title: Donald Sterling

text: In late April 2014, following news of racial remarks, "Sporting News" described Sterling as "one of the worst owners in basketball for decades", while "The New York Times" and "Forbes" called him the "worst owner" in sports, and an analyst noted that under Sterling's ownership, from his purchasing the Clippers in 1981 through 2013–14, the Clippers achieved the worst winning percentage in all four major American sports leagues.


title: Donald Sterling

text: On April 25, 2014, "TMZ Sports" released a recording of a conversation between Sterling and his mistress, V. Stiviano (born María Vanessa Perez, also known as Monica Gallegos, Vanessa Perez, and Maria Valdez). In the recording from September 2013, a man confirmed to be Sterling was irritated over a photo Stiviano had posted on Instagram, in which she posed with Basketball Hall of Fame player and Laker great Magic Johnson. Sterling told Stiviano, who herself is part African-American: "It bothers me a lot that you want to broadcast that you're associating with black people," and, "You can sleep with [black people]. You can bring them in, you can do whatever you want," but "the little I ask you is ... not to bring them to my games."


title: Donald Sterling

text: The recording received national media coverage and Sterling retained Newport Beach-based attorney Bobby Samini as his lead counsel in litigation with the NBA, TMZ, and Stiviano.


title: Donald Sterling

text: Clippers president Andy Roeser issued a statement the following day, indicating that Stiviano was being sued by the Sterling family and had "told Mr. Sterling that she would "get even" with him. A month earlier, Sterling's wife had sued Stiviano for the return of a $1.8 million Los Angeles duplex, a Ferrari, two Bentleys, a Range Rover, and $200,000 cash she said her husband bought for Stiviano.


title: Donald Sterling

text: Sterling's comments affected the NBA, a league with predominantly black players. On April 26, the team held a meeting to discuss the incident. Both coaches and players expressed anger toward the comments, and they briefly raised the possibility of boycotting Game 4 of their series against the Golden State Warriors on April 27 before deciding against it. Instead, players protested Sterling's remarks by wearing their shirts inside-out in order "to obscure any team logo" during their pre-game huddle. On April 28, players of the Miami Heat wore their uniform tops inside-out to show solidarity with the Clippers. LeBron James commented on the situation, "There's no room for Donald Sterling in the NBA." The owner of the Miami Heat, Micky Arison, also called the allegations "appalling, offensive and very sad." NBA's Kevin Johnson, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Magic Johnson, Charles Barkley, Shaquille O'Neal, Kobe Bryant, and Michael Jordan also condemned Sterling's remarks. The Los Angeles chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) cancelled its plans for the following month to award Sterling for a second time with its lifetime achievement award. President Barack Obama characterized the recording of Sterling as "incredibly offensive racist statements." Chumash Casino, the Clippers' most visible sponsor during the prior four seasons, ended its relationship with the team, as did sponsors CarMax, Virgin America, and others. On April 29, 2014, UCLA announced that it was rejecting a $3 million gift from Sterling.


title: Donald Sterling

text: On April 29, NBA commissioner Adam Silver announced that Sterling had been banned from the league for life and fined $2.5 million, the maximum fine allowed by the NBA constitution. Silver stripped Sterling of virtually all of his authority over the Clippers, and banned him from entering any Clippers facility. He was also banned from attending any NBA games. The punishment was one of the most severe ever imposed on a professional sports team owner. Moreover, Silver stated that he would move to force Sterling to sell the team, based on a willful violation of the rules, which would require the consent of three-quarters, or 22, of the other 29 NBA team owners.


title: Donald Sterling

text: In his first public comments in nearly two weeks after his ban from the NBA, Sterling appeared on CNN with Anderson Cooper on May 11 to apologize, saying he was "not a racist", and ask for forgiveness. He said he was "baited" by Stiviano into making the offensive comments. In the interview, Sterling criticized Magic Johnson's character and his battle with HIV. In response to Sterling, Silver apologized for the NBA to Johnson "that he continues to be dragged into this situation and be degraded by such a malicious and personal attack".


title: Donald Sterling

text: Sterling's wife, Shelly, had co-owned the team with him since 1983, and she had served as one of the team's two alternate governors. While she was not included in the NBA's ban on Sterling, the league stated that "if a controlling owner's interest is terminated by a vote, all other team owners' interests are automatically terminated as well". In response to the NBA's decision, Sterling's attorney Bobby Samini called the NBA a "band of hypocrites," citing previous discriminatory conduct by the NBA, and suggested the organization "take a close reflection at their own conduct." The NBA formally charged Sterling with damaging the league with his comments from both the TMZ recording and the CNN interview, and scheduled a hearing to begin on June 3, after which the league could vote to terminate the Sterlings' ownership.


title: Donald Sterling

text: On May 23, Shelly Sterling said her husband had authorized her to negotiate the sale of the team. On May 29, she reached a deal, pending NBA approval, to sell 100% of the Clippers to former Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer for $2 billion. Shelly also agreed not to sue the NBA and to indemnify the league against other suits related to the case, including any initiated by her husband. The NBA responded by cancelling its hearing to consider stripping the Clippers from the Sterlings.


title: Donald Sterling

text: Sterling disavowed having given his wife authorization to sell the team, denied all charges, and refused to sell the Clippers. He called the penalties "draconian" and referred to the process as a "sham". He then sued the NBA for $1 billion, alleging it had violated both antitrust laws and his constitutional rights. On June 4, 2014, attorney Maxwell Blecher announced that Sterling had decided to drop the lawsuit against the NBA, and had agreed to allow the proposed $2 billion sale of the Clippers to Ballmer. The sale would be approved pending a majority vote of league owners.


title: Donald Sterling

text: On June 9, Blecher said Sterling had withdrawn support for the sale, and would resume the lawsuit. However, Shelly was granted a trial in probate court that began on July 7 to allow her to proceed with the sale as sole trustee; she contended that three doctors reported that Sterling was suffering from Alzheimer's disease and lacked the mental capacity to be a trustee. Closing arguments were scheduled for July 28. The NBA was scheduled to vote on the sale to Ballmer on July 15, the same day the deal was set to expire unless Ballmer granted an extension. On July 23, Sterling sued his wife, the NBA, and Silver for damages, alleging that they violated corporate law and defrauded him in order to sell the team to Ballmer. Sterling also sought an injunction to freeze the sale. On July 28, the probate court ruled in Shelly's favor, and granted her request for an order to permit the sale to be completed regardless of any intervention by an appellate court. Ballmer's $2 billion purchase of the team closed on August 12, and Shelly received the titles "Clippers Number One Fan" and "owner emeritus" as part of the sale agreement. , half of the $2 billion paid by Ballmer was held in an escrow account controlled by the NBA pending the conclusion of Sterling's lawsuit over the sale of the team.


title: Donald Sterling

text: One of Sterling's critics among the team owners, Atlanta Hawks majority stockholder Bruce Levenson, also left the NBA in September 2014, as an indirect result of the incidents and lawsuits. Levenson reported a racially insensitive e-mail (sent two years prior) to the NBA, as the Sterling case made Levenson feel remorseful for behaving in a manner he described as similar.


title: Donald Sterling

text: U.S. District Judge Fernando M. Olguin dismissed Sterling's 2014 lawsuit over the sale of the team in March 2016. The judge assailed it as "plainly insufficient" and "clearly implausible." Sterling appealed the decision, but his attorneys did not file an opening brief by the deadline. The matter concluded with a three-page motion to voluntarily dismiss the case.


title: Donald Sterling

text: In 2017, a judge ruled that two law firms could move forward with their lawsuit to collect more than $270,000 in legal fees allegedly owed by Donald and Shelly Sterling, stemming from the 2014 probate action that cleared the way for the sale of the Clippers.


title: Donald Sterling

text: In February 2003, the Housing Rights Center of Los Angeles (HRC) filed a housing discrimination case against Sterling on behalf of 18 tenants. The lawsuit featured several racist statements allegedly made by Sterling to employees, such as that "black people smell and attract vermin" and "Mexicans just sit around and smoke and drink all day", as well as Sterling's alleged intent to rent only to Korean tenants because "they will pay the rent and live in whatever conditions I give them". Part of the HRC case's resolution included U.S. District Judge Dale Fischer awarding the plaintiffs' attorney $4.9 million in attorneys fees. While the final terms for the plaintiffs were confidential, the judge said the fees were justified as the settlement obtained by the plaintiffs against Sterling was one of the largest of its kind and the public benefit terms were significant and wide-ranging.


title: Donald Sterling

text: In 2006, the U.S. Department of Justice sued Sterling for housing discrimination for using race as a factor in filling some of his apartment buildings. The suit charged that Sterling refused to rent to non-Koreans in the Koreatown neighborhood and to African Americans in Beverly Hills. In November 2009, ESPN reported that Sterling agreed to pay a fine of $2.7 million to settle the lawsuit.


title: Donald Sterling

text: In February 2009, the Clippers were sued in L.A. Superior Court by former longtime Clippers executive Elgin Baylor for wrongful termination and employment discrimination on the basis of age and race. The lawsuit alleged that co-defendant Sterling told Baylor that he wanted to fill his team with "poor black boys from the South and a white head coach". The suit also alleged that Mike Dunleavy Sr., the head coach, "was given a four-year, $22-million contract ... [as he was a] Caucasian" while Baylor's salary had "been frozen at a comparatively paltry $350,000 since 2003". Baylor later dropped the race accusation. The case went to trial in March 2011, with the jury ruling unanimously in favor of the Clippers and Sterling.


title: Donald Sterling

text: In 1996, Christine Jasky, a property management consultant for Sterling who also did work for the Clippers, sued Sterling for sexual harassment, claiming she quit her job after he repeatedly offered her money for sex, and asked her to recruit sexual partners for him. Sterling countersued, and the two eventually reached a confidential settlement in 1998.


title: Donald Sterling

text: Sumner Davenport, a property supervisor for Sterling who was fired in 2002, sued him in 2003 for sexual harassment for "unwanted and offensive physical conduct". She lost the case at a jury trial two years later.


