title: Public Image Ltd

text: A re-recorded version with harsher vocals and a brass section was included on the album "This Is What You Want... This Is What You Get".


title: Public Image Ltd

text: In 1985, Lydon recorded a song entitled "World Destruction" in collaboration with Afrika Bambaataa's band Time Zone and producer Bill Laswell. PiL's 1986 album release was simply entitled "Album", "Compact Disc", or "Cassette", depending on the format. The cover's blue typeface and spartan design parodied generic brands; promotional photos featured Lydon in a "generic blue" suit surrounded by generic foods and drinking generic beer. Produced by Bill Laswell (despite Lydon-fuelled faction and disunion) and with many of Laswell's usual rotating cast of musicians, it also featured guitar solos by Steve Vai, considered by Vai himself to be some of his best work. Jonas Hellborg, solo bassist and at the time, member of John McLaughlin's reformed band, The Mahavishnu Orchestra, played bass on the album. Jazz great Tony Williams and legendary Cream drummer Ginger Baker drummed on the album, which also featured Ryuichi Sakamoto of the Japanese electropop group Yellow Magic Orchestra. Controversy reared again, with claims that the album cover and title concept had been stolen from the San Francisco noise/punk band, Flipper, contemporaries of PiL, whose album, "Album", featured a similarly unadorned sleeve. Flipper retaliated by naming their next album, "Public Flipper Limited".


title: Public Image Ltd

text: To tour "Album" in 1986, Lydon recruited former Magazine and Siouxsie and the Banshees guitarist John McGeoch, world music multi-instrumentalist (and former Damned guitarist) Lu Edmunds, bass guitarist Allan Dias, and former The Pop Group and The Slits drummer Bruce Smith. (Dias had previously played with David Lloyd and Andrew Edge in Uropa Lula).


title: Public Image Ltd

text: As the years went on, PiL's line-up grew steadier as the sound of the albums drifted toward dance culture and drum-oriented pop music. Edmunds left due to tinnitus in 1988, and Smith left in 1990. McGeoch and Dias were members of PiL from 1986 until 1992, making them the group's longest-running members besides Lydon.


title: Public Image Ltd

text: PiL released the album "Happy?" in 1987, and during early 1988 were the supporting act on INXS' "Kick" tour in the US. Bill Laswell, who produced PiL's previous album, was at one point supposed to produce "Happy?", but this idea fell through allegedly because Laswell wanted to replace the PiL lineup with his own session musicians (as had been the case with "Album"), a request to which John Lydon would not agree. "Happy?" was ultimately produced by Gary Langan and PiL. The album produced the single "Seattle" as well as the abortion-themed single "The Body", a sequel of sorts to the similarly titled Sex Pistols song "Bodies". In 1989, PiL toured with New Order and the Sugarcubes as "The Monsters of Alternative Rock". PiL's seventh studio album, "9" – so called as it was the band's ninth official album release, including the two live albums – appeared in early 1989 and featured the single "Disappointed". The album was produced by Stephen Hague (who was known for working with the Pet Shop Boys and New Order), Eric "E.T." Thorngren and the band.


title: Public Image Ltd

text: In 1990, Public Image Limited's song "The Order of Death" (from "This is What You Want...This is What You Get") was prominently featured in Richard Stanley's movie "Hardware". That same year saw the release of PiL's first compilation album "The Greatest Hits, So Far", which featured one new song, the environmentally themed single "Don't Ask Me". The rest of the album consisted of previously released material, though remixes of several songs were used rather than original album versions and the album remake of "This is Not a Love Song" was included rather than the original single version. Lydon claims that he wanted the album to be 28 tracks long; the eventual 14-track listing was a compromise with Virgin Records (who, according to Lydon, originally wanted only eight tracks). The compilation, which boasted album-sleeve artwork by Reg Mombassa, made No. 20 on the UK album charts.


title: Public Image Ltd

text: PiL's last studio album of this period, 1992's "That What Is Not", included a sample from the Sex Pistols' song "God Save the Queen" in the song "Acid Drops" (the younger Lydon's voice is heard chanting the words, "No future, no future..." in the outro). Lydon disbanded the group a year later after Virgin Records refused to pay for the tour supporting the album, and Lydon had to pay for it out of his own pocket. The band's last concert was performed on 18 September 1992 with the lineup of Lydon, McGeoch, Ted Chau (guitar, keyboards), Mike Joyce of The Smiths (drums), and Russell Webb (bass). Allan Dias, PiL's bassist since the spring of 1986, quit the band in the summer of 1992, some months before PiL itself went on hiatus.


title: Public Image Ltd

text: In 1993, Lydon worked on his memoirs, first published in 1994 as "", and in 1996 he regrouped with Steve Jones, Glen Matlock and Paul Cook for the Sex Pistols' Filthy Lucre Tour. Lydon released a solo album, "Psycho's Path", in 1997. 1999 saw the release of the 4-disc PiL compilation "Plastic Box"; it offered a more comprehensive retrospective of PiL's recorded output than the single-disc "The Greatest Hits, So Far". "Plastic Box" contained a mixture of previously released and unreleased material spanning PiL's entire career, although no material from "Commercial Zone" or PiL's two live albums was included (in the compilation's liner notes, Lydon wrote that "this collection represents a comma not a full stop, I fully intend to carry on with PiL, and there will be more in the future.").


title: Public Image Ltd

text: In September 2009 it was announced that PiL would reform for five UK shows, their first live appearance in 17 years. Lydon financed the reunion using money he earned doing a UK TV commercial for Country Life butter. "The money that I earned from that has now gone completely – lock stock and barrel – into reforming PiL," said Lydon.


title: Public Image Ltd

text: On 15 October 2009, Lydon registered the private limited company "PIL Twin Limited" as his new music publishing company in the UK.


title: Public Image Ltd

text: The new lineup (consisting of Lydon, earlier members Bruce Smith and Lu Edmonds, plus multi-instrumentalist Scott Firth) played to generally positive reviews in late 2009, coinciding with the 30th anniversary of "Metal Box". However, protested Lydon, "This tour is absolutely nothing to do with an anniversary of anything… We didn't even know that Virgin were planning on releasing a very limited edition of "Metal Box" because they never bothered to confer with us." The tour spawned a live album, "ALiFE 2009".


title: Public Image Ltd

text: In April 2010, PiL began an extensive North American tour, including a sub-headlining appearance at the Coachella Festival. The band played several European concerts in July 2010 and at the Summer Sonic Festival in Japan in August 2011.


title: Public Image Ltd

text: In November 2009, Lydon said PiL might re-enter the studio if they could raise enough money from their December tour or from a record company.


title: Public Image Ltd

text: PiL went to Tel Aviv to headline the Heineken Music Conference 2010 Festival in August 2010. The group met with criticism for breaking the artistic boycott of Israel by some British musicians organized in protest over Israeli policies toward Palestinians. Lydon said in response:


title: Public Image Ltd

text: On 30 November 2011, the band's own label "PiL Official Limited" was registered as a private limited company in the UK.


title: Public Image Ltd

text: PiL released the vinyl-only EP "One Drop" in late April 2012, which was eventually made available for streaming. The new 12-track studio album, "This is PiL", followed in May. "This is PiL" was the band's first studio album in twenty years.


title: Public Image Ltd

text: On 28 July 2015, the band uploaded a promo video for lead single "Double Trouble" from their next album, "What the World Needs Now...," via their YouTube channel. On 21 August, PiL released the single (backed with "Bettie Page") and a non-album track, "Turkey Tits". "What the World Needs Now..." is PiL's tenth studio album, released in September 2015. On 17 November 2015, the group played "Double Trouble" on "The Late Show with Stephen Colbert".


title: Public Image Ltd

text: released "The Public Image is Rotten - Songs from the Heart", a compilation CD/DVD box set to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the band. It consists of five CDs and two DVDs that include B-sides, rarities, radio sessions, live concerts, 12" mixes and promo videos.


title: Garry's Mod

text: Garry's Mod is a 2006 sandbox game developed by Facepunch Studios and published by Valve. The base game mode of "Garry's Mod" has no set objectives and provides the player with a world in which to freely manipulate objects. Other game modes, notably "Trouble in Terrorist Town" and "Prop Hunt", are created by other developers as mods and are installed separately, by means such as the Steam Workshop. "Garry's Mod" was created by Garry Newman as a mod for Valve's Source game engine and released in December 2004, before being expanded into a standalone release that was published by Valve in November 2006. Ports of the original Windows version for Mac OS X and Linux followed in September 2010 and June 2013, respectively. As of September 2021, "Garry's Mod" has sold more than 20 million copies.


title: Garry's Mod

text: "Garry's Mod" is a physics-based sandbox game that, in its base game mode, has no set objectives. The player is able to spawn non-player characters, ragdolls, and props, and interact with them by various means. Using the "physics gun", ragdolls and props can be picked up, rotated, and frozen in place. The individual limbs of ragdolls can also be manipulated. The "tool gun" is a multi-purpose item for tasks such as welding and constraining props together, and altering the facial expressions of ragdolls.


title: Garry's Mod

text: "Garry's Mod" includes the functionality to modify the game by developing scripts written in the Lua programming language. Notable mods (known as "addons") include "Spacebuild", "Wiremod", "Elevator: Source", "DarkRP", "Prop Hunt", and "Trouble in Terrorist Town". Specialised servers, known as Fretta servers, rotate between custom game modes every fifteen minutes. "Garry's Mod" version 12 introduced the "Toybox" section, through which the player could browse and install user-created mods. This was replaced by support for the Steam Workshop in version 13.


title: Garry's Mod

text: In late 2009, Facepunch launched the "Fretta Contest", a competition in which people were to develop "Garry's Mod" game modes using the proprietary Fretta programming framework, with the winning game mode to be added to the base game. The winner of this contest was "Trouble in Terrorist Town" ("TTT"), which was added to the game in July 2010, alongside another mode, "Dogfight: Arcade Assault". "TTT" assigns players to three groups: Traitors, Detectives, and Innocents, similar to the party game Mafia. Detectives are known to all players, whereas Traitors are only known to other Traitors and otherwise appear as Innocents. While Traitors attempt to eliminate all other players, Innocents and Detectives need to co-operate to identify and eliminate all Traitors. To do the latter, Detectives are given special equipment, such as DNA scanners that can trace a dead player's killer.


