title: Prescription drug

text: The package insert for a prescription drug contains information about the intended effect of the drug and how it works in the body. It also contains information about side effects, how a patient should take the drug, and cautions for its use, including warnings about allergies.


title: Prescription drug

text: As a general rule, "over-the-counter drugs" (OTC) are used to treat a condition that does not need care from a healthcare professional if have been proven to meet higher safety standards for self-medication by patients. Often, a lower strength of a drug will be approved for OTC use, but higher strengths require a prescription to be obtained; a notable case is ibuprofen, which has been widely available as an OTC pain killer since the mid-1980s, but it is available by prescription in doses up to four times the OTC dose for severe pain that is not adequately controlled by the OTC strength.


title: Prescription drug

text: Herbal preparations, amino acids, vitamins, minerals, and other food supplements are regulated by the FDA as dietary supplements. Because specific health claims cannot be made, the consumer must make informed decisions when purchasing such products.


title: Prescription drug

text: By law, American pharmacies operated by "membership clubs" such as Costco and Sam's Club must allow non-members to use their pharmacy services and may not charge more for these services than they charge as their members.


title: Prescription drug

text: Physicians may legally prescribe drugs for uses other than those specified in the FDA approval, known as off-label use. Drug companies, however, are prohibited from marketing their drugs for off-label uses.


title: Prescription drug

text: Large US retailers that operate pharmacies and pharmacy chains use inexpensive generic drugs as a way to attract customers into stores. Several chains, including Walmart, Kroger (including subsidiaries such as Dillons), Target, and others, offer $4 monthly prescriptions on select generic drugs as a customer draw. Publix Supermarkets, which has pharmacies in many of their stores, offered free prescriptions on a few older but still effective medications to their customers, the program ended in 2022. The maximum supply is for 30 days.


title: Prescription drug

text: Some prescription drugs are commonly abused, particularly those marketed as analgesics, including fentanyl (Duragesic), hydrocodone (Vicodin), oxycodone (OxyContin), oxymorphone (Opana), propoxyphene (Darvon), hydromorphone (Dilaudid), meperidine (Demerol), and diphenoxylate (Lomotil).


title: Prescription drug

text: Some prescription painkillers have been found to be addictive, and unintentional poisoning deaths in the United States have skyrocketed since the 1990s according to the National Safety Council. Prescriber education guidelines as well as patient education, prescription drug monitoring programs and regulation of pain clinics are regulatory tactics which have been used to curtail opioid use and misuse.


title: Prescription drug

text: The expiration date, required in several countries, specifies the date up to which the manufacturer guarantees the full potency and safety of a drug. In the United States, expiration dates are determined by regulations established by the FDA. The FDA advises consumers not to use products after their expiration dates.


title: Prescription drug

text: A study conducted by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration covered over 100 drugs, prescription and over-the-counter. The results showed that about 90% of them were safe and effective far past their original expiration date. At least one drug worked 15 years after its expiration date. Joel Davis, a former FDA expiration-date compliance chief, said that with a handful of exceptions—notably nitroglycerin, insulin, some liquid antibiotics; outdated tetracyclines can cause Fanconi syndrome—most expired drugs are probably effective.


title: Prescription drug

text: The American Medical Association (AMA) issued a report and statement on Pharmaceutical Expiration Dates. The Harvard Medical School Family Health Guide notes that, with rare exceptions, "it's true the effectiveness of a drug may decrease over time, but much of the original potency still remains even a decade after the expiration date".


title: Prescription drug

text: The expiration date is the final day that the manufacturer guarantees the full potency and safety of a medication. Drug expiration dates exist on most medication labels, including prescription, over-the-counter (OTC) and dietary (herbal) supplements. U.S. pharmaceutical manufacturers are required by law to place expiration dates on prescription products prior to marketing. For legal and liability reasons, manufacturers will not make recommendations about the stability of drugs past the original expiration date.


title: Prescription drug

text: Prices for prescription drugs vary widely around the world. Prescription costs for biosimilar and generic drugs are usually less than brand names, but the cost is different from one pharmacy to another.


title: Prescription drug

text: Prescription drug prices including generic prices are rising faster than the average rate of inflation. To lower prescription drug costs, some U.S. patients buy medicine in Canada or online.


title: Prescription drug

text: Generics undergo strict scrutiny to meet the equal efficacy, safety, dosage, strength, stability, and quality of brand name drugs. Generics are developed after the brand name has already been established, and so generic drug approval in many aspects has a shortened approval process because it replicates the brand name drug.


title: Prescription drug

text: Brand name drugs cost more due to time, money, and resources that drug companies invest in in order to repeat research clinical trials that the FDA requires for the drug to remain in the market. Because drug companies have to invest more in research costs to do this, brand name drug prices are much higher when sold to consumers.


title: Prescription drug

text: When the patent expires for a brand name drug, generic versions of that drug are produced by other companies and are sold for lower price. By switching to generic prescription drugs, patients can save significant amounts of money: e.g. one study by the FDA showed an example with more than 50% savings of a patient's overall costs of their prescription drugs.


title: Prescription drug

text: In the United States there are many resources available to patients to lower the costs of medication. These include copayments, coinsurance, and deductibles. The Medicaid Drug Rebate Program is another example.


title: Prescription drug

text: Generic drug programs lower the amount of money patients have to pay when picking up their prescription at the pharmacy. As their name implies, they only cover generic drugs.


title: Prescription drug

text: Co-pay assistance programs are programs that help patients lower the costs of specialty medications; i.e., medications that are on restricted formularies, have limited distribution, and/or have no generic version available. These medications can include drugs for HIV, hepatitis C, and multiple sclerosis. Patient Assistance Program Center (RxAssist) has a list of foundations that provide co-pay assistance programs. It is important to note that co-pay assistance programs are for under-insured patients. Patients without insurance are not eligible for this resource; however, they may be eligible for patient assistance programs.


title: Prescription drug

text: Patient assistance programs are funded by the manufacturer of the medication. Patients can often apply to these programs through the manufacturer's website. This type of assistance program is one of the few options available to uninsured patients.


title: Prescription drug

text: The out-of-pocket cost for patients enrolled in co-pay assistance or patient assistance programs is $0. It is a major resource to help lower costs of medications – however, many providers and patients are not aware of these resources.


title: Prescription drug

text: Traces of prescription drugs — including antibiotics, anti-convulsants, mood stabilizers and sex hormones — have been detected in drinking water. Pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) discarded from human therapy and their metabolites have been found to not be eliminated by sewage treatment plants and have been found at low concentrations in surface waters downstream from those plants. The continuous discarding of incompletely treated water may interact with other environmental chemicals and lead to uncertain ecological effects. Due to most pharmaceuticals being highly soluble, fish and other aquatic organisms are susceptible to their effects. The long term effects of pharmaceuticals in the environment may affect survival and reproduction of such organisms. However, levels of medical drug waste in the water is at a low enough level that it is not a direct concern to human health. However, processes, such as biomagnification, are potential human health concerns.


title: Prescription drug

text: On the other hand, there is clear evidence of harm to aquatic animals and fauna. Recent advancements in technology have allowed scientists to detect smaller, trace quantities of pharmaceuticals in the ng/ml range. Despite being found such low concentrations, female hormonal contraceptives have been documented to cause feminizing effects on male vertebrate species, such as fish, frogs and crocodiles. A promising model has been developed to further study the effects on the aquatic environment. The "biological read across model" combines the concepts of the mechanism of action (MoA) and adverse outcomes pathway (AOP). In other words, the species being studied needs to have similar mechanisms by which the pharmaceutical acts on the species and reach similar concentrations that would be enough to cause an effect in humans. Studying these relations may give us more quantifiable information on the effects of pharmaceuticals in the environment.


title: Prescription drug

text: Currently, research is being done on various methods of reducing chemical waste in the environment. In addition, FDA established guidelines in 2007 to inform consumers should dispose of prescription drugs. When medications do not include specific disposal instructions, patients should not flush medications in the toilet, but instead use medication take-back programs. This aims to reduce the amount of pharmaceutical waste that gets into sewage and landfills. If no take-back programs are available, prescription drugs can be discarded in household trash after they are crushed and/or dissolved and then mixed in a separate container or sealable bag with undesirable substances like cat litter or other unappealing material (to discourage consumption).


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run is a 2020 American live-action/computer-animated adventure comedy film based on the animated television series "SpongeBob SquarePants". Written and directed by series co-developer and former writer Tim Hill, who co-wrote the story with Jonathan Aibel and Glenn Berger, it is the first film in the franchise to be fully animated in stylized CGI rather than traditional 2D animation. The regular voice cast of the series reprise their respective roles from the series and the previous films, and the plot follows the origin of how SpongeBob met Gary the Snail, and SpongeBob's quest to rescue him after he is kidnapped. It is the third theatrical film based on the series, following the first in 2004 and . The film is dedicated to creator Stephen Hillenburg, who died in 2018, and also served as an executive producer on the project.


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: The film was produced by Paramount Animation, Nickelodeon Movies, and United Plankton Pictures, with animation provided by Mikros Image. Originally slated for a worldwide theatrical release by Paramount Pictures, plans were changed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The film was released theatrically in Canada on August 14, 2020, digitally on Netflix in other territories on November 5, 2020. It was released as a premium video-on-demand offering and a Paramount+ launch title in the United States on March 4, 2021. "Sponge on the Run" received generally positive reviews from critics, with praise for the animation and loyalty to the series. The film was nominated for Favorite Animated Movie at the 2022 Kids' Choice Awards, but lost to "Encanto".


