Qumran written in Aramaic and in one written in Hebrew (papyri 4Q, nos. 196–200). The "Letter of Jeremiah" (or "Baruch" chapter 6) has been found in cave 7 (papyrus 7Q2) in Greek. It has been theorized by recent scholars that the Qumran library (of approximately 1,100 manuscripts found in the eleven caves at Qumran).


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The large majority of Old Testament references in the New Testament are taken from the Koine Greek Septuagint (LXX), editions of which include the deuterocanonical books, as well as apocrypha – both of which are called collectively (""Readable," namely worthy of reading"). No two Septuagint codices contain the same apocrypha.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: Greek Psalm manuscripts from the fifth century contain three New Testament "psalms": the Magnificat, the Benedictus, the Nunc dimittis from Luke's birth narrative, and the conclusion of the hymn that begins with the "Gloria in Excelsis". Beckwith states that manuscripts of anything like the capacity of Codex Alexandrinus were not used in the first centuries of the Christian era, and believes that the comprehensive codices of the Septuagint, which start appearing in the 4th century AD, are all of Christian origin.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: In the New Testament, Hebrews 11:35 is understood by some as referring to an event that was recorded in one of the deuterocanonical books, 2 Maccabees. For instance, the author of Hebrews references oral tradition which spoke of an Old Testament prophet who was sawn in half in Hebrews 11:37, two verses after the 2nd Maccabees reference. Other New Testament authors such as Paul also reference or quote period literature.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The Jewish historian Josephus () speaks of there being 22 books in the canon of the Hebrew Bible, reported also by the Christian bishop Athanasius.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: Origen of Alexandria () also records 22 canonical books of the Hebrew Bible cited by Eusebius; among them are the Epistle of Jeremiah and the Maccabees as canonical books.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: Eusebius wrote in his "Church History" () that Bishop Melito of Sardis in the 2nd century AD considered the deuterocanonical Wisdom of Solomon as part of the Old Testament and that it was considered canonical by Jews and Christians. On the other hand, the contrary claim has been made: "In the catalogue of Melito, presented by Eusebius, after Proverbs, the word Wisdom occurs, which nearly all commentators have been of opinion is only another name for the same book, and not the name of the book now called 'The Wisdom of Solomon'."


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: Cyril of Jerusalem () in his "Catechetical Lectures" cites as canonical books "Jeremiah one, including Baruch and Lamentations and the Epistle (of Jeremiah)".


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: In Athanasius's canonical books list (367 AD) the Book of Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah are included and Esther is omitted. At the same time, he mentioned that certain other books, including four deuterocanonical books (the Wisdom of Solomon, the Wisdom of Sirach, Judith and Tobit), the book of Esther and also the Didache and The Shepherd of Hermas, while not being part of the Canon, "were appointed by the Fathers to be read". He excluded what he called "apocryphal writings" entirely.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: Epiphanius of Salamis () mentions that "there are 27 books given the Jews by God, but they are counted as 22, however, like the letters of their Hebrew alphabet, because ten books are doubled and reckoned as five". He wrote in his that Jews had in their books the deuterocanonical Epistle of Jeremiah and Baruch, both combined with Jeremiah and Lamentations in only one book. While Wisdom of Sirach and the Wisdom of Solomon were books of disputed canonicity.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: Augustine () writes in his book "On Christian Doctrine (Book II Chapter 8)" that two books of Maccabees, Tobias, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclesiasticus are canonical books.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: According to the monk Rufinus of Aquileia () the deuterocanonical books were not called canonical but ecclesiastical books. In this category Rufinus includes the Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, Judith, Tobit and two books of Maccabees. Rufinus makes no mention of Baruch or the Epistle of Jeremiah.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: Pope Innocent I (405 AD) sent a letter to the bishop of Toulouse citing deuterocanonical books as a part of the Old Testament canon.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: In the 7th century Latin document the Muratorian fragment, which some scholars actually believe to be a copy of an earlier 170 AD Greek original, the book of the Wisdom of Solomon is counted by the church.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: In later copyings of the canons of the Council of Laodicea (from 364 AD) a canon list became appended to Canon 59, likely before the mid fifth century, which affirmed that Jeremiah, and Baruch, the Lamentations, and the Epistle (of Jeremiah) were canonical, while excluding the other deuterocanonical books.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: According to Decretum Gelasianum, which is a work written by an anonymous scholar between 519 and 553, the Council of Rome (382 AD) cites a list of books of scripture presented as having been made canonical. This list mentions all the deuterocanonical books except Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah as a part of the Old Testament canon:


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The Synod of Hippo (in 393 AD), followed by the Council of Carthage (397) and the Council of Carthage (419), may be the first councils that explicitly accepted the first canon which includes a selection of books that did not appear in the Hebrew Bible; the councils were under significant influence of Augustine of Hippo, who regarded the canon as already closed.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: Canon XXIV from the Synod of Hippo (in 393 AD) records the scriptures which are considered canonical; the Old Testament books as follows:


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: On 28 August 397, the Council of Carthage confirmed the canon issued at Hippo; the recurrence of the Old Testament part is stated:


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: In 419 AD, the Council of Carthage in its canon 24 lists the deuterocanonical books except Baruch and the Epistle of Jeremiah as canonical scripture:


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The Apostolic Canons approved by the Eastern Council in Trullo in 692 AD (not recognized by the Catholic Church) states as venerable and sacred the first three books of Maccabees and Wisdom of Sirach.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The Roman Catholic Council of Florence (1442) promulgated a list of the books of the Bible, including the books of Judith, Esther, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch and two books of the Maccabees as Canonical books:


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The Roman Catholic Council of Trent (1546) adopted an understanding of the canons of these previous councils as corresponding to its own list of deuterocanonical books:


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: Jerome in one of his Vulgate prologues describes a canon which excludes the deuterocanonical books. In these prologues, Jerome mentions all of the deuterocanonical and apocryphal works by name as being apocryphal or "not in the canon" except for "Prayer of Manasses" and "Baruch". He mentions "Baruch" by name in his "Prologue to Jeremiah" and notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or "not in the canon". The inferior status to which the deuterocanonical books were relegated by authorities like Jerome is seen by some as being due to a rigid conception of canonicity, one demanding that a book, to be entitled to this supreme dignity, must be received by all, must have the sanction of Jewish antiquity, and must moreover be adapted not only to edification, but also to the "confirmation of the doctrine of the Church".