title: Garry's Mod

text: The game mode "Prop Hunt" was created by Andrew "AMT" Theis and popularised through "Garry's Mod". In "Prop Hunt", the players on one team are disguised as props and set to hide on the game map while the other team seeks after them. Game modes based on "Prop Hunt" were later included with games like "", "", "Fortnite Battle Royale", and "Genshin Impact". Players recreated it in others, such as "Rocket League" and "Fortnite Creative".


title: Garry's Mod

text: In July 2009, four developers working under the name "PixelTail Games" opened a "Garry's Mod" server called "GMod Tower". "GMod Tower" was a network of servers, designed as a social media platform for users to play minigames with friends and socialise in a hub area. Within hours of the server's opening, the website for "GMod Tower" reached two million views. "GMod Tower" temporarily shut down between January and April 2012. PixelTail Games later expanded "GMod Tower" into "Tower Unite", a standalone game that replaced "GMod Tower" upon its early access release in April 2016.


title: Garry's Mod

text: "Garry's Mod" has been used as the basis for machinima. One of the more notable examples is "", which is based on a fan fiction set in the "Half-Life" universe, penned in 2008 by a user named Squirrelking. YouTube user Djy1991 used "Garry's Mod" to animate the fan fiction, using literal interpretations of some of the work's typographical errors and awkward grammar.


title: Garry's Mod

text: In June 2022, the author of the popular "Garry's Mod" addons "Glue Library", "View Extension", "Action Extension", and "Ambient Occlusion" altered their work to display shock images such as goatse and play loud sounds. The addons' new source files contained curses directed at Newman, Valve co-founder Gabe Newell, and Steam moderators. According to "PC Gamer", the files appeared to indicate the changes were a "deliberate prank" and not due to the addons being compromised. Another user changed their "Trollface Playermodel" addons to present the user with a different set of explicit images and slurs loudly played back in the voice of the cartoon character SpongeBob SquarePants.


title: Garry's Mod

text: "Garry's Mod" was created by the video game programmer Garry Newman. He started developing games under the studio name Facepunch Studios after dropping out of college, at the time out of his parents' house. He did this as a hobby, simultaneous to his occupation as a PHP programmer for a dating website. He was later fired when he launched his own dating website. While developing his first game, "Facewound", "Garry's Mod" became a side-project of his as a mod for the Source game engine and, principally, the game "Half-Life 2". Newman soon found more enjoyment in developing "Garry's Mod" than in maintaining "Facewound", so development on "Facewound" was mostly halted (and put on indefinite hiatus in 2004) for him to focus on "Garry's Mod". He stated that, at the time, his skills in computer programming were not advanced enough to create a full Source-based game and he resorted to the mod format. The first iteration of the mod, version 1, was released on 24 December 2004. Initial feedback was polarised, with some players criticising the mod for its similarity to an existing mod, "JBMod". However, the increasing positive reception led Newman to continue development. Newman did not recognise that the game was gaining in popularity until he set up an online forum for it. Through 2004 and 2005, Newman released several updated versions of "Garry's Mod", adding new features and culminating in version 9.0.4 on 27 November 2005. Newman's one-man operation grew to a team of multiple people for a remake of the mod as a standalone game.


title: Garry's Mod

text: Valve, the developers of Source and "Half-Life 2", contacted Newman to suggest a commercial, standalone release of the mod through their digital distribution service Steam, which Newman initially rejected. Valve and Facepunch later struck a publishing agreement wherein Valve would release "Garry's Mod" onto Steam at a price of , while the two companies would equally split profits. The last free version of "Garry's Mod" remained available for download, rechristened as the demo to the retail game. The standalone game was released on 29 November 2006. Despite the game no longer being a mod, Valve and Facepunch stuck with the ""Garry's Mod"" name, which Newman later cited as a mistake, stating that he should have called it ""Sandbox"" instead. Because "Garry's Mod" still required a separate Source-based game to function properly, a bundle including "Garry's Mod" and Valve's "" was released alongside. A port of the Windows version for Mac OS X was released on 23 September 2010. Support for Kinect, a full-body motion tracking peripheral, was added to the Windows version in December 2012. When "Garry's Mod" was moved over to Valve's SteamPipe content delivery system, completed on 5 June 2013, an experimental Linux client was also introduced.


title: Garry's Mod

text: "GameSpy" named "Garry's Mod" the "PC Mod of the Year" in 2005. Craig Pearson of "GamesRadar" regarded it one of the best mods for cooperative gameplay in 2007. In 2017, Brendan Caldwell of "Rock Paper Shotgun" described the game as a "must-own sandbox game", while "PCGamesN" included it in its 2019 list of the "best sandbox games on PC".


title: Garry's Mod

text: "Garry's Mod" sold 5,729 copies on its first day, 312,541 by December 2008, 770,628 by October 2010, 1 million by July 2011, 1.4 million by March 2012, 3.5 million by July 2013, 6 million by September 2014, 10 million by January 2016, 15 million by December 2019, 18,671,533 by December 2020, and over 20 million by September 2021. Newman estimated that, as of 2019, the game sold about 1.5 million copies annually. Sales of the game made for revenues of by December 2008, by March 2013, by February 2014, and by December 2020. The game's success allowed Facepunch to grow further, eventually branching out into other games, such as "Rust". As of 2010, "Garry's Mod" is regularly among the then most-played games on Steam.


title: Garry's Mod

text: Newman stated in September 2015 that a sequel to "Garry's Mod" was in early development, with Newman looking to include virtual reality content and choose a name other than ""Garry's Mod 2"". He later announced "Sandbox" (stylized as "S&box"), a sandbox game using Unreal Engine 4, in September 2017 as a potential spiritual successor to "Garry's Mod". By December 2019, development on the game had been paused. Newman resumed development in March 2020 and later moved it to the Source 2 engine.


title: My Dinner with Andre

text: My Dinner with Andre is a 1981 American comedy-drama film directed by Louis Malle, and written by and starring André Gregory (Andre) and Wallace Shawn (Wally). The actors play fictionalized versions of themselves sharing a conversation at Café des Artistes in Manhattan. The film's dialogue covers topics such as experimental theatre, the nature of theatre, and the nature of life, and contrasts Wally's modest humanism with Andre's spiritual experiences.


title: My Dinner with Andre

text: Andre Gregory is the focus of the first hour of the film, when he describes some of his experiences since giving up his career as a theatre director in 1975. These include working with his friend, director Jerzy Grotowski, and a group of Polish actors in a forest in Poland, his visit to Findhorn in Scotland, and his trip to the Sahara to try to create a play based on "The Little Prince" by Saint-Exupéry. He worked with a group in a small piece of performance art on Long Island, which resulted in Andre's being (briefly) buried alive on Halloween night.


title: My Dinner with Andre

text: The rest of the film is a conversation as Wally Shawn tries to argue that living life as Andre has done for the past five years is simply not possible for most people. He relates ordinary pleasures, like having a cup of coffee. Andre responds that what passes for normal life in New York in the late 1970s is more akin to living in a dream than it is to real life. The movie ends without a clear resolution to the conflict in worldviews articulated by the two men. Wally reminisces during a taxi ride about his childhood and mentions that when he arrives at home, he tells his girlfriend Debbie about his dinner with Andre.


title: My Dinner with Andre

text: The idea for the film arose from Gregory's effort to work with a biographer on his life story, and Shawn's simultaneously coming up with an idea for a story about two people having a conversation. Gregory and Shawn, who had become friends through theatre work, decided to collaborate on the project. They agreed that it should be filmed rather than produced as a play. Although the film was based on events in the actors' lives, Shawn and Gregory denied (in an interview with film critic Roger Ebert) that they were playing themselves. They said that, if they remade the film, they would swap the two characters to prove their point. In an interview with Noah Baumbach in 2009, Shawn said:


title: My Dinner with Andre

text: The screenplay went through numerous developmental changes in location; in the final version, it was set during a dinner at a restaurant. While Shawn was trying to find someone to direct the film, he received a phone call from French director Louis Malle. He had read a copy of the screenplay via a mutual friend and insisted that he work on the project, saying he wanted to direct, produce the film, or work on it in any capacity. Shawn initially thought that the call was a prank, due to Malle's stature in film. Malle later suggested that the dinner setup would not work, based on a rehearsal where Gregory was talking while eating. Shawn argued throughout screenplay development for more scenes, which would have resulted in a three-hour film. Malle won many script cuts, but lost two arguments over scenes that were kept in the film.


title: My Dinner with Andre

text: "My Dinner with Andre" was filmed in December 1980 in the Jefferson Hotel, which was then vacant, in Richmond, Virginia (the hotel has since been restored and reopened as a luxury venue). Lloyd Kaufman was the production manager on the film, and Troma Entertainment provided production support. The filming was done over a period of two weeks, and edited to appear as if occurring in real time. The set was created to look like the Café des Artistes in New York City.


title: My Dinner with Andre

text: Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes rated it 92% "fresh" based on 23 reviews with average rating of 7.3 out of 10. Roger Ebert and Gene Siskel gave high praise to the film on "Sneak Previews"; the producers told Ebert that their praise helped keep the film in theaters for a year. Ebert chose it as the best film of the year, and both he and Siskel would later rank it as the fifth-best and fourth-best film, respectively, of the entire 1980s. In 1999, Ebert added it to his "Great Movies" essay series. He said, "Someone asked me the other day if I could name a movie that was entirely devoid of clichés. I thought for a moment, and then answered, "My Dinner with Andre"." The Boston Society of Film Critics Awards ranked it as the "Best American Film" in 1982, and awarded Gregory and Shawn its prize for Best Screenplay. Metacritic rated it 83% "universal acclaim" based on 15 reviews.


title: My Dinner with Andre

text: Throughout the film, Andre refers to his wife "Chiquita"; in real life he was married to Mercedes "Chiquita" Nebelthau, who died in 1992. Nebelthau was a documentary filmmaker whose credits include three films about Jerzy Grotowski, whom Wally and Andre talk about in this film.


