title: Expansion of the universe

text: According to the equivalence principle of general relativity, the rules of special relativity are "locally" valid in small regions of spacetime that are approximately flat. In particular, light always travels locally at the speed "c"; in the diagram, this means, according to the convention of constructing spacetime diagrams, that light beams always make an angle of 45° with the local grid lines. It does not follow, however, that light travels a distance "ct" in a time "t", as the red worldline illustrates. While it always moves locally at "c", its time in transit (about 13 billion years) is not related to the distance traveled in any simple way, since the universe expands as the light beam traverses space and time. The distance traveled is thus inherently ambiguous because of the changing scale of the universe. Nevertheless, there are two distances that appear to be physically meaningful: the distance between Earth and the quasar when the light was emitted, and the distance between them in the present era (taking a slice of the cone along the dimension defined as the spatial dimension). The former distance is about 4 billion light years, much smaller than "ct", whereas the latter distance (shown by the orange line) is about 28 billion light years, much larger than "ct". In other words, if space were not expanding today, it would take 28 billion years for light to travel between Earth and the quasar, while if the expansion had stopped at the earlier time, it would have taken only 4 billion years.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: The light took much longer than 4 billion years to reach us though it was emitted from only 4 billion light years away. In fact, the light emitted towards Earth was actually moving "away" from Earth when it was first emitted; the metric distance to Earth increased with cosmological time for the first few billion years of its travel time, also indicating that the expansion of space between Earth and the quasar at the early time was faster than the speed of light. None of this behavior originates from a special property of metric expansion, but rather from local principles of special relativity integrated over a curved surface.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: Over time, the space that makes up the universe is expanding. The words 'space' and 'universe', sometimes used interchangeably, have distinct meanings in this context. Here 'space' is a mathematical concept that stands for the three-dimensional manifold into which our respective positions are embedded while 'universe' refers to everything that exists including the matter and energy in space, the extra-dimensions that may be wrapped up in various strings, and the time through which various events take place. The expansion of space is in reference to this 3-D manifold only; that is, the description involves no structures such as extra dimensions or an exterior universe.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: The ultimate topology of space is "a posteriori" – something that in principle must be observed – as there are no constraints that can simply be reasoned out (in other words there can not be any "a priori" constraints) on how the space in which we live is connected or whether it wraps around on itself as a compact space. Though certain cosmological models such as Gödel's universe even permit bizarre worldlines that intersect with themselves, ultimately the question as to whether we are in something like a "Pac-Man universe" where if traveling far enough in one direction would allow one to simply end up back in the same place like going all the way around the surface of a balloon (or a planet like the Earth) is an observational question that is constrained as measurable or non-measurable by the universe's global geometry. At present, observations are consistent with the universe being infinite in extent and simply connected, though we are limited in distinguishing between simple and more complicated proposals by cosmological horizons. The universe could be infinite in extent or it could be finite; but the evidence that leads to the inflationary model of the early universe also implies that the "total universe" is much larger than the observable universe, and so any edges or exotic geometries or topologies would not be directly observable as light has not reached scales on which such aspects of the universe, if they exist, are still allowed. For all intents and purposes, it is safe to assume that the universe is infinite in spatial extent, without edge or strange connectedness.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: Regardless of the overall shape of the universe, the question of what the universe is expanding into is one that does not require an answer according to the theories that describe the expansion; the way we define space in our universe in no way requires additional exterior space into which it can expand since an expansion of an infinite expanse can happen without changing the infinite extent of the expanse. All that is certain is that the manifold of space in which we live simply has the property that the distances between objects are getting larger as time goes on. This only implies the simple observational consequences associated with the metric expansion explored below. No "outside" or embedding in hyperspace is required for an expansion to occur. The visualizations often seen of the universe growing as a bubble into nothingness are misleading in that respect. There is no reason to believe there is anything "outside" of the expanding universe into which the universe expands.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: Even if the overall spatial extent is infinite and thus the universe cannot get any "larger", we still say that space is expanding because, locally, the characteristic distance between objects is increasing. As an infinite space grows, it remains infinite.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: Despite being extremely dense when very young and during part of its early expansion - far denser than is usually required to form a black hole - the universe did not re-collapse into a black hole. This is because commonly used calculations for gravitational collapse are usually based upon objects of relatively constant size, such as stars, and do not apply to rapidly expanding space such as the Big Bang.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: The expansion of space is sometimes described as a force that acts to push objects apart. Though this is an accurate description of the effect of the cosmological constant, it is not an accurate picture of the phenomenon of expansion in general.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: In addition to slowing the overall expansion, gravity causes local clumping of matter into stars and galaxies. Once objects are formed and bound by gravity, they "drop out" of the expansion and do not subsequently expand under the influence of the cosmological metric, there being no force compelling them to do so.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: There is no difference between the inertial expansion of the universe and the inertial separation of nearby objects in a vacuum; the former is simply a large-scale extrapolation of the latter.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: Once objects are bound by gravity, they no longer recede from each other. Thus, the Andromeda galaxy, which is bound to the Milky Way galaxy, is actually falling "towards" us and is not expanding away. Within the Local Group, the gravitational interactions have changed the inertial patterns of objects such that there is no cosmological expansion taking place. Once one goes beyond the Local Group, the inertial expansion is measurable, though systematic gravitational effects imply that larger and larger parts of space will eventually fall out of the "Hubble Flow" and end up as bound, non-expanding objects up to the scales of superclusters of galaxies. We can predict such future events by knowing the precise way the Hubble Flow is changing as well as the masses of the objects to which we are being gravitationally pulled. Currently, the Local Group is being gravitationally pulled towards either the Shapley Supercluster or the "Great Attractor" with which, if dark energy were not acting, we would eventually merge and no longer see expand away from us after such a time.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: A consequence of metric expansion being due to inertial motion is that a uniform local "explosion" of matter into a vacuum can be locally described by the FLRW geometry, the same geometry that describes the expansion of the universe as a whole and was also the basis for the simpler Milne universe, which ignores the effects of gravity. In particular, general relativity predicts that light will move at the speed "c" with respect to the local motion of the exploding matter, a phenomenon analogous to frame dragging.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: The situation changes somewhat with the introduction of dark energy or a cosmological constant. A cosmological constant due to a vacuum energy density has the effect of adding a repulsive force between objects that is proportional (not inversely proportional) to distance. Unlike inertia it actively "pulls" on objects that have clumped together under the influence of gravity, and even on individual atoms. However, this does not cause the objects to grow steadily or to disintegrate; unless they are very weakly bound, they will simply settle into an equilibrium state that is slightly (undetectably) larger than it would otherwise have been. As the universe expands and the matter in it thins, the gravitational attraction decreases (since it is proportional to the density), while the cosmological repulsion increases; thus the ultimate fate of the ΛCDM universe is a near vacuum expanding at an ever-increasing rate under the influence of the cosmological constant. However, the only locally visible effect of the accelerating expansion is the disappearance (by runaway redshift) of distant galaxies; gravitationally bound objects like the Milky Way do not expand and the Andromeda galaxy is moving fast enough towards us that it will still merge with the Milky Way in 3 billion years time, and it is also likely that the merged supergalaxy that forms will eventually fall in and merge with the nearby Virgo Cluster. However, galaxies lying farther away from this will recede away at ever-increasing speed and be redshifted out of our range of visibility.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: At the end of the early universe's inflationary period, all the matter and energy in the universe was set on an inertial trajectory consistent with the equivalence principle and Einstein's general theory of relativity and this is when the precise and regular form of the universe's expansion had its origin (that is, matter in the universe is separating because it was separating in the past due to the inflaton field).