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: J. N. D. Kelly states that "Jerome, conscious of the difficulty of arguing with Jews on the basis of books they spurned and anyhow regarding the Hebrew original as authoritative, was adamant that anything not found in it was 'to be classed among the apocrypha', not in the canon; later he grudgingly conceded that the Church read some of these books for edification, but not to support doctrine."


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: Jerome's Vulgate included the deuterocanonical books as well as apocrypha. Jerome referenced and quoted from some as scripture despite describing them as "not in the canon". Michael Barber asserts that, although Jerome was once suspicious of the apocrypha, he later viewed them as scripture. Barber argues that this is clear from Jerome's epistles; he cites Jerome's letter to Eustochium, in which Jerome quotes Sirach 13:2. Elsewhere Jerome apparently also refers to Baruch, the Story of Susannah and Wisdom as scripture. Henry Barker states that Jerome quotes the Apocrypha with marked respect, and even as "Scripture", giving them an ecclesiastical if not a canonical position and use. Luther also wrote introductions to the books of the Apocrypha, and occasionally quoted from some to support an argument.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: In his prologue to Judith, without using the word canon, Jerome mentioned that Judith was held to be scriptural by the First Council of Nicaea.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: In his reply to Rufinus, Jerome affirmed that he was consistent with the choice of the church regarding which version of the deuterocanonical portions of Daniel to use, which the Jews of his day did not include:


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: Thus Jerome acknowledged the principle by which the canon would be settled—the judgment of the Church (at least the local churches in this case) rather than his own judgment or the judgment of Jews; though concerning translation of Daniel to Greek, he wondered why one should use the version of a translator whom he regarded as a heretic and judaizer (Theodotion).


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The Vulgate is also important as the touchstone of the canon concerning which parts of books are canonical. When the Council of Trent confirmed the books included in the first canon, it qualified the books as being "entire with all their parts, as they have been used to be read in the Catholic Church, and as they are contained in the old Latin vulgate edition". This decree was clarified somewhat by Pope Pius XI on 2 June 1927, who allowed that the Comma Johanneum was open to dispute, and it was further explicated by Pope Pius XII's "Divino afflante Spiritu".


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The Council of Trent also ratified the Vulgate Bible as the official Latin version of the Bible for the Roman Catholic Church.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The existence of the Septuagint, Samaritan Pentateuch, and the Peshitta versions of the Hebrew scriptures demonstrate that different versions of Judaism used different texts, and it is debated which is closest to the Urtext (a theoretical "original" text from which these all emerged from). The Dead Sea Scrolls contain the Deuterocanonical books and the 10th century AD Masoretic is the first Jewish text to exclude them. Since the Enlightenment, it was wrongly believed that the Masoretic Text was the "original" Hebrew Bible when this was in fact a medieval version created by the Masoretes. The Septuagint has been in use since the 4th century BC, so it predates the Masoretic text by over millennium. Various versions of the Masoretic persisted for a couple of hundred years until the version created by the Ben-Ascher family of Tiberias (the Codex of Aleppo from 920) became the standard. The oldest completely preserved manuscript of the Masoretic text is the Codex Leningradensis from the year 1008 AD. The Septuagint was the authoritative Jewish scriptures of the Second Temple Judaism from which the early Christians emerged from, hence the Christian Bible contained these deuterocanonical books until Martin Luther, assuming the Masoretic text to be the original, removed them to match this new Jewish canon. Rabbinic Judaism is a newer form of Judaism that created the Masoretic text in part to deter a Christian reading of the Old Testament.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The Catholic Church considers that in the Council of Rome in 382 AD, under the Papacy of Damasus I, was defined the complete canon of the Bible, accepting 46 books for the Old Testament, including what the Reformed Churches consider as deuterocanonical books, and 27 books for the New Testament. Based in this first canon, Saint Jerome compiled and translated the 73 books of the Bible into Latin, later known as the Vulgate Bible version, which has been considered during many centuries as one of the official Bible translations of the Catholic Church. The Synod of Hippo (in 393 AD), followed by the Council of Carthage (397) and the Council of Carthage (419), also explicitly accepted the first canon from the Council of Rome; these councils were under significant influence of Augustine of Hippo, who also regarded the Biblical canon as already closed. The Roman Catholic Council of Florence (1442) confirmed the first canon too, while the Council of Trent (1546) elevated the first canon to dogma.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: Protestant theologian Philip Schaff states that "the Council of Hippo in 393, and the third (according to another reckoning the sixth) Council of Carthage in 397, under the influence of Augustine, who attended both, fixed the catholic canon of the Holy Scriptures, including the Apocrypha of the Old Testament, ...This decision of the transmarine church, however, was subject to ratification; and the concurrence of the Roman See it received when Innocent I and Gelasius I (AD 414) repeated the same index of biblical books." Schaff says that this canon remained undisturbed till the 16th century, and was sanctioned by the Council of Trent at its fourth session, although as the "Catholic Encyclopedia" reports, "in the Latin Church, all through the Middle Ages we find evidence of hesitation about the character of the deuterocanonicals. ... Few are found to unequivocally acknowledge their canonicity," but that the countless manuscript copies of the Vulgate produced by these ages, with a slight, probably accidental, exception, uniformly embrace the complete Roman Catholic Old Testament. Subsequent research qualifies this latter statement, in that a distinct tradition of large format pandect bibles has been identified as having been promoted by the 11th and 12th century reforming Papacy for presentation to monasteries in Italy; and now commonly termed 'Atlantic Bibles' on account of their very great size. While not all these bibles present a consistent reformed Vulgate text, they generally exclude the deuterocanonical books.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah, appear in the canon lists of the Council of Laodicea, Athanasius (367 AD), Cyril of Jerusalem (), and Epiphanius of Salamis () they are not present in the canons done by Innocent I and Gelasius I, nor are present in any complete Vulgate Bibles earlier than the 9th century; and even after that date, do not become common in the Vulgate Old Testament until the 13th century. In the Old Latin version of the Bible, these two works appear to have been incorporated into the Book of Jeremiah, and Latin Fathers of the 4th century and earlier always cite their texts as being from that book. However, when Jerome translated Jeremiah afresh from the Hebrew text, which is considerably longer than the Greek Septuagint text and with chapters in a different order, he steadfastly refused to incorporate either Baruch or the Letter of Jeremiah from the Greek. In the 9th century these two works were reintroduced into the Vulgate Bibles produced under the influence of Theodulf of Orleans, originally as additional chapters to the Vulgate book of Jeremiah. Subsequently, and especially in the Paris Bibles of the 13th century, they are found together as a single, combined book after Lamentations.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: For the Roman Catholic Church and Protestant Churches, Greek Esdras is now considered apocryphal, while the Orthodox Church considers it as canonical. The earlier canonical status of this book in the Western church can be less easy to track, as references to Esdras in canon lists and citations may refer either to this book, or to Greek Ezra–Nehemiah, or both together. In the surviving Greek pandect Bibles of the 4th and 5th centuries, Greek Esdras always stands as 'Esdras A' while the Greek translation of the whole of canonical Ezra–Nehemiah stands as 'Esdras B'; and the same is found in the surviving witness of the Old Latin Bible. When Latin fathers of the early church cite quotations from the biblical 'Book of Ezra' it is overwhelmingly 'First Ezra/Esdras A' to which they refer, as in Augustine 'City of God' 18:36. Citations of the 'Nehemiah' sections of Old Latin Second Ezra/'Esdras B' are much rarer; and no Old Latin citations from the 'Ezra' sections of Second Ezra/'Esdras B' are known before Bede in the 8th century. Consequently Gallagher and Meade conclude "when the ancient canon lists, whether Greek or Latin, mention two books of Esdras, they must have in mind the books known in the LXX and Old Latin as Esdras A and Esdras B; i.e. our 1 Esdras and Ezra-Nehemiah."