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: In Bikini Bottom, Plankton works on a new plan to steal the Krabby Patty formula while Karen argues that SpongeBob is actually responsible for all his previous failures and not Mr. Krabs. Meanwhile, in Atlantic City, selfish ruler King Poseidon uses up all the slime from his latest sea snail, which is necessary to maintain his appearance. Poseidon decrees the obtaining of a new snail, and Plankton kidnaps SpongeBob's pet snail Gary so that SpongeBob will no longer interfere with his plans. The next morning, SpongeBob learns from Patrick that Gary was taken to Atlantic City. As part of his plan, Plankton offers Otto, a robot built by Sandy, to take them to the city with the hopes that they never return. Without SpongeBob cooking Krabby Patties, the Krusty Krab's enraged customers trash the restaurant despite Mr. Krabs and Squidward's efforts to stop them.


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: Otto drives SpongeBob and Patrick to an old Western town where they meet a tumbleweed spirit named Sage. Sage reveals to SpongeBob and Patrick that they are dreaming, and must overcome a special mission to continue their search. He gives them a "Challenge Coin" that will give them bravery to enter into a tavern haunted by ghostly zombie pirates. SpongeBob and Patrick discover that the pirates' souls are trapped by an evil spirit known as "El Diablo", and decide to help free them. Diablo traps the duo in his office, where they accidentally disintegrate him. The pirates' souls are freed, and SpongeBob and Patrick are woken up by Otto.


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: Now accompanied by Sage, SpongeBob discovers that as soon as Gary's slime runs out, Poseidon will have him enslaved with the rest of his previous snails. Arriving at Atlantic City, Sage warns the pair not to be distracted by the city's attractions, but they ignore his warnings. After a fun-filled night, SpongeBob and Patrick discover that they have lost the "Challenge Coin" that allowed them to be brave, but they nonetheless enter Poseidon's palace. When they try to take Gary, both are arrested and imprisoned in the dungeon.


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: Back in Bikini Bottom, Plankton arrives at the Krusty Krab. Mr. Krabs willingly gives him the formula, feeling depressed without SpongeBob. However, seeing Mr. Krabs so upset makes Plankton feel guilty. Upon finding out that SpongeBob and Patrick will be executed in a luxury show in Poseidon's palace, Mr. Krabs, Squidward, Sandy, and a redeemed Plankton decide to save them.


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: In prison, Sage reveals to SpongeBob and Patrick that the "Challenge Coin" never had powers and that the bravery came from themselves. Before SpongeBob is executed, Mr. Krabs, Squidward, Plankton, and Sandy burst into the show to testify in favor of SpongeBob. Along with Patrick, each recounts an experience they had with SpongeBob , earning the audience's gratitude. Afterwards, the group perform a musical number to distract Poseidon and take Gary. Poseidon realizes the distraction and orders his guards to capture the group. SpongeBob and his friends manage to escape the guards and head towards the exit, but are once again cornered when Otto leaves them behind.


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: Poseidon offers to drop charges against the group on the condition that SpongeBob leaves gives Gary with him. SpongeBob refuses, arguing that his friends decided to rescue him even if they risked death. When Poseidon finds out that he has no friends and reveals that he needs the slime for his appearance, SpongeBob offers to be his friend. Poseidon removes all his arrangements and return to his true appearance. Everyone accepts his appearance, and Poseidon allows SpongeBob to take Gary back home. Poseidon releases all his enslaved snails to accompany them and Bikini Bottom ends up becoming a "sea snail refuge".


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: Pearl Krabs (voiced by Lori Alan) also appears in a deleted scene that is included on the film's Blu-Ray release.


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: In a February 2015 interview discussing "" success at the box office, Megan Colligan, president of worldwide distribution and marketing at Paramount Pictures, stated the possibility of a third film was "a good bet." In another interview, Paramount vice-chairman Rob Moore remarked, "Hopefully, it won't take 10 years to make another film," in reference to the time passed between "The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie" (2004) and its 2015 sequel. Later in 2015, it was revealed that Paramount was developing sequels to its franchises, including another SpongeBob film.


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: The film was initially scheduled for release in 2019, before being delayed to 2020. By January 2016, Jonathan Aibel and Glenn Berger had been hired to write the film.


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: In March 2017, Paramount president Marc Evans announced that the studio would work closely with Viacom on its TV brands, including the SpongeBob film. During the same month, Yahoo! Entertainment stated that the film would be titled "The SpongeBob Movie".


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: In April 2018, the film's official title was revealed as "The SpongeBob Movie: It's a Wonderful Sponge", and "SpongeBob" co-developer Tim Hill was announced as director and writer for the film. It was reported later in the year that the film would be written by Aibel, Berger, and Michael Kvamme. The principal cast – Tom Kenny, Bill Fagerbakke, Clancy Brown, Mr. Lawrence, Rodger Bumpass, Carolyn Lawrence, Jill Talley, Mary Jo Catlett, and Lori Alan – are all expected to reprise the roles as their respective characters from the series and the previous films. In October 2018, at the VIEW Conference in Turin, Italy, Paramount Animation president Mireille Soria revealed the plot for the film. The same day, Hans Zimmer was announced as the composer for the film, while Paris and Montreal-based Mikros Image would handle animation for the film, which would be created entirely through computer animation.


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: On June 12, 2019, it was announced that Reggie Watts and Awkwafina were added to the cast while Cyndi Lauper and Rob Hyman, who wrote a song for "The SpongeBob Musical", would be writing original songs for the film. It was also announced that Mia Michaels would be choreographing and Ali Dee Theodore would add an original song for the film. The next day, Snoop Dogg announced on "Jimmy Kimmel Live!" that he would be in the film.


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: On November 12, 2019, it was revealed that the film's title was changed from "It's a Wonderful Sponge" to "Sponge on the Run", along with the casting of Keanu Reeves.


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: On January 22, 2019, it was confirmed that production on the film had officially begun. Like its predecessors, the film includes live-action sequences, and unlike the previous films, the animated sequences of the film are entirely computer-animated. Larry Fong was initially reported to serve as the film's cinematographer, but due to unknown reasons, Peter Lyons Collister ended up solely with the credit.


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: Interscope Records released the film's soundtrack on March 5, 2021. Artists who are part of the original soundtrack include Tainy, Weezer, Snoop Dogg, The Flaming Lips, and Kenny G. Cyndi Lauper and Rob Hyman also co-wrote the track "Secret to the Formula". Previous material that are part of the film but not on the soundtrack album are "Slow Ride" by Foghat, "Dream Weaver" by Gary Wright, Weezer's cover of the a-ha song "Take On Me", and Kenny G's cover of "My Heart Will Go On" from the film "Titanic". The score for the film was composed by Hans Zimmer and Steve Mazzaro. It marks as Zimmer's the second score for a Nickelodeon film, following "Rango" (2011), and his second score for a film based on an animated series, after "The Simpsons Movie" (2007)


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: "The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run" was originally scheduled to be theatrically released on February 9, 2019, by Paramount Pictures. It was then pushed back to August 2, 2019, before being delayed nearly a year to July 31, 2020. It was moved four more times: to July 17, 2020, May 22, 2020,


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: July 31 (as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic), and finally August 7, 2020. In June 2020, it was announced that the film's theatrical release had been cancelled and it would instead be released through video on demand and CBS All Access (now Paramount+) in early 2021. In December 2020, it was revealed that the film would be releasing in February 2021. On January 28, 2021, it was announced that the film would release on March 4, 2021, the same day CBS All Access rebranded as Paramount+. In addition to the ViacomCBS streaming service, the film was available on Apple TV, Amazon Prime Video, Vudu, and other digital platforms.


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: In July 2020, Netflix acquired international distribution rights to the film, excluding the United States, Canada, and China. On July 30, 2020, Paramount Pictures Canada announced that the film would be released in Canadian theaters on August 14, 2020. Between the Netflix and Paramount+ deals, Paramount recouped the entire production cost of the film. The film was released internationally on Netflix on November 5, 2020.


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: "The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run" was released on DVD and Blu-ray on February 2, 2021 in Canada. In the United States, the film was released on DVD and Blu-ray on July 13, 2021.


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: In the film's debut Canadian weekend, it grossed $865,824 from 300 theaters. Since Canada's grosses are factored into American totals, "Sponge on the Run" finished first at the box office, and had the highest weekend total for a film since the start of the pandemic. IndieWire estimated that had the film had a traditional North American theatrical release it would have opened to $25–30 million, including a $3 million total from Canada. In its second weekend, despite being added to an additional 26 theaters, the film dropped 36% to $550,000, finishing second behind "Unhinged". In its third weekend the film made $400,000 from 314 theaters, then $345,000 in its fourth weekend, for a month-long running total of $3.6 million.


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: In its first weekend of digital release in the United States, the film was the most rented title on FandangoNow, fourth on Google Play, and fifth on Apple TV.


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, of critics have given the film a positive review, with an average rating of . The site's critics consensus reads, "Although its story may leave fans on the surface, "The Spongebob Movie: Sponge on the Run" is a wondrously wacky visit to Bikini Bottom that retains the charm of the original series." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 65 out of 100 based on reviews from 20 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: Writing for IndieWire, David Ehrlich gave the film a grade of B− and said, "Even the weakest bits get by on good vibes and meta-cleverness ([Keanu] Reeves has become something of a human meme in recent years, but "Sponge on the Run" milks the actor's brand for a number of solid laughs), and the animation is detailed and inventive enough for the whole film to feel drenched in SpongeBob's demented energy." Writing for "CTV News", Richard Crouse gave the film 3.5 stars and wrote: ""The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run" brings with it the usual anarchy, inside jokes and unexpected celebrity cameos, but at its little osmotic heart is SpongeBob, a character who belongs to the same genus of entertainers as Soupy Sales, Stan Laurel and Pee-wee Herman." "The Hollywood Reporter"s David Rooney called the film "fast, fun, [and] demented" and wrote: "The technological overhaul from 2D doesn't diminish the vibrant personalities of the character animation, and it's added an even trippier dimension to the surreal backgrounds. More immersive, if you will, even if its episodic action gets no prizes for storytelling discipline."


