title: Si vis pacem, para bellum

text: Whatever the source, the adage has become a living vocabulary item itself, used in the production of different ideas in a number of languages. For example, in 1790 during his first annual address to a joint session of Congress, George Washington stated "To be prepared for war is one of the most effectual means of preserving peace."


title: Si vis pacem, para bellum

text: For example, historian Louis Antoine Fauvelet de Bourrienne made reference to the foreign policy of Napoleon Bonaparte:


title: Si vis pacem, para bellum

text: In the United States, the National Arbitration and Peace Congress of 1907, presided over by Andrew Carnegie said:


title: Si vis pacem, para bellum

text: "If you want peace, make war". The solution does not cover the case of the nation that does not desire peace. Imperial Germany went to war in 1914 and was castigated by Richard Grelling, a German-Jewish pacifist, in "J'Accuse" (1915). In 1918 Grelling wrote again, this time as an expatriate in Switzerland. Citing Woodrow Wilson's "The world must be safe for democracy" speech before Congress on April 2, 1917, Grelling says:


title: Si vis pacem, para bellum

text: "If you want peace, prepare for peace." The great wars of the 19th and 20th centuries were opposed by the philosophy of pacifism, which in the 19th century was associated with early socialism, even though the socialism of the 20th century often lacked pacifistic tendencies, preaching violent revolution instead. The pacifism that opposed the world wars traced its lineage to Barthélemy Prosper Enfantin, an early French socialist and one of the founders of Saint-Simonianism. As early as April 2, 1841, he had said in a letter to General Saint-Cyr Nugues:


title: Si vis pacem, para bellum

text: with reference to Algeria. By way of elucidation Enfantin goes on to say that war could have been avoided if a proper study of Algeria had been made.


title: Si vis pacem, para bellum

text: The main clause of the adage was used as a motto by German arms maker Deutsche Waffen und Munitionsfabriken (DWM), and is the source of the term Parabellum as applied to firearms and ammunition (especially the 7.65mm Parabellum and the 9mm Parabellum cartridges).


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Ida B. Wells (full name: Ida Bell Wells-Barnett) (July 16, 1862 – March 25, 1931) was an American investigative journalist, educator, and early leader in the civil rights movement. She was one of the founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Wells dedicated her lifetime to combating prejudice and violence, the fight for African-American equality, especially that of women, and became arguably the most famous Black woman in the United States of her time.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Born into slavery in Holly Springs, Mississippi, Wells was freed by the Emancipation Proclamation during the American Civil War. At the age of 16, she lost both her parents and her infant brother in the . She went to work and kept the rest of the family together with the help of her grandmother. Later, moving with some of her siblings to Memphis, Tennessee, Wells found better pay as a teacher. Soon, Wells co-owned and wrote for the "Memphis Free Speech and Headlight" newspaper. Her reporting covered incidents of racial segregation and inequality.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: In the 1890s, Wells documented lynching in the United States in articles and through her pamphlets called "Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in all its Phases", and "The Red Record", investigating frequent claims of whites that lynchings were reserved for Black criminals only. Wells exposed lynching as a barbaric practice of whites in the South used to intimidate and oppress African Americans who created economic and political competition—and a subsequent threat of loss of power—for whites. Well's pamphlet set out to tell the truth behind the rising violence in the South against African Americans. At this time, the White press continued to paint the African Americans involved in the incident as villains and Whites as innocent victims. Ida B. Wells was a respected voice in the African American community in the South that people listened to. Thus, Well’s pamphlet was needed to show people the truth about this violence and advocate for justice for African Americans in the South. A white mob destroyed her newspaper office and presses as her investigative reporting was carried nationally in Black-owned newspapers. Subjected to continued threats, Wells left Memphis for Chicago. She married Ferdinand L. Barnett in 1895 and had a family while continuing her work writing, speaking, and organizing for civil rights and the women's movement for the rest of her life.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Wells was outspoken regarding her beliefs as a Black female activist and faced regular public disapproval, sometimes including from other leaders within the civil rights movement and the women's suffrage movement. She was active in women's rights and the women's suffrage movement, establishing several notable women's organizations. A skilled and persuasive speaker, Wells traveled nationally and internationally on lecture tours. Wells died of kidney disease on March 25, 1931, in Chicago, and in 2020 was posthumously honored with a Pulitzer Prize special citation "for her outstanding and courageous reporting on the horrific and vicious violence against African Americans during the era of lynching."


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Ida Bell Wells was born on the Bolling Farm near Holly Springs, Mississippi, July 16, 1862. She was the eldest child of James Madison Wells (1840–1878) and Elizabeth "Lizzie" (Warrenton). James Wells' father was a White man who impregnated an enslaved Black woman named Peggy. Before dying, James' father brought him, aged 18, to Holly Springs to become a carpenter's apprentice. Upon learning carpentry skills, he was able to work for hire in Holly Springs, with his wages going to his slaveholder. Lizzie's experience as an enslaved person was quite different. One of 10 children born on a plantation in Virginia, Lizzie was sold away from her family and siblings and tried without success to locate her family following the Civil War. Before the Emancipation Proclamation was issued, Wells' parents were enslaved to Spires Boling, an architect, and the family lived in the structure now called Bolling–Gatewood House, which has become the Ida B. Wells-Barnett Museum.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: After emancipation, Wells' father, James Wells, became a trustee of Shaw College (now Rust College). He refused to vote for Democratic candidates (see Southern Democrats) during the period of Reconstruction, became a member of the Loyal League, and was known as a "race man" for his involvement in politics and his commitment to the Republican Party. He founded a successful carpentry business in Holly Springs in 1867, and his wife Lizzie became known as a "famous cook".


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Ida B. Wells was one of the eight children, and she enrolled in the historically Black liberal arts college Rust College in Holly Springs (formerly Shaw College). In September 1878, tragedy struck the Wells family when both of Ida's parents died during a yellow fever epidemic that also claimed a sibling. Wells had been visiting her grandmother's farm near Holly Springs at the time and was spared.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Following the funerals of her parents and brother, friends and relatives decided that the five remaining Wells children should be separated and sent to foster homes. Wells resisted this proposition. To keep her younger siblings together as a family, she found work as a teacher in a rural Black elementary school outside Holly Springs. Her paternal grandmother, Peggy Wells "(née" Peggy Cheers; 1814–1887), along with other friends and relatives, stayed with her siblings and cared for them during the week while Wells was teaching.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: About two years after Wells' grandmother Peggy had a stroke and her sister Eugenia died, Wells and her two youngest sisters moved to Memphis to live with an aunt, Fanny Butler "(" Fanny Wells; 1837–1908), in 1883. Memphis is about from Holly Springs.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Soon after moving to Memphis, Tennessee, Wells was hired in Woodstock by the Shelby County school system. During her summer vacations, she attended summer sessions at Fisk University, a historically Black college in Nashville, Tennessee. She also attended Lemoyne-Owen College, a historically Black college in Memphis. She held strong political opinions and provoked many people with her views on women's rights. At the age of 24, she wrote: "I will not begin at this late day by doing what my soul abhors; sugaring men, weak deceitful creatures, with flattery to retain them as escorts or to gratify a revenge."


title: Ida B. Wells

text: On May 4, 1884, a train conductor with the Chesapeake & Ohio Railroad ordered Wells to give up her seat in the first-class ladies car and move to the smoking car, which was already crowded with other passengers. The previous year, the United States Supreme Court had ruled against the federal Civil Rights Act of 1875 (which had banned racial discrimination in public accommodations). This verdict supported railroad companies that chose to racially segregate their passengers. When Wells refused to give up her seat, the conductor and two men dragged her out of the car. Wells gained publicity in Memphis when she wrote a newspaper article for "The Living Way", a Black church weekly, about her treatment on the train. In Memphis, she hired an African-American attorney to sue the railroad. When her lawyer was paid off by the railroad, she hired a White attorney.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: She won her case on December 24, 1884, when the local circuit court granted her a $500 award. The railroad company appealed to the Tennessee Supreme Court, which reversed the lower court's ruling in 1887. It concluded: "We think it is evident that the purpose of the defendant in error was to harass with a view to this suit, and that her persistence was not in good faith to obtain a comfortable seat for the short ride." Wells was ordered to pay court costs. Her reaction to the higher court's decision revealed her strong convictions on civil rights and religious faith, as she responded: "I felt so disappointed because I had hoped such great things from my suit for my people. ... O God, is there no ... justice in this land for us?"


title: Ida B. Wells

text: While continuing to teach elementary school, Wells became increasingly active as a journalist and writer. She accepted an editorial position for a small Memphis journal, the "Evening Star," and she began writing weekly articles for "The Living Way" newspaper under the pen name "Iola". Articles she wrote under her pen name attacked racist Jim Crow policies. In 1889, she became editor and co-owner with J. L. Fleming of "The Free Speech and Headlight", a Black-owned newspaper established by the Reverend Taylor Nightingale (1844–1922) and based at the Beale Street Baptist Church in Memphis.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: In 1891, Wells was dismissed from her teaching post by the Memphis Board of Education due to her articles criticizing conditions in the Black schools of the region. She was devastated but undaunted, and concentrated her energy on writing articles for "The Living Way" and the "Free Speech and Headlight".


title: Ida B. Wells

text: In 1889, Thomas Henry Moss, Sr. (1853–1892), an African American, opened People's Grocery, which he co-owned. The store was located in a South Memphis neighborhood nicknamed "The Curve". Wells was close to Moss and his family, having stood as godmother to his first child, Maurine E. Moss (1891–1971). Moss's store did well and competed with a White-owned grocery store across the street, Barrett's Grocery, owned by William Russell Barrett (1854–1920).


title: Ida B. Wells

text: On March 2, 1892, a young Black male youth named Armour Harris was playing a game of marbles with a young White male youth named Cornelius Hurst in front of the People's Grocery. The two male youths got into an argument during the game, then began to fight. As the Black youth, Harris, seemed to be winning the fight, the father of Cornelius Hurst intervened and began to "thrash" Harris. The People's Grocery employees William Stewart and Calvin R. McDowell (1870–1892) saw the fight and rushed outside to defend the young Harris from the adult Hurst as people in the neighborhood gathered into what quickly became a "racially charged mob".