title: Expansion of the universe

text: While special relativity prohibits objects from moving faster than light with respect to a local reference frame where spacetime can be treated as flat and unchanging, it does not apply to situations where spacetime curvature or evolution in time become important. These situations are described by general relativity, which allows the separation between two distant objects to increase faster than the speed of light, although the definition of "distance" here is somewhat different from that used in an inertial frame. The definition of distance used here is the summation or integration of local comoving distances, all done at constant local proper time. For example, galaxies that are farther than the Hubble radius, approximately 4.5 gigaparsecs or 14.7 billion light-years, away from us have a recession speed that is faster than the speed of light. Visibility of these objects depends on the exact expansion history of the universe. Light that is emitted today from galaxies beyond the more-distant cosmological event horizon, about 5 gigaparsecs or 16 billion light-years, will never reach us, although we can still see the light that these galaxies emitted in the past. Because of the high rate of expansion, it is also possible for a distance between two objects to be greater than the value calculated by multiplying the speed of light by the age of the universe. These details are a frequent source of confusion among amateurs and even professional physicists.<ref name="astro-ph/0310808">Tamara M. Davis and Charles H. Lineweaver, "Expanding Confusion: common misconceptions of cosmological horizons and the superluminal expansion of the universe". </ref> Due to the non-intuitive nature of the subject and what has been described by some as "careless" choices of wording, certain descriptions of the metric expansion of space and the misconceptions to which such descriptions can lead are an ongoing subject of discussion within the fields of education and communication of scientific concepts.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: At a fundamental level, the expansion of the universe is a property of spatial measurement on the largest measurable scales of our universe. The distances between cosmologically relevant points increases as time passes leading to observable effects outlined below. This feature of the universe can be characterized by a single parameter that is called the scale factor, which is a function of time and a single value for all of space at any instant (if the scale factor were a function of space, this would violate the cosmological principle). By convention, the scale factor is set to be unity at the present time and, because the universe is expanding, is smaller in the past and larger in the future. Extrapolating back in time with certain cosmological models will yield a moment when the scale factor was zero; our current understanding of cosmology sets this time at 13.799 ± 0.021 billion years ago. If the universe continues to expand forever, the scale factor will approach infinity in the future. In principle, there is no reason that the expansion of the universe must be monotonic and there are models where at some time in the future the scale factor decreases with an attendant contraction of space rather than an expansion.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: The expansion of space is often illustrated with conceptual models that show only the size of space at a particular time, leaving the dimension of time implicit.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: In the "ant on a rubber rope model" one imagines an ant (idealized as pointlike) crawling at a constant speed on a perfectly elastic rope that is constantly stretching. If we stretch the rope in accordance with the ΛCDM scale factor and think of the ant's speed as the speed of light, then this analogy is numerically accurate – the ant's position over time will match the path of the red line on the embedding diagram above.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: In the "rubber sheet model" one replaces the rope with a flat two-dimensional rubber sheet that expands uniformly in all directions. The addition of a second spatial dimension raises the possibility of showing local perturbations of the spatial geometry by local curvature in the sheet.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: In the "balloon model" the flat sheet is replaced by a spherical balloon that is inflated from an initial size of zero (representing the big bang). A balloon has positive Gaussian curvature while observations suggest that the real universe is spatially flat, but this inconsistency can be eliminated by making the balloon very large so that it is locally flat to within the limits of observation. This analogy is potentially confusing since it wrongly suggests that the big bang took place at the center of the balloon. In fact points off the surface of the balloon have no meaning, even if they were occupied by the balloon at an earlier time.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: In the "raisin bread model" one imagines a loaf of raisin bread expanding in the oven. The loaf (space) expands as a whole, but the raisins (gravitationally bound objects) do not expand; they merely grow farther away from each other.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: Technically, the metric expansion of space is a feature of many solutions to the Einstein field equations of general relativity, and distance is measured using the Lorentz interval. This explains observations that indicate that galaxies that are more distant from us are receding faster than galaxies that are closer to us (see Hubble's law).


title: Expansion of the universe

text: The first general relativistic models predicted that a universe that was dynamical and contained ordinary gravitational matter would contract rather than expand. Einstein's first proposal for a solution to this problem involved adding a cosmological constant into his theories to balance out the contraction, in order to obtain a static universe solution. But in 1922 Alexander Friedmann derived a set of equations known as the Friedmann equations, showing that the universe might expand and presenting the expansion speed in this case. The observations of Edwin Hubble in 1929 suggested that distant galaxies were all apparently moving away from us, so that many scientists came to accept that the universe was expanding.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: While the metric expansion of space appeared to be implied by Hubble's 1929 observations, Hubble disagreed with the expanding-universe interpretation of the data:


title: Expansion of the universe

text: Hubble's skepticism about the universe being too small, dense, and young turned out to be based on an observational error. Later investigations appeared to show that Hubble had confused distant H II regions for Cepheid variables and the Cepheid variables themselves had been inappropriately lumped together with low-luminosity RR Lyrae stars causing calibration errors that led to a value of the Hubble Constant of approximately 500 km/s/Mpc instead of the true value of approximately 70 km/s/Mpc. The higher value meant that an expanding universe would have an age of 2 billion years (younger than the Age of the Earth) and extrapolating the observed number density of galaxies to a rapidly expanding universe implied a mass density that was too high by a similar factor, enough to force the universe into a peculiar closed geometry that also implied an impending Big Crunch that would occur on a similar timescale. After fixing these errors in the 1950s, the new lower values for the Hubble Constant accorded with the expectations of an older universe and the density parameter was found to be fairly close to a geometrically flat universe.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: However, recent measurements of the distances and velocities of faraway galaxies revealed a 9 percent discrepancy in the value of the Hubble constant, implying a universe that seems expanding too fast compared to previous measurements. In 2001, Wendy Freedman determined space to expand at 72 kilometers per second per megaparsec - roughly 3.3 million light years - meaning that for every 3.3 million light years further away from the earth you are, the matter where you are, is moving away from earth 72 kilometers a second faster. In the summer of 2016, another measurement reported a value of 73 for the constant, thereby contradicting 2013 measurements from the European Planck mission of slower expansion value of 67. The discrepancy opened new questions concerning the nature of dark energy, or of neutrinos.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: Until the theoretical developments in the 1980s no one had an explanation for why this seemed to be the case, but with the development of models of cosmic inflation, the expansion of the universe became a general feature resulting from vacuum decay. Accordingly, the question "why is the universe expanding?" is now answered by understanding the details of the inflation decay process that occurred in the first 10 seconds of the existence of our universe. During inflation, the metric changed exponentially, causing any volume of space that was smaller than an atom to grow to around 100 million light years across in a time scale similar to the time when inflation occurred (10 seconds).