title: Donald Sterling

text: Court documents indicate that Davenport was a property supervisor based in Sterling's Beverly Hills office, with the responsibilities of overseeing several of his apartment buildings. In her case, she asserted she was fired for her complaints against and refusing to comply with his racially discriminating and abusive behavior against tenants, his illegal eviction process, as well as his offensive physical conduct against her. Court records indicate Sterling's organization denies firing her.


title: Donald Sterling

text: In 1955, Sterling married Rochelle ("Shelly") Stein, with whom he had three children: Scott, Chris, and Joanna. Joanna's husband, Eric Miller, served as the Clippers' director of basketball administration, voluntarily leaving after Sterling sold the team.


title: Donald Sterling

text: Sterling had a relationship with a woman named Alexandra Castro. Seeking the return of a house she was living in, Sterling sued her in 2003 after their relationship ended. Castro, in 1999, had signed a contract that gave Sterling protection from her seeking palimony, which divides assets between unmarried couples. Their agreement read that Sterling "is happily married, has a family and has no intention of engaging in any activity inconsistent with his domestic relationship". In the proceedings, Castro stated that Sterling consulted her on Clippers personnel decisions. Sterling and Castro reached a confidential settlement out of court in 2004.


title: Donald Sterling

text: Sterling and Shelly became estranged at the end of 2012, when he moved to a mansion in Beverly Hills, California, after she kicked him out of their beach house in Malibu, California, following a family dispute during which he was arguing with a mistress on the phone. A week later, Sterling's son Scott was found dead on New Year's Eve, having died of an accidental narcotic drug overdose at the age of 32.


title: Donald Sterling

text: On August 5, 2015, Sterling's attorney Bobby Samini confirmed to KABC-TV that Sterling filed for divorce from his wife Shelly. In March 2016, Samini informed the "Los Angeles Times" that "notwithstanding all the difficult events of the last two years, the Sterlings have resolved their differences" and decided not to proceed with their divorce.


title: Donald Sterling

text: In 2012, Sterling began treatment for prostate cancer. By May 2014, according to multiple doctors Sterling was in the early stages of Alzheimer's disease. He was deemed mentally unfit to continue to lead the financial affairs of the Sterling Family Trust, clearing the way for his wife Shelly to sell the Los Angeles Clippers on his behalf despite his protests.


title: Bowling

text: Bowling is a target sport and recreational activity in which a player rolls a ball toward pins (in pin bowling) or another target (in target bowling). The term "bowling" usually refers to pin bowling (most commonly ten-pin bowling), though in the United Kingdom and Commonwealth countries, bowling could also refer to target bowling, such as lawn bowls.


title: Bowling

text: In pin bowling, the goal is to knock over pins on a long playing surface known as a "lane". Lanes have a wood or synthetic surface onto which protective lubricating oil is applied in different specified oil patterns that affect ball motion. A strike is achieved when all the pins are knocked down on the first roll, and a spare is achieved if all the pins are knocked over on a second roll. Common types of pin bowling include ten-pin, candlepin, duckpin, nine-pin, and five-pin. The historical game skittles is the forerunner of modern pin bowling.


title: Bowling

text: In target bowling, the aim is usually to get the ball as close to a mark as possible. The surface in target bowling may be grass, gravel, or synthetic. Lawn bowls, bocce, carpet bowls, pétanque, and boules may have both indoor and outdoor varieties. Curling is also related to bowls.


title: Bowling

text: Bowling is played by 120 million people in more than 90 countries (including 70 million in the United States alone).


title: Bowling

text: Five main variations are found in North America, with ten-pin being the most common but others being practiced in the eastern U.S. and in parts of Canada:


title: Bowling

text: Another form of bowling is usually played outdoors on a lawn. At outdoor bowling, the players throw a ball, which is sometimes eccentrically weighted, in an attempt to put it closest to a designated point or slot in the bowling arena. (Ex: Bocce Ball, an Italian lawn game)


title: Bowling

text: The earliest known forms of bowling date back to ancient Egypt, with wall drawings depicting bowling being found in a royal Egyptian tomb dated to 5200 BC and miniature pins and balls in an Egyptian child's grave about 5200 BC. Remnants of bowling balls were found among artifacts in ancient Egypt going back to the Egyptian protodynastic period in 3200 BC. What is thought to be a child's game involving porphyry (stone) balls, a miniature trilithon, and nine breccia-veined alabaster vase-shaped figures—thought to resemble the more modern game of skittles—was found in Naqada, Egypt in 1895.


title: Bowling

text: Balls were made using the husks of grains, covered in a material such as leather, and bound with string. Other balls made of porcelain have also been found, indicating that these were rolled along the ground rather than thrown due to their size and weight. Some of these resemble the modern-day jack used in target bowl games. Bowling games of different forms are also noted by Herodotus as an invention of the Lydians in Asia Minor.


title: Bowling

text: About 2,000 years ago, in the Roman Empire, a similar game evolved between Roman legionaries entailing the tossing of stone objects as close as possible to other stone objects, which eventually evolved into Italian Bocce, or outdoor bowling.


title: Bowling

text: Around 400 AD, bowling began in Germany as a religious ritual to cleanse oneself from sin by rolling a rock into a club (kegel) representing the heathen, resulting in bowlers being called keglers.


title: Bowling

text: In 1299, the oldest-surviving known bowling green for target style bowling was built: Master's Close (now the Old Bowling Green of the Southampton Bowling Club) in Southampton, England, which is still in use.


title: Bowling

text: In 1366, the first official mention of bowling in England was made, when King Edward III banned it as a distraction to archery practice.


title: Bowling

text: In the 15th–17th centuries, lawn bowling spread from Germany into Austria, Switzerland, and the Low Countries, with playing surfaces made of cinders or baked clay.


title: Bowling

text: In 1455, lawn bowling lanes in London were first roofed-over, turning bowling into an all-weather game. In Germany, they were called kegelbahns, and were often attached to taverns and guest houses.


title: Bowling

text: In 1463, a public feast was held in Frankfurt, Germany, with a venison dinner followed by lawn bowling.


title: Bowling

text: In 1511, English King Henry VIII was an avid bowler. He banned bowling for the lower classes and imposed a levy for private lanes to limit them to the wealthy. Another English law, passed in 1541 (repealed in 1845), prohibited workers from bowling, except at Christmas, and only in their master's home and in his presence. In 1530, he acquired Whitehall Palace in central London as his new residence, having it extensively rebuilt complete with outdoor bowling lanes, indoor tennis court, jousting tiltyard, and cockfighting pit.


title: Bowling

text: Protestant Reformation founder Martin Luther set the number of pins (which varied from 3 to 17) at nine. He had a bowling lane built next to his home for his children, sometimes rolling a ball himself.


title: Bowling

text: On 19 July 1588, English Vice-Admiral Sir Francis Drake allegedly was playing bowls at Plymouth Hoe when the arrival of the Spanish Armada was announced, replying "We have time enough to finish the game and beat the Spaniards too."


title: Bowling

text: In 1609, Dutch East India Company explorer Henry Hudson discovered Hudson Bay, bringing Dutch colonization to New Amsterdam (later New York); Hudson's men brought some form of lawn bowling with them.


title: Bowling

text: In 1617, English King James I published "Declaration of Sports", banning bowling on Sundays but permitting dancing and archery for those first attending an Anglican service, outraging Puritans; it was reissued in 1633 by his successor Charles I, then ordered publicly burned in 1643 by the Puritan Parliament.


title: Bowling

text: In 1670, Dutchmen liked to bowl at the Old King's Arms Tavern near modern-day 2nd and Broadway in New York City.


title: Bowling

text: In 1733, Bowling Green in New York City was built on the site of a Dutch cattle market and parade ground, becoming the city's oldest public park to survive to modern times.


title: Bowling

text: A circa 1810 painting of Ipswich, England shows a man bowling with a triangular formation of ten pins, before that variant of the sport is believed to have appeared in the United States. An , also in Ipswich, explicitly mentions "ten-pin and skittle grounds".


title: Bowling

text: In 1819, New York writer Washington Irving made the first mention of ninepin bowling in American literature in his story "Rip Van Winkle".


title: Bowling

text: Newspaper articles and advertisements at least as early as 1820 refer to "ten pin alleys", usually in the context of a side attraction to a main business or property as distinguished from dedicated "bowling alley" establishments as presently understood.


title: Bowling

text: In 1846, the oldest surviving bowling lanes in the United States were built as part of Roseland Cottage, the summer estate of Henry Chandler Bowen (1831-1896) in Woodstock, Connecticut. The lanes, now part of Historic New England's Roseland Cottage House Museum contain Gothic Revival architectural elements in keeping with the style of the entire estate.


title: Bowling

text: In 1848, the Revolutions of 1848 resulted in accelerated German immigration to the U.S., reaching 5 million by 1900, bringing their love of beer and bowling with them; by the late 19th century they made New York City a center of bowling.


title: Bowling

text: In 1848, the Scottish Bowling Association for lawn bowling was founded in Scotland by 200 clubs; it was dissolved then refounded in 1892.


title: Bowling

text: In 1864, Glasgow cotton merchant William Wallace Mitchell (1803–1884) published "Manual of Bowls Playing", which became a standard reference for lawn bowling in Scotland.


title: Bowling

text: In 1875, the National Bowling Association (NBA) was founded by 27 local clubs in New York City to standardize rules for ten-pin bowling, setting the ball size and the distance between the foul line and the pins, but failing to agree on other rules; it was superseded in 1895 by the American Bowling Congress.


title: Bowling

text: In the 1880s, Brunswick Corporation (founded 1845) of Chicago, Illinois, maker of billiard tables began making bowling balls, pins, and wooden lanes to sell to taverns installing bowling alleys.


title: Bowling

text: On 9 September 1895, the modern standardized rules for ten-pin bowling were established in New York City by the new American Bowling Congress (ABC) (later the United States Bowling Congress), who changed the scoring system from a maximum 200 points for 20 balls to a maximum 300 points for 12 balls, and set the maximum ball weight at , and pin distance at . The first ABC champion (1906–1921) was Jimmy Smith (1885–1948). In 1927 Mrs. Floretta "Doty" McCutcheon (1888–1967) defeated Smith in an exhibition match, founding a school that taught 500,000 women how to bowl. In 1993 women were allowed to join the ABC. In 2005 the ABC merged with the Women's International Bowling Congress (WIBC) et al. to become the United States Bowling Congress (USBC).