title: Ida B. Wells

text: The White grocer Barrett returned the following day, March 3, 1892, to the People's Grocery with a Shelby County Sheriff's Deputy, looking for William Stewart. Calvin McDowell, who greeted Barrett, indicated that Stewart was not present, but Barrett was dissatisfied with the response and was frustrated that the People's Grocery was competing with his store. Angry about the previous day's "mêlée," Barrett responded that "Blacks were thieves" and hit McDowell with a pistol. McDowell wrestled the gun away and fired at Barrett—missing narrowly. McDowell was later arrested but subsequently released.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: On March 5, 1892, a group of six White men including a sheriff's deputy took electric streetcars to the People's Grocery. The group of White men were met by a barrage of bullets from the People's Grocery, and Shelby County Sheriff Deputy Charley Cole was wounded, as well as civilian Bob Harold. Hundreds of Whites were deputized almost immediately to put down what was perceived by the local Memphis newspapers "Commercial" and "Appeal-Avalanche" as an armed rebellion by Black men in Memphis.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Thomas Moss, a postman in addition to being the owner of the People's Grocery, was named as a conspirator along with McDowell and Stewart. The three men were arrested and jailed pending trial.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Around 2:30 a.m. on the morning of March 9, 1892, 75 men wearing black masks took Moss, McDowell, and Stewart from their jail cells at the Shelby County Jail to a Chesapeake and Ohio rail yard one mile north of the city and shot them dead. The "Memphis Appeal-Avalanche" reports:


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Just before he was killed, Moss said to the mob: "Tell my people to go west, there is no justice here."


title: Ida B. Wells

text: After the lynching of her friends, Wells wrote in "Free Speech and Headlight" urging Blacks to leave Memphis altogether:


title: Ida B. Wells

text: There is, therefore, only one thing left to do; save our money and leave a town which will neither protect our lives and property, nor give us a fair trial in the courts, but takes us out and murders us in cold blood when accused by White persons.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: The event led Wells to begin investigating lynchings using investigative journalist techniques. She began to interview people associated with lynchings, including a lynching in Tunica, Mississippi, in 1892 where she concluded that the father of a young White woman had implored a lynch mob to kill a Black man with whom his daughter was having a sexual relationship, under a "to save the reputation of his daughter".


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Wells' anti-lynching commentaries in the "Free Speech" had been building, particularly with respect to lynchings and imprisonment of Black men suspected of raping White women. A story broke on January 16, 1892, in the "Cleveland Gazette", describing a wrongful conviction for a sexual affair between a married White woman, Julia Underwood ("née" Julie Caroline Wells), and a single Black man, William Offet (1854–1914) of Elyria, Ohio. Offet was convicted of rape and served four years of a 15-year sentence, despite his sworn denial of rape (the word of a Black man against that of a White woman). Her husband, Rev. Isaac T. Underwood – after she confessed to him two years later – diligently worked to get Offet out of the penitentiary. After hiring an influential Pittsburgh attorney, Thomas Harlan Baird Patterson (1844–1907), Rev. Underwood prevailed, Offet was released and subsequently pardoned by the Ohio Governor.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: On May 21, 1892, Wells published an editorial in the "Free Speech" refuting what she called "that old lie that Negro men rape White women. If Southern men are not careful, a conclusion might be reached which will be very damaging to the moral reputation of their women."


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Four days later, on May 25, "The Daily Commercial" published a threat: "The fact that a Black scoundrel [Ida B. Wells] is allowed to live and utter such loathsome and repulsive is a volume of evidence as to the wonderful patience of Southern Whites. But we've had enough of it." "The Evening Scimitar" (Memphis) copied the story that same day, but, more specifically raised the threat: "Patience under such circumstances is not a virtue. If the Negroes themselves do not apply the remedy without delay it will be the duty of those whom he has attacked to tie the wretch who utters these calumnies to a stake at the intersection of Main and Madison Sts., brand him in the forehead with a hot iron and perform upon him a surgical operation with a pair of tailor's shears."


title: Ida B. Wells

text: A White mob ransacked the "Free Speech" office, destroying the building and its contents. James L. Fleming, co-owner with Wells and business manager, was forced to flee Memphis; and, reportedly, the trains were being watched for Wells' return. Creditors took possession of the office and sold the assets of the "Free Speech." Wells had been out of town, vacationing in Manhattan; she never returned to Memphis. A "committee" of White businessmen, reportedly from the Cotton Exchange, located Rev. Nightingale and, although he had sold his interest to Wells and Fleming in 1891, assaulted him and forced him at gunpoint to sign a letter retracting the May 21 editorial.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Wells subsequently accepted a job with "The New York Age" and continued her anti-lynching campaign from New York. For the next three years, she resided in Harlem, initially as a guest at the home of Timothy Thomas Fortune (1856–1928) and wife, Carrie Fortune ("née" Caroline Charlotte Smiley; 1860–1940).


title: Ida B. Wells

text: According to Kenneth W. Goings, PhD, no copy of the "Memphis Free Speech" survives. The only knowledge of the newspaper ever existing comes from reprinted articles in other archived newspapers.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: On October 26, 1892, Wells began to publish her research on lynching in a pamphlet titled "Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases". Having examined many accounts of lynchings due to the alleged "rape of White women", she concluded that Southerners cried rape as an excuse to hide their real reasons for lynchings: Black economic progress, which threatened White Southerners with competition, and White ideas of enforcing Black second-class status in the society. Black economic progress was a contemporary issue in the South, and in many states Whites worked to suppress Black progress. In this period at the turn of the century, Southern states, starting with Mississippi in 1890, passed laws and/or new constitutions to disenfranchise most Black people and many poor White people through use of poll taxes, literacy tests and other devices.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Wells, in "Southern Horrors," adopted the phrase "poor, blind Afro-American Sampsons" to denote Black men as victims of "White Delilahs". The Biblical "Samson", in the vernacular of the day, came from Longfellow's 1865 poem, "The Warning", containing the line: "There is a poor, blind Samson in the land" To explain the metaphor "Sampson", John Elliott Cairnes, an Irish political economist, in his 1865 article about Black suffrage, wrote that Longfellow was prophesizing; ":" in "the long-impending struggle for Americans following the Civil War, [he, Longfellow] could see in the Negro only an instrument of vengeance, and a cause of ruin".


title: Ida B. Wells

text: After conducting further research, Wells published "The Red Record," in 1895, a 100-page pamphlet with more detail, describing lynching in the United States since the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. It also covered Black people's struggles in the South since the Civil War. "The Red Record" explored the alarmingly high rates of lynching in the United States (which was at a peak from 1880 to 1930). Wells said that during Reconstruction, most Americans outside the South did not realize the growing rate of violence against Black people in the South. She believed that during slavery, White people had not committed as many attacks because of the economic labour value of slaves. Wells noted that, since slavery time, "ten thousand Negroes have been killed in cold blood, [through lynching] without the formality of judicial trial and legal execution".


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Frederick Douglass had written an article noting three eras of "Southern barbarism" and the excuses that Whites claimed in each period.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Wells gave 14 pages of statistics related to lynching cases committed from 1892 to 1895; she also included pages of graphic accounts detailing specific lynchings. She wrote that her data was taken from articles by White correspondents, White press bureaus, and White newspapers. Her delivery of these statistics did not simply reduce the lynchings to numbers, Wells strategically paired the data with descriptive accounts in a way that helped her audience conceptualize the scale of the injustice. This powerful quantification captivated Black and White audiences about the horrors of lynching, through both her circulated works and public oration.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: "Southern Horrors" and "The Red Record"s documentation of lynchings captured the attention of Northerners who knew little about lynching or accepted the common explanation that Black men deserved this fate.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: According to the Equal Justice Initiative, 4,084 African Americans were lynched in the South, alone, between 1877 and 1950, of which, 25 percent were accused of sexual assault and nearly 30 percent, murder. Generally southern states and White juries refused to indict any perpetrators for lynching, although they were frequently known and sometimes shown in the photographs being made more frequently of such events.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Despite Wells's attempt to gain support among White Americans against lynching, she believed that her campaign could not overturn the economic interests Whites had in using lynching as an instrument to maintain Southern order and discourage Black economic ventures. Ultimately, Wells concluded that appealing to reason and compassion would not succeed in gaining criminalization of lynching by Southern Whites. In response to the extreme violence perpetrated upon Black Americans by some White people, Wells concluded that perhaps armed resistance was the only defense against lynching, and recommended that Black people use arms to defend against lynching. Wells was an outspoken advocate of firearms ownership for Black Americans, and said that "A Winchester rifle should have a place of honor in every black home