title: My Dinner with Andre

text: Throughout the film, Wally refers to his "girlfriend Debbie". Though not actually identified, Debbie is the short story writer Deborah Eisenberg, although she had not begun publishing stories at the time of the film. Eisenberg is also an extra in the film, a dark-haired diner Shawn glances at as he scans the restaurant while standing at the bar waiting for Andre.


title: My Dinner with Andre

text: Andre refers to "ROC", the Scottish mathematician who claimed he met fauns and the god Pan. That man is Robert Ogilvie Crombie, one of the founders of the Findhorn Foundation.


title: Colchicine

text: Colchicine is a medication used to treat gout and Behçet's disease. In gout, it is less preferred to NSAIDs or steroids. Other uses for colchicine include the management of pericarditis and familial Mediterranean fever. Colchicine is taken by mouth.


title: Colchicine

text: Colchicine has a narrow therapeutic index, so overdosing is a significant risk. Common side effects of colchicine include gastrointestinal upset, particularly at high doses. Severe side effects may include low blood cells and rhabdomyolysis, and the medication can be deadly in overdose. Whether colchicine is safe for use during pregnancy is unclear, but its use during breastfeeding appears to be safe. Colchicine works by decreasing inflammation via multiple mechanisms.


title: Colchicine

text: Colchicine, in the form of the autumn crocus ("Colchicum autumnale"), has been used as early as 1500 BC to treat joint swelling. It was approved for medical use in the United States in 1961. It is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the 241st most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 1million prescriptions.


title: Colchicine

text: Colchicine is an alternative for those unable to tolerate NSAIDs when treating gout. Low doses appear to be well tolerated and may reduce gout symptoms and pain (1.2 mg in one hour, followed by 0.6 mg an hour later). This low dose may have a similar effectiveness to NSAIDS. At high doses, side effects (primarily diarrhea, nausea, or vomiting) limit its use, however may be effective against pain. In addition, there is preliminary evidence that daily colchicine (0.6 mg twice daily) may be effective as a long-term prophylaxis when used with allopurinol to reduce the risk of increased uric acid levels and acute gout flares, although adverse gastrointestinal effects may occur.


title: Colchicine

text: For treating gout symptoms, colchicine is used orally with or without food, as symptoms first appear. Subsequent doses may be needed if symptoms worsen. A 2021 updated Cochrane review found that low-dose colchicine had benefits similar to NSAIDs.


title: Colchicine

text: Colchicine is also used as an anti-inflammatory agent for long-term treatment of Behçet's disease. It appears to have limited effect in relapsing polychondritis, as it may only be useful for the treatment of chondritis and mild skin symptoms. It is a component of therapy for several other conditions, including pericarditis, pulmonary fibrosis, biliary cirrhosis, various vasculitides, pseudogout, spondyloarthropathies, calcinosis, scleroderma, and amyloidosis. Research regarding the efficacy of colchicine in many of these diseases has not been performed. It is also used in the treatment of familial Mediterranean fever, in which it reduces attacks and the long-term risk of amyloidosis.


title: Colchicine

text: Colchicine is effective for prevention of atrial fibrillation after cardiac surgery. Potential applications for the anti-inflammatory effect of colchicine have been studied with regard to atherosclerosis and chronic coronary disease (e.g., stable ischemic heart disease). In people with recent myocardial infarction (recent heart attack), it has been found to reduce risk of future cardiovascular events. Its clinical use may grow to include this indication.


title: Colchicine

text: Long-term (prophylactic) regimens of oral colchicine are absolutely contraindicated in people with advanced kidney failure (including those on dialysis). About 10–20% of a colchicine dose is excreted unchanged by the kidneys; it is not removed by hemodialysis. Cumulative toxicity is a high probability in this clinical setting, and a severe neuromyopathy may result. The presentation includes a progressive onset of proximal weakness, elevated creatine kinase, and sensorimotor polyneuropathy. Colchicine toxicity can be potentiated by the concomitant use of cholesterol-lowering drugs.


title: Colchicine

text: Deaths – both accidental and intentional – have resulted from overdose of colchicine. Typical side effects of moderate doses may include gastrointestinal upset, diarrhea, and neutropenia. High doses can also damage bone marrow, lead to anemia, and cause hair loss. All of these side effects can result from inhibition of mitosis, which may include neuromuscular toxicity and rhabdomyolysis.


title: Colchicine

text: According to one review, colchicine poisoning by overdose (range of acute doses of 7 to 26 mg) begins with a gastrointestinal phase occurring 10–24 hours after ingestion, followed by multiple organ dysfunction occurring 24 hours to 7 days after ingestion, after which the affected person either declines into multiple organ failure or recovers over several weeks.


title: Colchicine

text: Colchicine can be toxic when ingested, inhaled, or absorbed in the eyes. It can cause a temporary clouding of the cornea and be absorbed into the body, causing systemic toxicity. Symptoms of colchicine overdose start 2 to 24 hours after the toxic dose has been ingested, and include burning in the mouth and throat, fever, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. This can cause hypovolemic shock due to extreme vascular damage and fluid loss through the gastrointestinal tract, which can be fatal.


title: Colchicine

text: If the affected persons survive the gastrointestinal phase of toxicity, they may experience multiple organ failure and critical illness. This includes kidney damage, which causes low urine output and bloody urine; low white blood cell counts that can last for several days; anemia; muscular weakness; liver failure; hepatomegaly; bone marrow suppression; thrombocytopenia; and ascending paralysis leading to potentially fatal respiratory failure. Neurologic symptoms are also evident, including seizures, confusion, and delirium; children may experience hallucinations. Recovery may begin within six to eight days and begins with rebound leukocytosis and alopecia as organ functions return to normal.


title: Colchicine

text: Long-term exposure to colchicine can lead to toxicity, particularly of the bone marrow, kidney, and nerves. Effects of long-term colchicine toxicity include agranulocytosis, thrombocytopenia, low white blood cell counts, aplastic anemia, alopecia, rash, purpura, vesicular dermatitis, kidney damage, anuria, peripheral neuropathy, and myopathy.


title: Colchicine

text: No specific antidote for colchicine is known, but supportive care is used in cases of overdose. In the immediate period after an overdose, monitoring for gastrointestinal symptoms, cardiac dysrhythmias, and respiratory depression is appropriate, and may require gastrointestinal decontamination with activated charcoal or gastric lavage.


title: Colchicine

text: Because colchicine is so toxic, chemists are continuing to try to synthesize derivatives of the molecule that decrease the toxicity. The most important aspect of these derivatives is that they keep the tropolone ring (the ring with the methoxy group and the carbonyl) intact to retain the mechanistic properties of the molecule.


title: Colchicine

text: With overdoses, colchicine becomes toxic as an extension of its cellular mechanism of action via binding to tubulin. Cells so affected undergo impaired protein assembly with reduced endocytosis, exocytosis, cellular motility, and interrupted function of heart cells, culminating in multiple organ failure.


title: Colchicine

text: In the United States, several hundred cases of colchicine toxicity are reported annually, about 10% of which end with serious morbidity or mortality. Many of these cases are intentional overdoses, but others were accidental; for example, if the drug were not dosed appropriately for kidney function. Most cases of colchicine toxicity occur in adults. Many of these adverse events resulted from the use of intravenous colchicine.


title: Colchicine

text: Colchicine interacts with the P-glycoprotein transporter, and the CYP3A4 enzyme involved in drug and toxin metabolism. Fatal drug interactions have occurred when colchicine was taken with other drugs that inhibit P-glycoprotein and CYP3A4, such as erythromycin or clarithromycin.


title: Colchicine

text: People taking macrolide antibiotics, ketoconazole, or cyclosporine, or those who have liver or kidney disease, should not take colchicine, as these drugs and conditions may interfere with colchicine metabolism and raise its blood levels, potentially increasing its toxicity abruptly. Symptoms of toxicity include gastrointestinal upset, fever, muscle pain, low blood cell counts, and organ failure. People with HIV/AIDS taking atazanavir, darunavir, fosamprenavir, indinavir, lopinavir, nelfinavir, ritonavir, or saquinavir may experience colchicine toxicity. Grapefruit juice and statins can also increase colchicine concentrations.


title: Colchicine

text: In gout, inflammation in joints results from the precipitation of circulating uric acid, exceeding its solubility in blood and depositing as crystals of monosodium urate in and around synovial fluid and soft tissues of joints. These crystal deposits cause inflammatory arthritis, which is initiated and sustained by mechanisms involving various proinflammatory mediators, such as cytokines. Colchicine accumulates in white blood cells and affects them in a variety of ways - decreasing motility, mobilization (especially chemotaxis), and adhesion.


title: Colchicine

text: Under preliminary research are various mechanisms by which colchicine may interfere with gout inflammation:


title: Colchicine

text: Generally, colchicine appears to inhibit multiple proinflammatory mechanisms, while enabling increased levels of anti-inflammatory mediators. Apart from inhibiting mitosis, colchicine inhibits neutrophil motility and activity, leading to a net anti-inflammatory effect, which has efficacy for inhibiting or preventing gout inflammation.


title: Colchicine

text: Colchicine appears to be a peripherally selective drug with limited brain uptake due to binding to P-glycoprotein.


title: Colchicine

text: The plant source of colchicine, the autumn crocus ("Colchicum autumnale"), was described for treatment of rheumatism and swelling in the Ebers Papyrus ("circa" 1500 BC), an Egyptian medical text. It is a toxic alkaloid and secondary metabolite. "Colchicum" extract was first described as a treatment for gout in "De Materia Medica" by Pedanius Dioscorides, in the first century AD. Use of the bulb-like corms of "Colchicum" to treat gout probably dates to around 550 AD, as the "hermodactyl" recommended by Alexander of Tralles. "Colchicum" corms were used by the Persian physician Avicenna, and were recommended by Ambroise Paré in the 16th century, and appeared in the "London Pharmacopoeia" of 1618. "Colchicum" use waned over time, likely due to the severe gastrointestinal side effects preparations caused. In 1763, "Colchicum" was recorded as a remedy for dropsy (now called edema) among other illnesses. "Colchicum" plants were brought to North America by Benjamin Franklin, who had gout himself and had written humorous doggerel about the disease during his stint as United States Ambassador to France.