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: Aparita Bhandari of "The Globe and Mail" gave the film 1.5 out of 4 stars, writing: "I totally understand if the latest "SpongeBob SquarePants" movie spinoff will draw in longtime fans and new audiences brave enough to venture into a movie theatre this Friday... However, for me and my two kids (aged 10 and 8), this dive into the deep sea wasn't as thrilling an adventure as we'd hoped for."


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: At the 19th Visual Effects Society Awards the special effects team was nominated in the category "Outstanding Animated Character in an Animated Feature".


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: The film was nominated for four Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards in 2022, one for Favorite Animated Movie and three for Favorite Voice in an Animated Movie: Tom Kenny as SpongeBob, Awkwafina as Otto, and Keanu Reeves as Sage.


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: "Kamp Koral: SpongeBob's Under Years" is a "SpongeBob SquarePants" spin-off prequel series, based on the flashback scenes from "The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run", that introduces a 10-year-old SpongeBob at a summer sleepaway camp.


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: On February 19, 2020, the official title was revealed, and it was announced that the series would be premiering in July 2020. The main series voice cast reprise their roles.


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: On July 30, 2020, it was announced that the series would be released on CBS All Access, the ViacomCBS streaming service as it was known then, in early 2021. On January 28, 2021, it was announced that the first six episodes of the series would release on March 4, 2021, the same day as the release of "Sponge on the Run".


title: The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run

text: On August 24, 2021, during a video interview with CEO of Nickelodeon, Brian Robbins, he mentioned that "a new "SpongeBob" [is] in the works" when discussing about the studio's film slate. The film was officially announced in February 2022, with plans for it to be released theatrically. On November 10, 2022, the fourth film was given a release date of May 23, 2025.


title: Stress–strain curve

text: In engineering and materials science, a stress–strain curve for a material gives the relationship between stress and strain. It is obtained by gradually applying load to a test coupon and measuring the deformation, from which the stress and strain can be determined (see tensile testing). These curves reveal many of the properties of a material, such as the Young's modulus, the yield strength and the ultimate tensile strength.


title: Stress–strain curve

text: Generally speaking, curves representing the relationship between stress and strain in any form of deformation can be regarded as stress–strain curves. The stress and strain can be normal, shear, or mixture, also can be uniaxial, biaxial, or multiaxial, even change with time. The form of deformation can be compression, stretching, torsion, rotation, and so on. If not mentioned otherwise, stress–strain curve refers to the relationship between axial normal stress and axial normal strain of materials measured in a tension test.


title: Stress–strain curve

text: Consider a bar of original cross sectional area formula_1 being subjected to equal and opposite forces formula_2 pulling at the ends so the bar is under tension. The material is experiencing a stress defined to be the ratio of the force to the cross sectional area of the bar, as well as an axial elongation:


title: Stress–strain curve

text: Subscript 0 denotes the original dimensions of the sample. The SI unit for stress is newton per square metre, or pascal (1 pascal = 1 Pa = 1 N/m), and strain is unitless. stress–strain curve for this material is plotted by elongating the sample and recording the stress variation with strain until the sample fractures. By convention, the strain is set to the horizontal axis and stress is set to vertical axis. Note that for engineering purposes we often assume the cross-section area of the material does not change during the whole deformation process. This is not true since the actual area will decrease while deforming due to elastic and plastic deformation. The curve based on the original cross-section and gauge length is called the "engineering stress–strain curve", while the curve based on the instantaneous cross-section area and length is called the "true stress–strain curve". Unless stated otherwise, engineering stress–strain is generally used.


title: Stress–strain curve

text: Due to the shrinking of section area and the ignored effect of developed elongation to further elongation, true stress and strain are different from engineering stress and strain.


title: Stress–strain curve

text: Here the dimensions are instantaneous values. Assuming volume of the sample conserves and deformation happens uniformly,


title: Stress–strain curve

text: So in a tension test, true stress is larger than engineering stress and true strain is less than engineering strain. Thus, a point defining true stress–strain curve is displaced upwards and to the left to define the equivalent engineering stress–strain curve. The difference between the true and engineering stresses and strains will increase with plastic deformation. At low strains (such as elastic deformation), the differences between the two is negligible. As for the tensile strength point, it is the maximal point in engineering stress–strain curve but is not a special point in true stress–strain curve. Because engineering stress is proportional to the force applied along the sample, the criterion for necking formation can be set as formula_11.


title: Stress–strain curve

text: This analysis suggests nature of the UTS point. The work strengthening effect is exactly balanced by the shrinking of section area at UTS point.


title: Stress–strain curve

text: After the formation of necking, the sample undergoes heterogeneous deformation, so equations above are not valid. The stress and strain at the necking can be expressed as:


title: Stress–strain curve

text: An empirical equation is commonly used to describe the relationship between true stress and true strain.


title: Stress–strain curve

text: Here, formula_17 is the strain-hardening coefficient and formula_18 is the strength coefficient. formula_17 is a measure of a material's work hardening behavior. Materials with a higher formula_17 have a greater resistance to necking. Typically, metals at room temperature have formula_17 ranging from 0.02 to 0.5.


title: Stress–strain curve

text: A schematic diagram for the stress–strain curve of low carbon steel at room temperature is shown in figure 1. There are several stages showing different behaviors, which suggests different mechanical properties. To clarify, materials can miss one or more stages shown in figure 1, or have totally different stages.


title: Stress–strain curve

text: The first stage is the linear elastic region. The stress is proportional to the strain, that is, obeys the general Hooke's law, and the slope is Young's modulus. In this region, the material undergoes only elastic deformation. The end of the stage is the initiation point of plastic deformation. The stress component of this point is defined as yield strength (or upper yield point, UYP for short).


title: Stress–strain curve

text: The second stage is the strain hardening region. This region starts as the stress goes beyond the yielding point, reaching a maximum at the ultimate strength point, which is the maximal stress that can be sustained and is called the ultimate tensile strength (UTS). In this region, the stress mainly increases as the material elongates, except that for some materials such as steel, there is a nearly flat region at the beginning. The stress of the flat region is defined as the lower yield point (LYP) and results from the formation and propagation of Lüders bands. Explicitly, heterogeneous plastic deformation forms bands at the upper yield strength and these bands carrying with deformation spread along the sample at the lower yield strength. After the sample is again uniformly deformed, the increase of stress with the progress of extension results from work strengthening, that is, dense dislocations induced by plastic deformation hampers the further motion of dislocations. To overcome these obstacles, a higher resolved shear stress should be applied. As the strain accumulates, work strengthening gets reinforced, until the stress reaches the ultimate tensile strength.


title: Stress–strain curve

text: The third stage is the necking region. Beyond tensile strength, a necking forms where the local cross-sectional area becomes significantly smaller than the average. The necking deformation is heterogeneous and will reinforce itself as the stress concentrates more at small section. Such positive feedback leads to quick development of necking and leads to fracture. Note that though the pulling force is decreasing, the work strengthening is still progressing, that is, the true stress keeps growing but the engineering stress decreases because the shrinking section area is not considered. This region ends up with the fracture. After fracture, percent elongation and reduction in section area can be calculated.


title: Stress–strain curve

text: It is possible to distinguish some common characteristics among the stress–strain curves of various groups of materials and, on this basis, to divide materials into two broad categories; namely, the ductile materials and the brittle materials.


title: Stress–strain curve

text: Ductile materials, including structural steel and many other metals, are characterized by their ability to yield at normal temperatures. For example, low carbon steel generally exhibits a very linear stress–strain relationship up to a well defined yield point. The linear portion of the curve is the elastic region, and the slope of this region is the modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus. Plastic flow initiates at the upper yield point and continues at the lower yield point.


title: Stress–strain curve

text: The appearance of the upper yield point is associated with the pinning of dislocations in the system. Permanent deformation occurs once dislocations are forced to move past pinning points. Initially, this permanent deformation is non-uniformly distributed along the sample. During this process, dislocations escape from Cottrell atmospheres within the material. The resulting slip bands appear at the lower yield point and propagate along the gauge length, at constant stress, until the Lüders strain is reached, and deformation becomes uniform.


title: Stress–strain curve

text: Beyond the Lüders strain, the stress increases due to strain hardening until it reaches the ultimate tensile stress. During this stage, the cross-sectional area decreases uniformly along the gauge length, due to the incompressibility of plastic flow (not because of the Poisson effect, which is an elastic phenomenon). Then a process of necking begins, which ends in a 'cup and cone' fracture characteristic of ductile materials.


title: Stress–strain curve

text: The appearance of necking in ductile materials is associated with geometrical instability in the system. Due to the natural inhomogeneity of the material, it is common to find some regions with small inclusions or porosity, within the material or on its surface, where strain will concentrate, leading to a local reduction in cross-sectional area. For strain less than the ultimate tensile strain, the increase of work-hardening rate in this region will be greater than the area reduction rate, thereby make this region harder to deform than others, so that the instability will be removed, i.e. the material increases in homogeneity before reaching the ultimate strain. However, beyond this, the work hardening rate will decrease, such that a region with smaller area is weaker than nearby regions, therefore reduction in area will concentrate in this region and the neck will become more and more pronounced until fracture. After the neck has formed in the material, further plastic deformation is concentrated in the neck while the remainder of the material undergoes elastic contraction owing to the decrease in tensile force.


title: Stress–strain curve

text: The stress–strain curve for a ductile material can be approximated using the Ramberg–Osgood equation. This equation is straightforward to implement, and only requires the material's yield strength, ultimate strength, elastic modulus, and percent elongation.