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Wells travelled twice to Britain in her campaign against lynching, the first time in 1893 and the second in 1894 in effort to gain the support of such a powerful White nation such as Britain to shame and sanction the racist practices of America. She and her supporters in America saw these tours as an opportunity for her to reach larger, White audiences with her anti-lynching campaign, something she had been unable to accomplish in America. In these travels, Wells notes that her own transatlantic voyages in themselves held a powerful cultural context given the histories of the Middle Passage, and black female identity within the dynamics of segregation. She found sympathetic audiences in Britain, already shocked by reports of lynching in America.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Wells had been invited for her first British speaking tour by Catherine Impey and Isabella Fyvie Mayo. Impey, a Quaker abolitionist who published the journal "Anti-Caste", had attended several of Wells' lectures while traveling in America. Mayo was a writer and poet who wrote under the name of Edward Garrett. Both women had read of the particularly gruesome lynching of Henry Smith in Texas and wanted to organize a speaking tour to call attention to American lynchings.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Impey and Mayo asked Frederick Douglass to make the trip, but he declined, citing his age and health. He then suggested Wells, who enthusiastically accepted the invitation. In 1894, before leaving the US for her second visit to Great Britain, Wells called on William Penn Nixon, the editor of the "Daily Inter Ocean", a Republican newspaper in Chicago. It was the only major White paper that persistently denounced lynching. After she told Nixon about her planned tour, he asked her to write for the newspaper while in England. She was the first African-American woman to be a paid correspondent for a mainstream White newspaper.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Wells toured England, Scotland and Wales for two months, addressing audiences of thousands, and rallying a moral crusade among the British. She relied heavily on her pamphlet "Southern Horrors" in her first tour, and showed shocking photographs of actual lynchings in America. On May 17, 1894, she spoke in Birmingham at the Young Men's Christian Assembly and at Central Hall, staying in Edgbaston at 66 Gough Road.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: On the last night of her second tour, the London Anti-Lynching Committee was established – reportedly the first anti-lynching organization in the world. Its founding members included many notables such as the Duke of Argyll, Sir John Gorst, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Lady Henry Somerset and some twenty Members of Parliament, with activist Florence Balgarnie as the honorary secretary.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: As a result of her two lecture tours in Britain, Wells received significant coverage in the British and American press. Many of the articles published by the latter at the time of her return to the United States were hostile personal critiques, rather than reports of her anti-lynching positions and beliefs. "The New York Times", for example, called her "a slanderous and nasty-minded Mulatress". Despite these attacks from the American press, Wells had nevertheless gained extensive recognition and credibility, and an international audience of supporters for her cause. Wells' tours in Britain even influenced public opinion to the extent that British textile manufacturers fought back with economic strategies, imposing a temporary boycott on Southern cotton that pressured southern businessmen to condemn the practice of lynching publically.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: On June 27, 1895, in Chicago at Bethel AME Church, Wells married attorney Ferdinand L. Barnett, a widower with two sons, Ferdinand Barnett and Albert Graham Barnett (1886–1962). Ferdinand Lee Barnett, who lived in Chicago, was a prominent attorney, civil rights activist, and journalist. Like Wells, he spoke widely against lynchings and for the civil rights of African Americans. Wells and Barnett had met in 1893, working together on a pamphlet protesting the lack of Black representation at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. Barnett founded "The Chicago Conservator", the first Black newspaper in Chicago, in 1878. Wells began writing for the paper in 1893, later acquired a partial ownership interest, and after marrying Barnett, assumed the role of editor.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Wells' marriage to Barnett was a legal union as well as a partnership of ideas and actions. Both were journalists, and both were established activists with a shared commitment to civil rights. In an interview, Wells' daughter Alfreda said that the two had "like interests" and that their journalist careers were "intertwined". This sort of close working relationship between a wife and husband was unusual at the time, as women often played more traditional domestic roles in a marriage.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: In addition to Barnett's two children from his previous marriage, the couple had four more: Charles Aked Barnett (1896–1957), Herman Kohlsaat Barnett (1897–1975), Ida Bell Wells Barnett, Jr. (1901–1988), and Alfreda Marguerita Barnett "(married surname" Duster; 1904–1983). Charles Aked Barnett's middle name was the surname of Charles Frederic Aked (1864–1941), an influential British-born-turned-American progressive Protestant clergyman who, in 1894, while pastor of the Pembrooke Baptist Church in Liverpool, England, befriended Wells, endorsed her anti-lynching campaign, and hosted her during her second speaking tour in England in 1894.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Wells began writing her autobiography, "Crusade for Justice" (1928), but never finished the book; it would be posthumously published, edited by her daughter Alfreda Barnett Duster, in 1970, as "Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells".In a chapter of "Crusade For Justice", titled "A Divided Duty", she described the difficult challenge of splitting her time between family and work. She continued to work after the birth of her first child, traveling and bringing the infant Charles with her. Although she tried to balance her roles as a mother and as a national activist, it was alleged that she was not always successful. Susan B. Anthony said she seemed "distracted".


title: Ida B. Wells

text: The establishment by Wells of Chicago's first kindergarten prioritizing Black children, located in the lecture room of the Bethel AME Church, demonstrates how her public activism and her personal life were connected; as her great-granddaughter Michelle Duster notes: "When her older children started getting of school age, then she recognized that black children did not have the same kind of educational opportunities as some other students ... And so, her attitude was, 'Well since it doesn't exist, we'll create it ourselves.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: The 19th century's acknowledged leader for African-American civil rights Frederick Douglass praised Wells' work, giving her introductions and sometimes financial support for her investigations. When he died in 1895, Wells was perhaps at the height of her notoriety, but many men and women were ambivalent or against a woman taking the lead in Black civil rights at a time when women were not seen as, and often not allowed to be, leaders by the wider society. For the new leading voices, Booker T. Washington, his rival, W. E. B. Du Bois, and more traditionally minded women activists, Wells often came to be seen as too radical.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Wells encountered and sometimes collaborated with the others, but they also had many disagreements, while also competing for attention for their ideas and programs. For example, there are differing in accounts for why Wells' name was excluded from the original list of founders of the NAACP. In his autobiography "Dusk of Dawn", Du Bois implied that Wells chose not to be included. However, in her autobiography, Wells stated that Du Bois deliberately excluded her from the list.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Having settled in Chicago, Wells continued her anti-lynching work while becoming more focused on the civil rights of African Americans. She worked with national civil rights leaders to protest a major exhibition, she was active in the national women's club movement, and she ultimately ran for the Illinois State Senate. She also was passionate about women's rights and suffrage. She was a spokeswoman and an advocate for women being successful in the workplace, having  equal opportunities, and creating a name for themselves.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Wells was an active member of the National Equal Rights League (NERL), founded in 1864, and was their representative calling on President Woodrow Wilson to end discrimination in government jobs. In 1914, she served as president of NERL's Chicago bureau.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: In 1893, the World's Columbian Exposition was held in Chicago. Together with Frederick Douglass and other Black leaders, Wells organized a Black boycott of the fair, for the fair's lack of representation of African-American achievement in the exhibits. Wells, Douglass, Irvine Garland Penn, and Wells' future husband, Ferdinand L. Barnett, wrote sections of the pamphlet "The Reason Why: The Colored American Is Not in the World's Columbian Exposition", which detailed the progress of Blacks since their arrival in America and also exposed the basis of Southern lynchings. Wells later reported to Albion W. Tourgée that copies of the pamphlet had been distributed to more than 20,000 people at the fair. That year she started work with "The Chicago Conservator", the oldest African-American newspaper in the city.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Living in Chicago in the late 19th century, Wells was very active in the national Woman's club movement. In 1893, she organized "The Women's Era Club", a first-of-its-kind civic club for African-American women in Chicago. Wells recruited veteran Chicago activist Mary Richardson Jones to serve as the first chair of the new club in 1894; Jones recruited for the organization and lent it her considerable prestige. It would later be renamed the Ida B. Wells Club in her honor. In 1896, Wells took part in the meeting in Washington, D.C., that founded the National Association of Colored Women's Clubs. After her death, the Ida B. Wells Club went on to do many things. The club advocated to have a housing project in Chicago named after the founder, Ida B. Wells, and succeeded, making history in 1939 as the first housing project named after a woman of color. Wells also helped organize the National Afro-American Council, serving as the organization's first secretary.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Wells received much support from other social activists and her fellow club women. Frederick Douglass praised her work: "You have done your people and mine a service. ...What a revelation of existing conditions your writing has been for me."


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Despite Douglass's praise, Wells was becoming a controversial figure among local and national women's clubs. This was evident when in 1899 the National Association of Colored Women's Clubs intended to meet in Chicago. Writing to the president of the association, Mary Terrell, Chicago organizers of the event stated that they would not cooperate in the meeting if it included Wells. When Wells learned that Terrell had agreed to exclude Wells, she called it "a staggering blow".


title: Ida B. Wells

text: In 1900, Wells was outraged when the "Chicago Tribune" published a series of articles suggesting adoption of a system of racial segregation in public schools. Given her experience as a school teacher in segregated systems in the South, she wrote to the publisher on the failures of segregated school systems and the successes of integrated public schools. She then went to his office and lobbied him. Unsatisfied, she enlisted the social reformer Jane Addams in her cause. Wells and the pressure group she put together with Addams are credited with stopping the adoption of an officially segregated school system.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Wells' role in the U.S. suffrage movement was inextricably linked to her lifelong crusade against racism, violence and discrimination towards African Americans. Her view of women's enfranchisement was pragmatic and political. Like all suffragists she believed in women's right to vote, but she also saw enfranchisement as a way for Black women to become politically involved in their communities and to use their votes to elect African Americans, regardless of gender, to influential political office.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: As a prominent Black suffragist, Wells held strong positions against racism, violence and lynching that brought her into conflict with leaders of largely White suffrage organizations. Perhaps the most notable example of this conflict was her very public disagreement with Frances Willard, the first President of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU).


title: Ida B. Wells

text: The WCTU was a predominantly White women's organization, with branches in every state and a growing membership, including in the Southern United States, where segregation laws and lynching occurred. With roots in the call for temperance and sobriety, the organization later became a powerful advocate of suffrage in the U.S.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: In 1893 Wells and Willard travelled separately to Britain on lecture tours. Willard was promoting temperance as well as suffrage for women, and Wells was calling attention to lynching in the U.S. The basis of their dispute was Wells' public statements that Willard was silent on the issue of lynching. Wells referred to an interview Willard had conducted during her tour of the American South, in which Willard had blamed African Americans' behavior for the defeat of temperance legislation. "The colored race multiplies like the locusts of Egypt", Willard had said, and "the is its center of power. The safety of women, of childhood, of the home is menaced in a thousand localities, so that men dare not go beyond the sight of their own ."


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Although Willard and her prominent supporter Lady Somerset were critical of Wells' comments, Wells was able to turn that into her favor, portraying their criticisms as attempts by powerful White leaders to "crush an insignificant colored woman".