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: In his prologue to Ezra Jerome refers to four books of Ezra in the Latin tradition. Jerome's first and second Latin books of Ezra are those of the Old Latin Bible - corresponding to Greek Esdras and Ezra-Nehemiah in the Septuagint; these two books he considers each to be a corrupt version of the single Hebrew book of Ezra, so he claims that his Vulgate version of Ezra from the Hebrew replaces both of them. Jerome condemns the third and fourth Latin books of Ezra as apocrypha; his third book must correspond to the Jewish Apocolypse of Ezra while the fourth book is likely to comprise other material from Latin Ezra.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: From the 9th century, occasional Latin Vulgate manuscripts are found in which Jerome's single Ezra text is split to form the separate books of Ezra and Nehemiah; and in the Paris Bibles of the 13th century this split has become universal, with Esdras A being reintroduced as '3 Esdras' and Latin Esdras being added as '4 Esdras'. At the Council of Trent neither '3 Esdras' nor '4 Esdras' were accepted as canonical books, but were eventually printed in the section of 'Apocrypha' in the Sixto-Clementine Vulgate, along with the Prayer of Manasses.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The Council of Trent in 1546 stated the list of books included in the canon as it had been set out in the Council of Florence. In respect to the deuterocanonical books this list conformed with the canon lists of Western synods of the late 4th century, other than including Baruch with the Letter of Jeremiah (Baruch chapter 6) as a single book. While the majority at Trent supported this decision there were participants in the minority who disagreed with accepting any other than the protocanonical books in the canon. Among the minority, at Trent, were Cardinals Seripando and Cajetan, the latter an opponent of Luther at Augsburg.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The Eastern Orthodox Churches have traditionally included all the books of the Septuagint in their Old Testaments. The Greeks use the word (, "readable, worthy to be read") to describe the books of the Greek Septuagint that are not present in the Hebrew Bible. When Eastern Orthodox theologians use the term "deuterocanonical", it is important to note that the meaning is not identical to the Roman Catholic usage. In Eastern Orthodox Christianity, deuterocanonical means that a book is part of the corpus of the Old Testament (i.e. is read during the services) but has secondary authority. In other words, deutero (second) applies to authority or witnessing power, whereas in Roman Catholicism, deutero applies to chronology (the fact that these books were confirmed later), not to authority.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The Eastern Orthodox canon includes the deuterocanonical books accepted by Roman Catholics plus Psalm 151, the Prayer of Manasseh, 3 Maccabees and 1 Esdras (also included in the Clementine Vulgate), while Baruch is divided from the Epistle of Jeremiah, making a total of 49 Old Testament books in contrast with the Protestant 39-book canon.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The Eastern Orthodox synod, the Synod of Jerusalem, held in 1672 receive as its canon the books found in the Septuagint, and in the Patristic, Byzantine, and liturgical tradition. The Synod declared the Eastern Orthodox canon as follows:


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: ...specifically, "The Wisdom of Solomon," "Judith," "Tobit," "The History of the Dragon" [Bel and the Dragon], "The History of Susanna," "The Maccabees," and "The Wisdom of Sirach." For we judge these also to be with the other genuine Books of Divine Scripture genuine parts of Scripture. For ancient custom, or rather the Catholic Church, which has delivered to us as genuine the Sacred Gospels and the other Books of Scripture, has undoubtedly delivered these also as parts of Scripture, and the denial of these is the rejection of those. And if, perhaps, it seems that not always have all of these been considered on the same level as the others, yet nevertheless these also have been counted and reckoned with the rest of Scripture, both by Synods and by many of the most ancient and eminent Theologians of the Universal Church. All of these we also judge to be Canonical Books, and confess them to be Sacred Scripture.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: Other texts printed in Orthodox Bibles are included as an appendix, which is not the same in all churches; the appendix contains 4 Maccabees in Greek-language bibles, while it contains 2 Esdras in Slavonic-language and Russian-language.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: In the Ethiopic Bible used by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church (an Oriental Orthodox Church), those books of the Old Testament that are still counted as canonical, but which are not agreed upon by all other Churches, are often set in a separate section titled ""Deeyutrokanoneekal"" (ዲዩትሮካኖኒካል), which is cognate with "Deuterocanonical". The Ethiopian Orthodox Deuterocanon, in addition to the standard set listed above, and with the books of Esdras and "Prayer of Minasse", also includes some books that are still held canonical by only the Ethiopian Church, including Enoch or "Henok" (I Enoch), "Kufale" (Jubilees) and 1, 2 and 3 Meqabyan (which are sometimes wrongly confused with the "Books of Maccabees").