title: Expansion of the universe

text: In expanding space, distance is a dynamic quantity that changes with time. There are several different ways of defining distance in cosmology, known as "distance measures", but a common method used amongst modern astronomers is comoving distance.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: The metric only defines the distance between nearby (so-called "local") points. In order to define the distance between arbitrarily distant points, one must specify both the points and a specific curve (known as a "spacetime interval") connecting them. The distance between the points can then be found by finding the length of this connecting curve through the three dimensions of space. Comoving distance defines this connecting curve to be a curve of constant cosmological time. Operationally, comoving distances cannot be directly measured by a single Earth-bound observer. To determine the distance of distant objects, astronomers generally measure luminosity of standard candles, or the redshift factor 'z' of distant galaxies, and then convert these measurements into distances based on some particular model of spacetime, such as the Lambda-CDM model. It is, indeed, by making such observations that it was determined that there is no evidence for any 'slowing down' of the expansion in the current epoch.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: Theoretical cosmologists developing models of the universe have drawn upon a small number of reasonable assumptions in their work. These workings have led to models in which the metric expansion of space is a likely feature of the universe. Chief among the underlying principles that result in models including metric expansion as a feature are:


title: Expansion of the universe

text: Scientists have tested carefully whether these assumptions are valid and borne out by observation. Observational cosmologists have discovered evidence – very strong in some cases – that supports these assumptions, and as a result, metric expansion of space is considered by cosmologists to be an observed feature on the basis that although we cannot see it directly, scientists have tested the properties of the universe and observation provides compelling confirmation. Sources of this confidence and confirmation include:


title: Expansion of the universe

text: Taken together, these phenomena overwhelmingly support models that rely on space expanding through a change in metric. It was not until the discovery in the year 2000 of direct observational evidence for the changing temperature of the cosmic microwave background that more bizarre constructions could be ruled out. Until that time, it was based purely on an assumption that the universe did not behave as one with the Milky Way sitting at the middle of a fixed-metric with a universal explosion of galaxies in all directions (as seen in, for example, an early model proposed by Milne). Yet before this evidence, many rejected the Milne viewpoint based on the mediocrity principle.


title: Expansion of the universe

text: More direct results of the expansion, such as change of redshift, distance, flux, angular position and the angular size of astronomical objects, have not been detected yet due to smallness of these effects. Change of the redshift or the flux could be observed by Square Kilometre Array or Extremely Large Telescope in the mid-2030s.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: Microsoft Exchange Server is a mail server and calendaring server developed by Microsoft. It runs exclusively on Windows Server operating systems.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: The first version was called Exchange Server 4.0, to position it as the successor to the related Microsoft Mail 3.5. Exchange initially used the X.400 directory service but switched to Active Directory later. Until version 5.0, it came bundled with an email client called Microsoft Exchange Client. This was discontinued in favor of Microsoft Outlook.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: Exchange Server primarily uses a proprietary protocol called MAPI to talk to email clients, but subsequently added support for POP3, IMAP, and EAS. The standard SMTP protocol is used to communicate to other Internet mail servers.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: Exchange Server is licensed both as on-premises software and software as a service (SaaS). In the on-premises form, customers purchase client access licenses (CALs); as SaaS, Microsoft charges a monthly service fee instead.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: Microsoft had sold a number of simpler email products before, but the first release of Exchange (Exchange Server 4.0 in March 1996) was an entirely new X.400-based client–server groupware system with a single database store, which also supported X.500 directory services. The directory used by Exchange Server eventually became Microsoft's Active Directory service, an LDAP-compliant directory service which was integrated into Windows 2000 as the foundation of Windows Server domains.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: The current version, Exchange Server 2019, was released in October 2018. Unlike other Office Server 2019 products such as SharePoint and Skype for Business, Exchange Server 2019 could only be deployed on Windows Server 2019 when it was released. Since Cumulative Update 2022 H1 Exchange 2019 has been supported on Windows Server 2022. One of the key features of the new release is that Exchange Server can be deployed onto Windows Server Core for the first time. Additionally, Microsoft has retired the Unified Messaging feature of Exchange, meaning that Skype for Business on-premises customers will have to use alternative solutions for voicemail, such as Azure cloud voicemail. Unified Messaging continues to exist in Exchange Online requiring an Exchange Plan 2 license.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: Exchange Server Enterprise Edition supports clustering of up to 4 nodes when using Windows 2000 Server, and up to 8 nodes with Windows Server 2003. Exchange Server 2003 also introduced active-active clustering, but for two-node clusters only. In this setup, both servers in the cluster are allowed to be active simultaneously. This is opposed to Exchange's more common active-passive mode in which the failover servers in any cluster node cannot be used at all while their corresponding home servers are active. They must wait, inactive, for the home servers in the node to fail. Subsequent performance issues with active-active mode have led Microsoft to recommend that it should no longer be used. In fact, support for active-active mode clustering has been discontinued with Exchange Server 2007.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: Exchange's clustering (active-active or active-passive mode) has been criticized because of its requirement for servers in the cluster nodes to share the same data. The clustering in Exchange Server provides redundancy for Exchange Server as an "application", but not for Exchange "data". In this scenario, the data can be regarded as a single point of failure, despite Microsoft's description of this set-up as a "Shared Nothing" model. This void has however been filled by ISVs and storage manufacturers, through "site resilience" solutions, such as geo-clustering and asynchronous data replication. Exchange Server 2007 introduces new cluster terminology and configurations that address the shortcomings of the previous "shared data model".