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Wells also dedicated a chapter in "The Red Record" to juxtapose the different positions that she and Willard held. The chapter titled "Miss Willard's Attitude" condemned Willard for using rhetoric that promoted violence and other crimes against African Americans in America.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Wells, her husband, and some members of their Bible study group, in 1908 founded the Negro Fellowship League (NFL), the first Black settlement house in Chicago. The organization, in rented space, served as a reading room, library, activity center, and shelter for young Black men in the local community at a time when the local Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) did not allow Black men to become members. The NFL also assisted with job leads and entrepreneurial opportunities for new arrivals in Chicago from Southern States, notably those of the Great Migration. During her involvement, the NFL advocated for women's suffrage and supported the Republican Party in Illinois.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: In the years following her dispute with Willard, Wells continued her anti-lynching campaign and organizing in Chicago. She focused her work on Black women's suffrage in the city following the enactment of a new state law enabling partial women's suffrage. The Illinois Presidential and Municipal Suffrage Bill of 1913 (see Women's suffrage in Illinois) gave women in the state the right to vote for presidential electors, mayor, aldermen and most other local offices; but not for governor, state representatives or members of Congress. Illinois was the first state east of the Mississippi to give women these voting rights.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: The prospect of passing the act, even one of partial enfranchisement, was the impetus for Wells and her White colleague Belle Squire to organize the Alpha Suffrage Club in Chicago on January 30, 1913. One of the most important Black suffrage organizations in Chicago, the Alpha Suffrage Club was founded as a way to further voting rights for all women, to teach Black women how to engage in civic matters, and to work to elect African Americans to city offices. Two years after its founding, the club played a significant role in electing Oscar De Priest as the first African-American alderman in Chicago.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: As Wells and Squire were organizing the Alpha Club, the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) was organizing a suffrage parade in Washington D.C. Marching the day before the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson as president in 1913, suffragists from across the country gathered to demand universal suffrage. Wells, together with a delegation of members from Chicago, attended. On the day of the march, the head of the Illinois delegation told the Wells delegates that the NAWSA wanted "to keep the delegation entirely White", and all African-American suffragists, including Wells, were to walk at the end of the parade in a "colored delegation".


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Instead of going to the back with other African Americans, however, Wells waited with spectators as the parade was underway, and stepped into the White Illinois delegation as they passed by. She visibly linked arms with her White suffragist colleagues, Squire and Virginia Brooks, for the rest of the parade, demonstrating, according to "The Chicago Defender", the universality of the women's civil rights movement.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: During World War I, the U.S. government placed Wells under surveillance, labeling her a dangerous "race agitator". She defied this threat by continuing civil rights work during this period with such figures as Marcus Garvey, Monroe Trotter, and Madam C. J. Walker. In 1917, Wells wrote a series of investigative reports for the "Chicago Defender" on the East St. Louis Race Riots. After almost thirty years away, Wells made her first trip back to the South in 1921 to investigate and publish a report on the Elaine massacre in Arkansas (published 1922).


title: Ida B. Wells

text: In the 1920s, she participated in the struggle for African-American workers' rights, urging Black women's organizations to support the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, as it tried to gain legitimacy. However, she lost the presidency of the National Association of Colored Women in 1924 to the more diplomatic Mary Bethune. To challenge what she viewed as problems for African Americans in Chicago, Wells started a political organization named Third Ward Women's Political Club in 1927. In 1928, she tried to become a delegate to the Republican National Convention but lost to Oscar De Priest. Her feelings toward the Republican Party became more mixed due to what she viewed as the Hoover administration's poor stance on civil rights and attempts to promote a "Lily-White" policy in Southern Republican organizations. In 1930, Wells unsuccessfully sought elective office, running as an Independent for a seat in the Illinois Senate, against the Republican Party candidate, Adelbert Roberts.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Wells explained that the defense of White women's honor allowed Southern White men to get away with murder by projecting their own history of sexual violence onto Black men. Her call for all races and genders to be accountable for their actions showed African-American women that they can speak out and fight for their rights. According to some, by portraying the horrors of lynching, she worked to show that racial and gender discrimination are linked, furthering the Black feminist cause.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Since Wells' death, with the rise of mid-20th-century civil rights activism, and the 1971 posthumous publication of her autobiography, interest in her life and legacy has grown. Awards have been established in her name by the National Association of Black Journalists, the Medill School of Journalism at Northwestern University, the Coordinating Council for Women in History, the Type Investigations (formerly the Investigative Fund), the University of Louisville, and the New York County Lawyers' Association (awarded annually since 2003), among many others. The Ida B. Wells Memorial Foundation and the Ida B. Wells Museum have also been established to protect, preserve and promote Wells' legacy. In her hometown of Holly Springs, Mississippi, there is an Ida B. Wells-Barnett Museum named in her honor that acts as a cultural center of African-American history.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: In 1941, the Public Works Administration (PWA) built a Chicago Housing Authority public housing project in the Bronzeville neighborhood on the South Side of Chicago; it was named the Ida B. Wells Homes in her honor. The buildings were demolished in August 2011 due to changing demographics and ideas about such housing.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: In 1988, she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. In August that year, she was also inducted into the Chicago Women's Hall of Fame. Molefi Kete Asante included Wells on his list of "100 Greatest African Americans" in 2002. In 2011, Wells was inducted into the Chicago Literary Hall of Fame for her writings.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: On February 1, 1990, at the start of Black History Month in the U.S., the U.S. Postal Service dedicated a 25¢ stamp commemorating Wells in a ceremony at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago. The stamp, designed by Thomas Blackshear II, features a portrait of Wells illustrated from a composite of photographs of her taken during the mid-1890s. Wells is the 25th African-American entry – and fourth African-American woman – on a U.S. postage stamp. She is the 13th in the Postal Service's Black Heritage series.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: In 2006, the Harvard Kennedy School commissioned a portrait of Wells. In 2007, the Ida B. Wells Association was founded by University of Memphis philosophy graduate students to promote discussion of philosophical issues arising from the African-American experience and to provide a context in which to mentor undergraduates. The Philosophy Department at the University of Memphis has sponsored the Ida B. Wells conference every year since 2007.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: On February 12, 2012, Mary E. Flowers, a member of the Illinois House of Representatives, introduced House Resolution 770 during the 97th General Assembly, honoring Ida B. Wells by declaring March 25, 2012 – the anniversary of her death – as Ida B. Wells Day in the State of Illinois.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: In August 2014, Wells was the subject of an episode of the BBC Radio 4 programme "Great Lives", in which her work was championed by Baroness Oona King. Wells was honored with a Google Doodle on July 16, 2015, which would have been her 153rd birthday.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: In 2016, the Ida B. Wells Society for Investigative Reporting was launched in Memphis, Tennessee, with the purpose of promoting investigative journalism. Following in the footsteps of Wells, this society encourages minority journalists to expose injustices perpetuated by the government and defend people who are susceptible to being taken advantage of. This organization was created with much support from the Open Society Foundations, Ford Foundation, and CUNY Graduate School of Journalism.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: In 2018, the National Memorial for Peace and Justice opened, including a reflection space dedicated to Wells, a selection of quotes by her, and a stone inscribed with her name.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: On March 8, 2018, "The New York Times" published a belated obituary for her, in a series marking International Women's Day and entitled "Overlooked", which set out to acknowledge that, since 1851, the newspaper's obituary pages had been dominated by White men, while notable women – including Wells – had been ignored.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: In July 2018, Chicago's City Council officially renamed Congress Parkway as Ida B. Wells Drive; it is the first downtown Chicago street named after a woman of color.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: On February 12, 2019, a blue plaque, provided by the Nubian Jak Community Trust, was unveiled by the mayor of Birmingham, Yvonne Mosquito, at the Edgbaston Community Centre, Birmingham, England, commemorating Wells' stay in a house on the exact site of 66 Gough Road where she stayed in 1893 during her speaking tour of the British Isles.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: On July 13, 2019, a marker for her was unveiled in Mississippi, on the northeast corner of Holly Springs' Courthouse Square. The marker was dedicated by the Wells-Barnett Museum and the Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: In 2019, a new middle school in Washington, D.C., was named in her honor. On November 7, 2019, a Mississippi Writers Trail historical marker was installed at Rust College in Holly Springs, commemorating the legacy of Ida B. Wells.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: On May 4, 2020, she was posthumously awarded a Pulitzer Prize special citation, "for her outstanding and courageous reporting on the horrific and vicious violence against African Americans during the era of lynching." The Pulitzer Prize board announced that it would donate at least $50,000 in support of Wells' mission to recipients who would be announced at a later date.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: In 2021, a public high school in Portland, Oregon, that had been named for Woodrow Wilson was renamed Ida B. Wells High School.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: In 2021 Chicago erected a monument to Wells in the Bronzeville neighborhood, near where she lived and close to the site of the former Ida B. Wells Homes housing project. Officially called The Light of Truth Ida B. Wells National Monument (based on her quote, "the way to right wrongs is to cast the light of truth upon them"), it was created by sculptor Richard Hunt.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Also in 2021, Memphis dedicated a new Ida B. Wells plaza with a life-sized statue of Wells. The monument is adjacent to the historic Beale Street Baptist Church, where Wells produced the "Free Speech" newspaper.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: The PBS documentary series "American Experience" aired on December 19, 1989 – season 2, episode 11 (one-hour) – "Ida B. Wells: A Passion for Justice", written and directed by William Greaves. The documentary featured excerpts of Wells' memoirs read by Toni Morrison. (viewable "via" YouTube)


title: Ida B. Wells

text: In 1995, the play "In Pursuit of Justice: A One-Woman Play About Ida B. Wells", written by Wendy D. Jones (born 1953) and starring Janice Jenkins, was produced. It draws on historical incidents and speeches from Wells' autobiography, and features fictional letters to a friend. It won four awards from the AUDELCO (Audience Development Committee Inc.), an organization that honors Black theater.


title: Ida B. Wells

text: In 1999, a staged reading of the play "Iola's Letter", written by Michon Boston "(née" Michon Alana Boston; born 1962), was performed at Howard University in Washington, D.C., under the direction of Vera J. Katz, including then-student Chadwick Boseman among the cast. The play is inspired by the real-life events that compelled a 29-year-old Ida B. Wells to launch an anti-lynching crusade from Memphis in 1892 using her newspaper, "Free Speech".