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: Anabaptists use the Luther Bible, which contains the Apocrypha as intertestamental books, which has much overlap with the Catholic deuterocanonical books; Amish wedding ceremonies include "the retelling of the marriage of Tobias and Sarah in the Apocrypha".


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The fathers of Anabaptism, such as Menno Simmons, quoted "them [the Apocrypha] with the same authority and nearly the same frequency as books of the Hebrew Bible" and the texts regarding the martyrdoms under Antiochus IV in 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees are held in high esteem by the Anabaptists, who faced persecution in their history.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The Thirty-nine Articles of Religion of the Church of England lists the deuterocanonical books as suitable to be read for "example of life and instruction of manners, but yet doth not apply them to establish any doctrine". The early lectionaries of the Anglican Church (as included in the Book of Common Prayer of 1662) included the deuterocanonical books amongst the cycle of readings, and passages from them were used regularly in services (such as the Kyrie Pantokrator and the Benedicite).


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: Readings from the deuterocanonical books are now included many modern lectionaries in the Anglican Communion, based on the Revised Common Lectionary (in turn based on the post-conciliar Roman Catholic lectionary), though alternative readings from protocanonical books are also provided.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: There is a great deal of overlap between the Apocrypha section of the original 1611 King James Bible and the Catholic deuterocanon, but the two are distinct.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The Apocrypha section of the original 1611 King James Bible includes, in addition to the deuterocanonical books, the following three books, which were not included in the list of the canonical books by the Council of Trent:


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: These books make up the Apocrypha section of the Clementine Vulgate: 3 Esdras (a.k.a. 1 Esdras); 4 Esdras (a.k.a. 2 Esdras); and the Prayer of Manasseh, where they are specifically described as "outside of the series of the canon". The 1609 Douai Bible includes them in an appendix, but they have not been included in English Catholic Bibles since the Challoner revision of the Douai Bible in 1750.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: Using the word "apocrypha" (Greek: "hidden away") to describe texts, although not necessarily pejorative, implies that the writings in question should not be included in the canon of the Bible. This classification commingles them with certain non-canonical gospels and New Testament apocrypha. "The Society of Biblical Literature" recommends the use of the term "deuterocanonical books" instead of "Apocrypha" in academic writing.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: Luther termed the deuterocanonical books "Apocrypha, that is, books which are not considered equal to the Holy Scriptures, but are useful and good to read." These are included in copies of the Luther Bible as intertestamental books between the Old Testament and New Testament.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The first Methodist liturgical book, "The Sunday Service of the Methodists", employs verses from the biblical apocrypha, such as in the Eucharistic liturgy.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The Revised Common Lectionary, in use by most mainline Protestants including Methodists and Moravians, lists readings from the biblical apocrypha in the liturgical kalendar, although alternate Old Testament scripture lessons are provided.


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The Westminster Confession of Faith, a Calvinist document that serves as a systematic summary of doctrine for the Church of Scotland and other Presbyterian Churches worldwide, recognizes only the sixty-six books of the Protestant canon as authentic scripture. Chapter 1, Article 3 of the Confession reads: "The books commonly called Apocrypha, not being of divine inspiration, are no part of the Canon of Scripture; and therefore are of no authority in the Church of God, nor to be any otherwise approved, or made use of, than other human writings."


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The Belgic Confession, used in Reformed churches, devotes a section (Article 6) to "the difference between the canonical and apocryphal books" and says of them: "All which the Church may read and take instruction from, so far as they agree with the canonical books; but they are far from having such power and efficacy as that we may from their testimony confirm any point of faith or of the Christian religion; much less to detract from the authority of the other sacred books."


title: Deuterocanonical books

text: The term "deuterocanonical" is sometimes used to describe the canonical antilegomena, those books of the New Testament which, like the deuterocanonicals of the Old Testament, were not universally accepted by the early Church.


title: Chester Reynolds

text: Chester Ambrose Reynolds (September 24, 1902 – May 1, 1983) was a provincial politician from Alberta, Canada. He served as a member of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta from 1940 to 1944, sitting as a Social Credit member from the constituency of Stettler.


title: Chester Reynolds

text: Reynolds was born September 24, 1902 in Chicago, Illinois to W. F. Reynolds (1863–1949) and Elizabeth ( Crowe; 1872–1949). The family immigrated to Canada in 1906; he was educated in Gadsby, Alberta.