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: Exchange Server 2007 provides built-in support for asynchronous replication modeled on SQL Server's "Log shipping" in CCR (Cluster Continuous Replication) clusters, which are built on MSCS MNS (Microsoft Cluster Service—Majority Node Set) clusters, which do not require shared storage. This type of cluster can be inexpensive and deployed in one, or "stretched" across two data centers for protection against site-wide failures such as natural disasters. The limitation of CCR clusters is the ability to have only two nodes and the third node known as "voter node" or file share witness that prevents "spit in the brain" scenarios, generally hosted as a file share on a Hub Transport Server. The second type of cluster is the traditional clustering that was available in previous versions, and is now being referred to as SCC (Single Copy Cluster). In Exchange Server 2007 deployment of both CCR and SCC clusters has been simplified and improved; the entire cluster install process takes place during Exchange Server installation. LCR or Local Continuous Replication has been referred to as the "poor man's cluster". It is designed to allow for data replication to an alternative drive attached to the same system and is intended to provide protection against local storage failures. It does not protect against the case where the server itself fails.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: In November 2007, Microsoft released SP1 for Exchange Server 2007. This service pack includes an additional high-availability feature called SCR (Standby Continuous Replication). Unlike CCR, which requires that both servers belong to a Windows cluster typically residing in the same datacenter, SCR can replicate data to a non-clustered server, located in a separate datacenter.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: With Exchange Server 2010, Microsoft introduced the concept of the Database Availability Group (DAG). A DAG contains Mailbox servers that become members of the DAG. Once a Mailbox server is a member of a DAG, the Mailbox Databases on that server can be copied to other members of the DAG. When a Mailbox server is added to a DAG, the Failover Clustering Windows role is installed on the server and all required clustering resources are created.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: Like Windows Server products, Exchange Server requires client access licenses, which are different from Windows CALs. Corporate license agreements, such as the Enterprise Agreement, or EA, include Exchange Server CALs. It also comes as part of the Core CAL. Just like Windows Server and other server products from Microsoft, there is the choice to use User CALs or Device CALs. Device CALs are assigned to devices (workstation, laptop or PDA), which may be used by one or more users. User CALs, are assigned to users, allowing them to access Exchange from any device. User and Device CALs have the same price, however, they cannot be used interchangeably.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: For service providers looking to host Microsoft Exchange, there is a Service Provider License Agreement (SPLA) available whereby Microsoft receives a monthly service fee instead of traditional CALs. Two types of Exchange CAL are available: Exchange CAL Standard and Exchange CAL Enterprise. The Enterprise CAL is an add-on license to the Standard CAL.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: Microsoft Exchange Server uses a proprietary remote procedure call (RPC) protocol called MAPI/RPC, which was designed to be used by Microsoft Outlook. Clients capable of using the proprietary features of Exchange Server include Evolution, Hiri and Microsoft Outlook. Thunderbird can access Exchange server via the Owl Plugin.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: Exchange Web Services (EWS), an alternative to the MAPI protocol, is a documented SOAP-based protocol introduced with Exchange Server 2007. Exchange Web Services is used by the latest version of Microsoft Entourage for Mac and Microsoft Outlook for Mac - since the release of Mac OS X Snow Leopard Mac computers running OS X include some support for this technology via Apple's Mail application.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: E-mail hosted on an Exchange Server can also be accessed using POP3, and IMAP4 protocols, using clients such as Windows Live Mail, Mozilla Thunderbird, and Lotus Notes. These protocols must be enabled on the server. Exchange Server mailboxes can also be accessed through a web browser, using Outlook Web App (OWA). Exchange Server 2003 also featured a version of OWA for mobile devices, called Outlook Mobile Access (OMA).


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: Microsoft Exchange Server up to version 5.0 came bundled with Microsoft Exchange Client as the email client. After version 5.0, this was replaced by Microsoft Outlook, bundled as part of Microsoft Office 97 and later. When Outlook 97 was released, Exchange Client 5.0 was still in development and to be later released as part of Exchange Server 5.0, primarily because Outlook was only available for Windows. Later, in Exchange Server 5.5, Exchange Client was removed and Outlook was made the only Exchange client. As part of Exchange Server 5.5, Outlook was released for other platforms.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: The original Windows 95 "Inbox" client also used MAPI and was called "Microsoft Exchange". A stripped-down version of the Exchange Client that does not have support for Exchange Server was released as Windows Messaging to avoid confusion; it was included with Windows 95 OSR2, Windows 98, and Windows NT 4. It was discontinued because of the move to email standards such as SMTP, IMAP, and POP3, all of which Outlook Express supports better than Windows Messaging.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: Support for Exchange ActiveSync (EAS) was added to Microsoft Exchange Server 2003. It allows a compliant device such as a Windows Mobile device or smartphone to securely synchronize mail, contacts and other data directly with an Exchange server and has become a popular mobile access standard for businesses due to support from companies like Nokia and Apple Inc. as well as its device security and compliance features.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: Support for push email was added to it with Exchange Server 2003 Service Pack 2 and is supported by Windows Phone 7, the iPhone and Android phones, but notably not for Apple's native Mail app on macOS.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: Exchange ActiveSync Policies allow administrators to control which devices can connect to the organization, remotely deactivate features, and remotely wipe lost or stolen devices.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: The complexities of managing Exchange Server -- namely running both one or more Exchange Servers, plus Active Directory synchronization servers -- make it attractive for organisations to purchase it as a hosted service.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: This has been possible from a number of providers for more than 10 years, but as of June 2018 is that many providers have been marketing the service as "cloud computing" or "Software-as-a-Service". Exchange hosting allows for Microsoft Exchange Server to be running in the Internet, also referred to as the Cloud, and managed by a "Hosted Exchange Server provider" instead of building and deploying the system in-house.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: Exchange Online is Exchange Server delivered as a cloud service hosted by Microsoft itself. It is built on the same technologies as on-premises Exchange Server, and offers essentially the same services as third-party providers which host Exchange Server instances.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: Customers can also choose to combine both on-premises and online options in a hybrid deployment. Hybrid implementations are popular for organizations that are unsure of the need or urgency to do a full transition to Exchange Online, and also allows for staggered email migration.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: Hybrid tools can cover the main stack of Microsoft Exchange, Lync, SharePoint, Windows, and Active Directory servers, in addition to using replica data to report cloud user experience.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: Exchange Online was first provided as a hosted service in dedicated customer environments in 2005 to select pilot customers. Microsoft launched a multi-tenant version of Exchange Online as part of the Business Productivity Online Standard Suite in November 2008. In June 2011, as part of the commercial release of Microsoft Office 365, Exchange Online was updated with the capabilities of Exchange Server 2010.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: Exchange Server 2010 was developed concurrently as a server product and for the Exchange Online service.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: In February 2020, an ASP.NET vulnerability was discovered and exploited relying on a default setting allowing attackers to run arbitrary code with system privileges, only requiring a connection to the server as well as being logged into any user account which can be done through credential stuffing.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: The exploit relied on all versions of Microsoft Exchange using the same static validation key to decrypt, encrypt, and validate the 'View State' by default on all installations of the software and all versions of it, where the View State is used to temporarily preserve changes to an individual page as information is sent to the server. The default validation key used is therefore public knowledge, and so when this is used the validation key can be used to decrypt and falsely verify a modified View State containing commands added by an attacker.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: When logged in as any user, any .ASPX page is then loaded, and by requesting both the session ID of the user login and the correct View State directly from the server, this correct View State can be deserialised and then modified to also include arbitrary code and then be falsely verified by the attacker. This modified View State is then serialised and passed back to the server in a GET request along with the session ID to show it is from a logged-in user; in legitimate use, the view state should always be returned in a POST request, and never a GET request. This combination causes the server to decrypt and run this added code with its own privileges, allowing the server to be fully compromised as any command can therefore be run.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: In July 2020, Positive Technologies published a research explaining how hackers can attack Microsoft Exchange Server without exploiting any vulnerabilities. It was voted into Top 10 web hacking techniques of 2020 according to PortSwigger Ltd.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: In 2021, critical zero-day exploits were discovered in Microsoft Exchange Server. Thousands of organisations have been affected by hackers using these techniques to steal information and install malicious code. Microsoft revealed that these vulnerabilities had existed for around 10 years, but were exploited only from January 2021 onwards. The attack affected the email systems of an estimated 250,000 global customers, including state and local governments, policy think tanks, academic institutions, infectious disease researchers and businesses such as law firms and defense contractors.