title: Colchicine

text: Colchicine was first isolated in 1820 by French chemists P. S. Pelletier and J. B. Caventou. In 1833, P. L. Geiger purified an active ingredient, which he named colchicine. It quickly became a popular remedy for gout. The determination of colchicine's structure required decades, although in 1945, Michael Dewar made an important contribution when he suggested that, among the molecule's three rings, two were seven-member rings. Its pain-relieving and anti-inflammatory effects for gout were linked to its ability to bind with tubulin.


title: Colchicine

text: An unintended consequence of the 2006 U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) safety program called the Unapproved Drugs Initiative—through which the FDA sought more rigorous testing of efficacy and safety of colchicine and other unapproved drugs—was a price increase of 2000 percent for "a gout remedy so old that the ancient Greeks knew about its effects". Under Unapproved Drugs Initiative small companies such as URL Pharma, a Philadelphia drugmaker, were rewarded with licenses for testing of medicines like colchicine. In 2009, the FDA reviewed a New Drug Application for colchicine submitted by URL Pharma. URL Pharma did the testing, gained FDA formal approval, and was granted rights over colchicine. With this monopoly pricing power, the price of colchicine increased.


title: Colchicine

text: In 2012, Asia's biggest drugmaker, Takeda Pharmaceutical Co., acquired URL Pharma for $800 million including the rights to colchicine (brand name Colcrys) earning $1.2 billion in revenue by raising the price even more.


title: Colchicine

text: Oral colchicine had been used for many years as an unapproved drug with no FDA-approved prescribing information, dosage recommendations, or drug interaction warnings. On 30 July 2009, the FDA approved colchicine as a monotherapy for the treatment of three different indications (familial Mediterranean fever, acute gout flares, and for the prophylaxis of gout flares), and gave URL Pharma a three-year marketing exclusivity agreement in exchange for URL Pharma doing 17 new studies and investing $100 million into the product, of which $45 million went to the FDA for the application fee. URL Pharma raised the price from $0.09 per tablet to $4.85, and the FDA removed the older unapproved colchicine from the market in October 2010, both in oral and intravenous forms, but allowed pharmacies to buy up the older unapproved colchicine. Colchicine in combination with probenecid has been FDA-approved before 1982.


title: Colchicine

text: On 29 July 2009, colchicine won FDA approval in the United States as a stand-alone drug for the treatment of acute flares of gout and familial Mediterranean fever. It had previously been approved as an ingredient in an FDA-approved combination product for gout. The approval was based on a study in which two doses (1.2 mg and 0.6 mg) an hour apart were as effective as higher doses in combating the acute flare of gout.


title: Colchicine

text: As a drug antedating the FDA, colchicine was sold in the United States for many years without having been reviewed by the FDA for safety and efficacy. The FDA reviewed approved colchicine for gout flares, awarding Colcrys a three-year term of market exclusivity, prohibiting generic sales, and increasing the price of the drug from $0.09 to $4.85 per tablet.


title: Colchicine

text: Numerous consensus guidelines, and previous randomized controlled trials, had concluded that colchicine is effective for acute flares of gouty arthritis. However, as of 2006, the drug was not formally approved by the FDA, owing to the lack of a conclusive randomized control trial. Through the Unapproved Drugs Initiative, the FDA sought more rigorous testing of the efficacy and safety of colchicine and other unapproved drugs. In exchange for paying for the costly testing, the FDA gave URL Pharma three years of market exclusivity for its Colcrys brand, under the Hatch-Waxman Act, based in part on URL-funded research in 2007, including pharmacokinetic studies and a randomized control trial with 185 patients with acute gout.


title: Colchicine

text: In April 2010, an editorial in the "New England Journal of Medicine" said that the rewards of this legislation are not calibrated to the quality or value of the information produced, that no evidence of meaningful improvement to public health was seen, and that it would be less expensive for the FDA, the National Institutes of Health, or large insurers to pay for trials themselves. Furthermore, the cost burden of this subsidy falls primarily on patients or their insurers. In September 2010, the FDA ordered a halt to marketing unapproved single-ingredient oral colchicine.


title: Colchicine

text: URL Pharma also received seven years of market exclusivity for Colcrys in the treatment of familial Mediterranean fever, under the Orphan Drug Law. URL Pharma then raised the price per tablet from $0.09 to $4.85 and sued to remove other versions from the market, increasing annual costs for the drug to U.S. state Medicaid programs from $1 million to $50 million. Medicare also paid significantly higher costs, making this a direct money-loser for the government. (In a similar case, thalidomide was approved in 1998 as an orphan drug for leprosy and in 2006 for multiple myeloma.)


title: Colchicine

text: Colchicine has one stereocenter located at carbon 7. The natural configuration of this stereocenter is S. The molecule also contains one chiral axis - the single bond between rings A and C. The natural configuration of this axis is aS. Although colchicine has four stereoisomers, the only one found in nature is the aS,7s configuration.


title: Colchicine

text: Colchicine is a light-sensitive compound, so needs to be stored in a dark bottle. Upon exposure to light, colchicine undergoes photoisomerization and transforms into structural isomers, called lumicolchicine. After this transformation, colchicine is no longer effective in its mechanistic binding to tubulin, so is not effective as a drug.


title: Colchicine

text: It is classified as an extremely hazardous substance in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U.S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (42 U.S.C. 11002) and is subject to strict reporting requirements by facilities that produce, store, or use it in significant quantities.


title: Colchicine

text: Trade names for colchicine are Colcrys or Mitigare, which are manufactured as a dark– and light-blue capsule having a dose of 0.6 mg. Colchicine is also prepared as a white, yellow, or purple pill (tablet) having a dose of 0.6 mg.


title: Colchicine

text: Colchicine is typically prescribed to mitigate or prevent the onset of gout, or its continuing symptoms and pain, using a low-dose prescription of 0.6 to 1.2 mg per day, or a high-dose amount of up to 4.8 mg in the first 6 hours of a gout episode. With an oral dose of 0.6 mg, peak blood levels occur within one to two hours. For treating gout, the initial effects of colchicine occur in a window of 12 to 24 hours, with a peak within 48 to 72 hours. It has a narrow therapeutic window, requiring monitoring of the subject for potential toxicity. Colchicine is not a general pain-relief drug, and is not used to treat pain in other disorders.


title: Colchicine

text: According to laboratory research, the biosynthesis of colchicine involves the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine as precursors. Giving radioactive phenylalanine-2-C to "C. byzantinum", another plant of the family Colchicaceae, resulted in its incorporation into colchicine. However, the tropolone ring of colchicine resulted from the expansion of the tyrosine ring. Radioactive feeding experiments of "C. autumnale" revealed that colchicine can be synthesized biosynthetically from "(S)"-autumnaline. That biosynthesic pathway occurs primarily through a phenolic coupling reaction involving the intermediate isoandrocymbine. The resulting molecule undergoes "O"-methylation directed by S-adenosylmethionine. Two oxidation steps followed by the cleavage of the cyclopropane ring lead to the formation of the tropolone ring contained by "N"-formyldemecolcine. "N"-formyldemecolcine hydrolyzes then to generate the molecule demecolcine, which also goes through an oxidative demethylation that generates deacetylcolchicine. The molecule of colchicine appears finally after addition of acetyl-coenzyme A to deacetylcolchicine.


title: Colchicine

text: Colchicine may be purified from "Colchicum autumnale" (autumn crocus) or "Gloriosa superba" (glory lily). Concentrations of colchicine in "C. autumnale" peak in the summer, and range from 0.1% in the flower to 0.8% in the bulb and seeds.


title: Colchicine

text: Colchicine is widely used in plant breeding by inducing polyploidy in plant cells to produce new or improved varieties, strains, and cultivars. When used to induce polyploidy in plants, colchicine cream is usually applied to a growth point of the plant, such as an apical tip, shoot, or sucker. Seeds can be presoaked in a colchicine solution before planting. Since chromosome segregation is driven by microtubules, colchicine alters cellular division by inhibiting chromosome segregation during meiosis; half the resulting gametes, therefore, contains no chromosomes, while the other half contains double the usual number of chromosomes (i.e., diploid instead of haploid, as gametes usually are), and lead to embryos with double the usual number of chromosomes (i.e., tetraploid instead of diploid). While this would be fatal in most higher animal cells, in plant cells, it is not only usually well-tolerated, but also frequently results in larger, hardier, faster-growing, and in general more desirable plants than the normally diploid parents. For this reason, this type of genetic manipulation is frequently used in breeding plants commercially.


title: Colchicine

text: When such a tetraploid plant is crossed with a diploid plant, the triploid offspring are usually sterile (unable to produce fertile seeds or spores), although many triploids can be propagated vegetatively. Growers of annual triploid plants not readily propagated vegetatively cannot produce a second-generation crop from the seeds (if any) of the triploid crop and need to buy triploid seed from a supplier each year. Many sterile triploid plants, including some trees and shrubs, are becoming increasingly valued in horticulture and landscaping because they do not become invasive species and do not drop undesirable fruit and seed litter. In certain species, colchicine-induced triploidy has been used to create "seedless" fruit, such as seedless watermelons ("Citrullus lanatus"). Since most triploids do not produce pollen themselves, such plants usually require cross-pollination with a diploid parent to induce seedless fruit production.


title: Colchicine

text: The ability of colchicine to induce polyploidy can be also exploited to render infertile hybrids fertile, for example in breeding triticale (× "Triticosecale") from wheat ("Triticum" spp.) and rye ("Secale cereale"). Wheat is typically tetraploid and rye diploid, with their triploid hybrid infertile; treatment of triploid triticale with colchicine gives fertile hexaploid triticale.


title: Colchicine

text: Colchicine was researched for potential benefit in treating COVID-19 following hypotheses at the start of the pandemic that it may be an applicable medication. No good evidence of benefit was found.