title: Stress–strain curve

text: Brittle materials, which include cast iron, glass, and stone, are characterized by the fact that rupture occurs without any noticeable prior change in the rate of elongation, sometimes they fracture before yielding.


title: Stress–strain curve

text: Brittle materials such as concrete or carbon fiber do not have a well-defined yield point, and do not strain-harden. Therefore, the ultimate strength and breaking strength are the same. Typical brittle materials like glass do not show any plastic deformation but fail while the deformation is elastic. One of the characteristics of a brittle failure is that the two broken parts can be reassembled to produce the same shape as the original component as there will not be a neck formation like in the case of ductile materials. A typical stress–strain curve for a brittle material will be linear. For some materials, such as concrete, tensile strength is negligible compared to the compressive strength and it is assumed zero for many engineering applications. Glass fibers have a tensile strength stronger than steel, but bulk glass usually does not. This is because of the stress intensity factor associated with defects in the material. As the size of the sample gets larger, the expected size of the largest defect also grows.


title: Internal medicine

text: Internal medicine or general internal medicine (in Commonwealth nations) is the medical specialty dealing with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of internal diseases. Doctors specializing in internal medicine are called internists, or physicians (without a modifier) in Commonwealth nations. Internists are medical specialists that are skilled in the management of patients who have undifferentiated or multi-system disease processes. Internists care for hospitalized (inpatient) and ambulatory (outpatient) patients and may play a major role in teaching and research. Internists are qualified physicians with postgraduate training in internal medicine and should not be confused with "interns", a term for doctors in their first year of residency training.


title: Internal medicine

text: Internal medicine and family medicine are often confused as equivalent in the United States and Commonwealth nations (see below).


title: Internal medicine

text: Because internal medicine patients are often seriously ill or require complex investigations, internists do much of their work in hospitals. Internists often have subspecialty interests in diseases affecting particular organs or organ systems. The certification process along with the list of possible sub-specialties vary around the world.


title: Internal medicine

text: The etymology of the term "internal medicine" in English is rooted in the German term "" from the 19th century. Internal medicine was initially characterized by determination of the underlying "internal" or pathological causes of symptoms and syndromes by use of laboratory investigations in addition to bedside clinical assessment of patients. In contrast, physicians in previous generations, such as the 17th-century physician Thomas Sydenham, who is known as the father of English medicine or "the English Hippocrates", had developed nosology (the study of diseases) via the clinical approach of diagnosis and management, by careful bedside study of the natural history of diseases and their treatment. Sydenham eschewed dissection of corpses and scrutiny of the internal workings of the body, for considering the internal mechanisms and causes of symptoms. It was thus subsequent to the 17th century that there was a rise in anatomical pathology and laboratory studies, with Giovanni Battista Morgagni, an Italian anatomist of the 18th century, being considered the father of anatomical pathology. Laboratory investigations became increasingly significant, with contribution of doctors including German physician and bacteriologist Robert Koch in the 19th century. The 19th century saw the rise of internal medicine that combined the clinical approach with use of investigations. Many early-20th-century American physicians studied medicine in Germany and brought this medical field to the United States. Thus, the name "internal medicine" was adopted in imitation of the existing German term.


title: Internal medicine

text: Historically, some of the oldest traces of internal medicine can be traced from ancient India and ancient China. The earliest texts about internal medicine are the Ayurvedic anthologies of Charaka.


title: Internal medicine

text: Internal medicine specialists, also known as general internal medicine specialists or general medicine physicians in Commonwealth countries, are specialist physicians trained to manage particularly complex or multisystem disease conditions that single-organ-disease specialists may not be trained to deal with. They may be asked to tackle undifferentiated presentations that cannot be easily fitted within the expertise of a single-organ specialty, such as dyspnea, fatigue, weight loss, chest pain, confusion or change in conscious state. They may manage serious acute illnesses that affect multiple organ systems at the same time in a single patient, and they may manage multiple chronic diseases that a single patient may have.


title: Internal medicine

text: Many internal medicine physicians decide to subspecialize in specific organ systems. General internal medicine specialists do not provide necessarily less expertise than single-organ specialists, rather, they are trained for a specific role of caring for patients with multiple simultaneous problems or complex comorbidities.


title: Internal medicine

text: Perhaps because it is complex to explain treatment of diseases that are not localized to a single-organ, there has been confusion about the meaning of internal medicine and the role of an "internist". Although internists may act as primary care physicians, they are not "family physicians", "family practitioners", or "general practitioners", or "GPs", whose training is not solely concentrated on adults and may include surgery, obstetrics, and pediatrics. The American College of Physicians defines internists as "physicians who specialize in the prevention, detection and treatment of illnesses in adults". While there is overlap in the population served by both internal medicine and family medicine physicians, internists typically focus on adult care with an emphasis on diagnosis while family medicine incorporates holistic care for the entire family unit. Internists also receive significant training in many of the recognized sub-specialties of the profession (see below) and are trained in both inpatient and outpatient settings. Family medicine physicians receive education on a broad range of conditions and typically train in an outpatient setting with minimal experience in a hospital setting. The historical roots of internal medicine lie in the movement to incorporate scientific into medical practice in the 1800s. Family medicine grew from the primary care movement in the 1960s.


title: Internal medicine

text: Many programs require previous undergraduate education prior to medical school admission. This "pre-medical" education is typically four or five years in length. Graduate medical education programs vary in length by country. Medical education programs are tertiary-level courses, undertaken at a medical school attached to a university. In the United States, medical school consists of four years. Hence, gaining a basic medical education may typically take eight years, depending on jurisdiction and university.


title: Internal medicine

text: Following completion of entry-level training, newly graduated medical practitioners are often required to undertake a period of supervised practice before the licensure, or "registration", is granted, typically one or two years. This period may be referred to as "internship", "conditional registration", or "foundation programme". Then, doctors may finally follow specialty training in internal medicine if they wish, typically being selected to training programs through competition. In North America, this period of postgraduate training is referred to as residency training, followed by an optional fellowship if the internist decides to train in a subspecialty.


title: Internal medicine

text: In the United States and in most countries, residency training for internal medicine lasts three years and centers on secondary and tertiary levels of care. In Commonwealth countries trainees are often called senior house officers for four years after the completion of their medical degree (foundation and core years). After this period, they are able to advance to registrar grade when they undergo a compulsory subspecialty training (including acute internal medicine or a dual subspecialty including internal medicine). This latter stage of training is achieved through competition rather than just by yearly progress as the first years of postgraduate training.


title: Internal medicine

text: In the United States, three organizations are responsible for the certification of trained internists (i.e., doctors who have completed an accredited residency training program) in terms of their knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are essential for excellent patient care: the American Board of Internal Medicine, the American Osteopathic Board of Internal Medicine and the Board of Certification in Internal Medicine. In the UK, the General Medical Council oversees licensing and certification of Internal Medicine physicians. The Royal Australasian College of Physicians confers fellowship to internists (and sub-specialists) in Australia. The Medical Council of Canada oversees licensing of internists in Canada.


title: Internal medicine

text: In the United States, two organizations are responsible for certification of subspecialists within the field: the American Board of Internal Medicine and the American Osteopathic Board of Internal Medicine. Physicians (not only internists) who successfully pass board exams receive "board certified" status.


title: Internal medicine

text: In the United Kingdom, the three medical Royal Colleges (the Royal College of Physicians of London, the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh and the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow) are responsible for setting curricula and training programmes through the Joint Royal Colleges Postgraduate Training Board (JRCPTB), although the process is monitored and accredited by the independent General Medical Council (which also maintains the specialist register).


title: Internal medicine

text: Doctors who have completed medical school spend two years in foundation training completing a basic postgraduate curriculum. After two years of Core Medical Training (CT1/CT2), or three years of Internal Medicine Training (IMT1/IMT2/IMT3) as of 2019, since and attaining the Membership of the Royal College of Physicians, physicians commit to one of the medical specialties:


title: Internal medicine

text: Many training programmes provide dual accreditation with general (internal) medicine and are involved in the general care to hospitalised patients. These are acute medicine, cardiology, Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, endocrinology and diabetes mellitus, gastroenterology, infectious diseases, renal medicine, respiratory medicine and often, rheumatology. The role of general medicine, after a period of decline, was reemphasised by the Royal College of Physicians of London report from the Future Hospital Commission (2013).


title: Internal medicine

text: The European Board of Internal Medicine (EBIM) was formed as a collaborative effort between the European Union of Medical Specialists (UEMS) - Internal Medicine Section and the European Federation of Internal Medicine (EFIM) to provide guidance on standardizing training and practice of internal medicine throughout Europe. The EBIM published training requirements in 2016 for postgraduate education in internal medicine, and efforts to create a European Certificate of Internal Medicine (ECIM) to facilitate the free movement of medical professionals with the EU are currently underway.


title: Internal medicine

text: The internal medicine specialist is recognized in every country in the European Union and typically requires five years of multi-disciplinary post-graduate education. The specialty of internal medicine is seen as providing care in a wide variety of conditions involving every organ system and is distinguished from family medicine in that the latter provides a broader model of care the includes both surgery and obstetrics in both adults and children.


title: Internal medicine

text: Accreditation for medical education and training programs in Australia is provided by the Australian Medical Council (AMC) and the Medical Council of New Zealeand (MCNZ). The Medical Board of Australia (MBA) is the registering body for Australian doctors and provides information to the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency (AHPRA). Medical graduates apply for provisional registration in order to complete intern training. Those completing an accredited internship program are then eligible to apply for general registration. Once the candidate completes the required basic and advanced post-graduate training and a written and clinical examination, the Royal Australasian College of Physicians confers designation Fellow of the Royal Australasian College of Physicians (FRACP). Basic training consists of three years of full-time equivalent (FTE) training (including intern year) and advanced training consists of 3–4 years, depending on specialty. The fields of specialty practice are approved by the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) and managed by the MBA. The following is a list of currently recognized specialist physicians.