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Wells' life is the subject of "Constant Star" (2002), a widely performed musical drama by Tazewell Thompson, who was inspired to write it by the 1989 documentary "Ida B. Wells: A Passion for Justice". Thompson's play explores Wells as "a seminal figure in Post-Reconstruction America".


title: Ida B. Wells

text: Wells was played by Adilah Barnes in the 2004 film "Iron Jawed Angels". The film dramatizes a moment during the Woman Suffrage Parade of 1913 when Wells ignored instructions to march with the segregated parade units and crossed the lines to march with the other members of her Illinois chapter.


title: Carol Thatcher

text: Carol Jane Thatcher (born 15 August 1953) is an English journalist, author and media personality. She is the daughter of Margaret Thatcher, the British prime minister from 1979 to 1990, and Denis Thatcher.


title: Carol Thatcher

text: She has written biographies of both her parents and also produced a documentary about her father which contained his only public interview. She won the fifth series of the reality show "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!"


title: Carol Thatcher

text: Thatcher was born at Queen Charlotte's and Chelsea Hospital in Hammersmith, London, on 15 August 1953. She and her twin brother, Mark, were born six weeks prematurely by C-section. According to Margaret Thatcher, her husband Denis Thatcher responded to seeing their children for the first time by saying, "My God, they look like rabbits. Put them back." Thatcher's mother was selected for the constituency of Finchley in north London in 1958 and was elected as a Member of Parliament in 1959.


title: Carol Thatcher

text: In 1960, Thatcher was sent to Queenswood School, a girls' boarding school near Hatfield, Hertfordshire, before attending St Paul's Girls' School. She graduated with a law degree from University College London, before moving to Australia in 1977 to begin a journalism career. While she was there, her mother was elected prime minister. Thatcher later said, "You need quite good shock absorbers and a sense of humour to be the prime minister's child."


title: Carol Thatcher

text: Thatcher began her career as a journalist in Australia, working on the "Sydney Morning Herald" from 1977 to 1979. She became a TV reporter at Channel Seven, also in Sydney, and later a reporter on its news morning show, "11AM". On her return to Britain, she worked as a presenter for LBC, BBC Radio 4, TV-am and wrote travel articles for "The Daily Telegraph". Due to her mother's high-profile political position, many newspapers refused to publish work with her byline.


title: Carol Thatcher

text: Her first book, "Diary of an Election: with Margaret Thatcher on the campaign trail", was published in 1983. Her second book, a collaboration with tennis player Chris Evert Lloyd called "Lloyd on Lloyd", was released three years later. It became Thatcher's first best-seller.


title: Carol Thatcher

text: Later publications included a 1996 best-selling biography of her father, "Below the Parapet". In 2003, Thatcher produced a Channel 4 documentary about him called "Married to Maggie". Thatcher captured the only public interview Denis Thatcher gave in his lifetime; he died shortly after its release. Thatcher's freelance career has included contributing articles to magazines and papers as well as television work.


title: Carol Thatcher

text: In November 2005 Thatcher was selected to appear with a number of fellow celebrities on the ITV television show "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!" The format of the show meant that she would be forced to spend at least a week in the Australian rainforest with a minimal supply of food in basic living conditions.


title: Carol Thatcher

text: She had to undergo one of the more infamous "Bushtucker Trials" during her stay in the jungle – which saw her eat jungle bugs and kangaroo testicles as a challenge to earn food for her fellow celebrities. Ultimately, she emerged as the fifth series winner and second 'Queen of the Jungle'.


title: Carol Thatcher

text: Thatcher appeared on Living TV's "Most Haunted" on 13 February 2007 as a celebrity guest alongside presenter Yvette Fielding


title: Carol Thatcher

text: In 2007, Carol Thatcher travelled to the Falkland Islands and Argentina for the documentary "Mummy's War", in order to explore the legacy of the Falklands War.


title: Carol Thatcher

text: From 2006 to 2009, Thatcher was a freelance contributor to the BBC One magazine programme "The One Show", making filmed reports and joining the presenters and guests in the studio for discussions.


title: Carol Thatcher

text: On 3 February 2009, British media reported that during the 2009 Australian Open Thatcher had, in a conversation in the show's green room, referred to a black tennis player, reportedly Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, as a golliwog. According to "The Times", Thatcher called Tsonga "half-golliwog" and "the golliwog Frog". Presenter Adrian Chiles, comedian Jo Brand, journalists and several guests were with Thatcher when she made the remark. The BBC stated that Thatcher would not work again on "The One Show" unless she made a more sincere apology. Thatcher refused, saying "I stand by what I said. I wasn't going to apologise. I never meant it in a racist way. It was shorthand. I described someone's appearance colloquially—someone I happen to greatly admire."


title: Carol Thatcher

text: Thatcher had a relationship with Jonathan Aitken, which ended in 1979. As this happened just after the Conservatives won the general election, Aitken's breaking up with Thatcher is alleged to have been the reason for his being bypassed for a ministerial career; Thatcher's mother, the Prime Minister at the time, reportedly told cabinet colleagues that she was "damned" if she was going to give a job to a man "who had made Carol cry".


title: Kenneth Lay

text: Kenneth Lee Lay (April 15, 1942 – July 5, 2006) was an American businessman who was the founder, chief executive officer and chairman of Enron. He was heavily involved in the eponymous accounting scandal that unraveled in 2001 into the largest bankruptcy ever to that date. Lay was indicted by a grand jury and was found guilty of 10 counts of securities fraud at trial. Lay died in July 2006 while vacationing in his house near Aspen, Colorado, three months before his scheduled sentencing. A preliminary autopsy reported Lay died of a heart attack caused by coronary artery disease. His death resulted in a vacated judgment.


title: Kenneth Lay

text: Lay left behind "a legacy of shame" characterized by "mismanagement and dishonesty". In 2009 a list posted on portfolio.com ranked Lay as the third-worst American CEO of all time. His actions were the catalyst for subsequent and fundamental corporate reform in regard to "standards of leadership, governance, and accountability".


title: Kenneth Lay

text: Lay was one of America's highest-paid CEOs; between 1998 and 2001, he collected more than $220 million in cash and stock in Enron,


title: Kenneth Lay

text: selling 1.7 million of those shares. However, during his trial in 2006, Lay claimed that Enron stock made up about 90% of his wealth, and that his net worth at that time was negative $250,000.


title: Kenneth Lay

text: Lay was born in the Texas County, Missouri, town of Tyrone, the son of Omer and Ruth ( Rees) Lay. Lay's father was a Baptist preacher and Lay grew up in poverty after the family's general store failed. Later in Lay's childhood, his family relocated to Columbia, Missouri, and Lay attended David H. Hickman High School and the University of Missouri, where he studied economics, receiving a Bachelor of Arts in 1964 and a Master of Arts in 1965. He served as president of the Zeta Phi chapter of the Beta Theta Pi fraternity at the University of Missouri. He earned a Doctor of Philosophy in economics from the University of Houston in 1970.


title: Kenneth Lay

text: He worked at Humble Oil as an economist from 1965 to 1968 in the Corporate Planning Department. In 1968, Lay entered the Officer Candidate School for the United States Navy where, from 1968 to 1971, he rose to the rank of lieutenant and was the special assistant to the Navy Comptroller and Financial Analyst at the Office of Assistant Secretary of the Navy in the Department of the Navy at The Pentagon.


title: Kenneth Lay

text: Lay worked from 1971 to 1972 as a technical assistant to commissioner and vice chairman (federal energy regulator) of the Federal Power Commission and served as the energy deputy under secretary for the United States Department of Interior until 1974. In 1974, he returned to the business world as an executive at Florida Gas Transmission and was president of Continental Resources from 1981 to 1982. In 1982, he joined Transco Energy Company, owner of the Transcontinental Pipeline, in Houston and held the positions of president, chief operating officer and director until 1984 when he became chairman and CEO of the Houston Natural Gas Company.


title: Kenneth Lay

text: By the time energy was deregulated in the 1980s, Lay was already an energy company executive and he took advantage of the new climate when Omaha-based InterNorth bought his company Houston Natural Gas and changed the name to Enron in 1985.


title: Kenneth Lay

text: He was also a member of the board of directors from 1993 to 2001 of Eli Lilly and Company and a director at Texas Commerce Bank. In 1996 he held negotiations to replace Robert E. Allen as the CEO of AT&T.


title: Kenneth Lay

text: Lay was a friend of the Bush family including former President George H. W. Bush. He made monetary contributions, led several committees in the Republican Party and was co-chairman of Bush's 1992 re-election committee. As President, Lay flew Bush and his wife to Washington on an Enron corporate plane. In December 2000, Lay was mentioned as a possible candidate for either United States Secretary of Energy or Secretary of the Treasury under George W. Bush. He was not nominated because it was decided that the administration already included too many energy businessmen from Texas.


title: Kenneth Lay

text: Lay additionally had friendly relations with the Republican politicians Gerald R. Ford, Dick Cheney, and James A. Baker III as well as the Democratic politicians Bill Clinton and Ann Richards. He encouraged John Ashcroft to campaign in the 2000 Republican Party presidential primaries, although this was partially to ensure him as a spoiler candidate to help Bush win the race.


title: Kenneth Lay

text: From 1989 to 2002, Lay's political contributions totaled $5.8 million, with 73% going to Republicans, and 27% going to Democrats. From 1999 to 2001, he gave $365,410 to the Republican Party.


title: Kenneth Lay

text: Lay's company, Enron, went bankrupt in 2001. At the time, this was the biggest bankruptcy in U.S. history. In total, 20,000 employees lost their jobs and in many cases their life savings. Investors also lost billions of dollars. On July 7, 2004, Lay was indicted by a grand jury in Houston, Texas, for his role in the company's failure. Lay was charged, in a 65-page indictment, with 11 counts of securities fraud, wire fraud, and making false and misleading statements. The trial of Kenneth Lay and Jeffrey Skilling commenced on January 30, 2006, in Houston.


title: Kenneth Lay

text: Lay insisted that Enron's collapse was due to a conspiracy waged by short sellers, rogue executives, and the news media. On May 25, 2006, Lay was found guilty on six counts of conspiracy and fraud by the jury. In a separate bench trial, Judge Lake ruled that Lay was guilty of four additional counts of fraud and making false statements. Sentencing was scheduled for September 11, 2006, and rescheduled for October 23, 2006.


title: Kenneth Lay

text: Lay died on July 5, 2006, while vacationing in Colorado. The Pitkin County Sheriff's Department confirmed that officers were called to Lay's house in Snowmass, Colorado, near Aspen at 1:41 am Mountain Daylight Time. Lay was taken to Aspen Valley Hospital, where he was pronounced dead at 3:11 am MDT. The autopsy indicated that he died of a heart attack brought on by coronary artery disease, and found evidence that he had suffered a previous heart attack.