title: Saudia

text: Saudia ( '), formerly known as Saudi Arabian Airlines (), is the flag carrier of Saudi Arabia, based in Jeddah. The airline's main operational base is at King Abdulaziz International Airport in Jeddah. King Khalid International Airport in Riyadh and King Fahd International Airport in Dammam are secondary hubs. The airline is the third largest in the Middle East in terms of Qatar Airways. It operates domestic and international scheduled flights to over 100 destinations in the Middle East, Africa, Asia, Europe and North America. Domestic and international charter flights are operated, mostly during the Ramadan and the Hajj season. It joined the SkyTeam airline alliance on 29 May 2012 becoming the first Persian Gulf carrier to join one of the three major airline alliances. Saudia is a member and one of the founders of the Arab Air Carriers Organization.


title: Saudia

text: When U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt presented a Douglas DC-3 as a gift to King Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud in 1945, the event marked the kingdom's gradual development of civil aviation. The nation's flag carrier, Saudia, was founded as Saudi Arabian Airlines in September 1945 as a fully owned government agency under the control of the Ministry of Defense, with TWA (Trans World Airlines) running the airline under a management contract.


title: Saudia

text: The now-demolished Al-Kandara Airport, which was close to Jeddah, served as the flag carrier's main base. Among the airline's early operations was a special flight from Lydda (Lod) in Palestine (today in Israel, site of Ben-Gurion International Airport), a British Mandate at that time, to carry Hajj pilgrims to Jeddah. The airline used five DC-3 aircraft to launch scheduled operations on the Jeddah-Riyadh-Hofuf-Dhahran route in March 1947. Its first international service was between Jeddah and Cairo. Service to Beirut, Karachi and Damascus followed in early 1948. The following year the first of five Bristol 170s was received. These aircraft offered the airline the flexibility of carrying both passengers and cargo.


title: Saudia

text: In 1962, the airline took delivery of two Boeing 720s, becoming the fourth Middle Eastern airline to fly jet aircraft, after Middle East Airlines and Cyprus Airways with the de Havilland Comet in 1960 and El Al with the Boeing 707 in 1961. On 19 February 1963, the airline became a registered company, with King Faisal of Saudi Arabia signing the papers that declared Saudia a fully independent company. DC-6s and Boeing 707s were later bought, and the airline joined the AACO, the Arab Air Carriers Organization. Services were started to Sharjah, Tehran, Khartoum, Mumbai, Tripoli, Tunis, Rabat, Geneva, Frankfurt, and London.


title: Saudia

text: In the 1980s, a new livery was introduced. It comprised a white fuselage with green and blue stripes and a green tailfin. The carrier's name was changed to "Saudia" on 1 April 1972. Boeing 737s and Fokker F-28s were bought, with the 737s replacing the Douglas DC-9. The airline operated their first Boeing 747s service in 1977 when three Jumbo Jets were leased from Middle East Airlines and deployed on the London sector. The first all-cargo flights between Saudi Arabia and Europe were started, and Lockheed L-1011s and Fairchild FH-27s were introduced. New services, including the "Arabian Express" 'no reservation shuttle flights' between Jeddah and Riyadh. The Special Flight Services (SFS) was set up as a special unit of Saudia, and operates special flights for the royal family and government agencies. Service was also started to Rome, Paris, Muscat, Kano, and Stockholm. The Pan Am/Saudia joint service between Dhahran and New York City started on 3 February 1979.


title: Saudia

text: In the 1980s services such as Saudia Catering began. Flights were started to Jakarta, Athens, Bangkok, Dhaka, Mogadishu, Nairobi, New York City, Madrid, Singapore, Manila, Delhi, Islamabad, Seoul, Baghdad, Amsterdam, Colombo, Nice, Lahore, Brussels, Dakar, Kuala Lumpur and Taipei. "Horizon Class", a business class service, was established to offer enhanced service. Cargo hubs were built at Brussels and Taipei. Airbus A300s, Boeing 747s, and Cessna Citations were also added to the fleet, the Citations for the SFS service. In 1989 services to Larnaca and Addis Ababa began. On 1 July 1982, the first nonstop service from Jeddah to New York City was initiated with Boeing 747SP aircraft. This was followed by a Riyadh-New York route.


title: Saudia

text: In the 1990s, services to Orlando, Chennai, Asmara, Washington, D.C., Johannesburg, Alexandria, Milan, Málaga (seasonal), and Sanaa (resumption) were introduced. Boeing 777s, MD-90s and MD-11s were introduced. New female flight attendant uniforms designed by Adnan Akbar were introduced. A new corporate identity was launched on 16 July 1996, featuring a sand colored fuselage with contrasting dark blue tailfin, the center of which featured a stylized representation of the House of Saud crest. The Saudia name was dropped in the identity revamp, with Saudi Arabian Airlines name used.


title: Saudia

text: On 8 October 2000, Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, the Saudi Minister of Defense and Aviation, signed a contract to conduct studies for the privatization of Saudi Arabian Airlines. In preparation for this, the airline was restructured to allow non-core units—including Saudia catering, ground handling services and maintenance as well as the Prince Sultan Aviation Academy in Jeddah—to be transformed into commercial units and profit centers. In April 2005, the Saudi government indicated that the airline may also lose its monopoly on domestic services.


title: Saudia

text: In 2006, Saudia began the process of dividing itself into Strategic Business Units (SBU); the catering unit was the first to be privatized. In August 2007, Saudi Arabia's Council of Ministers approved the conversion of strategic units into companies. It is planned that ground services, technical services, air cargo and the Prince Sultan Aviation Academy, medical division, as well as the catering unit, will become subsidiaries of a holding company.


title: Saudia

text: The airline reverted to its abbreviated English brand name "Saudia" (used from 1972 to 1996) from Saudi Arabian Airlines (historic name in use until 1971 and reintroduced in 1997) on 29 May 2012; the name was changed to celebrate the company's entry into the SkyTeam airline alliance on that day, and it was a part of a larger rebranding initiative.


title: Saudia

text: Saudia received 64 new jets by the end of 2012 (6 from Boeing and 58 from Airbus). Another 8 Boeing 787-9 aircraft started to join the fleet in 2015.


title: Saudia

text: In April 2016, Saudia announced the creation of a low-cost subsidiary, Flyadeal. The airline was launched as part of Saudia Group's SV2020 Transformation Strategy, which intends to transform the group's units into world-class organisations by 2020. Flyadeal serves domestic and regional destinations, began flights in mid-2017.


title: Saudia

text: In April 2021, Saudia Airlines announced that on April 19, it will try the mobile app developed by the International Air Transport Association (IATA) that helps passengers to manage their travel information and documents in a digital way.


title: Saudia

text: In December 2021, Saudia was in talks with the two major aircraft manufacturers Airbus and Boeing in purchasing new wide-body aircraft, the airline will decide in early 2022 whether it will order the Airbus A350 or the Boeing 777X, or it might purchase more Boeing 787's instead. The airline also chose the CFM Leap engine to power its Airbus A321neo's which are expected to be delivered in 2024. The airline’s plan is to have 250 planes in it’s fleet by 2030.


title: Saudia

text: In April 2022 services began to Seoul, Beijing, Batumi, Mykonos, Barcelona, Malaga, Bangkok, Chicago, Moscow, Entebbe and Kyiv. Services to Kyiv are currently delayed due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. In June 2022, they reintroduced services to Zürich. In July 2022 Saudia signed a contract with the Air Connectivity Programme to launch four new destinations to Zurich, Barcelona, Tunis and Kuala Lumpur.


title: Saudia

text: Saudia was the main sponsor of the Williams Formula One team from 1977 to 1984. During this period Williams won the Constructors' Championship twice ( and ), and two Williams drivers won the Drivers' Championship: Alan Jones in and Keke Rosberg in .


title: Saudia

text: Saudia was main sponsor of the 2018 and 2019 Diriyah ePrix. They are the official airline of Formula E, with one of their planes, a Boeing 777-300ER, painted in a special livery featuring an eagle head with the Spark SRT05e Gen2 car behind it.


title: Saudia

text: Saudia operates to 102 destinations as of October 2022. Saudia's plan is to reach 250 destinations by 2030.


title: Saudia

text: Saudia recently announced destinations to Batumi, Chicago, Seoul, Bangkok, Beijing, Barcelona, Amsterdam, Moscow, Entebbe, Kyiv and Zürich. Seasonal destinations are also started including: Marrakech, Mykonos, Nice and Malaga.


title: Saudia

text: , the Saudia fleet consists of 151 aircraft. The following aircraft including its passenger and cargo fleet:


title: Saudia

text: Saudia Special Flight Services, VIP flights, and Private Aviation operate the following, a number of which sport the airline's livery


title: Saudia

text: Some military C-130s are also painted with the Saudia colors and are flown by Royal Saudi Air Force crews to support Saudi official activities in the region and Europe.


title: Saudia

text: Since 2017 two mobile escalators (TEC Hünert MFT 500-01) travel with the King and transported by separate aircraft.


title: Saudia

text: As of January 2022, all the Saudi royal flight aircraft are going to be operated by a private company, that's why all aircraft are to be painted in another livery soon.


title: Saudia

text: The inflight magazine of Saudia is called "Ahlan Wasahlan" ( "Hello and Welcome"). No alcoholic beverages or pork are served on board in accordance with Islamic dietary laws. Its selected Airbus A320, Airbus A330-300, Boeing 787-9, Boeing 787-10, and Boeing 777-300ER aircraft are equipped with Wi-Fi and mobile network portability on board. Most aircraft also offer onboard specialized prayer areas and a recorded prayer is played prior to takeoff.


title: Jubin Nautiyal

text: Jubin Nautiyal (born 14 June 1989) is an Indian playback singer and live performer. In June 2022, he won the IIFA award for “Playback Singer (Male)” for the song “Raataan Lambiyan.” He was awarded Upcoming Male Vocalist of the Year at 8th Mirchi Music Awards for his song "Zindagi Kuch Toh Bata (Reprise)" from "Bajrangi Bhaijaan." He also won the Rising Musical Star Award at Zee Business Awards. He has since recorded songs for films in various Indian languages, predominantly Hindi. He is signed on by T-Series.