title: Internal medicine

text: After completing medical school, internists in Canada require an additional four years of training. Internists desiring to subspecialize are required to complete two additional years of training that may begin after the third year of internist training. The Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada (RCPSC) is a national non-profit agency that oversees and accredits medical education in Canada. A full medical license in Internal Medicine in Canada requires a medical degree, a license from the Medical Council of Canada, completion of the required post-graduate education, and certification from the RCPSC. Any additional requirements from separate medical regulatory authorities in each province or territory is also required. Internists may practice in Canada as generalists in Internal Medicine or serve in one of seventeen subspecialty areas. Internists may work in many settings including outpatient clinics, inpatient wards, critical care units, and emergency departments. The currently recognized subspecialties include the following:


title: Internal medicine

text: Medicine is mainly focused on the art of diagnosis and treatment with medication. The diagnostic process involves gathering data, generating one or more diagnostic hypotheses, and iteratively testing these potential diagnoses against dynamic disease profiles to determine the best course of action for the patient.


title: Internal medicine

text: Data may be gathered directly from the patient in medical history-taking and physical examination. Previous medical records including laboratory findings, imaging, and clinical notes from other physicians is also an important source of information; however, it is vital to talk to and examine the patient to find out what the patient is currently experiencing to make an accurate diagnosis.


title: Internal medicine

text: Internists often can perform and interpret diagnostic tests like EKGs and ultrasound imaging (Point-of-care Ultrasound – PoCUS).


title: Internal medicine

text: Internists who pursue sub-specialties have additional diagnostic tools, including those listed below.


title: Internal medicine

text: Other tests are ordered, and patients are also referred to specialists for further evaluation.  The effectiveness and efficiency of the specialist referral process is an area of potential improvement.


title: Internal medicine

text: Determining which pieces of information are most important to the next phase of the diagnostic process is of vital importance. It is during this stage that clinical bias like anchoring or premature closure may be introduced. Once key findings are determined, they are compared to profiles of possible diseases.  These profiles include findings that are typically associated with the disease and are based on the likelihood that someone with the disease has a particular symptom.  A list of potential diagnoses is termed the “differential diagnosis” for the patient and is typically ordered from most likely to least likely, with special attention given to those conditions that have dire consequences for the patient if they were missed. Epidemiology and endemic conditions are also considered in creating and evaluating the list of diagnoses.


title: Internal medicine

text: The list is dynamic and changes as the physician obtains additional information that makes a condition more (“rule-in”) or less (“rule-out”) likely based on the disease profile.   The list is used to determine what information will be acquired next, including which diagnostic test or imaging modality to order.  The selection of tests is also based on the physician’s knowledge of the specificity and sensitivity of a particular test.


title: Internal medicine

text: An important part of this process is knowledge of the various ways that a disease can present in a patient.  This knowledge is gathered and shared to add to the database of disease profiles used by physicians. This is especially important in rare diseases.


title: Internal medicine

text: Communication is a vital part of the diagnostic process. The Internist uses both synchronous and asynchronous communication with other members of the medical care team, including other internists, radiologists, specialists, and laboratory technicians.  Tools to evaluate teamwork exist and have been employed in multiple settings.


title: Internal medicine

text: Communication to the patient is also important to ensure there is informed consent and shared decision-making throughout the diagnostic process.


title: Internal medicine

text: Treatment modalities generally include both pharmacological and non-pharmacological, depending on the primary diagnosis.  Additional treatment options include referral to specialist care including physical therapy and rehabilitation.  Treatment recommendations differ in the acute inpatient and outpatient settings. Continuity of care and long-term follow-up is crucial in successful patient outcomes.


title: Internal medicine

text: Aside from diagnosing and treating acute conditions, the Internist may also assess disease risk and recommend preventive screening and intervention.  Some of the tools available to the Internist include genetic evaluation.


title: Internal medicine

text: Internists also routinely provide pre-operative medical evaluations including individualized assessment and communication of operative risk.


title: Internal medicine

text: Training the next generation of internists is an important part of the profession.  As mentioned above, post-graduate medical education is provided by licensed physicians as part of accredited education programs that are usually affiliated with teaching hospitals. Studies show that there are no differences in patient outcomes in teaching versus non-teaching facilities. Medical research is an important part of most post-graduate education programs, and many licensed physicians continue to be involved in research activities after completing post-graduate training.


title: Internal medicine

text: Inherent in any medical profession are legal and ethical considerations. Specific laws vary by jurisdiction and may or may not be congruent with ethical considerations. Thus, a strong ethical foundation is paramount to any medical profession. Medical ethics guidelines in the Western world typically follow four principles including beneficence, non-maleficence, patient autonomy, and justice. These principles underlie the patient-physician relationship and the obligation to put the welfare and interests of the patient above their own.


title: Internal medicine

text: The relationship is built upon the physician obligations of competency, respect for the patient, and appropriate referrals while the patient requirements include decision-making and provides or withdraws consent for any treatment plan.  Good communication is key to a strong relationship but has ethical considerations as well, including proper use of electronic communication and clear documentation.


title: Internal medicine

text: Providing treatment including prescribing medications based on remote information gathering without a proper established relationship is not accepted as good practice with few exceptions. These exceptions include cross-coverage within a practice and certain public health urgent or emergent issues.


title: Internal medicine

text: The ethics of telemedicine including questions on its impact to diagnosis, physician-patient relationship, and continuity of care have been raised;, however, with appropriate use and specific guidelines, risks may be minimized and the benefits including increased access to care may be realized.


title: Internal medicine

text: Ethical considerations in financial include accurate billing practices and clearly defined financial relationships.  Physicians have both a professional duty and obligation under the justice principle to ensure that patients are provided the same care regardless of status or ability to pay.  However, informal copayment forgiveness may have legal ramifications and the providing professional courtesy may have negatively impact care.


title: Internal medicine

text: Physicians must disclose all possible conflicts of interest including financial relationships, investments, research and referral relationships, and any other instances that may subjugate or give the appearance of subjugating patient care to self-interest.


title: Internal medicine

text: Other foundational ethical considerations include privacy, confidentiality, accurate and complete medical records, electronic health records, disclosure, and informed decision-making and consent.


title: Internal medicine

text: Electronic health records have been shown to improve patient care but have risks including data breaches and inappropriate and/or unauthorized disclosure of protected health information.


title: Internal medicine

text: Withholding information from a patient is typically seen as unethical and in violation of a patient’s right to make informed decisions.  However, in situations where a patient has requested not to be informed or to have the information provided to a second party or in an emergency situation in which the patient does not have decision-making capacity, withholding information may be appropriate.


title: Murad III

text: Murad III (; ; 4 July 1546 – 16 January 1595) was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1574 until his death in 1595. His rule saw battles with the Habsburgs and exhausting wars with the Safavids. The long-independent Morocco was at a time made a vassal of the empire but they would regain independence in 1582. His reign also saw the empire's expanding influence on the eastern coast of Africa. However, the empire would be beset by increasing corruption and inflation from the New World which led to unrest among the Janissary and commoners. Relations with Elizabethan England were cemented during his reign as both had a common enemy in the Spanish. He was a great patron in the arts where he commissioned the "Siyer-i-Nebi" and other illustrated manuscripts.


title: Murad III

text: Born in Manisa on 4 July 1546, Şehzade Murad was the oldest son of Şehzade Selim and his powerful wife Nurbanu Sultan. He received a good education and learned Arabic and Persian language. After his ceremonial circumcision in 1557, Murad's grandfather, the Sultan Suleiman I, appointed him "sancakbeyi" (governor) of Akşehir in 1558. At the age of 18 he was appointed "sancakbeyi" of Saruhan. Suleiman died (1566) when Murad was 20, and his father became the new sultan, Selim II. Selim II broke with tradition by sending only his oldest son out of the palace to govern a province, assigning Murad to Manisa.


title: Murad III

text: Selim died in 1574 and was succeeded by Murad, who began his reign by having his five younger brothers strangled. His authority was undermined by harem influences – more specifically, those of his mother and later of his favorite concubine Safiye Sultan, often to the detriment of Sokollu Mehmed Pasha's influence on the court. Under Selim II power had only been maintained by the effective leadership of the powerful Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, who remained in office until his assassination in October 1579. During Murad's reign the northern borders with the Habsburg monarchy were defended by the Bosnian governor Hasan Predojević. The reign of Murad III was marked by exhausting wars on the empire's western and eastern fronts. The Ottomans also suffered defeats in battles such as the Battle of Sisak.


title: Murad III

text: Abd al-Malik became a trusted member of the Ottoman establishment during his exile. He made the proposition of making Morocco an Ottoman vassal in exchange for the support of Murad III in helping him gain the Saadi throne.


title: Murad III

text: With an army of 10,000 men whom were mostly Turks, Ramazan Pasha and Abd al-Malik left from Algiers to install Abd al-Malik as an Ottoman vassal ruler of Morocco. Ramazan Pasha conquered Fez which caused the Saadi Sultan to flee to Marrakesh which was also conquered, Abd al-Malik then assumed rule over Morocco as a client of the Ottomans.