title: Kenneth Lay

text: A private funeral for about 200 people was held in Aspen four days after his death. His body was cremated and his ashes were buried in an undisclosed location in the mountains. A memorial service was held a week after his death at the First United Methodist Church in Houston. It was attended by over 1,000 guests including George H. W. Bush and James Baker.


title: Kenneth Lay

text: On October 17, 2006, the conviction was overturned due to abatement "ab initio", a legal doctrine which says the death of a defendant during an appeal results in a vacated judgment. The government opposed Lay's attorneys' motions of appeal. The United States Department of Justice issued a statement saying it remained committed to pursuing all available legal remedies for victims of the fraud.


title: Kenneth Lay

text: At the time of his death Lay had been married to his second wife, Linda, since 1982. Both Linda, and his first wife, Judith, supported Lay through the trial and made appearances at court. Kenneth Lay had two children, three stepchildren, and twelve grandchildren.


title: Shepherd's pie

text: Shepherd's pie, cottage pie, or in its French version hachis Parmentier is a savoury dish of cooked minced meat topped with mashed potato and baked. The meat used may be either previously cooked or freshly minced. The usual meats are beef or lamb. The two English terms have been used interchangeably since they came into use in the late 18th and the 19th century, although some writers insist that a shepherd's pie should contain lamb or mutton, and a cottage pie, beef.


title: Shepherd's pie

text: The term was in use by 1791. Parson Woodforde mentions "Cottage-Pye" in his diary entry for 29 August 1791, and several times thereafter. He records that the meat was veal but he does not say what the topping was. In 20th-century and later use it has widely, but not exclusively, been used for a dish of chopped or minced beef with a mashed potato topping. The beef may be fresh or previously cooked; the latter was at one time more usual. Well into the 20th century the absence of refrigeration made it expedient in many domestic kitchens to store cooked meat rather than raw. In the 1940s the chef Louis Diat recalled of his childhood days, "when housewives bought their Sunday meat they selected pieces large enough to make into leftover dishes for several days". Modern recipes for cottage pie typically use fresh beef.


title: Shepherd's pie

text: According to the American Merriam-Webster dictionary the first known use of the term was in 1854. In British usage in the 1850s the term referred to a Scottish dish that contained a mutton and diced potato filling inside a pastry crust. Neither shepherd's pie nor cottage pie was mentioned in the original edition of Mrs Beeton's "Household Management" in 1861.


title: Shepherd's pie

text: More recently "shepherd's pie" has generally been used for a potato-topped dish of minced lamb. According to the "Oxford Companion to Food", "In keeping with the name, the meat should be mutton or lamb; and it is usually cooked meat left over from a roast". As with beef, it was commonplace in the days before refrigeration to cook a Sunday joint to last in various guises throughout the week. Dorothy Hartley quotes an old verse, "Vicarage mutton", showing not only the uses to which the joint was put, but also the interchangeability of the terms "shepherd's" and "cottage" pie:


title: Shepherd's pie

text: The dish is named after Antoine-Augustin Parmentier, who popularised the potato in French cuisine in the late 18th century. It is documented from the end of the 19th century. It is usually made with chopped or minced lamb or beef; in either case it may be made with either fresh or left-over cooked meat. (The modern English term "hash" derives from the French "hachis", meaning food "finely chopped".)


title: Shepherd's pie

text: In some recipes a layer of sauté potatoes is put in the cooking dish before the meat filling and mashed potato topping are added. A more elaborate version by Auguste Escoffier, named Hachis de boeuf à Parmentier, consists of baked potatoes, the contents of which are removed, mixed with freshly-cooked diced beef, returned to the potato shells. and covered with sauce lyonnaise.


title: Shepherd's pie

text: There are no universally agreed ingredients for any of the three dishes. The 24 recipes cited in the table show the varieties of titles and ingredients recommended by cooks and food writers from Australia, Britain, Canada, France and the US.


title: Shepherd's pie

text: Fillings for other pies with a mashed potato topping are numerous, and include artichoke hearts and red peppers; black pudding; chicken and spinach; chorizo; curried chicken; duck; rabbit; salmon; salt cod; turkey and ham; and flaked white fish with shrimps, in a white sauce.


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: Keith Howell Charles Allen (born 2 September 1953) is a Welsh actor, pantomime star and television presenter. He is the father of singer Lily Allen and actor Alfie Allen, and brother of actor and director Kevin Allen.


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: Allen was born on 2 September 1953 in Llanelli, Carmarthenshire, Wales, the second of three children of Edward Charles Owen, a Royal Navy petty officer submariner. His younger brother is actor Kevin Allen. He spent his early years near Swansea and in Malta, and most of his childhood in Gosport, Hampshire, while his father served in Portsmouth. At the age of 11, when his father was posted to Singapore, he was sent to board at Brentwood School, a public school in Essex. He was expelled from the school at the age of 13. At the age of 15 he was sent to a borstal after repeatedly being caught stealing, later saying that he "had a great time" there.


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: After having several jobs during the 1970s, including a job as a stagehand from which he was sacked after joining Max Bygraves' chorus line on stage naked, Allen also worked as a stand-up comedian and vocalist, opening for rock bands such as The Clash.


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: He appeared in a number of films in the series "The Comic Strip Presents..." on Channel 4 in the 1980s after becoming one of the breakthrough acts of the Comedy Store in 1979. Notable episodes featuring Allen include "" (a parody of "The Professionals"), and "The Yob" (a parody of "The Fly"), which he also co-wrote. Allen would also appear alongside fellow Comic Strip alumni as Pestilence in "The Young Ones" episode "Interesting." Allen has performed both straight and comedy acting. In 1985 The Comic Strip hit the big screen with "The Supergrass" starring Allen, Adrian Edmondson, Peter Richardson, Jennifer Saunders and Robbie Coltrane, directed by Comic Strip actor Peter Richardson.


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: During the brief period of British Satellite Broadcasting as an alternative satellite broadcaster to Sky, he had a regular comedy show of his own "I Love Keith Allen" on the Galaxy channel, a mix of stand-up and sketches. He appeared in the final Carry On film "Carry On Columbus" (1992) playing Pepi The Poisoner. It was directed by Gerald Thomas and produced by Peter Rogers.


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: Allen made a cameo appearance in the black comedy, "Twin Town" which was directed by his brother Kevin, the Channel 4 adaptation of "A Very British Coup" and he also played the lodger who dies at the beginning of Danny Boyle's thriller "Shallow Grave" (1994). In the same year, he was cast in a BBC adaptation of "Martin Chuzzlewit". He was used again by Boyle to play a drug dealer in "Trainspotting" (1996). Danny Boyle has stated that Allen's character from "Trainspotting" is the same one that moves into the shared flat in "Shallow Grave" – he wears the same clothes. He also appeared disguised as a fictional hip-hop star 'Keithski' to present "Top of the Pops" on 19 July 1996.


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: In 2000, Allen appeared in two Harold Pinter plays at the Almeida Theatre, playing Lambert in "Celebration" and Mr Sands in "The Room". These were performed again at The Lincoln Center Festival in July 2001.


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: In 2001, he played the character of "problem-solver" Jim Napeworth in an episode of "Murder in Mind", and in 2004 cameod in "Black Books" as poker-player Dave 'Mouse Ears' Smith. In 2002 he played the London Records executive Roger Ames in "24 Hour Party People", a film about Factory Records and the Manchester music scene. Allen cameoed in the Channel 4 sitcom "Spaced" in a short homage to the Stanley Kubrick film, "The Shining". He appeared as the villain in the sequel to 2004's "Agent Cody Banks", "", opposite Frankie Muniz. He appeared in the hospital drama, "Bodies", as Mr Tony Whitman, a sarcastic but somehow likeable consultant obstetrician with an enormous ego. In 2005 he appeared in the Endemol-produced BBC Two television programme "Art School" alongside Ulrika Jonsson, John Humphrys and Clarissa Dickson Wright where he discovered a passion for painting. From 2006 to 2009, Allen appeared in the BBC's "Robin Hood" drama series, as the Sheriff of Nottingham.


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: Allen has also starred in pantomimes, such as an adaptation of Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island in 2008. Written by Ken Ludwig and directed by Sean Holmes, he took the role of a gritty Long John Silver in the Theatre Royal Haymarket.


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: In September 2011, he appeared in the BBC six-part drama series "The Body Farm" as DI Hale. 2012 (2013 in the UK) saw the release of the Sara Sugarman comedy film "Vinyl" in which Keith played an ageing rock star who finds himself back in the public eye after his band member fools the music industry into giving them a record deal. In 2013, he played Darren the farmer in episode 1.5 of the comedy drama series "Great Night Out".


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: In April 2013, Allen starred in a revival of Richard Bean's black comedy "Smack Family Robinson'" at The Rose Theatre, Kingston upon Thames.


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: In January 2021, Keith Allen played serial killer and rapist John Cooper in the ITV 3-part drama, "The Pembrokeshire Murders".


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: Allen presented the TV show "Whatever You Want" in 1982, during the early days of Channel Four and has presented television documentaries for Victor Lewis-Smith's Associated-Rediffusion Television Productions: "Little Lady Fauntleroy" (2004), "You're Fayed" (2005) and on "Michael Carroll – King of Chavs" (2006). In 2007 his documentary "Tourette De France" appeared on Channel 4, in which he travelled with a group of Scottish people with Tourette syndrome, including John Davidson, on an AEC Routemaster bus from London to the Parisian hospital where this condition was described by Georges Gilles de la Tourette in 1884. He also presented the British erotic direct-to-video series "Red Tape".


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: "Keith Allen Will Burn in Hell" appeared on Channel 4 in June 2007, and showed Allen profiling the controversial Westboro Baptist Church, led by Fred Phelps, and speaking to members of the church and Phelps's family.


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: Allen presented the "Manchester Passion", a contemporary retelling of the last few hours in the life of Jesus on Good Friday, 14 April 2006.


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: "Keith Meets Keith", screened on 14 September 2009 on Channel 4, in which Allen tracked down TV chef Keith Floyd. The show contained what turned out to be Floyd's final interview for television, as he died of a heart attack on the evening the documentary was screened.