title: Jubin Nautiyal

text: Jubin Nautiyal was born on 14 June 1989 in Dehradun. His father, Ram Sharan Nautiyal, is a businessman and politician in Uttarakhand and his mother, Neena Nautiyal, is a businesswoman. He showed an inclination towards music at an early age of four, taking after his father's love for singing. He did his schooling up to eighth grade from St. Joseph's Academy, Dehradun. Thereafter, he continued his schooling at Welham Boys' School, Dehradun, where he formally studied music as a subject and built a base in classical music. He also learnt playing instruments like guitar, piano, harmonium, and drums. By the age of 18, Nautiyal was well known as a singer in his hometown of Dehradun. He performed live at many events and donated to charities.


title: Jubin Nautiyal

text: After completing his schooling, he moved to Mumbai in 2007 and joined Mithibai College. He continued to train in music (under Pandit Chhannulal Mishra in Varanasi) and ventured into Bollywood. During this time he met A.R. Rahman who appreciated his voice quality and suggested that he continue to work and explore his voice for a few more years before entering into the Indian Music Industry. Taking Rahman's advice, Nautiyal moved back to his hometown and continued to train under his schoolteacher, Mrs. Vandana Srivastava. He also took additional music lessons in the Hindustani classical music from his Guru Mr Samant. He spent four years polishing his skills in music, traveling and playing with different musicians, and traveled to Benaras to learn light classical from Chhannulal Mishra. He also took training in western music at a music academy in Chennai where he had the opportunity to study under veteran guitarist Prasanna.


title: Jubin Nautiyal

text: In 2011, Nautiyal participated in the television music reality show "X Factor" where he went up to being in the top 25 participants.


title: Jubin Nautiyal

text: He made his debut in the Indian music industry with the song "Ek Mulakat" from the film "Sonali Cable" (2014). He also sang 'Meherbani' for "The Shaukeens" in the same year. In 2015, he sang 'Zindagi' for "Bajrangi Bhaijaan", 'Bandeyaa' for "Jazbaa", 'Tu Itni Khoobsurat Hain Reloaded' for "Barkhaa" and 'Samandar' with Shreya Ghoshal for "Kis Kisko Pyaar Karoon".


title: Jubin Nautiyal

text: He made his Telugu debut for "Sarrainodu" under the music direction of S. Thaman and Bengali debut in the movie "Aashiqui".


title: Jubin Nautiyal

text: In 2016, Nautiyal performed on "MTV Unplugged Season 5" and sang "Dahleez"'s track "Jiya Re". He worked with composer duo Sachin–Jigar for the title track of series "Ek Duje Ke Vaaste" and Amit Trivedi for the film "Fitoor" where he lent his voice for "Tere Liye" along with Sunidhi Chauhan. He also worked with composer Nadeem Saifi for the title track of "Ishq Forever" and also sang two songs for "Kuch Kuch Locha Hai" under them. He also collaborated with JAM8's Kaushik and Akash for "Gumnaam Hai Koi" for the film "1920 London". His songs "Le Chala" for "One Night Stand" and "The Sound of Raaz" and "Yaad Hai Na (Reprise)" for "Raaz Reboot" gave him an opportunity to work with composer Jeet Gannguli and this collaboration continued till "Dhal Jaun Main" for "Rustom".


title: Jubin Nautiyal

text: In 2017, he was the lead singer for the film "Kaabil" which had music by Rajesh Roshan, and also sang "The Humma Song" for Dharma Productions's film "Ok Jaanu". He released a Hindi pop song along with Pawni Pandey named 'Dil Budhhu' on T-Series He sang for "Raabta", "Tubelight", "Commando 2", and "Machine". He sang 'Banwra Mann' for "Jolly LLB 2", 'Socha Hai' Remake for "Baadshaho" and 'Raat Baaki' Remake for "Ittefaq". He also sang the title track of Star Plus series "Tu Sooraj, Main Saanjh Piyaji" with Palak Muchhal and for Star Parivaar Awards 2017. In 2018, he sang 'Gazab Ka Hai Din Remake' with Prakriti Kakar for "Dil Juunglee", and 'Boond Boond' with Neeti Mohan for the film "Hate Story 4". For the same film, he also sang 'Tum Mere Ho' with Amrita Singh under Mithoon's composition. This was also his first collaboration with Mithoon following "Baaghi 2". He also sang 'Pehla Nasha Once Again' with Palak Muchhal for "Kuchh Bheege Alfaaz".


title: Jubin Nautiyal

text: In 2019, his songs 'Tujhe Kitna Chahein Aur Hum' from "Kabir Singh," "Tum Hi Aana" and "Kinna Sona" from "Marjaavaan" became chartbusters"."


title: Jubin Nautiyal

text: Nautiyal and music composer Mithoon teamed up again for 'Toh Aagaye Hum'. He also released a new song 'Main Jis Din Bhula Du' along with Tulsi Kumar. In 2021, his new song <nowiki>"Lut Gaye"</nowiki> featuring Emraan Hashmi and Yukti Thareja hit more than 915 million views on YouTube. His next song "Bedardi Se Pyaar Ka" hit 55 Million Views in just 13 days. This music of Tanishk Bagchi is sung by Nautiyal and Asees Kaur was published by T-Series. Nautiyal's next song, "Barsaat Ki Dhun", was released on 20 July 2021 featuring Karishma Sharma and Gurumeet Choudhary in the music video.


title: Jubin Nautiyal

text: In January 2022, his song "O Aasamanwale" was released by T-Series. It was an album of a musical love song in which Nautiyal was onscreen with the artist Neha Khan. The song was written by Manoj Muntashir and composed by Rochak Kohli.


title: Jubin Nautiyal

text: On 1 February 2022, "Tumse Pyaar Karke" was released by T-Series featuring Gurmeet Choudhary and Ihana Dhillon. This is the music of Payal Dev and sung by Tulsi Kumar and Nautiyal.


title: Jubin Nautiyal

text: He also sang "Manike" with Yohani in 2022 for the upcoming comedy film "Thank God", to be released on 25 October 2022.


title: Public health

text: Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals". Analyzing the determinants of health of a population and the threats it faces is the basis for public health. The "public" can be as small as a handful of people or as large as a village or an entire city; in the case of a pandemic it may encompass several continents. The concept of "health" takes into account physical, psychological, and social well-being.


title: Public health

text: Public health is an interdisciplinary field. For example, epidemiology, biostatistics, social sciences and management of health services are all relevant. Other important sub-fields include environmental health, community health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy, mental health, health education, health politics, occupational safety, disability, oral health, gender issues in health, and sexual and reproductive health. Public health, together with primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, is part of a country's overall health care system. Public health is implemented through the surveillance of cases and health indicators, and through the promotion of healthy behaviors. Common public health initiatives include promotion of hand-washing and breastfeeding, delivery of vaccinations, promoting ventilation and improved air quality both indoors and outdoors, suicide prevention, smoking cessation, obesity education, increasing healthcare accessibility and distribution of condoms to control the spread of sexually transmitted diseases.


title: Public health

text: There is a significant disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed countries and developing countries, as well as within developing countries. In developing countries, public health infrastructures are still forming. There may not be enough trained healthcare workers, monetary resources, or, in some cases, sufficient knowledge to provide even a basic level of medical care and disease prevention. A major public health concern in developing countries is poor maternal and child health, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty coupled with governments' reluctance in implementing public health policies.


title: Public health

text: From the beginnings of human civilization, communities promoted health and fought disease at the population level. In complex, pre-industrialized societies, interventions designed to reduce health risks could be the initiative of different stakeholders, such as army generals, the clergy or rulers. Great Britain became a leader in the development of public health initiatives, beginning in the 19th century, due to the fact that it was the first modern urban nation worldwide. The public health initiatives that began to emerge initially focused on sanitation (for example, the Liverpool and London sewerage systems), control of infectious diseases (including vaccination and quarantine) and an evolving infrastructure of various sciences, e.g. statistics, microbiology, epidemiology, sciences of engineering.


title: Public health

text: Public health has been defined as "the science and art of preventing disease", prolonging life and improving quality of life through organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations (public and private), communities and individuals. The "public" can be as small as a handful of people or as large as a village or an entire city. The concept of "health" takes into account physical, psychological, and social well-being. As such, according to the World Health Organization, "health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity".


title: Public health

text: Public health is related to global health which is the health of populations in the worldwide context. It has been defined as "the area of study, research and practice that places a priority on improving health and achieving equity in "Health for all" people worldwide". International health is a field of health care, usually with a public health emphasis, dealing with health across regional or national boundaries. Public health is not the same as public healthcare (publicly funded health care).


title: Public health

text: The term preventive medicine is related to public health. The American Board of Preventive Medicine separates three categories of preventive medicine: aerospace health, occupational health, and public health and general preventative medicine. Jung, Boris and Lushniak argue that preventive medicine should be considered the medical specialty for public health but note that the American College of Preventive Medicine and American Board of Preventive Medicine do not prominently use the term "public health". Preventive medicine specialists are trained as clinicians and address complex health needs of a population such as by assessing the need for disease prevention programs, using the best methods to implement them, and assessing their effectiveness.


title: Public health

text: Since the 1990s many scholars in public health have been using the term population health. There are no medical specialties directly related to population health. Valles argues that consideration of health equity is a fundamental part of population health. Scholars such as Coggon and Pielke express concerns about bringing general issues of wealth distribution into population health. Pielke worries about "stealth issue advocacy" in population health. Jung, Boris and Lushniak consider population health to be a concept that is the goal of an activity called public health practiced through the specialty preventive medicine.


title: Public health

text: Lifestyle medicine uses individual lifestyle modification to prevent or revert disease and can be considered a component of preventive medicine and public health. It is implemented as part of primary care rather than a specialty in its own right. Valles argues that the term social medicine has a narrower and more biomedical focus than the term population health.


title: Public health

text: The purpose of a public health intervention is to prevent and mitigate diseases, injuries and other health conditions. The overall goal is to improve the health of populations and increase life expectancy.