title: Murad III

text: Abd al-Malik made a deal with the Ottoman troops by paying them a large amount of gold and sending them back to Algiers, suggesting a looser concept of vassalage than Murad III may have thought. Murad's name was recited in the Friday prayer and stamped on coinage marking the two traditional signs of sovereignty in the Islamic world. The reign of Abd al-Malik is understood to be a period of Moroccan vassalage to the Ottoman Empire. Abd al-Malik died in 1578 and was succeeded by his brother Ahmad al-Mansur who formally recognised the suzerainty of the Ottoman Sultan at the start of his reign while remaining de facto independent, however he stopped minting coins in Murads name, dropped his name from the Khutba and declared his full independence in 1582.


title: Murad III

text: The Ottomans had been at peace with the neighbouring rivaling Safavid Empire since 1555, per the Treaty of Amasya, that for some time had settled border disputes. But in 1577 Murad declared war, starting the Ottoman–Safavid War (1578–1590), seeking to take advantage of the chaos in the Safavid court after the death of Shah Tahmasp I. Murad was influenced by viziers Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha and Sinan Pasha and disregarded the opposing counsel of Grand Vizier Sokollu. Murad also fought the Safavids which would drag on for 12 years, ending with the Treaty of Constantinople (1590), which resulted in temporary significant territorial gains for the Ottomans.


title: Murad III

text: During his reign, an Ottoman Admiral by the name of Mir Ali Beg was successful in establishing Ottoman supremacy in numerous cities in the Swahili coast between Mogadishu and Kilwa. Ottoman suzerainty was recognised in Mogadishu in 1585 and Ottoman supremacy was also established in other cities such as Barawa, Mombasa, Kilifi, Pate, Lamu, and Faza.


title: Murad III

text: Murad's reign was a time of financial stress for the Ottoman state. To keep up with changing military techniques, the Ottomans trained infantrymen in the use of firearms, paying them directly from the treasury. By 1580 an influx of silver from the New World had caused high inflation and social unrest, especially among Janissaries and government officials who were paid in debased currency. Deprivation from the resulting rebellions, coupled with the pressure of over-population, was especially felt in Anatolia. Competition for positions within the government grew fierce, leading to bribery and corruption. Ottoman and Habsburg sources accuse Murad himself of accepting enormous bribes, including 20,000 ducats from a statesman in exchange for the governorship of Tripoli and Tunisia, thus outbidding a rival who had tried bribing the Grand Vizier.


title: Murad III

text: During his period, excessive inflation was experienced, the value of silver money was constantly played, food prices increased. 400 dirhams should be cut from 600 dirhams of silver, while 800 was cut, which meant 100 percent inflation. For the same reason, the purchasing power of wage earners was halved, and the consequence was an uprising.


title: Murad III

text: Numerous envoys and letters were exchanged between Elizabeth I and Sultan Murad III. In one correspondence, Murad entertained the notion that Islam and Protestantism had "much more in common than either did with Roman Catholicism, as both rejected the worship of idols", and argued for an alliance between England and the Ottoman Empire. To the dismay of Catholic Europe, England exported tin and lead (for cannon-casting) and ammunition to the Ottoman Empire, and Elizabeth seriously discussed joint military operations with Murad III during the outbreak of war with Spain in 1585, as Francis Walsingham was lobbying for a direct Ottoman military involvement against the common Spanish enemy. This diplomacy would be continued under Murad's successor Mehmed III, by both the sultan and Safiye Sultan alike.


title: Murad III

text: Following the example of his father Selim II, Murad was the second Ottoman sultan who never went on campaign during his reign, instead spending it entirely in Constantinople. During the final years of his reign, he did not even leave Topkapı Palace. For two consecutive years, he did not attend the Friday procession to the imperial mosque—an unprecedented breaking of custom. The Ottoman historian Mustafa Selaniki wrote that whenever Murad planned to go out to Friday prayer, he changed his mind after hearing of alleged plots by the Janissaries to dethrone him once he left the palace. Murad withdrew from his subjects and spent the majority of his reign keeping to the company of few people and abiding by a daily routine structured by the five daily Islamic prayers. Murad's personal physician Domenico Hierosolimitano described a typical day in the life of the sultan:


title: Murad III

text: Murad's sedentary lifestyle and lack of participation in military campaigns earned him the disapproval of Mustafa Âlî and Mustafa Selaniki, the major Ottoman historians who lived during his reign. Their negative portrayals of Murad influenced later historians. Both historians also accused Murad of sexual excess.


title: Murad III

text: Before becoming sultan, Murad had been loyal to Safiye Sultan, his Albanian concubine. His monogamy was disapproved of by his mother Nurbanu Sultan, who worried that Murad needed more sons to succeed him in case Mehmed died young. She also worried about Safiye's influence over her son and the Ottoman dynasty. Five or six years after his accession to the throne, Murad was given a pair of concubines by his sister Ismihan. Upon attempting sexual intercourse with them, he proved impotent. "The arrow [of Murad], [despite] keeping with his created nature, for many times [and] for many days has been unable to reach at the target of union and pleasure," wrote Mustafa Ali. Nurbanu accused Safiyye and her retainers of causing Murad's impotence with witchcraft. Several of Safiye's servants were tortured by eunuchs in order to discover a culprit. Court physicians, working under Nurbanu's orders, eventually prepared a successful cure, but a side effect was a drastic increase in sexual appetite—by the time Murad died, he was said to have fathered over a hundred children. Nineteen of these were executed by Mehmed III when he became sultan.


title: Murad III

text: Influential ladies of his court included his mother Nurbanu Sultan, his sister Ismihan Sultan, wife of grand vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, and musahibes (favourites) mistress of the housekeeper Canfeda Hatun, mistress of financial affairs Raziye Hatun, and the poet Hubbi Hatun, Finally, after the death of his mother and older sister, his wife Safiye Sultan was the only influential woman in the court.


title: Murad III

text: Before Murad, the palace eunuchs had been mostly white. This began to change in 1582 when Murad gave an important position to a black eunuch. By 1592, the eunuchs' roles in the palace were racially determined: black eunuchs guarded the Sultan and the women, and white eunuchs guarded the male pages in another part of the palace. The chief black eunuch was known as the Kizlar Agha, and the chief white eunuch was known as the Kapi Agha.


title: Murad III

text: Murad took great interest in the arts, particularly miniatures and books. He actively supported the court Society of Miniaturists, commissioning several volumes including the "Siyer-i Nebi", the most heavily illustrated biographical work on the life of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the "Book of Skills", the "Book of Festivities" and the "Book of Victories". He had two large alabaster urns transported from Pergamon and placed on two sides of the nave in the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and a large wax candle dressed in tin which was donated by him to the Rila monastery in Bulgaria is on display in the monastery museum.


title: Murad III

text: Murad also furnished the content of "Kitabü’l-Menamat" ("The Book of Dreams"), addressed to Murad's spiritual advisor, Şüca Dede. A collection of first person accounts, it tells of Murad's spiritual experiences as a Sufi disciple. Compiled from thousands of letters Murad wrote describing his dream visions, it presents a hagiographic self-portrait. Murad dreams of various activities, including being stripped naked by his father and having to sit on his lap, single-handedly killing 12,000 infidels in battle, walking on water, ascending to heaven, and producing milk from his fingers. He frequently encounters the Prophet Muhammed, and in one dream sits in the Prophet's lap and kisses his mouth.


title: Murad III

text: In another letter addressed to Şüca Dede, Murad wrote "I wish that God, may He be glorified and exalted, had not created this poor servant as the descendant of the Ottomans so that I would not hear this and that, and would not worry. I wish I were of unknown pedigree. Then, I would have one single task, and could ignore the whole world."


title: Murad III

text: The diplomatic edition of these dream letters have been recently published by Ozgen Felek in Turkish.


title: Murad III

text: Murad died from what is assumed to be natural causes in the Topkapı Palace and was buried in tomb next to the Hagia Sophia. In the mausoleum are 54 sarcophagus of the sultan, his wives and children that are also buried there. He is also responsible for changing the burial customs of the sultans' mothers. Murad had his mother Nurbanu buried next to her husband Selim II, making her the first consort to share a sultan's tomb.


title: Murad III

text: Murad is believed to have had Safiye Sultan as his only concubine for twenty years (although the birth of Şehzade Selim and Hümaşah Sultan, born in this period but not universally attributed to Safiye seems to cast doubt on this assumption). However, Safiye was opposed by Murad's mother, Nurbanu Sultan, and by his sister, Ismihan Sultan, and between 1580 and 1582 she was exiled to the Old Palace on charges of having rendered the sultan impotent with a spell, after he had not succeeded or had not wanted to had sex with two concubines received by his sister. Furthermore, Nurbanu was concerned about the future of the dynasty, as she believed that Safiye's sons alone (two or three, one of whom died before 1580) were not enough to ensure the succession.. After Safiye's exile, revoked only after Nurbanu's death, Murad, to deny the rumor, took a huge number of concubines, of which only five are known to us, and he had more than fifty known children, although according to sources the total number could exceed hundred.


title: Murad III

text: According to Üluçay, after the death of Murad III many of his concubines who became childless with Mehmed III's accession to the throne were remarried, along with those who had never given children to the sultan.


title: Murad III

text: On his death in 1595 Mehmed III, his eldest son and new sultan, executed the 19 half-brothers still alive and drowned seven pregnant concubines, fulfilling the Law of Fraticide.


title: Murad III

text: In addition to these, a European braggart, Alexander of Montenegro, claimed to be the lost son of Murad III and Safiye Sultan, presenting himself with the name of Şehzade Yahya and claiming the throne for it. His claims were never proven and appear dubious to say the least.


title: Murad III

text: Murad had at least thirty daughters known to be still alive at his death in 1595, of whom seventeen died of plague (or smallpox) in 1598. Many of the daughters' names are unknown. It is not known if and how many daughters may have died before him.


title: Murad III

text: Orhan Pamuk's historical novel "Benim Adım Kırmızı" ("My Name is Red", 1998) takes place at the court of Murad III, during nine snowy winter days of 1591, which the writer uses in order to convey the tension between East and West.


title: Murad III

text: The Harem Midwife by Roberta Rich - a historical fiction set in Constantinople (1578) which follows Hannah, a midwife, who tends to many of the women in Sultan Murad III's harem.