title: Bowling

text: In the early 1890s, Duckpin bowling was invented in Boston, Massachusetts, spreading to Baltimore, Maryland about 1899.


title: Bowling

text: In 1903, the English Bowling Association was founded by cricketer W. G. Grace. On 1 January 2008, it merged with the English Women's Bowling Association to become Bowls England.


title: Bowling

text: In 1905, Rubber Duckpin bowling was invented by Willam Wuerthele of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, catching on in Quebec, Canada.


title: Bowling

text: The ABC initially used bowling balls made of Lignum vitae hardwood from the Caribbean, which were eventually supplanted by the "Evertrue" rubber bowling ball, and the Brunswick "Mineralite" rubber ball by 1905. Columbia Industries, founded in 1960, was the first manufacturer to successfully use polyester resin ("plastic") in bowling balls. In 1980, urethane-shell bowling balls were introduced by Ebonite.


title: Bowling

text: Rules for target bowls evolved separately in each of the other countries that adopted the predominantly British game. In 1905, the International Bowling Board was formed; its constitution adopted the laws of the Scottish Bowling Association, with variations allowed at the individual country level.


title: Bowling

text: In September 1907, the Victorian Ladies' Bowling Association was founded in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, becoming the world's first women's lawn bowling association.


title: Bowling

text: In 1908, the now-oldest surviving bowling alley for the tenpin sport was opened in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in the basement of the Holler House tavern, containing the oldest sanctioned lanes in the United States.


title: Bowling

text: In 1909, the first ten-pin bowling alley in Europe was installed in Sweden, but the game failed to catch on in the rest of Europe until after World War II. Meanwhile, ten-pin bowling caught on in Great Britain after hundreds of bowling lanes were installed on U.S. military bases during World War II.


title: Bowling

text: In 1913, the monthly "Bowlers Journal" was founded in Chicago, Illinois, continuing to publish to the present day.


title: Bowling

text: In late 1916, the Women's International Bowling Congress (originally the Woman's National Bowling Association) was founded in


title: Bowling

text: In 1920–1933 Prohibition in the U.S. caused bowling alleys to disassociate from saloons, turning bowling into a family game and encouraging women bowlers.


title: Bowling

text: On 2 October 1921, the annual Petersen Open Bowling Tournament (a.k.a. The Pete) was first held in Chicago, Illinois, becoming bowling's richest tournament of the day. In 1998, it was taken over by AMF.


title: Bowling

text: In 1926, the International Bowling Association (IBA) was formed by the United States, Sweden, Germany, Netherlands, and Finland, holding four world championships by 1936.


title: Bowling

text: On 21 March 1934, the National Bowling Writers Association was founded in Peoria, Illinois, by four bowling journalists; it changed its name in 1953 to the Bowling Writers Association of America.


title: Bowling

text: In August 1939, the National Negro Bowling Association was founded in Detroit, Michigan, dropping Negro from the title in 1944 and opening membership to all races. It reached 30,000 members in 2007.


title: Bowling

text: In 1942, the Bowling Proprietors Association of America (BPAA) held its first BPAA All-Star tournament.


title: Bowling

text: In 1947, the Australian Women's Bowling Council was founded. It held the first Australian women's national lawn bowling championship in Sydney in 1949, which was won by Mrs. R. Cranley of Queensland.


title: Bowling

text: On 18 April 1948, the Professional Women Bowling Writers (PWBW) was founded in Dallas, Texas, admitting men in 1975. On 1 January 2007, it merged with the Bowling Writers Association of America.


title: Bowling

text: In 1950, following extensive lobbying by civil rights groups in the wake of the 1947 integration of Major League Baseball, the American Bowling Congress opened its membership to African Americans and other minorities. The WIBC followed suit the following year.


title: Bowling

text: About 1950, the Golden Age of Ten-Pin Bowling began, in which professional bowlers made salaries rivaling those of baseball, football, and hockey players; this ended in the late 1970s.


title: Bowling

text: In 1952, the Fédération Internationale des Quilleurs (FIQ) was founded in Hamburg, Germany, to coordinate international amateur competition in nine-pin and ten-pin bowling. In 1954, the first FIQ World Bowling Championships were held in Helsinki, Finland. In 1979, the International Olympic Committee recognized it as the official world governing body for bowling. Its name changed to World Bowling in 2014 and International Bowling Federation in 2020.


title: Bowling

text: In 1952, American Machine and Foundry (AMF) of Brooklyn, N.Y., began marketing automatic Pinsetter machines. This eliminated the need for pinboys and caused bowling to rocket in popularity, making the 1950s the Decade of the Bowler.


title: Bowling

text: In 1954, Steve Nagy (1913-1966) became the first person to bowl a perfect 300 game on TV on NBC-TV's "Championship Bowling". The PBA later named its sportsmanship award after him.


title: Bowling

text: In 1958, the Professional Bowlers Association (PBA) was founded in Akron, Ohio by 33 prominent bowlers (including Don Carter, Dick Weber, Dick Hoover, Buzz Fazio, Billy Welu, Carmen Salvino and Glenn Allison) after they listened to a presentation by sports agent Eddie Elias. The PBA eventually reached about 4,300 members in 14 countries worldwide. In 1975, Earl Anthony became the first PBA member with $100,000 yearly earnings, and the first to reach $1,000,000 total earnings in 1982. In 2000, it was purchased by former executives of Microsoft, who moved the PBA headquarters to Seattle, Washington.


title: Bowling

text: On 28 November 1960, the first PBA Championship in Memphis, Tennessee was won by Don Carter. It was renamed the PBA World Championship in 2002, and now awarded the Earl Anthony Trophy to the winner.


title: Bowling

text: In 1960, the Professional Women's Bowling Association (PWBA) was founded as the first professional women's bowling association; it went defunct in 2003.


title: Bowling

text: In 1960, the National Bowling League (NBL) was founded to compete with the PBA. It attracted name players such as Billy Welu and Buzz Fazio, but failed to sign top star Don Carter. The league's failure to get a TV contract caused it to fold following its first championship in 1962.


title: Bowling

text: On 26 May 1961 the British Tenpin Bowling Association (BTBA) was formed. Their first General Secretary was Maurice Glazer.


title: Bowling

text: On 27 January 1962, ABC Television aired its first Saturday afternoon broadcast of a PBA Tour event, the Empire State Open held at Redwood Lanes in Albany, New York, beginning a partnership between ABC and the PBA that lasted through 1997. The Saturday afternoon bowling telecasts garnered very good ratings through the early 1980s, until the cable television-fueled explosion of sports viewing choices caused ratings to decline.


title: Bowling

text: In 1962, the first PBA Tournament of Champions was held; it became an annual event in 1965, and was sponsored by Firestone Tire from 1965 through 1993.


title: Bowling

text: In 1962, the American Wheelchair Bowling Association (AWBA) was founded in Louisville, Kentucky, by Richard F. Carlson.


title: Bowling

text: On 28 June 1963, The first British made tenpin was by H Massil and sons who received the permit no.1 from the British Tenpin Bowling Association (BTBA)


title: Bowling

text: Between 3 and 10 November 1963, the Fifth FIQ World Bowling Championships in Mexico City, Mexico, were attended by 132 men and 45 women (first time) from 19 nations. It featured the debut of Team USA, which won seven of the eight gold medals.


title: Bowling

text: On 25 November 1963, "Sports Illustrated" published the article "A Guy Named Smith Is Striking It Rich", revealing that PBA stars made more money than other professional sports stars, for "with more than $1 million in prizes to shoot for, the nation's top professional bowlers are rolling in money." This was short-lived, however, for although the number of bowling alleys in the U.S. zoomed from 65,000 in 1957 to 160,000 in 1962, the U.S. bowling industry boom hit a brick wall in 1963. This was compensated, however, by a new boom in Europe and Japan, making 10-pin bowling an international sport.


title: Bowling

text: In 1964, "Mr. Bowling" Don Carter became the first athlete to sign a $1 million endorsement contract: a multi-year deal with Ebonite International.


title: Bowling

text: In 1964, Marion Ladewig, a 9-time winner of the Bowling Writers Association of America's Female Bowler of the Year Award, became the first Superior Performance inductee into the WIBC Hall of Fame.


title: Bowling

text: In 1971, the BPAA All-Star tournament was renamed the BPAA U.S. Open, and officially became one of the PBA's major tournaments.


title: Bowling

text: In 1978, National Negro Bowling Association pioneer J. Elmer Reed (1903–83) became the first African-American to be inducted into the ABC Hall of Fame.


title: Bowling

text: On 16 December 1979, Willie Willis won the Brunswick National Resident Pro Tournament in Charlotte, North Carolina, becoming the first African-American bowling champion in the PBA in a non-touring event. In 1980, he became the first African-American in the Firestone Tournament of Champions, placing 13th.


title: Bowling

text: On 27 February 1982, Earl Anthony won the Toledo Trust PBA National Championship, becoming the first bowler to reach $1 million in career earnings.


title: Bowling

text: In 1982, the Young American Bowling Alliance was formed from a merger of the American Junior Bowling Congress, the Youth Bowling Association, and the collegiate divisions of the ABC and WIBC.


title: Bowling

text: On 1 July 1982, former PBA pro Glenn Allison rolled the first 900 series (three consecutive 300 games in a three-game set) to ever be submitted to the ABC for award consideration. The ABC, however, refused to certify the score, citing non-complying lane conditions.


title: Bowling

text: On 22 November 1986, George Branham III (born 1962) became the first African-American to win a PBA national touring event: the Brunswick Memorial World Open in Chicago, Illinois.


title: Bowling

text: On 18 September 1988, the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, featured ten-pin bowling as a demonstration sport.


title: Bowling

text: On 2 August 1991, in Havana, Cuba, tenpin bowling became an international medal-level sport for the first time at the 1991 Pan American Games, and continues to this day.