title: Microsoft Exchange Server

text: In a separate incident, an ongoing brute-force campaign from mid-2019 to the present (July 2021), attributed by British and American (NSA, FBI, CISA) security agencies to the GRU, uses/used publicly known Exchange vulnerabilities, as well as already-obtained account credentials and other methods, to infiltrate networks and steal data.


The 2022 College Football Playoff National Championship was a college football bowl game played on January 10, 2022, at Lucas Oil Stadium in Indianapolis, Indiana. The eighth College Football Playoff National Championship, the game determined the national champion of the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) for the 2021 season. The game featured the No. 1 Alabama Crimson Tide and the No. 3 Georgia Bulldogs, both of whom represented the Southeastern Conference (SEC). The game began at 8:16 p.m. EST and was broadcast by ESPN. Georgia entered the game seeking its third national championship, while Alabama entered seeking its 19th.


title: 2022 College Football Playoff National Championship

text: The game started slow offensively, as a field goal on Alabama's opening drive proved to be the only points of the first quarter. After Georgia scored a field goal of their own to tie the game early in the second quarter, the Crimson Tide kicked two more field goals to extend their lead to six points. A Georgia field goal with just over three minutes in the first half narrowed the deficit to three points, and the game went to halftime with Alabama leading 9–6. Looking to reinstate their six-point lead early in the third, Alabama's 48-yard field goal attempt was blocked and Georgia drove down the field to take their first lead by scoring the game's first touchdown. Alabama responded, scoring nine unanswered points with the help of a recovered fumble, to retake the lead by five points. These would be their final points of the contest; Georgia scored two touchdowns to take an eight-point lead and Kelee Ringo capped the win with a 79-yard interception return. The game ended with Georgia defeating Alabama by a score of 33–18 and winning their third national championship in school history, the first since 1980.


text: On November 1, 2017, Lucas Oil Stadium in Indianapolis, Indiana, was announced as the site for the eighth College Football Playoff (CFP) National Championship. Indianapolis was the eighth different city, and the first "cold-weather city", to host the College Football Playoff National Championship (after Arlington, Glendale, Tampa, Atlanta, Santa Clara, New Orleans, and Miami Gardens). Additionally, this was the first time in college football's modern history that the national championship was not won in the South or the West. The city was selected after it was invited by the College Football Playoff to bid for the event, who specifically requested that Indianapolis bid for the 2022 event. The host committee was chaired by Mark Howell, the CEO of the Indianapolis-based company Angie's List (now Angi). While this was the first college football national championship hosted by Lucas Oil Stadium, the venue has been the home stadium for the Indianapolis Colts since 2008 and has hosted the Big Ten Football Championship Game since its inception in 2011, Super Bowl XLVI in 2012, and Final Fours in 2010 and 2015.


text: The stadium was "cashless" for the game, as it has been since 2020, and face masks were highly recommended but were not required.


text: The championship game was the eighth in College Football Playoff history. The semifinal games were both played on December 31, 2021. In the first semifinal, played at the 2021 Cotton Bowl Classic in Arlington, Texas, Alabama defeated Cincinnati, 27–6. In the second semifinal, played at the 2021 Orange Bowl in Miami Gardens, Florida, Georgia defeated Michigan, 34–11. These wins by Alabama and Georgia qualified them to the national championship game. This was the second appearance by Georgia in the College Football Playoff, after a debut appearance in 2017 which saw them defeat Oklahoma in the 2017 Rose Bowl in double overtime and fall to Alabama in overtime in the championship game. They entered the title game with an overall CFP record of 2–1. Alabama made their seventh appearance in the playoff in 2021, with 2019 being the only year they failed to qualify. In their previous appearances, they won three national championships and had lost in a further two championship games (to Clemson in both 2017 and 2019). They entered the contest with an overall record of 9–3 in the College Football Playoff.


text: The 2022 College Football Playoff National Championship featured the No. 1 Alabama Crimson Tide and the No. 3 Georgia Bulldogs. It was the teams' 72nd meeting, with Alabama leading the series 42–25–4; they first met in 1895 and played frequently from 1901 to the mid-1970s. Alabama won the last seven meetings between the teams, with Georgia's last victory over the Tide coming in 2007. Entering the contest, the teams last met just over a month before, as Alabama defeated Georgia, 41–24, in the 2021 SEC Championship Game. This was the second time Georgia and Alabama have played for a national championship; the Crimson Tide defeated the Bulldogs in the 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship, 26–23, in overtime. Alabama entered the game holding a 4–0 postseason advantage over Georgia, having won three SEC Championship games (2012, 2018, and 2021) in addition to the aforementioned national championship game.


text: This was the second CFP National Championship appearance for Georgia, after losing to Alabama in the 2018 edition. The Bulldogs claimed two national championships overall; in 1942 and 1980. Alabama made their sixth CFP National Championship appearance; the Crimson Tide won titles in 2015, 2017, and 2020, and they appeared in the 2016 and 2018 title games as well. In total, Alabama claims 18 national championships, with the first in 1925.