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Colonel Reginald Edward Harry Dyer, CB (9 October 1864 – 23 July 1927) was an officer of the Bengal Army and later the newly constituted British Indian Army. His military career began serving briefly in the regular British Army before transferring to serve with the Presidency armies of India. As a temporary brigadier-general, he was responsible for the Jallianwala Bagh massacre that took place on 13 April 1919 in Amritsar (in the province of Punjab). He has been called "the Butcher of Amritsar", because of his order to fire on a peaceful crowd. The official report stated that this resulted in the killing of at least 379 people and the injuring of over a thousand more. Some submissions to the official inquiry suggested a higher number of deaths.


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Subsequently, Dyer was removed from duty and widely condemned both in Britain and India, but he became a celebrated hero among some with connections to the British Raj. Some historians argue the episode was a decisive step towards the end of British rule in India.


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Dyer was born in Murree, in the Punjab province of British India, which is now in Pakistan. He was the son of Edward Dyer, a brewer who managed the Murree Brewery, and Mary Passmore. He spent his childhood in Murree and Shimla and received his early education at the Lawrence College Ghora Gali, Murree and Bishop Cotton School in Shimla. From eleven he attended Midleton College in County Cork, Ireland, before briefly studying medicine, at the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, before deciding on a military career.


title: Reginald Dyer

text: In 1885, soon after graduating from the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, Dyer was commissioned into the Queen's Royal Regiment (West Surrey) as a lieutenant, and performed riot control duties in Belfast (1886) and served in the Third Burmese War (1886–87). He transferred to the Bengal Army, initially joining the Bengal Staff Corps as a lieutenant in 1887. He was attached to the 39th Bengal Infantry, later transferring to the 29th Punjabis. He married Frances Annie Ommaney, the daughter of Edmund Piper Ommaney, on 4 April 1888, in St Martin's Church, Jhansi, India. The first of their three children, Gladys, was born in Shimla, India, in 1889. Dyer served in the latter in the Black Mountain campaign (1888), the Chitral Relief (1895) (promoted to captain in 1896) and the Mahsud blockade (1901–02). In 1901 he was appointed a deputy assistant adjutant general.


title: Reginald Dyer

text: In August 1903, Dyer was promoted to major, and served with the Landi Kotal Expedition (1908). He commanded the 25th Punjabis in India and Hong Kong and was promoted to lieutenant-colonel in 1910. During the First World War (1914–18), he commanded the Seistan Force, for which he was mentioned in dispatches and made a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB). He was promoted colonel in 1915, and was promoted to temporary brigadier general in 1916. In 1919, about a month after the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, Dyer served in the Third Anglo-Afghan War. His brigade relieved the garrison of Thal, for which he was again mentioned in dispatches. For a few months in 1919 he was posted to the 5th Brigade at Jamrud.


title: Reginald Dyer

text: In 1919, the European population in Punjab feared the locals would overthrow British rule. A nationwide hartal (strike action), which was called on 30 March (later changed to 6 April) by Mahatma Gandhi, had turned violent in some areas. Authorities were also becoming concerned by displays of Hindu-Muslim unity. Michael O'Dwyer, the Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab, decided to deport major agitators from the province. One of those targeted was Dr. Satyapal, a Hindu who had served with the Royal Army Medical Corps during the First World War. He advocated non-violent civil disobedience and was forbidden by the authorities to speak publicly. Another agitator was Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew, a Muslim barrister who wanted political change and also preached non-violence. The district magistrate, acting on orders from the Punjab government, had the two leaders arrested.


title: Reginald Dyer

text: The shooting of protesters resulted in a mob forming and returning to the city centre of Amritsar, setting fire to government buildings and attacking Europeans in the city. Three British bank employees were beaten to death, and Miss Marcella Sherwood, who supervised the Mission Day School for Girls, was cycling around the city to close her schools when she was assaulted by a mob in a narrow street called the Kucha Kurrichhan. Sherwood was rescued from the mob by locals. They hid the teacher, who was hurt in the beating, before moving her to the fort. Dyer, who was the commandant of the infantry brigade in Jalandhar, decided to take action. He arrived on 11 April to assume command.


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Though authorities initially claimed that the massacre was triggered by the assault on Sherwood, regimental diaries reveal that this was merely a pretext. Instead, Dyer and O'Dwyer feared an imminent mutiny in Punjab similar to the Indian Rebellion of 1857.


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Dyer is infamous for the orders that he gave on 13 April 1919 in Amritsar. It was by his command that 50 troops, including 25 Gurkhas of 1/9 Gurkha Rifles (1st battalion, 9th Gurkha Rifles), 25 Pathans and Baluch and 59th Sindh Rifles, all armed with .303 Lee–Enfield rifles, opened fire on a non-violent gathering of unarmed civilians, men, women, elderlies and children, at the Jallianwalla Bagh, in what later came to be known as the Amritsar massacre.


title: Reginald Dyer

text: The civilians had assembled at Jallianwala Bagh to participate in the annual Baisakhi celebrations which are both a religious and a cultural festival of the Punjabis. Coming from outside the city, they may have been unaware of the martial law that had been imposed. The Bagh-space comprised and was walled on all sides, except for five entrances. Four of the entrances were very narrow, admitting only a few people at a time. The fifth entrance was blocked by the armed soldiers, as well as by two armoured cars with machine guns. The vehicles were unable to pass through the entrance. Upon entering the park, the general ordered the troops to shoot directly into the gathering. The shooting continued unabated for about 10 minutes, and the soldiers' supply of 1,650 rounds of ammunition was almost exhausted.


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Dyer is reported to have, from time to time, "checked his fire and directed it upon places where the crowd was thickest", not because the crowd was slow to disperse, but because he "had made up his mind to punish them for having assembled there." Some of the soldiers initially shot into the air, at which Dyer shouted: "Fire low. What have you been brought here for?" Later, Dyer's own testimony revealed that the crowd was not given any warning to disperse and he was not remorseful for having ordered his troops to shoot.


title: Reginald Dyer

text: The Hunter Commission report on the incident, published the following year by the Government of India, criticised both Dyer, and the Government of the Punjab for failing to compile a casualty count, so quoted a figure offered by the Sewa Samati (A Social Services Society) of 379 identified dead, comprising 337 men, 41 boys and a six-week-old baby, with approximately 1,100 wounded, of which 192 were seriously injured. However other estimates, from government civil servants in the city (commissioned by the Punjab Sub-committee of Indian National Congress), as well as counts from the Home Political, cite numbers of well over a thousand dead. According to a Home Political Deposit report, the number was more than 1,000, with more than 1,200 wounded. Dr Smith, a British civil surgeon at Amritsar, estimated that there were over 1,800 casualties. The deliberate infliction of these casualties earned Dyer the epithet of the "Butcher of Amritsar".


title: Reginald Dyer

text: The day after the massacre Dyer attempted to restore law and order. The following is the English translation of Dyer's Urdu statement directed at the local residents of Amritsar on the afternoon of 14 April 1919, a day after the Amritsar massacre:


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Dyer designated the spot as sacred where Marcella Sherwood was assaulted. Daytime pickets were placed at either end of the street. Anyone wishing to proceed in the street between 6am and 8pm was made to crawl the on all fours, lying flat on their bellies. The order was not required at night due to a curfew. The order effectively closed the street. The houses did not have any back doors and the inhabitants could not go out without climbing down from their roofs. This order was in effect from 19 April until 25 April 1919.


title: Reginald Dyer

text: A committee of enquiry, chaired by Lord Hunter, was established to investigate the massacre. The committee's report criticised Dyer, arguing that in "continuing firing as long as he did, it appears to us that Colonel Dyer committed a grave error." Dissenting members argued that the martial law regime's use of force was wholly unjustified. "Colonel Dyer thought he had crushed the rebellion and Michael O'Dwyer was of the same view," they wrote, "(but) there was no rebellion which required to be crushed."


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Dyer was met by the Adjutant-General of India, Lieutenant-General Havelock Hudson, who told him that he was relieved of his command. He was told later by the Commander-in-Chief in India, General Charles Monro, to resign his post and that he would not be reemployed.


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Dyer tried to win over the Sikhs as best as he could. He forced the manager of the Golden Temple, and Sunder Singh Majithia, to use their influence over the Sikhs, in favour of the government. As a result, priests of the Golden Temple invited him to the sacred shrine and presented him with a Siropa (turban and sword).


title: Reginald Dyer

text: "The Morning Post" claimed Dyer was "the man who saved India" and started a benefit fund which raised over £26,000 sterling. Sources differ on how much, if anything Rudyard Kipling contributed to this fund and some sources claim that 'the man who saved India' line came from Kipling.


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Dyer was heavily criticised both in Britain and India. Several senior and influential British government officials and Indians spoke out against him, including:


title: Reginald Dyer

text: During the Dyer debates in the Parliament of the United Kingdom, there was both praise and condemnation of Dyer. In 1920, the British Labour Party Conference at Scarborough unanimously passed a resolution denouncing the Amritsar massacre as a "cruel and barbarous action" of British officers in Punjab, and called for their trial, the recall of Michael O'Dwyer and the Viceroy, Lord Chelmsford, and the repealing of repressive legislation.


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Churchill, the then Secretary of State for War, wanted Dyer to be disciplined, but the Army Council superseded by him decided to allow Dyer to resign with no plan for further punishment. Following Churchill's speech defending the council's decision and a debate in Parliament, on 8 July 1920 MPs voted for the government by a majority of 247 to 37; a motion calling for approval of Dyer's actions was defeated by a majority of 230 to 129.