title: Bowling

text: In the 1992–1993 season, the ABC introduced resin bowling balls, causing perfect 300 scores to increase by 20%.


title: Bowling

text: In 1995, the National Bowling Stadium opened in Reno, Nevada, becoming known as the Taj Mahal of Tenpins.


title: Bowling

text: On 2 February 1997, Jeremy Sonnenfeld (born 1975) bowled the first officially sanctioned 900 series of three straight perfect 300 games at Sun Valley Lanes in Lincoln, Nebraska, becoming known as "Mr. 900".


title: Bowling

text: In 2000, the Weber Cup, named after Dick Weber, was established as 10-pin bowling's equivalent to golf's Ryder Cup, with Team USA playing Team Europe in a 3-day match.


title: Bowling

text: On 31 March 2004, Missy Bellinder (1981-) (later Parkin) became the first female member of the PBA. The PBA had opened up its membership to women following the 2003 demise of the PWBA. One year later, Liz Johnson became the first woman to make the televised final round of a PBA Tour event.


title: Bowling

text: In 2004, the Brunswick Euro Challenge was founded for amateur and pro 10-pin bowling players from Europe, Asia, and the U.S.


title: Bowling

text: On 24 January 2010, Kelly Kulick (1977-) became the first woman to win the PBA Tournament of Champions and the first woman to win a PBA national tour event.


title: Bowling

text: In November 2012, after league bowling dropped from 80% to 20% of their business, AMF Bowling Centers of Richmond, Virginia filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy for the second time (first in 2001), merging in 2013 with upscale New York-based bowling center operator Bowlmor (which didn't support league bowling) in an attempt to turn league bowling around, growing from 276 centers in 2013 to 315 in 2015.


title: Bowling

text: In 2013, the PBA League was founded, composed of eight permanent 5-person teams, with an annual draft.


title: Bowling

text: Bowling balls vary, depending on the type of bowling. Ten-pin balls are about in diameter, typically have three holes, and weigh from . The size and spacing of the finger holes on non-customized balls are generally smaller on lighter balls to accommodate smaller hands. Modern resin covers (surfaces) available since the early 1990s enhance a ball's hook (curve) potential, and the shape of the balls' cores (pictured) permit fine-tuning of desired ball paths. In contrast, traditional plastic balls are suitable for straighter shots. Duckpin and candlepin balls fit in the palm of the hand, and have no holes.


title: Bowling

text: Bowling pins are the target of the bowling ball in pin bowling variations. The size and shape of pins vary but are generally cylindrical and widens where the ball strikes the pin. Ten-pin bowling pins are the largest and heaviest, weighing . Duckpins are shorter and squatter than standard tenpins and candlepins are the tallest at , but only wide and in weight.


title: Bowling

text: Bowling pins are constructed by gluing blocks of rock maple wood into the approximate shape, and then turning on a lathe. After the lathe shapes the pin, it is coated with a plastic material, painted, and covered with a glossy finish. Because of the scarcity of suitable wood, bowling pins can be made from approved synthetics. Currently there are synthetic pins sanctioned for play in five-pin, duckpin, and candlepin. There is one synthetic ten-pin model approved by the USBC. When hit by the ball, synthetic pins usually sound different from wooden pins.


title: Bowling

text: The sole of the non-sliding foot is generally made of rubber for traction, while the sliding foot's sole is made of a smooth material allowing a smooth slide into the release. Bowling shoes can be bought, and may be rented from bowling centers. Wet or dirty soles may not slide properly and could damage the approach surface.


title: Khoisan

text: Khoisan , or (), according to the contemporary Khoekhoegowab orthography, is a catch-all term for those indigenous peoples of Southern Africa who do not speak one of the Bantu languages, combining the (formerly "Khoikhoi") and the or ( in the Nǁng language).


title: Khoisan

text: The San were formerly called Bushmen, (from Afrikaans "Boesmans" from ); and the were formerly known as "Hottentots", speculated to be a Dutch onomatopoeic term referring to the click consonants prevalent in the Khoekhoe languages. However there is no evidence of this etymology. The language of both peoples are grouped under .


title: Khoisan

text: Sān are popularly thought of as foragers in the Kalahari Desert and regions of Botswana, Namibia, Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Lesotho and Northern South Africa. The word "sān" is from the Khoekhoe language and simply refers to foragers ("those who pick things up from the ground") who do not own livestock. As such, it was used in reference to all hunter-gatherer populations of the Southern African region who -speaking communities came into contact with and was largely a term referring to a lifestyle, distinct from a pastoralist or agriculturalist one, and not to any particular ethnicity. While there are attendant cosmologies and languages associated with this way of life, the term is an economic designator rather than a cultural or ethnic one.


title: Khoisan

text: These nations and Sān are grouped under the single term Khoesān as representing the indigenous substrate population of Southern Africa prior to the hypothesised Bantu expansion reaching the area roughly between 1,500 and 2,000 years ago.


title: Khoisan

text: Many Khoesān peoples are the direct descendants of a very early dispersal of anatomically modern humans to Southern Africa before 150,000 years ago. Their languages show a vague typological similarity, largely confined to the prevalence of click consonants. They are not verifiably derived from a common proto-language, but are today split into at least three separate and unrelated language families (Khoe-Kwadi, Tuu and Kxʼa). It has been suggested that the Khoekhoeǁaen ( peoples) may represent Late Stone Age arrivals to Southern Africa, possibly displaced by Bantu immigration.


title: Khoisan

text: The compound term "Khoisan" / "Khoesān" is a modern anthropological convention in use since the early-to-mid 20th century. "Khoisan" is a coinage by Leonhard Schulze in the 1920s and popularised by Isaac Schapera. It entered wider usage from the 1960s based on the proposal of a "Khoisan" language family by Joseph Greenberg.


title: Khoisan

text: During the Colonial/Apartheid era Afrikaans-speaking persons with partial Khoesān ancestry were historically also grouped as Cape Blacks () or Western Cape Blacks () to rather inaccurately distinguish them from the Bantu-speaking peoples, the other indigenous African population of South Africa who also had significant Khoe-San ancestry.


title: Khoisan

text: The term "Khoisan" (also spelled "KhoiSan", "Khoi-San", "Khoe-San") has also been introduced in South African usage as a self-designation after the end of apartheid in the late 1990s. Since the 2010s, there has been a "Khoisan activist" movement, demanding recognition and land rights from the government and white minority which owns large parts of the country's private land.


title: Khoisan

text: It is suggested that the ancestors of the modern Khoisan expanded to southern Africa (from East or Central Africa) before 150,000 years ago, possibly as early as before 260,000 years ago, so that by the beginning of the MIS 5 "megadrought" 130,000 years ago, there were two ancestral population clusters in Africa, bearers of mt-DNA haplogroup L0 in southern Africa ancestral to the Khoi-San and bearers of haplogroup L1-6 in central/eastern Africa ancestral to everyone else. This group gave rise to the San population of hunter gatherers. Their nearest living relatives are postulated to be the Hadzabe people from north-central Tanzania; and Mbuti pygmies from the eastern Congo. A much later wave of migration, around or before the beginning of the Common Era, gave rise to the Khoe people, who were pastoralists. This group carried DNA from Eurasian as well as some Neanderthal groups.


title: Khoisan

text: Due to their early expansion and separation, the populations ancestral to the Khoisan have been estimated as having represented the "largest human population" during the majority of the anatomically modern human timeline, from their early separation before 150 kya until the recent peopling of Eurasia some 70 kya. They were much more widespread than today, their modern distribution being due to their decimation in the course of the Bantu expansion. They were dispersed throughout much of southern and southeastern Africa. There was also a significant back-migration of bearers of L0 towards eastern Africa between 120 and 75 kya. Rito et al. (2013) speculate that pressure from such back-migration may even have contributed to the dispersal of East African populations out of Africa at about 70 kya.


title: Khoisan

text: The San populations ancestral to the Khoisan were spread throughout much of southern and eastern Africa throughout the Late Stone Age after about 75 ka. A further expansion dated to about 20 ka has been proposed based


title: Khoisan

text: on the distribution of the L0d haplogroup. Rosti et al. suggest a connection of this recent expansion with the spread of click consonants to eastern African languages (Hadza language).


title: Khoisan

text: The Late Stone Age Sangoan industry occupied southern Africa in areas where annual rainfall is less than a metre (1000 mm; 39.4 in). The contemporary San and Khoi peoples resemble those represented by the ancient Sangoan skeletal remains.


title: Khoisan

text: Against the traditional interpretation that finds a common origin for the Khoi and San, other evidence has suggested that the ancestors of the Khoi peoples are relatively recent pre-Bantu agricultural immigrants to southern Africa who abandoned agriculture as the climate dried and either joined the San as hunter-gatherers or retained pastoralism.


title: Khoisan

text: With the hypothesized arrival of pastoralists & bantoid agro-pastoralists in southern Africa starting around 2,300 years ago, linguistic development is later seen in the click consonants and loan words from ancient Khoe-san languages into the evolution of blended agro-pastoralist & hunter-gatherer communities that would eventually evolve into the now extant, amalgamated modern native linguistic communities found in South Africa, Botswana & Namibia (e.g. in South African Xhosa, Sotho, Tswana, Zulu people.)


title: Khoisan

text: Today these groups represent the quantitative majority of extant admixed ancient Khoe-San descendants by the millions.


title: Khoisan

text: The Khoikhoi enter the historical record with their first contact with Portuguese explorers, about 1,000 years after their displacement by the Bantu. Local population dropped after the Khoi were exposed to smallpox from Europeans. The Khoi waged more frequent attacks against Europeans when the Dutch East India Company enclosed traditional grazing land for farms. Khoikhoi social organisation was profoundly damaged and, in the end, destroyed by colonial expansion and land seizure from the late 17th century onwards. As social structures broke down, some Khoikhoi people settled on farms and became bondsmen (bondservants) or farm workers; many were incorporated into existing Khoi clan and family groups of the Xhosa people. Georg Schmidt, a Moravian Brother from Herrnhut, Saxony, now Germany, founded Genadendal in 1738, which was the first mission station in southern Africa, among the Khoi people in Baviaanskloof in the Riviersonderend Mountains. Early European settlers sometimes intermarried with Khoikhoi women, resulting in a sizeable mixed-race population now known as the Griqua. The Griqua people too would migrate to what was by that time the frontierlands of the Xhosa native reserves and establish Griqualand East, which contained a mostly Xhosa population.