title: Chester Reynolds

text: Reynolds was elected in the 1940 Alberta general election to the 9th Alberta Legislature for the constituency of Stettler as a member of the Social Credit Party. Reynolds received slightly over 50 percent of the vote, defeating his Independent opponent L. V. Lohr by 817 votes, and the Co-operative Commonwealth candidate H. H. Turner by 1,884 votes. Reynolds did not contest the 1944 Alberta general election.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a type of transistor that uses both electrons and electron holes as charge carriers. In contrast, a unipolar transistor, such as a field-effect transistor, uses only one kind of charge carrier. A bipolar transistor allows a small current injected at one of its terminals to control a much larger current flowing between the terminals, making the device capable of amplification or switching.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: BJTs use two p–n junctions between two semiconductor types, n-type and p-type, which are regions in a single crystal of material. The junctions can be made in several different ways, such as changing the doping of the semiconductor material as it is grown, by depositing metal pellets to form alloy junctions, or by such methods as diffusion of n-type and p-type doping substances into the crystal. The superior predictability and performance of junction transistors quickly displaced the original point-contact transistor. Diffused transistors, along with other components, are elements of integrated circuits for analog and digital functions. Hundreds of bipolar junction transistors can be made in one circuit at very low cost.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: Bipolar transistor integrated circuits were the main active devices of a generation of mainframe and minicomputers, but most computer systems now use CMOS integrated circuits relying on field-effect transistors. Bipolar transistors are still used for amplification of signals, switching, and in mixed-signal integrated circuits using BiCMOS. Specialized types are used for high voltage switches, for radio-frequency amplifiers, or for switching high currents.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: By convention, the direction of current on diagrams is shown as the direction that a positive charge would move. This is called "conventional current". However, current in metal conductors is generally due to the flow of electrons. Because electrons carry a negative charge, they move in the direction opposite to conventional current. On the other hand, inside a bipolar transistor, currents can be composed of both positively charged holes and negatively charged electrons. In this article, current arrows are shown in the conventional direction, but labels for the movement of holes and electrons show their actual direction inside the transistor.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The arrow on the symbol for bipolar transistors indicates the p–n junction between base and emitter and points in the direction in which conventional current travels.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: BJTs exist as PNP and NPN types, based on the doping types of the three main terminal regions. An NPN transistor comprises two semiconductor junctions that share a thin p-doped region, and a PNP transistor comprises two semiconductor junctions that share a thin n-doped region. N-type means doped with impurities (such as phosphorus or arsenic) that provide mobile electrons, while p-type means doped with impurities (such as boron) that provide holes that readily accept electrons.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: Charge flow in a BJT is due to diffusion of charge carriers (electrons and holes) across a junction between two regions of different charge carrier concentration. The regions of a BJT are called "emitter", "base", and "collector". A discrete transistor has three leads for connection to these regions. Typically, the emitter region is heavily doped compared to the other two layers, and the collector is doped more lightly (typically ten times lighter) than the base. By design, most of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of charge carriers injected from a heavily doped emitter into the base where they are minority carriers (electrons in NPNs, holes in PNPs) that diffuse toward the collector, so BJTs are classified as "minority-carrier devices".


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: In typical operation, the base–emitter junction is forward biased, which means that the p-doped side of the junction is at a more positive potential than the n-doped side, and the base–collector junction is reverse-biased. When forward bias is applied to the base–emitter junction, the equilibrium between the thermally generated carriers and the repelling electric field of the emitter depletion region is disturbed. This allows thermally excited carriers (electrons in NPNs, holes in PNPs) to inject from the emitter into the base region. These carriers create a diffusion current through the base from the region of high concentration near the emitter toward the region of low concentration near the collector.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: To minimize the fraction of carriers that recombine before reaching the collector–base junction, the transistor's base region must be thin enough that carriers can diffuse across it in much less time than the semiconductor's minority-carrier lifetime. Having a lightly doped base ensures recombination rates are low. In particular, the thickness of the base must be much less than the of the carriers. The collector–base junction is reverse-biased, and so negligible carrier injection occurs from the collector to the base, but carriers that are injected into the base from the emitter, and diffuse to reach the collector–base depletion region, are swept into the collector by the electric field in the depletion region. The thin "shared" base and asymmetric collector–emitter doping are what differentiates a bipolar transistor from two "separate" diodes connected in series.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The collector–emitter current can be viewed as being controlled by the base–emitter current (current control), or by the base–emitter voltage (voltage control). These views are related by the current–voltage relation of the base–emitter junction, which is the usual exponential current–voltage curve of a p–n junction (diode).


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The explanation for collector current is the concentration gradient of minority carriers in the base region. Due to low-level injection (in which there are much fewer excess carriers than normal majority carriers) the ambipolar transport rates (in which the excess majority and minority carriers flow at the same rate) is in effect determined by the excess minority carriers.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: Detailed transistor models of transistor action, such as the Gummel–Poon model, account for the distribution of this charge explicitly to explain transistor behaviour more exactly. The charge-control view easily handles phototransistors, where minority carriers in the base region are created by the absorption of photons, and handles the dynamics of turn-off, or recovery time, which depends on charge in the base region recombining. However, because base charge is not a signal that is visible at the terminals, the current- and voltage-control views are generally used in circuit design and analysis.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: In analog circuit design, the current-control view is sometimes used because it is approximately linear. That is, the collector current is approximately formula_1 times the base current. Some basic circuits can be designed by assuming that the base–emitter voltage is approximately constant and that collector current is β times the base current. However, to accurately and reliably design production BJT circuits, the voltage-control (for example, Ebers–Moll) model is required. The voltage-control model requires an exponential function to be taken into account, but when it is linearized such that the transistor can be modeled as a transconductance, as in the Ebers–Moll model, design for circuits such as differential amplifiers again becomes a mostly linear problem, so the voltage-control view is often preferred. For translinear circuits, in which the exponential I–V curve is key to the operation, the transistors are usually modeled as voltage-controlled current sources whose transconductance is proportional to their collector current. In general, transistor-level circuit analysis is performed using SPICE or a comparable analog-circuit simulator, so mathematical model complexity is usually not of much concern to the designer, but a simplified view of the characteristics allows designs to be created following a logical process.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: Bipolar transistors, and particularly power transistors, have long base-storage times when they are driven into saturation; the base storage limits turn-off time in switching applications. A Baker clamp can prevent the transistor from heavily saturating, which reduces the amount of charge stored in the base and thus improves switching time.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The proportion of carriers able to cross the base and reach the collector is a measure of the BJT efficiency. The heavy doping of the emitter region and light doping of the base region causes many more electrons to be injected from the emitter into the base than holes to be injected from the base into the emitter. A thin and lightly-doped base region means that most of the minority carriers that are injected into the base will diffuse to the collector and not recombine.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The "common-emitter current gain" is represented by or the -parameter ; it is approximately the ratio of the DC collector current to the DC base current in forward-active region. (The F subscript is used to indicate the forward-active mode of operation.) It is typically greater than 50 for small-signal transistors, but can be smaller in transistors designed for high-power applications. Both injection efficiency and recombination in the base reduce the BJT gain.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: Another useful characteristic is the "common-base current gain", . The common-base current gain is approximately the gain of current from emitter to collector in the forward-active region. This ratio usually has a value close to unity; between 0.980 and 0.998. It is less than unity due to recombination of charge carriers as they cross the base region.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: Beta is a convenient figure of merit to describe the performance of a bipolar transistor, but is not a fundamental physical property of the device. Bipolar transistors can be considered voltage-controlled devices (fundamentally the collector current is controlled by the base–emitter voltage; the base current could be considered a defect and is controlled by the characteristics of the base–emitter junction and recombination in the base). In many designs beta is assumed high enough so that base current has a negligible effect on the circuit. In some circuits (generally switching circuits), sufficient base current is supplied so that even the lowest beta value a particular device may have will still allow the required collector current to flow.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: BJTs consists of three differently doped semiconductor regions: the "emitter" region, the "base" region and the "collector" region. These regions are, respectively, "p" type, "n" type and "p" type in a PNP transistor, and "n" type, "p" type and "n" type in an NPN transistor. Each semiconductor region is connected to a terminal, appropriately labeled: "emitter" (E), "base" (B) and "collector" (C).