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: Allen's documentary film about the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, "Unlawful Killing" was intended for release in 2011. Mohamed Al-Fayed, the films only financial backer, contributed the film's £2.5 million budget. Allen argued in "The Guardian" that it detailed a "provable conspiracy after the crash". It accuses Queen Elizabeth and Princess Margaret of being "gangsters in tiaras" and Prince Philip of being a "psychopath". Allen said he refused to make 87 cuts asked for by lawyers to enable the film to be shown in Britain. His film was permanently shelved in 2012 after it became known it could not be screened in the United States as it was impossible to insure it against potential litigation.


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: Allen was a member of London punk band the Atoms in the 1970s, and later Fat Les, a band which also featured artist Damien Hirst and Blur bassist Alex James.


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: In 1980 he starred as the Devil in a short movie called "Meteor Madness" which featured London Psychobilly band The Meteors. The film played in cinemas as the opening to the Two-Tone film "Dance Craze" which was released in February 1981. That was the only time "Meteor Madness" was shown, and it has never been released on video or DVD.


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: He was also closely associated with the band New Order, directing the video for their 1993 song "Ruined in a Day", which depicts Allen and the band members immersed in a bizarre game of charades with a group of Buddhist monks. He co-wrote their only UK number one single, "World in Motion", and occasionally performed with them live, including their headline show at the Reading Festival in 1998. He also appeared in the band's DVD "New Order Story", where he played host to a fictional New Order game show.


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: He has been involved in several other football-related records, including "England's Irie" by Black Grape and wrote the lyrics for "Vindaloo" by Fat Les. He also contributed the song "On Me Head, Son" to the film "", credited on the soundtrack album to Sporting Les.


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: As a guest on "Top Gear" on 9 December 2007, Allen said that claims he had eight children were not true and that he actually has six children by four women. His children include pop singer Lily Allen and actor Alfie Allen with his first wife Alison Owen. He married his second wife, Nira Park, in 1997. After his divorce from Park, Allen became partners with actress Tamzin Malleson (who starred alongside him in "Bodies"), and the couple had a daughter, Teddie Allen, in 2006. They live in Stroud, Gloucestershire. In 2017, Allen and Malleson opened a diner in Stroud, built with the diner set of "" which Allen recovered after shooting the film.


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: In the mid-1980s Allen served a 21-day jail sentence in Pentonville Prison after being found guilty of criminal damage at the Zanzibar club in Covent Garden.


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: Although a staunch socialist, whose political philosophy was influenced by the Workers' Revolutionary Party, Allen has expressed grudging admiration for Conservative Party politicians David Cameron and William Hague.


title: Keith Allen (actor)

text: Allen has on his shoulder a tattoo of Rinka the dog, owned by Norman Scott, which was shot dead during the Jeremy Thorpe scandal. He has explained that: "I had the tattoo placed on my arm lest I forget, so I have a history of having suspicions about the establishment and the government and court cases".


title: Momoland

text: Momoland () is a South Korean girl group formed by MLD Entertainment (formerly known as Duble Kick Company) through the 2016 reality show "Finding Momoland". The show's winners Hyebin, Yeonwoo, Jane, Nayun, JooE, Ahin, and Nancy served as the original members. Their debut mini album "Welcome to Momoland" was released on November 10, 2016. In 2017, Momoland became a nine-member group when Daisy and Taeha joined as members. In 2019, Taeha and Yeonwoo left the group, and Daisy departed in 2020. The group currently consists of Ahin, Hyebin, Jane, JooE, Nancy and Nayun.


title: Momoland

text: In June 2016, Mnet's survival program "Finding Momoland" began, a reality show that was created by Duble Kick Entertainment where a group of seven members were selected from ten contestants, and they prepared their debut. The Final Mission could not collect 3,000 spectators, and the official debut was delayed. On October 26, 2016, the group was appointed as ambassadors for the International Relief Development NGO Plan Korea.


title: Momoland

text: The group's debut showcase was held on November 9 of the same year. On November 10, their debut extended play "Welcome to Momoland" was released, and made their debut performance of their single "Jjan! Koong! Kwang!" through music television program "M Countdown". The album was made possible by crowdfunding to cover the cost for producing the physical format. On December 27, the group except Yeonwoo, who stopped working due to lower back pain, attended "SBS Gayo Daejeon". In October 2016, the group were appointed as the PR ambassador for the International Relief Development NGO Plan Korea, volunteered at the Phuc Luong Village in Thai Nguyen, Vietnam from December 12 to 16, 2017, to encourage Happy Mov students to participate in Kindergarten construction service.


title: Momoland

text: On March 28, 2017, Daisy and Taeha joined the group. Daisy also appeared in the 2016 reality show "Finding Momoland" as a trainee. In April 2017, the group released their first single album "Wonderful Love", with the lead single of the same name. On August 22, 2017, the group's second EP, "Freeze!" was released, with the single of the same title.


title: Momoland

text: On January 3, 2018, the group released their third EP, "Great!" along with the single "Bboom Bboom". The same month, Russian girl group Serebro accused the group of plagiarizing their song "Mi Mi Mi" with "Bboom Bboom". The composer of "Bboom Bboom", Shinsadong Tiger, denied the allegations by pointing out that "the bass line [is] commonly heard in retro house or electro swing genres, as well as the 4-stanza chord." The group held promotional events in Tokyo and Osaka from February 28 to March 4, 2018. A showcase was also held at Tower Records in Shibuya.


title: Momoland

text: On June 26, 2018, the group's fourth EP "Fun to the World" was released, with the single "Baam". On August 9, 2018, the group became the first girl group and the second act to earn a Platinum certification on Gaon Music Chart, for the streams of "Bboom Bboom". In June 2018 the group released Japanese versions of their singles "Baam", "Boom Boom", and "I'm So Hot", and held concerts in Tokyo and Osaka several few months later. The group also signed with King Records and released their album in Japan.


title: Momoland

text: On March 20, 2019, Momoland released their fifth EP "Show Me", with the lead single "I'm So Hot". The single marked their first release without Daisy and Taeha since "Fun to the World". On September 4, 2019, the group released their first Japanese studio album, "Chiri Chiri" without members Daisy, Taeha and Yeonwoo. On October 4, 2019, the group and MLD Entertainment signed a co-management agreement with the Philippine media company ABS-CBN Corporation.


title: Momoland

text: In November 2019, MLD Entertainment announced the departure of Yeonwoo and Taeha from the group, and stated that they were in discussions with Daisy about her future in the group. On December 30, 2019, the group's second single album "Thumbs Up" was released, with the lead single of the same name.


title: Momoland

text: In January 2020, Daisy stated that the show "Finding Momoland" was fraudulent and had deceived viewers by manipulating the votes. She claimed that after her elimination, she was contacted by the agency with an offer to join the group. MLD Entertainment denied the claims, and stated they would be taking legal action against Daisy. On May 13, 2020, it was announced that Daisy had left the group.


title: Momoland

text: On June 11, 2020, "Starry Night", a non-promoted "special" EP was released, with the lead single of the same name.


title: Momoland

text: On June 29, 2020, the group have signed a contract with ICM Partners, with plans to enter into the American market.


title: Momoland

text: On November 17, 2020, they released their third single album "Ready or Not", with the lead single of the same name. South Korean singer Psy participated as a lyricist on the song.


title: Momoland

text: In August 2021, member Ahin was featured on EDM artist DJ Soda's single "Okay!", along with Lost Chameleon.


title: Momoland

text: On January 14, 2022, the group released their English single "Yummy Yummy Love", in collaboration with Natti Natasha. The song went on to be nominated at the Latin American 2022 Juventud Awards, making Momoland the first Korean act to earn a nomination at the event.


title: Momoland

text: On October 26, 2016, Momoland was appointed as ambassadors for the International Relief Development NGO Plan Korea. They volunteered to fly to the Phuc Luong Village in Thai Nguyen, Vietnam, to encourage Happy Mov students to participate in Kindergarten construction service. In addition, the group had a cultural exchange event to villagers and Korean-Vietnamese culture and showed good response to the villagers by showing their songs on their debut album


title: Momoland

text: On December 7, 2016, Momoland visited Seoul University Children Hospital to participate in the Pop Culture Artists Talent Donation Event, where about 100 young patients spent time with Momoland and others.


title: Momoland

text: On May 20, 2017, Momoland participated in the "Plan Art Market to Help Children in the Global Village" as ambassadors of Plan Korea, that was held to support the children of Cambodia.


title: Momoland

text: In February 2018, Momoland was designated as the new Korean Red Cross Blood Services ambassador. They participated in several events held by KRCBS and hosted a blood donation event while promoting "Fun To The World".


title: Momoland

text: In June 2018, JooE and Yeonwoo participated in the Ice Bucket Challenge for a fund raising to build a hospital. Hyebin was also nominated, but instead of doing the challenge, she donated instead. In the same month, Momoland donated all of the proceeds of their Show Con for "Fun To The World" to help cover medical treatments for children who were injured through car accidents.


title: Momoland

text: In May 2018, Momoland participated in the "Seowon Valley Charity Green Concert". In December 2018, the group visited a sick fan in a hospital from the Philippines.


title: Momoland

text: On May 24, 2019, Momoland participated in the "Let's Fly One & One Concert", a charity concert for victims of violence and abuse.


title: Momoland

text: In October 2019, Momoland donated their earnings for their concert "Good Friends in Manila" to Filipino children in need from barangays San Jose and Calawis in Antipolo, Philippines.


title: Momoland

text: On April 21, 2020, the group donated 10,000 face mask cases (worth 100 million won) to Plan Korea to help prevent and overcome the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Momoland

text: On May 8, 2020, they donated 1,180 kilograms of rice to the underprivileged through the Korean Red Cross.


title: Momoland

text: On June 26, 2020, they gave 1,500 sanitary pads (worth 5 million won) to multicultural families in need. The women's hygiene products were from the brand On A Precious Day, who previously announced Momoland as their exclusive endorsers. The next month, through Good Neighbors, they donated 1,500 sanitary pads from On A Precious Day to low-income families.


title: Momoland

text: In July 2020, Momoland held at online concert called "Joy Angel Concert" as a social contribution project and donated the proceeds to the disadvantaged people struggling from COVID-19.