text: The top-ranked Crimson Tide, led by 15th-year head coach Nick Saban, opened their season with a neutral site kickoff game, as they faced No. 14 Miami (FL) in the Chick-fil-A Kickoff Game. The game ended with an Alabama victory, as the Tide won convincingly to earn a 1–0 start to their national title defense. They opened their home season with a win against FCS Mercer, and followed it with their first SEC contest at No. 11 Florida, which saw Alabama escape an upset bid with a two-point win against the Gators. Alabama would rout Southern Miss the following week, in a game that featured Jameson Williams record three touchdowns of 80 yards or more, before defeating No. 12 Ole Miss by three touchdowns at home to extend their streak to six consecutive wins in that rivalry series. The Tide suffered their first and only regular season setback the following week, when they were upset by Texas A&M in College Station thanks to Seth Small's 28-yard field goal as time expired, which gave the Aggies a three-point victory. This loss snapped a 19-game winning streak for the Tide and dropped Alabama to No. 5 in the AP Poll, though they were able to rebound with impressive wins over Mississippi State and Tennessee to put their record at 7–1 entering their bye week. To begin the month of November, the Crimson Tide hosted LSU, whom they defeated by six points; Alabama then defeated New Mexico State, their final non-conference opponent, by a score of 59–3. The Tide's final home game came against No. 21 Arkansas; Alabama won by only a touchdown despite quarterback Bryce Young's school-record 559 passing yards, and the Tide dropped to No. 3 in the College Football Playoff rankings. With the win, Alabama clinched the SEC West Division title and their spot in the SEC Championship Game. The Crimson Tide concluded their regular season a week later with an Iron Bowl matchup against Auburn. The game went to four overtimes before Alabama came away with a two-point victory; this was the first game in Iron Bowl history to reach overtime. The Crimson Tide then defeated No. 1 Georgia in the 2021 SEC Championship Game, bumping them back to No. 1 and earning them a place in the playoff. Alabama defeated No. 4 Cincinnati in their semifinal matchup at the 2021 Cotton Bowl Classic, earning them a championship game berth. They entered the game with a record of 13–1 and a 7–1 mark in conference play.


text: Led by sixth-year head coach Kirby Smart, the fifth-ranked Bulldogs began their season with a matchup against No. 3 Clemson in the Duke's Mayo Classic. The game, which hosted "College GameDay" earlier that morning, played out to a low-scoring 10–3 Georgia win, putting them in the No. 2 spot in the rankings just one week into the season. The Bulldogs put on a dominant performance in their home opener the next week, as they scored eight touchdowns and allowed just one in a victory over UAB, and soundly defeated South Carolina the following week to open SEC play. Back-to-back shutouts followed, as the Bulldogs kept both Vanderbilt and No. 8 Arkansas off the scoreboard, while scoring 62 and 37 points of their own, respectively. Georgia continued their form with two more wins against ranked opponents, as they defeated No. 18 Auburn on the road and No. 11 Kentucky at home; the former game saw Georgia play as the No. 1 team in the nation for the first time this season following Texas A&M's upset of then-No. 1 Alabama, and the latter game was the first in which Georgia allowed more than one touchdown. The Bulldogs returned to neutral site play when they faced Florida following a bye week; they defeated the Gators 34–7, with their three touchdowns in just over three minutes at the end of the game's second quarter contributing to the win. This was also the week that Georgia clinched the SEC East's berth in the championship game, as a result of Kentucky's loss to Mississippi State. The Bulldogs finished their conference season in much the same style as the games before; they defeated Missouri 43–6, and allowed a season-high 17 points to Tennessee, though still managed to win by three possessions. Georgia finished the regular season with a pair of non-conference games, as they routed the Charleston Southern Buccaneers by seven scores and their rivals Georgia Tech by the same number, concluding Georgia's first undefeated regular season since 1982. The Bulldogs fell to No. 3 Alabama in the SEC Championship Game; Georgia subsequently dropped to No. 3 and were selected for the College Football Playoff. They were picked to face No. 2 Michigan in the Orange Bowl, where they won to earn their spot in the championship game. Georgia entered the contest with a record of 13–1 and an 8–0 mark in SEC play.


text: Scheduled for an 8:00 p.m. EST start, the game began at 8:16 p.m. with Jake Camarda's opening kickoff resulting in a touchback. As a result, Alabama began their first drive at their own 25-yard-line. Brian Robinson Jr. got each of the game's first two carries, and Bryce Young completed passes to Slade Bolden and Jameson Williams to get first downs on the drive. Driving to the Georgia 19-yard-line, Young's pass was incomplete, forcing a 37-yard field goal attempt for Alabama, which was made by Will Reichard. Alabama's defense proved to be effective on Georgia's first drive of the game, as Christian Harris took down Stetson Bennett for a 14-yard sack; despite a 14-yard rush by Bennett a few plays later, a delay of game penalty doomed the Bulldogs to a three-and-out, and Camarda punted the ball away. The kick was fair caught by Bolden at the Alabama 20-yard line. On the second play of their ensuing drive, Young found Williams for a 15-yard gain and a first down, which would be their only first down of the drive. The Tide offense stalled and James Burnip's punt was fair caught by Kearis Jackson at the Georgia 25-yard-line. Georgia's offense was again unable to move the ball, as they gained one yard on three plays and punted the ball back to Alabama, who took possession at their own 45-yard-line after Ameer Speed was called for a kick catch interference penalty. Alabama also found themselves unable to gain a first down, and they were forced to punt the ball back to the Bulldogs four plays later after their first three-and-out of the game. Burnip's kick was caught by Jackson at the Georgia 8-yard-line. After a personal foul set Georgia back to their own 4-yard-line on their first play, the Bulldogs were able to get a first down for the first time on a 19-yard pass from Bennett to Darnell Washington, which was immediately followed by a 52-yard pass from Bennett to George Pickens, which put Georgia in Alabama territory for the first time. They advanced the ball to the Alabama 23-yard-line before the first quarter came to an end.


text: Facing a 2nd & 14 to begin the second quarter, the Bulldogs picked up a first down within two plays, and advanced the ball down to the Alabama 5-yard-line before bringing up 4th & Goal. Jack Podlesny's 24-yard field goal attempt was successful, giving Georgia their first points of the contest and tying the game at three points apiece. Alabama began their next drive at their own 25-yard-line following a touchback; their first play was a 40-yard pass from Young to Williams, though Williams went down with a non-contact injury to his left knee and left the game following that play. Young completed several more short passes on the drive but could not pick up another first down, and Alabama retook the lead on a 45-yard Will Reichard field goal with just over eleven minutes to play. Georgia started their next drive at their own 15-yard-line following a false start penalty and was unable to get past their own 22-yard-line; Camarda's punt on 4th & 8 was muffed by Bolden, who then recovered the ball back at the Alabama 26-yard-line. The first play of the drive went for a 5-yard gain, but the following play was a 61-yard completion from Young to Cameron Latu, which put Alabama on the Georgia 8-yard-line. However, Alabama's offense stalled, gaining two yards on the next two plays and then losing 13 on a sack by Channing Tindall, forcing a field goal try. Reichard's 37-yard kick was good, giving Alabama a six-point lead. After getting the ball back with seven minutes to play, Georgia reached Alabama territory in four plays, and converted a third down with a pass from Bennett to Adonai Mitchell on the next play. A sack by Dallas Turner on the following play set Georgia behind the sticks and they were ultimately not able to recover; Jack Podlesny converted a 49-yard field goal on 4th & 6, narrowing the margin to three. Alabama's final possession of the half started on their own 25-yard-line; a 24-yard pass from Young to Agiye Hall put the Tide in Georgia territory, but a pair of incompletions from Young made it fourth down. Burnip was sent back on to punt, and the kick was fair caught at the Georgia 10-yard-line. Looking to run out the clock, Zamir White ran the ball three straight times for a net total of 15 yards, which concluded the second quarter. Alabama entered halftime leading the game, 9–6.