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Having been born in India and educated in Ireland, Dyer then settled in Britain. He was presented with a gift of £26,000 sterling, a huge sum in those days, , which emerged from the fund raised on his behalf by the "Morning Post", a conservative, pro-imperialist newspaper which later merged with the "Daily Telegraph". A "Thirteen Women Committee" was constituted to present "the Saviour of the Punjab with the sword of honour and a purse". Large contributions to the fund were made by civil servants and by British Army and Indian Army officers, although serving members of the military were not allowed to donate to political funds under the King's Regulations (para. 443).


title: Reginald Dyer

text: The "Morning Post" had supported Dyer's action on the grounds that the massacre was necessary to "Protect the honour of European Women".


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Many Indians, including Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore, were outraged by the fund for Dyer, particularly due to the families of the victims killed at the Jallianwala Bagh, who were still fighting for government compensation. In the end, they received Rs 500 (then equal to £37.10s.0d; ) for each victim.


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Dyer acquired a farm at Ashton Fields, Ashton Keynes, Wiltshire, which was still given as his address when he died, although in 1925 he had bought a small cottage at Long Ashton on the outskirts of Bristol and spent his last two years there, while one of his sons lived at the farm.


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Dyer made three conflicting sets of statements about his motives and actions. At first, immediately after he carried out the massacre, he made a series of partial but slightly varying explanations with the aim of exonerating himself from any blame. Later, after receiving approval for his actions from all his superiors in India, both civil and military, Dyer stated that his actions were a deliberate attempt to punish people he believed were rebels, and to make an example for the rest of the Punjab that would stop what he regarded as a rebellion. Finally, on Dyer's return to England in disgrace in 1920, his lawyers argued that his actions, though deliberate and premeditated, were justified because he was facing an insurrection and that, on those grounds, any amount of firing was permissible.


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Dyer wrote an article in the "Globe" of 21 January 1921, entitled, "The Peril to the Empire". It commenced with "India does not want self-government. She does not understand it." He wrote later that:


title: Reginald Dyer

text: In his official response to the Hunter commission that inquired into the shooting, Dyer was unremorseful and stated: "I think it quite possible that I could have dispersed the crowd without firing but they would have come back again and laughed, and I would have made, what I consider, a fool of myself."


title: Reginald Dyer

text: However, in his account of the massacre Nick Lloyd claims that although Dyer later claimed to have undertaken the massacre to "save" British India, he had had no such idea in his mind that fateful afternoon. As well as being "dazed and shaken up" – hardly the response of a soldier who had had murder in his mind – all the witnesses recall how Dyer "was unnerved and deeply upset about what had happened".


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Nigel Collett – author of the biography "The Butcher of Amritsar" – is convinced that the Amritsar massacre preyed on Dyer's mind from the very day he opened fire. "He spent the rest of his life trying to justify himself. He persuaded himself it had been his duty to act as he did, but he could not persuade his soul that he had done right. It rotted his mind and, I am guessing here, added to his sickness."


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Collett, in his book, portrays Dyer as a man who got on extremely well with his men and his juniors, while his contemporaries and seniors were always wary of him. When he approached a complex political problem, his one thought was to have order; his one tool to get it was the gun. He notes that, at the time of the Amritsar massacre, Dyer was wracked by ill-health and separated from his beloved family. Collett speculates that perhaps this encouraged Dyer's extreme view that the Punjab was on the brink of rebellion, with the empire about to collapse, and feared a mutiny like that of 1857. The solution, he decided, was not just to restore order but to show that the state was in charge. It was not enough to have shops and businesses reopen in Amritsar – an example was needed of the consequences of insubordination.


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Collett quotes Dyer himself on the motivations that drove him to act as he did: "...It was no longer a question of merely dispersing the crowd but one of producing a sufficient moral effect, from a military point of view, not only on those who were present but more specially throughout the Punjab. There could be no question of undue severity. The mutineers had thrown out the challenge and the punishment, if administered at all, must be complete, unhesitating and immediate."


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Dyer suffered a series of strokes during the last years of his life and he became increasingly isolated due to the paralysis and speechlessness inflicted by his strokes. He died of cerebral haemorrhage and arteriosclerosis on 23 July 1927. On his deathbed, Dyer reportedly said:


title: Reginald Dyer

text: The "Morning Post" remembered him in an article titled "The Man Who Saved India" and "He Did His Duty" but the (Liberal) "Westminster Gazette" wrote a contrary opinion: "No British action, during the whole course of our history in India, has struck a severer blow to Indian faith in British justice than the massacre at Amritsar."


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Historian Gordon Johnson commented that "...Dyer's actions ran counter to Army regulations. These required that force should be constrained by what was reasonable to achieve an immediate objective; minimum, not maximum, force should be deployed. Moreover, proper warning had to be given. On 13 April 1919, as demonstrated by Collett, Dyer ignored this. While he may have believed the Raj was threatened, and may have thought the mob was out to attack him and his soldiers, this does not justify his cavalier abuse of procedure and his indifference to Indian suffering. In so behaving, he brought not only death to the innocent but also destroyed himself and undermined the empire in which he took so much pride."


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Although still owning property in Wiltshire, Dyer died at his cottage in Somerset, St Martin's, Long Ashton, near Bristol. He left an estate valued at £11,941, .


title: Reginald Dyer

text: A fictionalised account of Dyer's actions in Amritsar is contained in the 1981 Booker Prize winning novel "Midnight's Children", by author Salman Rushdie (see List of "Midnight's Children" characters).


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Dyer is played by Edward Fox in the 1982 film "Gandhi". He is played by Tom Alter in the 2000 Bollywood movie "Shaheed Udham Singh" and by Andrew Havill in the 2021 Bollywood movie "Sardar Udham".


title: Reginald Dyer

text: Michael O'Dwyer, Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab from 1913 to 1919, endorsed Dyer and called the massacre a "correct" action. Some historians now believe he premeditated the massacre and set Dyer to work. Many Indians blamed O'Dwyer, and while Dyer was never assaulted, O'Dwyer was assassinated in London in 1940 by an Indian revolutionary, Sardar Udham Singh in retaliation for his role in the massacre.


title: Reginald Dyer

text: In 1888 Dyer married Frances Anne Trevor Ommaney; they had one daughter (Gladys Mary, born 1889) and two sons (Ivon Reginald, born 1895 and Geoffrey Edward MacLeod, born 1896).


title: Polycarbonate

text: Polycarbonates (PC) are a group of thermoplastic polymers containing carbonate groups in their chemical structures. Polycarbonates used in engineering are strong, tough materials, and some grades are optically transparent. They are easily worked, molded, and thermoformed. Because of these properties, polycarbonates find many applications. Polycarbonates do not have a unique resin identification code (RIC) and are identified as "Other", 7 on the RIC list. Products made from polycarbonate can contain the precursor monomer bisphenol A (BPA).


title: Polycarbonate

text: Carbonate esters have planar OC(OC) cores, which confers rigidity. The unique O=C bond is short (1.173 Å in the depicted example), while the C-O bonds are more ether-like (the bond distances of 1.326 Å for the example depicted). Polycarbonates received their name because they are polymers containing carbonate groups (−O−(C=O)−O−). A balance of useful features, including temperature resistance, impact resistance and optical properties, positions polycarbonates between commodity plastics and engineering plastics.


title: Polycarbonate

text: The main polycarbonate material is produced by the reaction of bisphenol A (BPA) and phosgene . The overall reaction can be written as follows:


title: Polycarbonate

text: The first step of the synthesis involves treatment of bisphenol A with sodium hydroxide, which deprotonates the hydroxyl groups of the bisphenol A.


title: Polycarbonate

text: The diphenoxide (Na(OCH)CMe) reacts with phosgene to give a chloroformate, which subsequently is attacked by another phenoxide. The net reaction from the diphenoxide is:


title: Polycarbonate

text: In this way, approximately one billion kilograms of polycarbonate is produced annually. Many other diols have been tested in place of bisphenol A, e.g. 1,1-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)cyclohexane and dihydroxybenzophenone. The cyclohexane is used as a comonomer to suppress crystallisation tendency of the BPA-derived product. Tetrabromobisphenol A is used to enhance fire resistance. Tetramethylcyclobutanediol has been developed as a replacement for BPA.


title: Polycarbonate

text: Polycarbonate is a durable material. Although it has high impact-resistance, it has low scratch-resistance. Therefore, a hard coating is applied to polycarbonate eyewear lenses and polycarbonate exterior automotive components. The characteristics of polycarbonate compare to those of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA, acrylic), but polycarbonate is stronger and will hold up longer to extreme temperature. Thermally processed material is usually totally amorphous, and as a result is highly transparent to visible light, with better light transmission than many kinds of glass.


title: Polycarbonate

text: Polycarbonate has a glass transition temperature of about , so it softens gradually above this point and flows above about . Tools must be held at high temperatures, generally above to make strain-free and stress-free products. Low molecular mass grades are easier to mold than higher grades, but their strength is lower as a result. The toughest grades have the highest molecular mass, but are more difficult to process.


title: Polycarbonate

text: Unlike most thermoplastics, polycarbonate can undergo large plastic deformations without cracking or breaking. As a result, it can be processed and formed at room temperature using sheet metal techniques, such as bending on a brake. Even for sharp angle bends with a tight radius, heating may not be necessary. This makes it valuable in prototyping applications where transparent or electrically non-conductive parts are needed, which cannot be made from sheet metal. PMMA/Acrylic, which is similar in appearance to polycarbonate, is brittle and cannot be bent at room temperature.