title: Public health

text: Public health is a complex term, composed of many elements and different practices. It is a multi-faceted, interdisciplinary field. For example, epidemiology, biostatistics, social sciences and management of health services are all relevant. Other important sub-fields include environmental health, community health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy, mental health, health education, health politics, occupational safety, disability, gender issues in health, and sexual and reproductive health.


title: Public health

text: Modern public health practice requires multidisciplinary teams of public health workers and professionals. Teams might include epidemiologists, biostatisticians, physician assistants, public health nurses, midwives, medical microbiologists, pharmacists, economists, sociologists, geneticists, data managers, environmental health officers (public health inspectors), bioethicists, gender experts, sexual and reproductive health specialists, physicians, and veterinarians.


title: Public health

text: The elements and priorities of public health have evolved over time, and are continuing to evolve. Different regions in the world can have different public health concerns at a given time.


title: Public health

text: Common public health initiatives include promotion of hand-washing and breastfeeding, delivery of vaccinations, suicide prevention, smoking cessation, obesity education, increasing healthcare accessibility and distribution of condoms to control the spread of sexually transmitted diseases.


title: Public health

text: Public health aims are achieved through surveillance of cases and the promotion of healthy behaviors, communities and environments. Analyzing the determinants of health of a population and the threats it faces is the basis for public health.


title: Public health

text: Many diseases are preventable through simple, nonmedical methods. For example, research has shown that the simple act of handwashing with soap can prevent the spread of many contagious diseases. In other cases, treating a disease or controlling a pathogen can be vital to preventing its spread to others, either during an outbreak of infectious disease or through contamination of food or water supplies. Public health communications programs, vaccination programs and distribution of condoms are examples of common preventive public health measures.


title: Public health

text: Public health, together with primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, is part of a country's overall health care system. Many interventions of public health interest are delivered outside of health facilities, such as food safety surveillance, distribution of condoms and needle-exchange programs for the prevention of transmissible diseases.


title: Public health

text: Public health plays an important role in disease prevention efforts in both the developing world and in developed countries through local health systems and non-governmental organizations.


title: Public health

text: Public health requires Geographic Information Systems (GIS) because risk, vulnerability and exposure involve geographic aspects.


title: Public health

text: A dilemma in public health ethics is dealing with the conflict between individual rights and maximizing right to health. Public health is justified by consequentialist utilitarian ideas, but is constrained and critiqued by liberal, deontological, principlist and libertarian philosophies Stephen Holland argues that it can be easy to find a particular framework to justify any viewpoint on public health issues, but that the correct approach is to find a framework that best describes a situation and see what it implies about public health policy.


title: Public health

text: The definition of health is vague and there are many conceptualizations. Public health practitioners definition of health can different markedly from members of the public or clinicians. This can mean that members of the public view the values behind public health interventions as alien which can cause resentment amongst the public towards certain interventions. Such vagueness can be a problem for health promotion. Critics have argued that public health tends to place more focus on individual factors associated with health at the expense of factors operating at the population level.


title: Public health

text: Historically, public health campaigns have been criticized as a form of "healthism", as moralistic in nature rather than being focused on health. Medical doctors, Petr Shkrabanek and James McCormick wrote a series of publications on this topic in the late 1980s and early 1990s criticizing the UK's "the Health of The Nation" campaign. These publications exposed abuse of epidemiology and statistics by the public health movement to support lifestyle interventions and screening programs. A combination of inculcating a fear of ill-health and a strong notion of individual responsibility has been criticized as a form of "health fascism" by a number of scholars, objectifying the individual with no considerations of emotional or social factors.


title: Public health

text: When public health initiatives began to emerge in England in modern times (18th century onwards) there were three core strands of public health which were all related to statecraft: Supply of clean water and sanitation (for example London sewerage system); control of infectious diseases (including vaccination and quarantine); an evolving infrastructure of various sciences, e.g. statistics, microbiology, epidemiology, sciences of engineering. Great Britain was a leader in the development of public health during that time period out of necessity: Great Britain was the first modern urban nation (by 1851 more than half of the population lived in settlements of more than 2000 people). This led to a certain type of distress which then led to public health initiatives. Later that particular concern faded away.


title: Public health

text: With the onset of the epidemiological transition and as the prevalence of infectious diseases decreased through the 20th century, public health began to put more focus on chronic diseases such as cancer and heart disease. Previous efforts in many developed countries had already led to dramatic reductions in the infant mortality rate using preventive methods. In Britain, the infant mortality rate fell from over 15% in 1870 to 7% by 1930.


title: Public health

text: A major public health concern in developing countries is poor maternal and child health, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty. The WHO reports that a lack of exclusive breastfeeding during the first six months of life contributes to over a million avoidable child deaths each year.


title: Public health

text: Public health surveillance has led to the identification and prioritization of many public health issues facing the world today, including HIV/AIDS, diabetes, waterborne diseases, zoonotic diseases, and antibiotic resistance leading to the reemergence of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis. Antibiotic resistance, also known as drug resistance, was the theme of World Health Day 2011.


title: Public health

text: For example, the WHO reports that at least 220 million people worldwide have diabetes. Its incidence is increasing rapidly, and it is projected that the number of diabetes deaths will double by 2030. In a June 2010 editorial in the medical journal "The Lancet", the authors opined that "The fact that type 2 diabetes, a largely preventable disorder, has reached epidemic proportion is a public health humiliation." The risk of type 2 diabetes is closely linked with the growing problem of obesity. The WHO's latest estimates highlighted that globally approximately 1.9 billion adults were overweight in 2014, and 41 million children under the age of five were overweight in 2014. Once considered a problem in high-income countries, it is now on the rise in low-income countries, especially in urban settings.


title: Public health

text: Many public health programs are increasingly dedicating attention and resources to the issue of obesity, with objectives to address the underlying causes including healthy diet and physical exercise. The National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) has published a review of research on what local authorities can do to tackle obesity. The review covers interventions in the food environment (what people buy and eat), the built and natural environments, schools, and the community, as well as those focussing on active travel, leisure services and public sports, weight management programmes, and system-wide approaches.


title: Public health

text: The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for international public health. The WHO Constitution, which establishes the agency's governing structure and principles, states its main objective as "the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of health". The WHO's broad mandate includes advocating for universal healthcare, monitoring public health risks, coordinating responses to health emergencies, and promoting human health and well-being. The WHO has played a leading role in several public health achievements, most notably the eradication of smallpox, the near-eradication of polio, and the development of an Ebola vaccine. Its current priorities include communicable diseases, particularly HIV/AIDS, Ebola, COVID-19, malaria and tuberculosis; non-communicable diseases such as heart disease and cancer; healthy diet, nutrition, and food security; occupational health; and substance abuse.


title: Public health

text: Most countries have their own governmental public health agency, often called the ministry of health, with responsibility for domestic health issues.


title: Public health

text: For example, in the United States, state and local health departments are on the front line of public health initiatives. In addition to their national duties, the United States Public Health Service (PHS), led by the Surgeon General of the United States Public Health Service, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, headquartered in Atlanta, are also involved with international health activities.


title: Public health

text: Most governments recognize the importance of public health programs in reducing the incidence of disease, disability, and the effects of aging and other physical and mental health conditions. However, public health generally receives significantly less government funding compared with medicine. Although the collaboration of local health and government agencies is considered best practice to improve public health, the pieces of evidence available to support this is limited. Public health programs providing vaccinations have made major progress in promoting health, including substantially reducing the occurrence of cholera and polio and eradicating smallpox, diseases that have plagued humanity for thousands of years.


title: Public health

text: Many health problems are due to maladaptive personal behaviors. From an evolutionary psychology perspective, over consumption of novel substances that are harmful is due to the activation of an evolved reward system for substances such as drugs, tobacco, alcohol, refined salt, fat, and carbohydrates. New technologies such as modern transportation also cause reduced physical activity. Research has found that behavior is more effectively changed by taking evolutionary motivations into consideration instead of only presenting information about health effects. The marketing industry has long known the importance of associating products with high status and attractiveness to others. Films are increasingly being recognized as a public health tool. In fact, film festivals and competitions have been established to specifically promote films about health. Conversely, it has been argued that emphasizing the harmful and undesirable effects of tobacco smoking on other persons and imposing smoking bans in public places have been particularly effective in reducing tobacco smoking.


title: Public health

text: As well as seeking to improve population health through the implementation of specific population-level interventions, public health contributes to medical care by identifying and assessing population needs for health care services, including:


title: Public health

text: Some programs and policies associated with public health promotion and prevention can be controversial. One such example is programs focusing on the prevention of HIV transmission through safe sex campaigns and needle-exchange programs. Another is the control of tobacco smoking. Changing smoking behavior requires long-term strategies, unlike the fight against communicable diseases, which usually takes a shorter period for effects to be observed. Many nations have implemented major initiatives to cut smoking, such as increased taxation and bans on smoking in some or all public places. Supporters argue by presenting evidence that smoking is one of the major killers, and that therefore governments have a duty to reduce the death rate, both through limiting passive (second-hand) smoking and by providing fewer opportunities for people to smoke. Opponents say that this undermines individual freedom and personal responsibility, and worry that the state may be encouraged to remove more and more choice in the name of better population health overall.


title: Public health

text: Psychological research confirms this tension between concerns about public health and concerns about personal liberty: (i) the best predictor of complying with public health recommendations such as hand-washing, mask-wearing, and staying at home (except for essential activity) during the COVID-19 pandemic was people's perceived duties to prevent harm but (ii) the best predictor of flouting such public health recommendations was valuing liberty more than equality.


title: Public health

text: Simultaneously, while communicable diseases have historically ranged uppermost as a global health priority, non-communicable diseases and the underlying behavior-related risk factors have been at the bottom. This is changing, however, as illustrated by the United Nations hosting its first General Assembly Special Summit on the issue of non-communicable diseases in September 2011.