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The "base" is physically located between the "emitter" and the "collector" and is made from lightly doped, high-resistivity material. The collector surrounds the emitter region, making it almost impossible for the electrons injected into the base region to escape without being collected, thus making the resulting value of α very close to unity, and so, giving the transistor a large β. A cross-section view of a BJT indicates that the collector–base junction has a much larger area than the emitter–base junction.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The bipolar junction transistor, unlike other transistors, is usually not a symmetrical device. This means that interchanging the collector and the emitter makes the transistor leave the forward active mode and start to operate in reverse mode. Because the transistor's internal structure is usually optimized for forward-mode operation, interchanging the collector and the emitter makes the values of α and β in reverse operation much smaller than those in forward operation; often the α of the reverse mode is lower than 0.5. The lack of symmetry is primarily due to the doping ratios of the emitter and the collector. The emitter is heavily doped, while the collector is lightly doped, allowing a large reverse bias voltage to be applied before the collector–base junction breaks down. The collector–base junction is reverse biased in normal operation. The reason the emitter is heavily doped is to increase the emitter injection efficiency: the ratio of carriers injected by the emitter to those injected by the base. For high current gain, most of the carriers injected into the emitter–base junction must come from the emitter.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The low-performance "lateral" bipolar transistors sometimes used in CMOS processes are sometimes designed symmetrically, that is, with no difference between forward and backward operation.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: Small changes in the voltage applied across the base–emitter terminals cause the current between the "emitter" and the "collector" to change significantly. This effect can be used to amplify the input voltage or current. BJTs can be thought of as voltage-controlled current sources, but are more simply characterized as current-controlled current sources, or current amplifiers, due to the low impedance at the base.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: Early transistors were made from germanium but most modern BJTs are made from silicon. A significant minority are also now made from gallium arsenide, especially for very high speed applications (see HBT, below).


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT) is an improvement of the BJT that can handle signals of very high frequencies up to several hundred GHz. It is common in modern ultrafast circuits, mostly RF systems.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: Two commonly used HBTs are silicon–germanium and aluminum gallium arsenide, though a wide variety of semiconductors may be used for the HBT structure. HBT structures are usually grown by epitaxy techniques like MOCVD and MBE.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The modes of operation can be described in terms of the applied voltages (this description applies to NPN transistors; polarities are reversed for PNP transistors):


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: In terms of junction biasing: ("reverse biased base–collector junction" means V < 0 for NPN, opposite for PNP)


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: Although these regions are well defined for sufficiently large applied voltage, they overlap somewhat for small (less than a few hundred millivolts) biases. For example, in the typical grounded-emitter configuration of an NPN BJT used as a pulldown switch in digital logic, the "off" state never involves a reverse-biased junction because the base voltage never goes below ground; nevertheless the forward bias is close enough to zero that essentially no current flows, so this end of the forward active region can be regarded as the cutoff region.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The diagram shows a schematic representation of an NPN transistor connected to two voltage sources. (The same description applies to a PNP transistor with reversed directions of current flow and applied voltage.) This applied voltage causes the lower P–N junction to become forward biased, allowing a flow of electrons from the emitter into the base. In active mode, the electric field existing between base and collector (caused by "V") will cause the majority of these electrons to cross the upper P–N junction into the collector to form the collector current "I". The remainder of the electrons recombine with holes, the majority carriers in the base, making a current through the base connection to form the base current, "I". As shown in the diagram, the emitter current, "I", is the total transistor current, which is the sum of the other terminal currents, (i.e., "I" = "I" + "I").


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: In the diagram, the arrows representing current point in the direction of conventional current – the flow of electrons is in the opposite direction of the arrows because electrons carry negative electric charge. In active mode, the ratio of the collector current to the base current is called the "DC current gain". This gain is usually 100 or more, but robust circuit designs do not depend on the exact value (for example see op-amp). The value of this gain for DC signals is referred to as formula_4, and the value of this gain for small signals is referred to as formula_5. That is, when a small change in the currents occurs, and sufficient time has passed for the new condition to reach a steady state formula_5 is the ratio of the change in collector current to the change in base current. The symbol formula_7 is used for both formula_4 and formula_5.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The emitter current is related to formula_10 exponentially. At room temperature, an increase in formula_10 by approximately 60 mV increases the emitter current by a factor of 10. Because the base current is approximately proportional to the collector and emitter currents, they vary in the same way.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The bipolar point-contact transistor was invented in December 1947 at the Bell Telephone Laboratories by John Bardeen and Walter Brattain under the direction of William Shockley. The junction version known as the bipolar junction transistor (BJT), invented by Shockley in 1948, was for three decades the device of choice in the design of discrete and integrated circuits. Nowadays, the use of the BJT has declined in favor of CMOS technology in the design of digital integrated circuits. The incidental low performance BJTs inherent in CMOS ICs, however, are often utilized as bandgap voltage reference, silicon bandgap temperature sensor and to handle electrostatic discharge.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The germanium transistor was more common in the 1950s and 1960s but has a greater tendency to exhibit thermal runaway. Since germanium p-n junctions have a lower forward bias than silicon, germanium transistors turn on at lower voltage.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: BJTs can be thought of as two diodes (P–N junctions) sharing a common region that minority carriers can move through. A PNP BJT will function like two diodes that share an N-type cathode region, and the NPN like two diodes sharing a P-type anode region. Connecting two diodes with wires will not make a BJT, since minority carriers will not be able to get from one P–N junction to the other through the wire.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: Both types of BJT function by letting a small current input to the base control an amplified output from the collector. The result is that the BJT makes a good switch that is controlled by its base input. The BJT also makes a good amplifier, since it can multiply a weak input signal to about 100 times its original strength. Networks of BJTs are used to make powerful amplifiers with many different applications.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: In the discussion below, focus is on the NPN BJT. In what is called active mode, the base–emitter voltage formula_10 and collector–base voltage formula_13 are positive, forward biasing the emitter–base junction and reverse-biasing the collector–base junction. In this mode, electrons are injected from the forward biased n-type emitter region into the p-type base where they diffuse as minority carriers to the reverse-biased n-type collector and are swept away by the electric field in the reverse-biased collector–base junction.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: In 1954, Jewell James Ebers and John L. Moll introduced their mathematical model of transistor currents:


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The DC emitter and collector currents in active mode are well modeled by an approximation to the Ebers–Moll model:


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The formula_24 and forward formula_7 parameters are as described previously. A reverse formula_7 is sometimes included in the model.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The unapproximated Ebers–Moll equations used to describe the three currents in any operating region are given below. These equations are based on the transport model for a bipolar junction transistor.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: As the collector–base voltage (formula_37) varies, the collector–base depletion region varies in size. An increase in the collector–base voltage, for example, causes a greater reverse bias across the collector–base junction, increasing the collector–base depletion region width, and decreasing the width of the base. This variation in base width often is called the "Early effect" after its discoverer James M. Early.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: Both factors increase the collector or "output" current of the transistor in response to an increase in the collector–base voltage.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: In the forward-active region, the Early effect modifies the collector current (formula_28) and the forward common emitter current gain (formula_1) as given by:


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: When the base–collector voltage reaches a certain (device-specific) value, the base–collector depletion region boundary meets the base–emitter depletion region boundary. When in this state the transistor effectively has no base. The device thus loses all gain when in this state.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The Gummel–Poon model is a detailed charge-controlled model of BJT dynamics, which has been adopted and elaborated by others to explain transistor dynamics in greater detail than the terminal-based models typically do. This model also includes the dependence of transistor formula_7-values upon the direct current levels in the transistor, which are assumed current-independent in the Ebers–Moll model.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The hybrid-pi model is a popular circuit model used for analyzing the small signal and AC behavior of bipolar junction and field effect transistors. Sometimes it is also called "Giacoletto model" because it was introduced by L.J. Giacoletto in 1969. The model can be quite accurate for low-frequency circuits and can easily be adapted for higher-frequency circuits with the addition of appropriate inter-electrode capacitances and other parasitic elements.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: Another model commonly used to analyze BJT circuits is the "h-parameter" model, also known as the hybrid equivalent model, closely related to the hybrid-pi model and the y-parameter two-port, but using input current and output voltage as independent variables, rather than input and output voltages. This two-port network is particularly suited to BJTs as it lends itself easily to the analysis of circuit behaviour, and may be used to develop further accurate models. As shown, the term "x" in the model represents a different BJT lead depending on the topology used. For common-emitter mode the various symbols take on the specific values as:


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: As shown, the h-parameters have lower-case subscripts and hence signify AC conditions or analyses. For DC conditions they are specified in upper-case. For the CE topology, an approximate h-parameter model is commonly used which further simplifies the circuit analysis. For this the "h" and "h" parameters are neglected (that is, they are set to infinity and zero, respectively). The h-parameter model as shown is suited to low-frequency, small-signal analysis. For high-frequency analyses the inter-electrode capacitances that are important at high frequencies must be added.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The "h" refers to its being an h-parameter, a set of parameters named for their origin in a "hybrid equivalent circuit" model (see above). As with all h parameters, the choice of lower case or capitals for the letters that follow the "h" is significant; lower-case signifies "small signal" parameters, that is, the slope the particular relationship; upper-case letters imply "large signal" or DC values, the ratio of the voltages or currents. In the case of the very often used "h":


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: So h (or hFE) refers to the (total; DC) collector current divided by the base current, and is dimensionless. It is a parameter that varies somewhat with collector current, but is often approximated as a constant; it is normally specified at a typical collector current and voltage, or graphed as a function of collector current.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: Had capital letters not been used for used in the subscript, i.e. if it were written "h" the parameter indicate small signal (AC) current gain, i.e. the slope of the Collector current versus Base current graph at a given point, which is often close to the hFE value unless the test frequency is high.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The Gummel–Poon SPICE model is often used, but it suffers from several limitations. For instance, reverse breakdown of the base–emitter diode is not captured by the SGP (SPICE Gummel–Poon) model, neither are thermal effects (self-heating) or quasi-saturation. These have been addressed in various more advanced models which either focus on specific cases of application (Mextram, HICUM, Modella) or are designed for universal usage (VBIC).


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The BJT remains a device that excels in some applications, such as discrete circuit design, due to the very wide selection of BJT types available, and because of its high transconductance and output resistance compared to MOSFETs.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The BJT is also the choice for demanding analog circuits, especially for very-high-frequency applications, such as radio-frequency circuits for wireless systems.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: Bipolar transistors can be combined with MOSFETs in an integrated circuit by using a BiCMOS process of wafer fabrication to create circuits that take advantage of the application strengths of both types of transistor.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: The α and β characterize the current gain of the BJT. It is this gain that allows BJTs to be used as the building blocks of electronic amplifiers. The three main BJT amplifier topologies are:


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: Because of the known temperature and current dependence of the forward-biased base–emitter junction voltage, the BJT can be used to measure temperature by subtracting two voltages at two different bias currents in a known ratio.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: Because base–emitter voltage varies as the logarithm of the base–emitter and collector–emitter currents, a BJT can also be used to compute logarithms and anti-logarithms. A diode can also perform these nonlinear functions but the transistor provides more circuit flexibility.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: Transistors may be deliberately made with a lower collector to emitter breakdown voltage than the collector to base breakdown voltage. If the emitter–base junction is reverse biased the collector emitter voltage may be maintained at a voltage just below breakdown. As soon as the base voltage is allowed to rise, and current flows avalanche occurs and impact ionization in the collector base depletion region rapidly floods the base with carriers and turns the transistor fully on. So long as the pulses are short enough and infrequent enough that the device is not damaged, this effect can be used to create very sharp falling edges.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: Exposure of the transistor to ionizing radiation causes radiation damage. Radiation causes a buildup of 'defects' in the base region that act as recombination centers. The resulting reduction in minority carrier lifetime causes gradual loss of gain of the transistor.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: Transistors have "maximum ratings", including power ratings (essentially limited by self-heating), maximum collector and base currents (both continuous/DC ratings and peak), and breakdown voltage ratings, beyond which the device may fail or at least perform badly.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: In addition to normal breakdown ratings of the device, power BJTs are subject to a failure mode called secondary breakdown, in which excessive current and normal imperfections in the silicon die cause portions of the silicon inside the device to become disproportionately hotter than the others. The electrical resistivity of doped silicon, like other semiconductors, has a negative temperature coefficient, meaning that it conducts more current at higher temperatures. Thus, the hottest part of the die conducts the most current, causing its conductivity to increase, which then causes it to become progressively hotter again, until the device fails internally. The thermal runaway process associated with secondary breakdown, once triggered, occurs almost instantly and may catastrophically damage the transistor package.


title: Bipolar junction transistor

text: If the emitter–base junction is reverse biased into avalanche or Zener mode and charge flows for a short period of time, the current gain of the BJT may be permanently degraded, as the emitter is smaller than the collector and cannot dissipate significant power. This is a common ESD failure mechanism in low-voltage devices.


title: Stefflon Don

text: Stephanie Victoria Allen (born 14 December 1991), better known by her stage name Stefflon Don, is a British rapper and singer. She rose to fame after her 2017 single "Hurtin' Me" featuring French Montana peaked at number 7 on UK Singles Chart. In 2016, Allen released her debut mixtape "Real Ting" followed by another mixtape, "Secure", in 2018.


title: Stefflon Don

text: Stefflon Don was born in Birmingham, England, and is of Jamaican descent. She has seven siblings, one of them being rapper Dutchavelli. When she was five years old, her family moved to Rotterdam, Netherlands. As a result, Allen is fluent in Dutch. Allen has been singing and writing music since primary school. At the age of nine, she recorded a "Hard Knock Life" hook for rapper U-Niq. The song was never released, but she was surprised to hear her voice on the playback. At the age of 14, she returned to Britain to study at a London school. She worked as a cake decorator and hairdresser before her career in music.


title: Stefflon Don

text: Don first surfaced in 2015 by releasing a cover of Wretch 32's "6 Words" and went on to be featured on tracks such as Lethal Bizzle's "Wobble", Sneakbo's "Work" remix, Angel's Hop On and KSI's 2016 song "Touch Down", which appears on the soundtrack of the 2017 film "Baywatch". "Fashion Killa (Papapapa)" by Mason, released 16 August 2016, was written by Stefflon Don and Mason (Iason Chronis). Don made her first appearance on an American song with the track "London" by singer Jeremih, and was later featured on Lil Yachty's "Better" from the album "Teenage Emotions". On 16 December 2016, Don released her first mixtape titled "Real Ting".


title: Stefflon Don

text: In the spring of 2016, Don was signed to 54 London a subsidiary of Universal Music Group that was created just for her. A few months later, she was featured on the dancehall track "Instruction" with Jax Jones and Demi Lovato. The trio performed the song live for the first time in June 2018 at the Summertime Ball.


title: Stefflon Don

text: On 15 August 2017, she released the lead single "Hurtin' Me" with French Montana from her debut EP titled "Hurtin' Me – The EP", which reached number 7 on the UK Singles Chart. The EP was later released on 12 January 2018.


title: Stefflon Don

text: In March 2018, Don appeared on the front cover of the final print edition in the 66-year run of "NME".


title: Stefflon Don

text: In March 2018, Don was featured on the remix for American singer Halsey's "Alone" along with American rapper Big Sean. The song peaked at number 66 on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming her first entry on the chart and also earned Don her first Dance Club Songs number one. The music video was released on 6 April 2018.


title: Stefflon Don

text: In March 2019, Don was featured on the Mariah Carey remix for the song "A No No" from her 2018 album "Caution".


title: Stefflon Don

text: On 25 August 2021, Don was featured on a Kiss My (Uh Oh) "Girl Power Remix" along with Anne-Marie, Little Mix, Raye and Becky Hill.


title: Stefflon Don

text: On 4 June 2022, she participated in the Platinum Party at the Palace, performing with Jax Jones and Nandi Bushell, to mark the Platinum Jubilee of Elizabeth II.


title: Stefflon Don

text: In September 2019, she held a giveaway on Twitter after reaching a billion streams as an artist. British artist Shocka reached out to her stating that he was in Nigeria for cancer treatment for his mother. She decided to give away the money for his mother's treatment.


title: 21st Century Fox

text: Twenty-First Century Fox, Inc., doing business as 21st Century Fox (21CF), was an American multinational mass media corporation that was based in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. It was one of the two companies formed on June 28, 2013, following a spin-off of the publishing assets of the old News Corporation as News Corp.


title: 21st Century Fox

text: 21st Century Fox was the legal successor to News Corporation dealing primarily in the film and television industries. It was the United States' fourth-largest media conglomerate until its acquisition by The Walt Disney Company in 2019. The other company, News Corp, holds Murdoch's print interests and other media assets in Australia (both owned by him and his family via a family trust with 39% interest in each). Murdoch was co-executive chairman, while his sons Lachlan Murdoch and James Murdoch were co-executive chairman and CEO, respectively.


title: 21st Century Fox

text: 21st Century Fox's assets included the Fox Entertainment Group—owners of the 20th Century Fox film studio (the company's partial namesake), the Fox television network, and a majority stake in National Geographic Partners—the commercial media arm of the National Geographic Society, among other assets. It also had significant foreign operations, including the prominent Indian television channel operator Star India. The company ranked No. 109 in the 2018 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by total revenue.