text: Georgia began the third quarter with possession of the ball, with Reichard's kickoff going out for a touchback. Zamir White carried the ball for 11 yards on the half's first play, and then again for 19 yards on the following play, earning a first down each time. An intentional grounding penalty called on Bennett on the next play, a flea flicker, set Georgia back to 2nd & 19, and they were unable to recover. Camarda was brought on to punt on 4th & 8, and his kick was fair caught by Bolden at the Alabama 7-yard-line. Alabama's first possession of the second half was brief; Young's pass was intercepted by Christopher Smith at the Alabama 43-yard-line, giving Georgia possession again. The Bulldogs were not able to capitalize off of this miscue, as they went three-and-out, gaining only three yards. Camarda's punt was downed at the Alabama 2-yard-line. The Crimson Tide escaped the shadow of their own goalposts in a few plays; Robinson's carry for 16 yards on 2nd & 9 advanced the ball to the Alabama 19-yard-line and the Tide had another first down within two more plays. They reached Georgia territory three plays after that and got the ball to the Georgia 30-yard-line before two straight incompletions brought up 4th & 11. Reichard's field goal attempt was the first of the night to be unsuccessful, as the 48-yard try was blocked by Georgia defensive tackle Jalen Carter, giving the Bulldogs possession at their own 20-yard-line. Georgia was quick to capitalize; running back James Cook took the ball inside the Alabama red zone with a 67-yard rush, and a pair of rushes from Bennett and Kenny McIntosh afterwards advanced the ball to the Alabama 1-yard-line. On 1st & Goal, Zamir White scored the game's first touchdown, a one-yard rush, giving Georgia their first lead of the game. Getting possession of the ball back at their own 25-yard-line, Alabama ran three plays to advance to their own 41-yard-line before the end of the third quarter.


text: Alabama began the fourth quarter with a seven-yard pass from Young to Bolden; a hands to the face penalty called on the Bulldogs' Robert Beal Jr. gave the Tide a first down on the following play and a 28-yard pass from Young to Hall took Alabama all the way down to the Georgia 5-yard-line. Two incompletions and a two-yard rush brought up 4th & Goal, and Reichard was brought on for another field goal attempt; this 21-yard try was good, bringing the Crimson Tide's deficit to one point. Georgia began their next drive at their own 25-yard-line after a touchback, but lost the ball shortly thereafter as a fumble by Bennett on the drive's third play was recovered at the Georgia 16-yard-line by Brian Branch. Alabama, starting their drive inside the red zone, benefitted from a roughing the passer call on second down and scored their first touchdown three plays later, as Young found Latu in the end zone for a three-yard passing touchdown. Young's rush on the two-point conversion attempt was unsuccessful, leaving Alabama's lead at five points. Beginning from a touchback, Georgia took to the passing game to move the ball on their ensuing drive. Bennett completed passes of 18 and 10 yards, with a 15-yard pass interference penalty in between, to move the ball to the Alabama 32-yard-line. Following a sack, Bennett connected with Adonai Mitchell for a 40-yard touchdown pass to the back corner of the end zone to reclaim the lead for the Bulldogs; the two-point rush by James Cook was no good, keeping Georgia's lead at one. Alabama went three-and-out on their next possession, with James Burnip's punt fair caught by Jackson at the Georgia 38-yard-line. Zamir White carried the ball on each of Georgia's next four plays, gaining two first downs, and the Bulldogs got another by virtue of a pass interference call on Kool-Aid McKinstry. Three plays later, Bennett connected with tight end Brock Bowers for a 15-yard touchdown, giving Georgia an eight-point lead. Driving with a chance to tie the game, Alabama gained a pair of first downs and reached Georgia territory in five plays, with just under a minute and a half to play. On 3rd & 10, following two incompletions, Young's pass downfield was intercepted by Kelee Ringo who returned it 79 yards for a touchdown, giving Georgia a lead of fifteen points. Getting the ball back with 54 seconds remaining, Alabama was able to string together a series of first-down passes, as Young found Ja'Corey Brooks for gains of 20 and 11 yards, respectively, but an intentional grounding penalty on Young set them back to their own 43-yard-line. A sack by Robert Beal set Alabama further back to their own 36-yard line, and the game concluded after two further plays. The game ended at 11:57 p.m., after a total of three hours and 41 minutes, with Georgia having defeated Alabama, 33–18, to win the national championship.


text: The game was televised in the United States by ESPN, with "Megacast" coverage across other ESPN linear channels and streaming. The network aired a world premiere of the music video for Alesso and Katy Perry's new single "When I'm Gone" during the halftime report—the first time ESPN had ever premiered a music video during live event coverage.


text: The ESPN "Megacast" coverage spanned seven networks: the main broadcast of the game was shown on ESPN, a coaches' film room broadcast featuring Texas A&M head coach Jimbo Fisher and members of his staff was broadcast on ESPN2, the "command center" broadcast aired on ESPNU, the skycam feed was broadcast on ESPNews, the Spanish language broadcast was shown on ESPN Deportes, the "hometown radio" broadcast, featuring radio announcers from both Georgia and Alabama, was shown on the SEC Network, and the national radio broadcast was on ESPN Radio. Additionally, the individual "hometown radio" broadcasts, additional skycam feeds, the "all-22" broadcast, and the halftime marching band performances were all streamed on the ESPN app.


text: The game was televised in Canada by TSN, which aired a simulcast of ESPN's coverage. Megacast coverage was also featured, with Skycast airing on TSN2, Command Center airing on TSN3, and Coaches Film Room airing on TSN Direct.


text: The primary broadcast team from "Saturday Night Football", Chris Fowler, Kirk Herbstreit, and Holly Rowe, served as the commentator, analyst, and sideline reporter for the main ESPN broadcast; Molly McGrath also joined the crew as a sideline reporter alongside Rowe. The commentary team on ESPN Deportes consisted of Eduardo Varela, Pablo Viruega, and Rebeca Landa. ESPN Radio's broadcast team consisted of Sean McDonough and Todd Blackledge, who shared the commentary booth for a College Football Playoff National Championship for the sixth time, as well as Ian Fitzsimmons and Kris Budden, who both reported from the sidelines. Two former referees contributed to the broadcasts as rules experts: Bill Lemonnier, a former Big Ten Conference official, was a part of the primary ESPN broadcast, and Matt Austin, a former Southeastern Conference official, contributed to the ESPN Radio broadcast.