title: Khoisan

text: Andries Stockenström facilitated the creation of the "Kat River" Khoi settlement near the eastern frontier of the Cape Colony. The settlements thrived and expanded, and Kat River quickly became a large and successful region of the Cape that subsisted more or less autonomously. The people were predominantly Afrikaans-speaking Gonaqua Khoi, but the settlement also began to attract other Khoi, Xhosa and mixed-race groups of the Cape.


title: Khoisan

text: The so-called "Bushman wars"were to a large extent the response of the San after their dispossession.


title: Khoisan

text: At the start of the 18th century, the Khoikhoi in the Western Cape lived in a co-operative state with the Dutch. By the end of the century the majority of the Khoisan operated as 'wage labourers', not that dissimilar to slaves. Geographically, the further away the labourer was from Cape Town, the more difficult it became to transport agricultural produce to the markets. The issuing of grazing licences north of the Berg River in what was then the Tulbagh Basin propelled colonial expansion in the area. This system of land relocation led to the Khoijhou losing their land and livestock as well as dramatic change in the social, economic and political development.


title: Khoisan

text: After the defeat of the Xhosa rebellion in 1853, the new Cape Government endeavoured to grant the Khoi political rights to avert future racial discontent. The government enacted the Cape franchise in 1853, which decreed that all male citizens meeting a low property test, regardless of colour, had the right to vote and to seek election in Parliament. The property test was an indirect way by the British Cape Government (who took over from the Dutch in 1812) to retain a racist based system of governance because on average only white people owned property adequate to meet the test.


title: Khoisan

text: In the Herero and Namaqua genocide in German South-West Africa, over 10,000 Nama are estimated to have been killed during 1904–1907.


title: Khoisan

text: The San of the Kalahari were described in "Specimens of Bushman Folklore" by Wilhelm H. I. Bleek and Lucy C. Lloyd (1911). They were brought to the globalised world's attention in the 1950s by South African author Laurens van der Post in a six-part television documentary. The Ancestral land conflict in Botswana concerns the Central Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR), established in 1961 for wildlife, while the San were permitted to continue their hunter-gatherer lifestyle. In the 1990s, the government of Botswana began a policy of "relocating" CKGR residents outside the reserve. In 2002, the government cut off all services to CKGR residents. A legal battle began, and in 2006 the High Court of Botswana ruled that the residents had been forcibly and unconstitutionally removed. The policy of relocation continued, however, and in 2012 the San people (Basarwa) appealed to the United Nations to force the government to recognise their land and resource rights.


title: Khoisan

text: Following the end of Apartheid in 1994, the term "Khoisan" has gradually come to be used as a self-designation by South African Khoikhoi as representing the "first nations" of South Africa vis-a-vis the ruling Bantu majority. A conference on "Khoisan Identities and Cultural Heritage" was organised by the University of the Western Cape in 1997. and "Khoisan activism" has been reported in the South African media beginning in 2015.


title: Khoisan

text: The South African government allowed Khoisan families (up until 1998) to pursue land claims which existed prior to 1913. The South African Deputy Chief Land Claims Commissioner, Thami Mdontswa, has said that constitutional reform would be required to enable Khoisan people to pursue further claims to land from which their direct ancestors were removed prior to 9 June 1913.


title: Khoisan

text: In 2019, scientists from the University of the Free State discovered 8,000-year-old carvings made by the Khoisan people. The carvings depicted a hippopotamus, horse, and antelope in the 'Rain Snake' Dyke of the Vredefort impact structure, which may have spiritual significance regarding the rain-making mythology of the Khoisan.


title: Khoisan

text: In the Herero and Namaqua genocide, about 10,000 Nama, a Khoekhoe group, and an unknown number of San people were killed in an extermination campaign by the German Colonial Empire between 1904 and 1908.


title: Khoisan

text: In Botswana, many of the indigenous San people have been forcibly relocated from their land to reservations. To make them relocate, they were denied access to water on their land and faced arrest if they hunted, which was their primary source of food. Their lands lie in the middle of the world's richest diamond field. Officially, the government denies that there is any link to mining and claims the relocation is to preserve the wildlife and ecosystem, even though the San people have lived sustainably on the land for millennia. On the reservations they struggle to find employment, and alcoholism is rampant.


title: Khoisan

text: The "Khoisan languages" were proposed as a linguistic phylum by Joseph Greenberg in 1955. Their genetic relationship was questioned later in the 20th century, and the term now serves mostly as a convenience term without implying genetic unity, much like "Papuan" and "Australian" are. Their most notable uniting feature is their click consonants.


title: Khoisan

text: The Kxʼa family was proposed in 2010, combining the ǂʼAmkoe (ǂHoan) language with the ǃKung (Juu) dialect cluster. ǃKung includes about a dozen dialects, with no clear-cut delineation between them. Sands et al. (2010) propose a division into four clusters:


title: Khoisan

text: The Khoi (Khoe) family is divided into a Khoikhoi (Khoekhoe and Khoemana dialects) and a Kalahari (Tshu–Khwe) branch. The Kalahari branch of Khoe includes Shua and Tsoa (with dialects), and Kxoe, Naro, Gǁana and ǂHaba (with dialects). Khoe also has been tentatively aligned with Kwadi ("Kwadi–Khoe"), and more speculatively with the Sandawe language of Tanzania ("Khoe–Sandawe"). The Hadza language of Tanzania has been associated with the Khoisan group due to the presence of click consonants.


title: Khoisan

text: Charles Darwin wrote about the Khoisan and sexual selection in "The Descent of Man" in 1882, commenting that their steatopygia, seen primarily in females, evolved through sexual selection in human evolution, and that "the posterior part of the body projects in a most wonderful manner". Historically, some females were observed by anthropologists to exhibit elongated labia minora, which sometimes projected as much as 10 cm below the vulva when standing. Though well documented, the motivations behind this practice and the voices of the women who perform it are rarely explored in the research.


title: Khoisan

text: In the 1990s, genomic studies of the world's peoples found that the Y chromosome of San men share certain patterns of polymorphisms that are distinct from those of all other populations. Because the Y chromosome is highly conserved between generations, this type of DNA test is used to determine when different subgroups separated from one another, and hence their last common ancestry. The authors of these studies suggested that the San may have been one of the first populations to differentiate from the most recent common paternal ancestor of all extant humans.


title: Khoisan

text: Various Y-chromosome studies since confirmed that the Khoisan carry some of the most divergent (oldest) Y-chromosome haplogroups. These haplogroups are specific sub-groups of haplogroups A and B, the two earliest branches on the human Y-chromosome tree.


title: Khoisan

text: Similar to findings from Y-chromosome studies, mitochondrial DNA studies also showed evidence that the Khoisan people carry high frequencies of the earliest haplogroup branches in the human mitochondrial DNA tree. The most divergent (oldest) mitochondrial haplogroup, L0d, has been identified at its highest frequencies in the southern African Khoi and San groups. The distinctiveness of the Khoisan in both matrilineal and patrilineal groupings is a further indicator that they represent a population historically distinct from other Africans.


title: Khoisan

text: On 21 September 2020 the University of Cape Town launched its new Khoi and San Centre, with an undergraduate degree programme planned to be rolled out in coming years. The centre will support and consolidate this collaborative work on research commissions on language (including Khoekhoegowab), sacred human remains, land and gender. Many descendants of Khoisan people still live on the Cape Flats.


title: Sofia Black-D'Elia

text: Sofia Black-D'Elia (born December 24, 1991) is an American actress. She is known for her television roles, such as Tea Marvelli in "Skins", Sage Spence in "Gossip Girl", Andrea Cornish in "The Night Of", and Frannie Latimer in "Your Honor". From 2017 to 2018 Black-D'Elia starred as Sabrina on the Fox comedy "The Mick". She also starred in the 2015 film "Project Almanac" and the 2016 film "Viral". Currently, Black-D'Elia plays the lead role in the Freeform comedy series "Single Drunk Female", which premiered on January 20, 2022.


title: Sofia Black-D'Elia

text: Black-D'Elia was born and raised in Clifton, New Jersey, where she graduated from Clifton High School. Her mother, Elinor, works in printing. Her father, Anthony V. D'Elia, is a judge of the Superior Court of New Jersey. Her father is of Italian descent and her mother is Jewish. Black-D'Elia had a bat mitzvah ceremony. She started acting at the age of five and signed up for dancing classes at Broadway Bound.


title: Sofia Black-D'Elia

text: When she was seventeen, Black-D'Elia was cast in her first significant role on the soap opera "All My Children" as the recurring character Bailey. In 2010, she was cast the role of Tea on the MTV teen drama "Skins", where she played an openly lesbian teenager. Starting in the fall of 2012, Black-D'Elia played Sage Spence in the sixth and final season of "Gossip Girl". She also portrayed Jessie in the Michael Bay-produced time travel thriller "Project Almanac", which was released in January 2015. In 2016, she appeared in the HBO miniseries "The Night Of". The same year she starred as Emma in the horror film "Viral".


title: Sofia Black-D'Elia

text: Black-D'Elia played the role of Sabrina Pemberton on Fox comedy television comedy series "The Mick" from 2017 to 2018. In 2019 she was in the role of Frannie on the Showtime legal drama television series "Your Honor", which premiered in late 2020. She currently stars as the lead in the Freeform comedy series "Single Drunk Female" which premiered in January 2022. In April 2022, the series was renewed for a second season.


title: Sofia Black-D'Elia

text: Black-D'Elia lives in New York City. Black-D'Elia met filmmaker Henry Joost while working on the 2016 film "Viral", which he co-directed. They got married in October 2021.