title: Momoland

text: In October 2020, they participated in a charity photo shoot to introduce the reality of women's rights and the protection of women's rights worldwide.


title: Momoland

text: In November 2020, Momoland participated in SBS' "Life Sharing Concert" which meant to encourage Koreans to participate in blood donation.


title: Momoland

text: In the same month, they also participated in the KBS1 Open Concert "Neighborhood Love Sharing Concert", a social contribution project for the underprivileged and socially disadvantaged.


title: Momoland

text: In July 2022, Momoland participated in supporting the "Good Water Project" program of Gugah Nurani Indonesia, taking the role of "Heroes for Water" with the mission of supplying children with clean drinking water.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: Gegard Mousasi (born 1 August 1985), is a Dutch mixed martial artist and former kickboxer, currently competing in Bellator MMA, where he is the former two-time Bellator Middleweight Champion. As of December 13, 2022, he is #10 in the Bellator men's pound-for-pound rankings and #1 in the Bellator Middleweight Rankings. He is also the former DREAM Light Heavyweight Champion, former DREAM Middleweight Champion, former Cage Warriors World Middleweight Champion, and the former Strikeforce Light Heavyweight Champion, thus making Mousasi an overall six-time MMA world champion. At the moment of his departure from the UFC in July 2017, he was #4 in the official UFC middleweight rankings, and he is currently ranked the #9 middleweight MMA fighter in the world by Fight Matrix.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: Mousasi was born in Tehran, Iran to ethnic-Armenian parents during the Iran–Iraq War. His family name was changed in Iran long before his birth from Mofsesian to Mousasi. After spending a year in refugee camps, at the age of four, Mousasi and his family relocated to Leiden, Netherlands where he finished grade school before developing an interest in martial arts. Mousasi began training in judo at the age of eight and later boxing at age 15; a year later he became the amateur boxing champion of the Netherlands with a 12–1 record, earning nine knockouts. Mousasi then transitioned into kickboxing and then eventually to mixed martial arts.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: In 2006 Mousasi signed with Pride FC to take part in Pride's Welterweight Grand Prix. In the opening round Mousasi faced Makoto Takimoto, at Pride Bushido 11, beating the Japanese fighter by TKO as the result of a broken eye socket in the first round. In the quarterfinals Mousasi went on to face Akihiro Gono, but was submitted in the second round by an armbar. After losing to Gono, Mousasi fought Héctor Lombard in the Grand Prix Alternate bout and took a unanimous decision victory over the Cuban-born fighter.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: In the first round of the Dream's 2008 Middleweight Grand Prix at Dream 2, Gegard defeated Brazilian jiu-jitsu black belt Denis Kang by triangle choke. Kang had defeated Gono in the semifinals of the Pride Welterweight Grand Prix. In the second round of the tournament, at Dream 4, Mousasi won a decision victory over Yoon Dong-sik and advanced to the final round, which took place at Dream 6. There he fought and submitted K-1 veteran Melvin Manhoef in the semifinals before meeting up with submission specialist Ronaldo Souza in the final. Mousasi defeated Souza by an upkick after being taken down by the Brazilian, thus becoming the first Dream Middleweight Champion and 2008 Middleweight Grand Prix tournament winner. Souza went on to win the Dream Middleweight Championship and later the Strikeforce Middleweight Championship.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: On November 21, 2008, ADCC Europe president Marko Leistén confirmed the signing of Mousasi as one of 2009's ADCC Championships. It was rumored he would fight in the -88 kg category. For unknown reasons, Mousasi never participated in the ADCC 2009 Championships.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: Gegard Mousasi next made an appearance at M-1 Global's Breakthrough event at August 28, 2009, where he sparred with former Pride Heavyweight and current WAMMA Heavyweight Champion Fedor Emelianenko, a friend and teammate, in an exhibition match. The two friends fought a competitive and friendly spirited exhibition with several Judo throws from both Emelianenko and Mousasi. Mousasi was defeated with a straight armbar.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: In February 2010, Mousasi left M-1 Global Management. Mousasi was quoted as saying "After careful consideration, I have decided that it is in my best interest to part ways with M-1 Global," Mousasi wrote in the e-mail. "During the time I spent under their wing, M-1 Global, as a promoter and management company, allowed me to achieve many great things. I appreciate all they have done for me. My management is being taken care of by someone close to me."


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: In interviews from early 2009, Mousasi stated the weight he put on after winning Dream's middleweight tournament was too much for him to cut back down to middleweight and that his next fights would be at light heavyweight and eventually heavyweight instead.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: Then he signed for a place at Dream's openweight Grand Prix, the Super Hulk Grand Prix, being scheduled to face Mark Hunt in the opening round.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: Mousasi was then expected to face Rameau Thierry Sokoudjou at "Dream 11", but he had to step down due to injury.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: Mousasi was set to fight Renato Sobral at "" on August 1, 2009, but the event was canceled after losing its main event 10 days prior to the event. It was originally planned for him to face Vitor Belfort at that event, but there was a disagreement between both fighters over which weight class the fight would be fought at.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: On Monday July 27, 2009 it was announced that the cancelled bout between Sobral and Mousasi would take place on the August 15 card and the fight became a contest for the Strikeforce Light Heavyweight Championship. Mousasi defeated Sobral via KO in the first minute of the first round to become the Strikeforce Light Heavyweight Champion.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: Mousasi would go on to win his second Strikeforce bout by TKO (punches), three minutes and forty-three seconds into the 2nd round against Rameau Thierry Sokoudjou, who Mousasi was previously supposed to fight at "Dream 11", on November 7, 2009 at . Mousasi was originally slated to defend his Strikeforce Light Heavyweight Championship, but eventually competed in a non-title bout.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: On April 17, 2010, Mousasi lost the Strikeforce Light Heavyweight Championship belt in his first defense to Muhammed Lawal by way of unanimous decision. Lawal landed 11 of 14 takedowns, however Mousasi had outlanded Lawal in Total Punches 171 to 125. Mousasi was also given a point deduction following an illegal up-kick. Lawal would later test positive for anabolic steroids following a fight with Lorenz Larkin.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: The 1st round took place at Dream 15, where Mousasi faced Jake O'Brien, who came in overweight to their bout. Dream officials made it a catchweight fight, but allowed the fight to be part of the tournament. Mousasi won the fight early in the first round by submission via standing guillotine choke.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: In the final, Mousasi faced Tatsuya Mizuno. Mousasi dominated the whole fight and finished the Japanese fighter in the first round via rear-naked choke.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: Mousasi was expected to face Mike Kyle on April 9, 2011 at Strikeforce 33. However, Kyle was forced off the card with an injury and was replaced by Keith Jardine. The fight resulted in a majority draw due to an illegal upkick in the first round which resulted in a point deduction for Mousasi. Otherwise the bout would've been a unanimous decision victory for Mousasi. According to Fightmetric statistics, Mousasi outstruck Jardine 146 to 21. After the fight in an interview with Ariel Helwani of MMA Fighting.com, Strikeforce CEO Scott Coker stated “I’ve got a lot of respect for Keith Jardine, but I think Gegard won the fight.” In the same interview, Coker also stated that a rematch between Mousasi and Jardine was definitely a possibility for the future. MMA Fighting.com named this fight their Runner-Up for "Robbery of the Half-Year."


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: Mousasi returned to Strikeforce to face Ovince Saint Preux on December 17, 2011 at . He won the fight via unanimous decision, showing improved takedown defense and wrestling.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: Mousasi was later recovering from knee surgery following a torn ACL and was expected to fully recover by November, 2012. He also signed a new contract for six more fights with the organization, making a total of seven. However, with Strikeforce having shut down, this contract was likely now null and void.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: Mousasi faced Mike Kyle at on January 12, 2013. After avoiding most of Kyle's strikes in the early going, Mousasi took the fight to the ground and went on to finish the fight via rear-naked choke submission late in the first round. This was the fourth time a fight between Mousasi and Kyle was scheduled and the first time it wasn't canceled.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: On January 15, 2013, the UFC announced Mousasi would be joining 19 other Strikeforce fighters in a move to the UFC after his win over Mike Kyle at the promotion's last event, .


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: Mousasi was expected to make his promotional debut against Alexander Gustafsson on April 6, 2013 at UFC on Fuel TV 9. However, on March 30, Gustafsson suffered a cut in training and, on April 2, was deemed unclear to participate by the Swedish MMA Federation. Gustafsson was replaced by Ilir Latifi, a UFC newcomer and training partner of Gustafsson. Mousasi won by unanimous decision, avoiding his opponent's takedown attempts and dominating the fight on the feet. He fought with an injured knee and underwent surgery after the fight. UFC President Dana White praised Mousasi for going through with the fight injured and in his opponents home, as well as accepting a late change of opponents.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: For his second fight with the promotion, Mousasi moved down to middleweight to face former light heavyweight champion Lyoto Machida on February 15, 2014 in the main event at UFC Fight Night 36. He lost the fight via unanimous decision. Despite the loss, the bout won Mousasi his first "Fight of the Night" bonus award.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: Mousasi faced Mark Muñoz on May 31, 2014 in the main event at UFC Fight Night 41. He won the fight via submission in the first round and became the first fighter to submit Muñoz. The win also earned Mousasi his first "Performance of the Night" bonus award.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: Mousasi was expected to rematch Ronaldo Souza on August 2, 2014 at UFC 176. However, after UFC 176, was cancelled, Mousasi/Souza was rescheduled and took place on September 5, 2014 at UFC Fight Night 50. Souza defeated Mousasi via submission in the third round.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: Mousasi faced Dan Henderson on January 24, 2015 in the co-main event at UFC on Fox 14. He won the fight via TKO in the first round. The win also earned Mousasi his second "Performance of the Night" bonus award.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: Mousasi faced Costas Philippou on May 16, 2015 at UFC Fight Night 66. He won the fight by unanimous decision.


title: Gegard Mousasi

text: Mousasi was expected to face Roan Carneiro on September 27, 2015 at UFC Fight Night 75. However, Carneiro pulled out due to injury and was subsequently replaced by Uriah Hall. After dominating the opening round, Mousasi was finished early in the second after absorbing a jumping spinning back kick, flying knee and follow-up punches.