title: Public health

text: There is a significant disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed countries and developing countries, as well as within developing countries. In developing countries, public health infrastructures are still forming. There may not be enough trained health workers, monetary resources or, in some cases, sufficient knowledge to provide even a basic level of medical care and disease prevention. As a result, a large majority of disease and mortality in developing countries results from and contributes to extreme poverty. For example, many African governments spend less than US$10 per person per year on health care, while, in the United States, the federal government spent approximately US$4,500 per capita in 2000. However, expenditures on health care should not be confused with spending on public health. Public health measures may not generally be considered "health care" in the strictest sense. For example, mandating the use of seat belts in cars can save countless lives and contribute to the health of a population, but typically money spent enforcing this rule would not count as money spent on health care.


title: Public health

text: Large parts of the world remained plagued by largely preventable or treatable infectious diseases. In addition to this however, many developing countries are also experiencing an epidemiological shift and polarization in which populations are now experiencing more of the effects of chronic diseases as life expectancy increases, the poorer communities being heavily affected by both chronic and infectious diseases. Another major public health concern in the developing world is poor maternal and child health, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty. The WHO reports that a lack of exclusive breastfeeding during the first six months of life contributes to over a million avoidable child deaths each year. Intermittent preventive therapy aimed at treating and preventing malaria episodes among pregnant women and young children is one public health measure in endemic countries.


title: Public health

text: Since the 1980s, the growing field of population health has broadened the focus of public health from individual behaviors and risk factors to population-level issues such as inequality, poverty, and education. Modern public health is often concerned with addressing determinants of health across a population. There is a recognition that health is affected by many factors including class, race, income, educational status, region of residence, and social relationships; these are known as "social determinants of health". The upstream drivers such as environment, education, employment, income, food security, housing, social inclusion and many others effect the distribution of health between and within populations and are often shaped by policy. A social gradient in health runs through society. The poorest generally have the worst health, but even the middle classes will generally have worse health outcomes than those of a higher social level. The new public health advocates for population-based policies that improve health in an equitable manner.


title: Public health

text: Health aid to developing countries is an important source of public health funding for many developing countries. Health aid to developing countries has shown a significant increase after World War II as concerns over the spread of disease as a result of globalization increased and the HIV/AIDS epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa surfaced. From 1990 to 2010, total health aid from developed countries increased from 5.5 billion to 26.87 billion with wealthy countries continuously donating billions of dollars every year with the goal of improving population health. Some efforts, however, receive a significantly larger proportion of funds such as HIV which received an increase in funds of over $6 billion between 2000 and 2010 which was more than twice the increase seen in any other sector during those years. Health aid has seen an expansion through multiple channels including private philanthropy, non-governmental organizations, private foundations such as the Rockefeller Foundation or the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, bilateral donors, and multilateral donors such as the World Bank or UNICEF. The result has been a sharp rise in uncoordinated and fragmented funding of an ever-increasing number of initiatives and projects. To promote better strategic cooperation and coordination between partners, particularly among bilateral development agencies and funding organizations, the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) spearheaded the establishment of ESSENCE, an initiative to facilitate dialogue between donors/funders, allowing them to identify synergies. ESSENCE brings together a wide range of funding agencies to coordinate funding efforts.


title: Public health

text: In 2009 health aid from the OECD amounted to $12.47 billion which amounted to 11.4% of its total bilateral aid. In 2009, Multilateral donors were found to spend 15.3% of their total aid on bettering public healthcare.


title: Public health

text: Debates exist questioning the efficacy of international health aid. Supporters of aid claim that health aid from wealthy countries is necessary in order for developing countries to escape the poverty trap. Opponents of health aid claim that international health aid actually disrupts developing countries' course of development, causes dependence on aid, and in many cases the aid fails to reach its recipients. For example, recently, health aid was funneled towards initiatives such as financing new technologies like antiretroviral medication, insecticide-treated mosquito nets, and new vaccines. The positive impacts of these initiatives can be seen in the eradication of smallpox and polio; however, critics claim that misuse or misplacement of funds may cause many of these efforts to never come into achievement.


title: Public health

text: Economic modeling based on the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation and the World Health Organization has shown a link between international health aid in developing countries and a reduction in adult mortality rates. However, a 2014–2016 study suggests that a potential confounding variable for this outcome is the possibility that aid was directed at countries once they were already on track for improvement. That same study, however, also suggests that 1 billion dollars in health aid was associated with 364,000 fewer deaths occurring between ages 0 and 5 in 2011.


title: Public health

text: To address current and future challenges in addressing health issues in the world, the United Nations have developed the Sustainable Development Goals to be completed by 2030. These goals in their entirety encompass the entire spectrum of development across nations, however Goals 1–6 directly address health disparities, primarily in developing countries. These six goals address key issues in global public health, poverty, hunger and food security, health, education, gender equality and women's empowerment, and water and sanitation. Public health officials can use these goals to set their own agenda and plan for smaller scale initiatives for their organizations. These goals are designed to lessen the burden of disease and inequality faced by developing countries and lead to a healthier future. The links between the various sustainable development goals and public health are numerous and well established.


title: Public health

text: From the beginnings of human civilization, communities promoted health and fought disease at the population level. Definitions of health as well as methods to pursue it differed according to the medical, religious and natural-philosophical ideas groups held, the resources they had, and the changing circumstances in which they lived. Yet few early societies displayed the hygienic stagnation or even apathy often attributed to them. The latter reputation is mainly based on the absence of present-day bioindicators, especially immunological and statistical tools developed in light of the germ theory of disease transmission.


title: Public health

text: Public health was born neither in Europe nor as a response to the Industrial Revolution. Preventive health interventions are attested almost anywhere historical communities have left their mark. In Southeast Asia, for instance, Ayurvedic medicine and subsequently Buddhism fostered occupational, dietary and sexual regimens that promised balanced bodies, lives and communities, a notion strongly present in Traditional Chinese Medicine as well. Among the Mayans, Aztecs and other early civilizations in the Americas, population centers pursued hygienic programs, including by holding medicinal herbal markets. And among Aboriginal Australians, techniques for preserving and protecting water and food sources, micro-zoning to reduce pollution and fire risks, and screens to protect people against flies were common, even in temporary camps.


title: Public health

text: Western European, Byzantine and Islamicate civilizations, which generally adopted a Hippocratic, Galenic or humoral medical system, fostered preventive programs as well. These were developed on the basis of evaluating the quality of local climates, including topography, wind conditions and exposure to the sun, and the properties and availability of water and food, for both humans and nonhuman animals. Diverse authors of medical, architectural, engineering and military manuals explained how to apply such theories to groups of different origins and under different circumstances. This was crucial, since under Galenism bodily constitutions were thought to be heavily shaped by their material environments, so their balance required specific regimens as they traveled during different seasons and between climate zones.


title: Public health

text: In complex, pre-industrialized societies, interventions designed to reduce health risks could be the initiative of different stakeholders. For instance, in Greek and Roman antiquity, army generals learned to provide for soldiers' wellbeing, including off the battlefield, where most combatants died prior to the twentieth century. In Christian monasteries across the Eastern Mediterranean and western Europe since at least the fifth century CE, monks and nuns pursued strict but balanced regimens, including nutritious diets, developed explicitly to extend their lives. And royal, princely and papal courts, which were often mobile as well, likewise adapted their behavior to suit environmental conditions in the sites they occupied. They could also choose sites they considered salubrious for their members and sometimes had them modified.


title: Public health

text: In cities, residents and rulers developed measures to benefit the general population, which faced a broad array of recognized health risks. These provide some of the most sustained evidence for preventive measures in earlier civilizations. In numerous sites the upkeep of infrastructures, including roads, canals and marketplaces, as well as zoning policies, were introduced explicitly to preserve residents' health. Officials such as the muhtasib in the Middle East and the Road master in Italy, fought the combined threats of pollution through sin, ocular intromission and miasma. Craft guilds were important agents of waste disposal and promoted harm reduction through honesty and labor safety among their members. Medical practitioners, including public physicians, collaborated with urban governments in predicting and preparing for calamities and identifying and isolating people perceived as lepers, a disease with strong moral connotations. Neighborhoods were also active in safeguarding local people's health, by monitoring at-risk sites near them and taking appropriate social and legal action against artisanal polluters and neglectful owners of animals. Religious institutions, individuals and charitable organizations in both Islam and Christianity likewise promoted moral and physical wellbeing by endowing urban amenities such as wells, fountains, schools and bridges, also in the service of pilgrims. In western Europe and Byzantium, religious processions commonly took place, which purported to act as both preventive and curative measures for the entire community.


title: Public health

text: Urban residents and other groups also developed preventive measures in response to calamities such as war, famine, floods and widespread disease. During and after the Black Death (1346–53), for instance, inhabitants of the Eastern Mediterranean and Western Europe reacted to massive population decline in part on the basis of existing medical theories and protocols, for instance concerning meat consumption and burial, and in part by developing new ones. The latter included the establishment of quarantine facilities and health boards, some of which eventually became regular urban (and later national) offices. Subsequent measures for protecting cities and their regions included issuing health passports for travelers, deploying guards to create sanitary cordons for protecting local inhabitants, and gathering morbidity and mortality statistics. Such measures relied in turn on better transportation and communication networks, through which news on human and animal disease was efficiently spread.


title: Public health

text: With the onset of the Industrial Revolution, living standards amongst the working population began to worsen, with cramped and unsanitary urban conditions. In the first four decades of the 19th century alone, London's population doubled and even greater growth rates were recorded in the new industrial towns, such as Leeds and Manchester. This rapid urbanization exacerbated the spread of disease in the large conurbations that built up around the workhouses and factories. These settlements were cramped and primitive with no organized sanitation. Disease was inevitable and its incubation in these areas was encouraged by the poor lifestyle of the inhabitants. Unavailable housing led to the rapid growth of slums and the per capita death rate began to rise alarmingly, almost doubling in Birmingham and Liverpool. Thomas Malthus warned of the dangers of overpopulation in 1798. His ideas, as well as those of Jeremy Bentham, became very influential in government circles in the early years of the 19th century. The latter part of the century brought the establishment of the basic pattern of improvements in public health over the next two centuries: a social evil was identified, private philanthropists brought attention to it, and changing public opinion led to government action. The 18th century saw rapid growth in voluntary hospitals in England.