title: Buoyancy

text: Buoyancy (), or upthrust, is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of a partially or fully immersed object. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid. Thus the pressure at the bottom of a column of fluid is greater than at the top of the column. Similarly, the pressure at the bottom of an object submerged in a fluid is greater than at the top of the object. The pressure difference results in a net upward force on the object. The magnitude of the force is proportional to the pressure difference, and (as explained by Archimedes' principle) is equivalent to the weight of the fluid that would otherwise occupy the submerged volume of the object, i.e. the displaced fluid.


title: Buoyancy

text: For this reason, an object whose average density is greater than that of the fluid in which it is submerged tends to sink. If the object is less dense than the liquid, the force can keep the object afloat. This can occur only in a non-inertial reference frame, which either has a gravitational field or is accelerating due to a force other than gravity defining a "downward" direction.


title: Buoyancy

text: Buoyancy also applies to fluid mixtures, and is the most common driving force of convection currents. In these cases, the mathematical modelling is altered to apply to continua, but the principles remain the same. Examples of buoyancy driven flows include the spontaneous separation of air and water or oil and water.


title: Buoyancy

text: Archimedes' principle is named after Archimedes of Syracuse, who first discovered this law in 212 BC. For objects, floating and sunken, and in gases as well as liquids (i.e. a fluid), Archimedes' principle may be stated thus in terms of forces:


title: Buoyancy

text: —with the clarifications that for a sunken object the volume of displaced fluid is the volume of the object, and for a floating object on a liquid, the weight of the displaced liquid is the weight of the object.


title: Buoyancy

text: Archimedes' principle does not consider the surface tension (capillarity) acting on the body, but this additional force modifies only the amount of fluid displaced and the spatial distribution of the displacement, so the principle that "buoyancy = weight of displaced fluid" remains valid.


title: Buoyancy

text: The weight of the displaced fluid is directly proportional to the volume of the displaced fluid (if the surrounding fluid is of uniform density). In simple terms, the principle states that the buoyancy force on an object is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object, or the density of the fluid multiplied by the submerged volume times the gravitational acceleration, g. Thus, among completely submerged objects with equal masses, objects with greater volume have greater buoyancy. This is also known as upthrust.


title: Buoyancy

text: Suppose a rock's weight is measured as 10 newtons when suspended by a string in a vacuum with gravity acting upon it. Suppose that when the rock is lowered into water, it displaces water of weight 3 newtons. The force it then exerts on the string from which it hangs would be 10 newtons minus the 3 newtons of buoyancy force: 10 − 3 = 7 newtons. Buoyancy reduces the apparent weight of objects that have sunk completely to the sea floor. It is generally easier to lift an object up through the water than it is to pull it out of the water.


title: Buoyancy

text: yields the formula below. The density of the immersed object relative to the density of the fluid can easily be calculated without measuring any volumes.:


title: Buoyancy

text: Example: A helium balloon in a moving car. During a period of increasing speed, the air mass inside the car moves in the direction opposite to the car's acceleration (i.e., towards the rear). The balloon is also pulled this way. However, because the balloon is buoyant relative to the air, it ends up being pushed "out of the way", and will actually drift in the same direction as the car's acceleration (i.e., forward). If the car slows down, the same balloon will begin to drift backward. For the same reason, as the car goes round a curve, the balloon will drift towards the inside of the curve.


title: Buoyancy

text: where f is the force density exerted by some outer field on the fluid, and "σ" is the Cauchy stress tensor. In this case the stress tensor is proportional to the identity tensor:


title: Buoyancy

text: Assuming the outer force field is conservative, that is it can be written as the negative gradient of some scalar valued function:


title: Buoyancy

text: Therefore, the shape of the open surface of a fluid equals the equipotential plane of the applied outer conservative force field. Let the "z"-axis point downward. In this case the field is gravity, so Φ = −"ρgz" where "g" is the gravitational acceleration, "ρ" is the mass density of the fluid. Taking the pressure as zero at the surface, where "z" is zero, the constant will be zero, so the pressure inside the fluid, when it is subject to gravity, is


title: Buoyancy

text: So pressure increases with depth below the surface of a liquid, as "z" denotes the distance from the surface of the liquid into it. Any object with a non-zero vertical depth will have different pressures on its top and bottom, with the pressure on the bottom being greater. This difference in pressure causes the upward buoyancy force.


title: Buoyancy

text: The buoyancy force exerted on a body can now be calculated easily, since the internal pressure of the fluid is known. The force exerted on the body can be calculated by integrating the stress tensor over the surface of the body which is in contact with the fluid:


title: Buoyancy

text: where "V" is the measure of the volume in contact with the fluid, that is the volume of the submerged part of the body, since the fluid doesn't exert force on the part of the body which is outside of it.


title: Buoyancy

text: The magnitude of buoyancy force may be appreciated a bit more from the following argument. Consider any object of arbitrary shape and volume "V" surrounded by a liquid. The force the liquid exerts on an object within the liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid with a volume equal to that of the object. This force is applied in a direction opposite to gravitational force, that is of magnitude:


title: Buoyancy

text: where "ρ" is the density of the fluid, "V" is the volume of the displaced body of liquid, and "g" is the gravitational acceleration at the location in question.


title: Buoyancy

text: If this volume of liquid is replaced by a solid body of exactly the same shape, the force the liquid exerts on it must be exactly the same as above. In other words, the "buoyancy force" on a submerged body is directed in the opposite direction to gravity and is equal in magnitude to


title: Buoyancy

text: Though the above derivation of Archimedes principle is correct, a recent paper by the Brazilian physicist Fabio M. S. Lima brings a more general approach for the evaluation of the buoyant force exerted by any fluid (even non-homogeneous) on a body with arbitrary shape. Interestingly, this method leads to the prediction that the buoyant force exerted on a rectangular block touching the bottom of a container points downward! Indeed, this downward buoyant force has been confirmed experimentally.


title: Buoyancy

text: The net force on the object must be zero if it is to be a situation of fluid statics such that Archimedes principle is applicable, and is thus the sum of the buoyancy force and the object's weight


title: Buoyancy

text: If the buoyancy of an (unrestrained and unpowered) object exceeds its weight, it tends to rise. An object whose weight exceeds its buoyancy tends to sink. Calculation of the upwards force on a submerged object during its accelerating period cannot be done by the Archimedes principle alone; it is necessary to consider dynamics of an object involving buoyancy. Once it fully sinks to the floor of the fluid or rises to the surface and settles, Archimedes principle can be applied alone. For a floating object, only the submerged volume displaces water. For a sunken object, the entire volume displaces water, and there will be an additional force of reaction from the solid floor.


title: Buoyancy

text: In order for Archimedes' principle to be used alone, the object in question must be in equilibrium (the sum of the forces on the object must be zero), therefore;


title: Buoyancy

text: showing that the depth to which a floating object will sink, and the volume of fluid it will displace, is independent of the gravitational field regardless of geographic location.


title: Buoyancy

text: It can be the case that forces other than just buoyancy and gravity come into play. This is the case if the object is restrained or if the object sinks to the solid floor. An object which tends to float requires a tension restraint force T in order to remain fully submerged. An object which tends to sink will eventually have a normal force of constraint N exerted upon it by the solid floor. The constraint force can be tension in a spring scale measuring its weight in the fluid, and is how apparent weight is defined.


title: Buoyancy

text: Another possible formula for calculating buoyancy of an object is by finding the apparent weight of that particular object in the air (calculated in Newtons), and apparent weight of that object in the water (in Newtons). To find the force of buoyancy acting on the object when in air, using this particular information, this formula applies:


title: Buoyancy

text: Air's density is very small compared to most solids and liquids. For this reason, the weight of an object in air is approximately the same as its true weight in a vacuum. The buoyancy of air is neglected for most objects during a measurement in air because the error is usually insignificant (typically less than 0.1% except for objects of very low average density such as a balloon or light foam).


title: Buoyancy

text: A simplified explanation for the integration of the pressure over the contact area may be stated as follows:


title: Buoyancy

text: The sides are identical in area, and have the same depth distribution, therefore they also have the same pressure distribution, and consequently the same total force resulting from hydrostatic pressure, exerted perpendicular to the plane of the surface of each side.


title: Buoyancy

text: There are two pairs of opposing sides, therefore the resultant horizontal forces balance in both orthogonal directions, and the resultant force is zero.


title: Buoyancy

text: The upward force on the cube is the pressure on the bottom surface integrated over its area. The surface is at constant depth, so the pressure is constant. Therefore, the integral of the pressure over the area of the horizontal bottom surface of the cube is the hydrostatic pressure at that depth multiplied by the area of the bottom surface.


title: Buoyancy

text: Similarly, the downward force on the cube is the pressure on the top surface integrated over its area. The surface is at constant depth, so the pressure is constant. Therefore, the integral of the pressure over the area of the horizontal top surface of the cube is the hydrostatic pressure at that depth multiplied by the area of the top surface.


title: Buoyancy

text: As this is a cube, the top and bottom surfaces are identical in shape and area, and the pressure difference between the top and bottom of the cube is directly proportional to the depth difference, and the resultant force difference is exactly equal to the weight of the fluid that would occupy the volume of the cube in its absence.


title: Buoyancy

text: This means that the resultant upward force on the cube is equal to the weight of the fluid that would fit into the volume of the cube, and the downward force on the cube is its weight, in the absence of external forces.


title: Buoyancy

text: If two cubes are placed alongside each other with a face of each in contact, the pressures and resultant forces on the sides or parts thereof in contact are balanced and may be disregarded, as the contact surfaces are equal in shape, size and pressure distribution, therefore the buoyancy of two cubes in contact is the sum of the buoyancies of each cube. This analogy can be extended to an arbitrary number of cubes.


title: Buoyancy

text: An object of any shape can be approximated as a group of cubes in contact with each other, and as the size of the cube is decreased, the precision of the approximation increases. The limiting case for infinitely small cubes is the exact equivalence.


title: Buoyancy

text: Angled surfaces do not nullify the analogy as the resultant force can be split into orthogonal components and each dealt with in the same way.


title: Buoyancy

text: A floating object is stable if it tends to restore itself to an equilibrium position after a small displacement. For example, floating objects will generally have vertical stability, as if the object is pushed down slightly, this will create a greater buoyancy force, which, unbalanced by the weight force, will push the object back up.


title: Buoyancy

text: Rotational stability is of great importance to floating vessels. Given a small angular displacement, the vessel may return to its original position (stable), move away from its original position (unstable), or remain where it is (neutral).


title: Buoyancy

text: Rotational stability depends on the relative lines of action of forces on an object. The upward buoyancy force on an object acts through the center of buoyancy, being the centroid of the displaced volume of fluid. The weight force on the object acts through its center of gravity. A buoyant object will be stable if the center of gravity is beneath the center of buoyancy because any angular displacement will then produce a 'righting moment'.


title: Buoyancy

text: The stability of a buoyant object at the surface is more complex, and it may remain stable even if the center of gravity is above the center of buoyancy, provided that when disturbed from the equilibrium position, the center of buoyancy moves further to the same side that the center of gravity moves, thus providing a positive righting moment. If this occurs, the floating object is said to have a positive metacentric height. This situation is typically valid for a range of heel angles, beyond which the center of buoyancy does not move enough to provide a positive righting moment, and the object becomes unstable. It is possible to shift from positive to negative or vice versa more than once during a heeling disturbance, and many shapes are stable in more than one position.


title: Buoyancy

text: The atmosphere's density depends upon altitude. As an airship rises in the atmosphere, its buoyancy decreases as the density of the surrounding air decreases. In contrast, as a submarine expels water from its buoyancy tanks, it rises because its volume is constant (the volume of water it displaces if it is fully submerged) while its mass is decreased.


title: Buoyancy

text: As a floating object rises or falls, the forces external to it change and, as all objects are compressible to some extent or another, so does the object's volume. Buoyancy depends on volume and so an object's buoyancy reduces if it is compressed and increases if it expands.


title: Buoyancy

text: If an object at equilibrium has a compressibility less than that of the surrounding fluid, the object's equilibrium is stable and it remains at rest. If, however, its compressibility is greater, its equilibrium is then unstable, and it rises and expands on the slightest upward perturbation, or falls and compresses on the slightest downward perturbation.


title: Buoyancy

text: Submarines rise and dive by filling large ballast tanks with seawater. To dive, the tanks are opened to allow air to exhaust out the top of the tanks, while the water flows in from the bottom. Once the weight has been balanced so the overall density of the submarine is equal to the water around it, it has neutral buoyancy and will remain at that depth. Most military submarines operate with a slightly negative buoyancy and maintain depth by using the "lift" of the stabilizers with forward motion.


title: Buoyancy

text: The height to which a balloon rises tends to be stable. As a balloon rises it tends to increase in volume with reducing atmospheric pressure, but the balloon itself does not expand as much as the air on which it rides. The average density of the balloon decreases less than that of the surrounding air. The weight of the displaced air is reduced. A rising balloon stops rising when it and the displaced air are equal in weight. Similarly, a sinking balloon tends to stop sinking.


title: Buoyancy

text: Underwater divers are a common example of the problem of unstable buoyancy due to compressibility. The diver typically wears an exposure suit which relies on gas-filled spaces for insulation, and may also wear a buoyancy compensator, which is a variable volume buoyancy bag which is inflated to increase buoyancy and deflated to decrease buoyancy. The desired condition is usually neutral buoyancy when the diver is swimming in mid-water, and this condition is unstable, so the diver is constantly making fine adjustments by control of lung volume, and has to adjust the contents of the buoyancy compensator if the depth varies.


title: Buoyancy

text: If the weight of an object is less than the weight of the displaced fluid when fully submerged, then the object has an average density that is less than the fluid and when fully submerged will experience a buoyancy force greater than its own weight. If the fluid has a surface, such as water in a lake or the sea, the object will float and settle at a level where it displaces the same weight of fluid as the weight of the object. If the object is immersed in the fluid, such as a submerged submarine or air in a balloon, it will tend to rise.


title: Buoyancy

text: If the object has exactly the same density as the fluid, then its buoyancy equals its weight. It will remain submerged in the fluid, but it will neither sink nor float, although a disturbance in either direction will cause it to drift away from its position.


title: Buoyancy

text: An object with a higher average density than the fluid will never experience more buoyancy than weight and it will sink.


title: Buoyancy

text: A ship will float even though it may be made of steel (which is much denser than water), because it encloses a volume of air (which is much less dense than water), and the resulting shape has an average density less than that of the water.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege is an online tactical shooter video game developed by Ubisoft Montreal and published by Ubisoft. It was released worldwide for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One on December 1, 2015; the game was also released for PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X and Series S exactly five years later on December 1, 2020. The title received a port for Google Stadia on June 30, 2021, and one for Amazon Luna in January 2022. The game puts heavy emphasis on environmental destruction and cooperation between players. Each player assumes control of an attacker or a defender in different gameplay modes such as rescuing a hostage, defusing a bomb, and taking control of an objective within a room. The title has no campaign but features a series of short, offline missions called, "situations" that can be played solo. These missions have a loose narrative, focusing on recruits going through training to prepare them for future encounters with the "White Masks", a terrorist group that threatens the safety of the world.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: "Siege" is an entry in the "Rainbow Six" series and the successor to "", a tactical shooter that had a larger focus on narrative. After "Patriots" was eventually cancelled due to its technical shortcomings, Ubisoft decided to reboot the franchise. The team evaluated the core of the "Rainbow Six" franchise and believed that letting players impersonate the top counter-terrorist operatives around the world suited the game most. To create authentic siege situations, the team consulted actual counter-terrorism units and looked at real-life examples of sieges such as the 1980 Iranian Embassy siege. Powered by AnvilNext 2.0, the game also utilizes Ubisoft's RealBlast technology to create destructible environments.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: The game received an overall positive reception from critics, with praise mostly directed to the game's tense multiplayer and focus on tactics. However, the game was criticized for its progression system and its lack of content. Initial sales were weak, but the game's player base increased significantly as Ubisoft adopted a "games as a service" model for the game and subsequently released several packages of free downloadable content. Several years after the game's release, some critics regarded "Siege" as one of the best multiplayer games in the modern market due to the improvements brought by the post-launch updates. The company partnered with ESL to make "Siege" an esports game. In December 2020, the game surpassed 70 million registered players across all platforms. "Rainbow Six Extraction", a spin-off game featuring "Siege" characters, was released in January 2022.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: "Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege" is a first-person shooter game, in which players utilize many different operators from the Rainbow team. Different operators have different nationalities, weapons, and gadgets. The game features an asymmetrical structure whereby the teams are not always balanced in their choices of abilities. The base Counter-Terrorism Units (CTUs) available for play are the American Hostage Rescue Team (referred to in-game as the FBI SWAT), the British SAS, the German GSG-9, the Russian Spetsnaz and the French GIGN, each of which has four operators per unit split between attackers and defenders (other units were later added through downloadable content, see below). Players also have access to a "Recruit" operator who can choose from a more flexible assortment of equipment at the expense of having a unique gadget or the ability to customize their weapon. Players can pick any operator from any unit that is defending or attacking before a round starts, choosing spawn points as well as attachments on their guns but are not allowed to change their choices once the round has started. An in-game shop allows players to purchase operators or cosmetics using the in-game currency, "Renown", which is earned at the end of matches from actions performed in-game. Different gameplay modes award renown at different rates, with ranked matches offering the largest renown multiplier potential per match. Players can also complete in-game "challenges" to get a small amount of renown. Renown gain rate can also be affected by the using in-game "boosters" which gives the player an increase in all renown earned for various duration, starting with 24 hours. A premium currency known as "R6 credits" can also be purchased using real-world currency to get operators quicker in-game, or other cosmetic items, such as weapon or operator skins .


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: When the round begins in an online match, the attackers choose one of several spawn points from which to launch their attack while defenders do the same from which to defend from. A one-minute preparatory period will then commence wherein the attackers are then given control over mecanum-wheeled drones to scout the map in search of enemy operators, traps and defensive set-ups in addition to the target objective(s), while the defenders establish their defences and are encouraged to do so without having the defensive and target objective(s) details being discovered, chiefly through destroying the drones. Maps in the game are designed to encourage close quarters combat, and players cannot respawn until the end of a round. Players who were killed by opponents can enter "Support Mode", which allows them to gain access to drone's cameras and security cameras so that they can continue to contribute to their team by informing them of opponent locations and activities. Matches last only four minutes for a casual and three minutes for a ranked. Teamwork and cooperation are encouraged in "Siege", and players need to take advantage of their different abilities in order to complete the objective and defeat the enemy team. Communication between players is also heavily encouraged. The game also has a spectator mode, which allows players to observe a match from different angles.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: The game features a heavy emphasis on environmental destruction using a procedural destruction system. Players can break structures by planting explosives on them, or shoot walls to make bullet holes. Players may gain tactical advantages through environmental destruction, and the system aims at encouraging players to utilize creativity and strategy. A bullet-penetration system is featured, in which bullets that pass through structures deal less damage to enemies. In addition to destruction, players on the defending team can also set up a limited number of heavy-duty fortifications on walls and deployable shields around them for protection; these can be destroyed through breaching devices, explosives, or by utilizing operator specific gadgets in the case of the former. In order to stop attackers' advance, defenders can place traps like barbed-wire and explosive laser wire traps around the maps. Vertical space is a key gameplay element in the game's maps: players can destroy ceilings and floors using breach charges and can ambush enemies by rappelling through windows. Powerful weapons like grenades and breach charges are valuable, as only a limited amount can be used in a round.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: At launch, the game featured 11 maps and 5 different gameplay modes spanning both PVE and PVP. With the downloadable content (DLC) released post-launch with an additional four maps from year one and three maps from year two – there are currently 20 playable maps. The gameplay modes featured include:


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: Three years after the Rainbow Program's deactivation, there is a resurgence of terrorist activities, with the White Mask being the most prominent. The terrorists' goals are unknown, yet they are causing chaos across the world. To counter this rising threat, the program is reactivated by a new leader, Aurelia Arnot (who operated under the codename "Six") (Angela Bassett). Arnot assembles a group of special forces operatives from different countries to face and combat the White Masks. Recruits go through multiple exercises to prepare them for future encounters with the White Masks, training to perform hostage rescue and bomb disposal. Eventually, the White Masks launch a chemical attack on a university (called Bartlett University), and the recruits are sent to disarm the bombs and eliminate the enemy presence. The operation is a massive success, though there are casualties. Arnot affirms that the reactivation of Team Rainbow is the best and only choice in a time filled with risks and uncertainties. Team Rainbow is ready for their next mission – to hunt down the leader of their enemy – and they stand prepared to protect and defend their nation from terrorists.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: In 2019, Arnot resigns from her position to become the Secretary of State and recommends her advisor, Doctor Harishva "Harry" Pandey (Andy McQueen), to take her place as "Six". Harry seeks to improve the synergies of Team Rainbow members; thus he developed The Program, a global training regimen to help Rainbow operators understand each other better, and to expand their operations. To that end, Harry also organized annual tournaments for Team Rainbow, which are broadcast and viewed globally as public training exercises. Some times later, Harry invites members of a private military company, Nighthaven, to join Team Rainbow, in order to observe their skills and prevent competitors from also hiring them. Nighthaven members regularly clash with existing Rainbow operators due to their difference in battle tactics; Nighthaven's is considered to be more brutal and reckless, with a notable disregard for their own members' safety. This eventually leads to a public dispute between Rainbow member Eliza "Ash" Cohen (Patricia Summersett) and Nighthaven's founder, Jaimini "Kali" Shah (Yasmine Aker), after Cohen was injured during the 2021 tournament finals due to Shah's action. By 2022, Shah successfully recruits several Rainbow operators to join Nighthaven, much to Harry's dismay. With a surge in global criminal activities, Harry begins reorganizing the remaining Rainbow operators into several smaller teams, and has them focus on new operations, while also looks into Nighthaven and their activities.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: The game's predecessor was "Tom Clancy's Rainbow 6: Patriots", a tactical shooter announced in 2011. It had a focus on narrative, and the story campaign features many cut-scenes and scripted events. However, the game fell into a development hell shortly after its announcement. The game's outdated engine and frequent change of leadership hindered development progress, and game quality was not up to par. In addition, it was planned to be released on seventh-generation video-game consoles which were not capable of processing certain game mechanics. Seeing the arrival of a new generation of consoles, the team wanted to make use of this opportunity to create a more technologically advanced game. As a result, Ubisoft decided to cancel "Patriots" and assembled a new team of 25 people to come up with ideas to reboot the series.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: To make the new game feel refreshing, only certain multiplayer elements were retained as the small team took the game in a different direction. They evaluated the core of the "Rainbow Six" series, which they thought was about being a member of a counter-terrorist team travelling around the globe to deal with dangerous terrorist attacks – operations which are usually intense confrontations between attackers and defenders. However, the team wanted to fit these ideas into a multiplayer format which would increase the game's sustainability. These became the basic concept ideas for the game. As the development team hoped that the game can be replayed frequently, the team decided to devote all the resources into developing the game's multiplayer and abandoned the single-player campaign.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: Development of the game officially began in January 2013. Ubisoft Montreal, the developer of "Patriots", handled the game's development, with Ubisoft's offices in Barcelona, Toronto, Kyiv, Shanghai and Chengdu providing assistance. The game was originally called "Rainbow Six Unbreakable", a title that reflected not only the game's destruction mechanic but also the mindset of the development team, who had to deliver a game that was once stuck in development hell. According to Alexandre Remy, the brand director, the team was confident in their new vision for the game but very nervous when they revealed it, realizing the change of direction would likely disappoint some fans.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: The 150-person team consisted mainly of first-person shooter veterans or longtime "Rainbow Six" players. Despite having prior knowledge on how these types of games work, the team decided to study historic examples of counter-terrorist operations, including 1980's London Iranian Embassy siege, 1977's Lufthansa Flight 181 hijacking, and 2002's Moscow theatre hostage crisis to ensure that the portrayal of these operations was accurate and appropriate. The team also consulted counter-terrorism units, such as the National Gendarmerie Intervention Group (GIGN), for their opinions on how they would react during a hostage rescue situation. According to Xavier Marquis, the game's creative director, having a hostage rescue mission in the game helped create an immersive story. By allowing players to assume control of an operator tasked with saving innocents, it gives them an objective and a priority. They must be careful in dealing with the situation and try their best not to hurt the hostage. This further promotes teamwork between players and prompts them to plan before attacking, and further makes the game more realistic, tense and immersive. To make the game feel more realistic, the team introduced a mechanic called "living hostage" to govern the hostage character's behaviour – e.g., coughing if there is dust in the air or shielding him or herself if there is nearby gunfire.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: The environmental destruction mechanic was one of the game's most important elements. When the game's development was begun, the developer's in-house team completed their work on RealBlast Destruction, an engine that "procedurally breaks everything down" and remodels the environment. The development team thought that this technology fitted the game's style and gameplay, and decided to use it. This aspect of the game became increasingly important during development, and the team spent an extended period of time making sure that these destructions were authentic. As a result, the team implemented a materials-based tearing system, in which environmental objects of different materials show different reactions to players' attacks. To render the game's texture, the team used physically based rendering, even though it was ineffective during the game's early stage of production due to issues with the game's engine. A material bank and substance painter were utilized to create textures for environmental objects when they were damaged or destroyed. The team also implemented subtle visual cues to help players identify whether a structure was destructible or not, as opposed to "distracting" players with more-obvious hints. The destruction mechanic prompted Ubisoft to change their level-design approach, as they had to ensure that the level was still logical and realistic when parts of the environment were destroyed.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: According to Ubisoft, "teamwork, tactics, and tension" were the game's three most important pillars. The team initially worked on a respawn feature, allowing players to rejoin after they are killed in the game. However, following several internal tournaments, the team realized that some of their employees would always win a match. They concluded that the respawn system worked to the benefit of strong players and placed individual skill above teamwork, which did not fit the developer's focus on game tactics. Removing the respawn feature meant greater consequences for taking risks, and players had to rely on their teammates in order to survive and achieve objectives. According to Chris Lee, the game's designer, the team initially worried that the system would only appeal to hardcore players. However, after several testings, they found that the removal of the respawn system provided new challenges to strong players and forced them to cooperate with their teammates – while it rewarded weaker players who were willing to take their time, plan their actions, and be strategic.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: The gameplay system was designed to allow players to have a lot of freedom. As a result, the team implemented the "Golden 3C Rules", which represents Character, Control, and Camera. Players are always controlling their own actions and movements, and the team intentionally avoided any animation that would disrupt the players. As a result, actions such as setting explosives, or placing a breach charge, can be cancelled immediately so that players can react and shoot. The game's camera only moves when the player moves, as the team feared that the changes of camera angle may lead to players' in-game deaths. A free-lean system was introduced to the game so that players can have more control over their line of sight. According to Ubisoft, this input-driven control mechanism makes the game feel more "natural" and "fluid". This is because it allows players to concentrate on planning and coordinating, rather than thinking if the camera or environment will interfere with their actions.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: Several gameplay elements were scrapped or removed from the final game. One of the features of its predecessors, artificial intelligence-controlled squadmates, were removed from single-player missions. This decision was made because the team wanted players to play with a squad controlled by actual players rather than computers. The team once considered adding a map editor so that players could design their own maps, but this plan never came to fruition. Hit markers, which would indicate an injury inflicted on an opponent, were removed because the team feared that players would abuse the system by "peppering the walls with gunfire" and use hit markers to locate enemies. Players cannot jump in the game, as real-life counter-terrorist unit operators do not jump while carrying out their missions.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: According to Louis Philippe, the game's audio director, the team originally used intense music and sounds to create tension. However, the team decided to scrap this idea, realizing that the best way to create a tense atmosphere is to create the sounds of other players, which are often unexpected. The team created Navigation Sounds, in which the sound a player made is determined by their operators' weight, armour, and speed. Gadget deployment such as fortifying and breach-charging create louder sounds that may reveal the player's presence. The team thought that this would be enjoyable for players and influence their gameplay experience. The game's music was composed by Paul Haslinger, who had worked on the score of the previous "Rainbow Six" games and the "Far Cry" series. His co-composer was Ben Frost, who debuted his first video game soundtrack with "Siege". Leon Purviance assisted Frost and Haslinger in composing the music.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: Ubisoft announced the game at their press conference during Electronic Entertainment Expo 2014. In August 2015, Ubisoft announced that they had delayed the game's release from October 10 to December 1, 2015, in order to give additional time for the team to balance the game for cooperative multiplayer play. A closed alpha-testing was held by Ubisoft on April 7–13, 2015, in which players could play an early version of the game in order to help the development team test their servers and core gameplay loops, and to provide feedback. Ubisoft held a closed beta, starting on September 24, 2015, for further testing. The company originally wanted to hold another round of testing with the release of the game's open beta on November 25, 2015, but they delayed its release to November 26 due to matchmaking issues. Players who purchased "Siege" for the Xbox One could download "" and its sequel, "" for free. To launch the game in Asian markets, Ubisoft announced plans to remove graphic imagery from all versions of the game via a patch. The plan was later withdrawn by the developer due to review bombing and negative fans feedback.


title: Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege

text: The game had multiple versions for players to purchase. A season pass was announced on November 12, 2015. Players who bought this version of the game could gain early access to operators offered in the DLCs and receive several weapon skins. The game was also released alongside its Collector's Edition, which included the game's season pass, a hat, a compass and bottle opener, a backpack, and a 120-page guide. A "Starter Edition" was released on PC in June 2016, featuring all content offered in the Standard Edition, and included two operators at start for use plus enough Rainbow 6 Credits to purchase up to two more of the player's choice while the rest has to be purchased through either Renown at an increased cost or additional Rainbow 6 Credits. The Starter Edition was cheaper than the Standard Edition and was initially available for a limited time. In February 2017, the Starter Edition became permanently available via Uplay.