text: The "Hometown Radio" feeds were presented with each team's regular radio commentary teams. The Alabama feed was commentated by Eli Gold, John Parker Wilson, and Rashad Johnson, and broadcast in conjunction with the Alabama Crimson Tide Sports Network. The Georgia feed was commentated by Scott Howard, Eric Zeier, and D. J. Shockley, and was broadcast in conjunction with the Georgia Bulldog Sports Network.


text: Georgia's win marked their first national championship since 1980, a gap of 41 years. They finished the season with a record of 14–1, while Alabama finished with a 13–2 record. This was the first time a Georgia team had recorded 14 wins in a single season. Georgia quarterback Stetson Bennett, the first walk-on quarterback to defeat a team coached by Nick Saban since 1997, was named the offensive player of the game, while Georgia safety Lewis Cine was named defensive player of the game. The win was the first for Georgia head coach Kirby Smart over Alabama head coach Nick Saban, for whom he worked as an assistant previously. The win was the first for Georgia against Alabama overall since the 2007 season, Saban's first at Alabama. Georgia also became the first No. 3 seed to win the College Football Playoff National Championship.


text: During the postgame handshake, Saban told Smart, "you guys kicked our ass in the fourth quarter," referring to Georgia's three unanswered touchdowns to conclude the game which propelled them from a five-point deficit to a fifteen-point lead. In return, Smart asked about the condition of Alabama wide receiver Jameson Williams, who left the game with an injury in the second quarter; Saban responded that Williams had likely torn his ACL.


text: This was the final game for Georgia defensive coordinator Dan Lanning before his departure for the head coaching position at Oregon. He was hired on December 11, 2021, but committed to coaching Georgia through the conclusion of their season. Coincidentally, his first game at Oregon was the 2022 season opener, which was against Georgia.


text: A total of 68,311 people attended the game, making it one of seven sellouts of the 2021–22 bowl game season. Both of the playoff semifinals were among the list of seven, as were the Gasparilla Bowl, Music City Bowl, Birmingham Bowl, and Rose Bowl.


title: Non-Newtonian fluid

text: A non-Newtonian fluid is a fluid that does not follow Newton's law of viscosity, i.e., constant viscosity independent of stress. In non-Newtonian fluids, viscosity can change when under force to either more liquid or more solid. Ketchup, for example, becomes runnier when shaken and is thus a non-Newtonian fluid. Many salt solutions and molten polymers are non-Newtonian fluids, as are many commonly found substances such as custard, toothpaste, starch suspensions, corn starch, paint, blood, melted butter, and shampoo.


title: Non-Newtonian fluid

text: Most commonly, the viscosity (the gradual deformation by shear or tensile stresses) of non-Newtonian fluids is dependent on shear rate or shear rate history. Some non-Newtonian fluids with shear-independent viscosity, however, still exhibit normal stress-differences or other non-Newtonian behavior. In a Newtonian fluid, the relation between the shear stress and the shear rate is linear, passing through the origin, the constant of proportionality being the coefficient of viscosity. In a non-Newtonian fluid, the relation between the shear stress and the shear rate is different. The fluid can even exhibit time-dependent viscosity. Therefore, a constant coefficient of viscosity cannot be defined.


title: Non-Newtonian fluid

text: Although the concept of viscosity is commonly used in fluid mechanics to characterize the shear properties of a fluid, it can be inadequate to describe non-Newtonian fluids. They are best studied through several other rheological properties that relate stress and strain rate tensors under many different flow conditions—such as oscillatory shear or extensional flow—which are measured using different devices or rheometers. The properties are better studied using tensor-valued constitutive equations, which are common in the field of continuum mechanics.


title: Non-Newtonian fluid

text: The viscosity of a shear thickening fluid, or dilatant fluid, appears to increase when the shear rate increases. Corn starch suspended in water ("oobleck", see below) is a common example: when stirred slowly it looks milky, when stirred vigorously it feels like a very viscous liquid.


title: Non-Newtonian fluid

text: A familiar example of the opposite, a shear thinning fluid, or pseudoplastic fluid, is wall paint: The paint should flow readily off the brush when it is being applied to a surface but not drip excessively. Note that all thixotropic fluids are extremely shear thinning, but they are significantly time dependent, whereas the colloidal "shear thinning" fluids respond instantaneously to changes in shear rate. Thus, to avoid confusion, the latter classification is more clearly termed pseudoplastic.


title: Non-Newtonian fluid

text: Another example of a shear thinning fluid is blood. This application is highly favoured within the body, as it allows the viscosity of blood to decrease with increased shear strain rate.


title: Non-Newtonian fluid

text: Fluids that have a linear shear stress/shear strain relationship but require a finite yield stress before they begin to flow (the plot of shear stress against shear strain does not pass through the origin) are called Bingham plastics. Several examples are clay suspensions, drilling mud, toothpaste, mayonnaise, chocolate, and mustard. The surface of a Bingham plastic can hold peaks when it is still. By contrast Newtonian fluids have flat featureless surfaces when still.


title: Non-Newtonian fluid

text: There are also fluids whose strain rate is a function of time. Fluids that require a gradually increasing shear stress to maintain a constant strain rate are referred to as rheopectic. An opposite case of this is a fluid that thins out with time and requires a decreasing stress to maintain a constant strain rate (thixotropic).


title: Non-Newtonian fluid

text: An inexpensive, non-toxic example of a non-Newtonian fluid is a suspension of starch (e.g., cornstarch) in water, sometimes called "oobleck", "ooze", or "magic mud" (1 part of water to 1.5–2 parts of corn starch). The name "oobleck" is derived from the Dr. Seuss book "Bartholomew and the Oobleck".


title: Non-Newtonian fluid

text: Because of its dilatant properties, oobleck is often used in demonstrations that exhibit its unusual behavior. A person may walk on a large tub of oobleck without sinking due to its shear thickening properties, as long as the individual moves quickly enough to provide enough force with each step to cause the thickening. Also, if oobleck is placed on a large subwoofer driven at a sufficiently high volume, it will thicken and form standing waves in response to low frequency sound waves from the speaker. If a person were to punch or hit oobleck, it would thicken and act like a solid. After the blow, the oobleck will go back to its thin liquid-like state.


title: Non-Newtonian fluid

text: Flubber, also commonly known as slime, is a non-Newtonian fluid, easily made from polyvinyl alcohol–based glues (such as white "school" glue) and borax. It flows under low stresses but breaks under higher stresses and pressures. This combination of fluid-like and solid-like properties makes it a Maxwell fluid. Its behaviour can also be described as being viscoplastic or gelatinous.


title: Non-Newtonian fluid

text: Another example of this is chilled caramel ice cream topping (so long as it incorporates hydrocolloids such as carrageenan and gellan gum). The sudden application of force—by stabbing the surface with a finger, for example, or rapidly inverting the container holding it—causes the fluid to behave like a solid rather than a liquid. This is the "shear thickening" property of this non-Newtonian fluid. More gentle treatment, such as slowly inserting a spoon, will leave it in its liquid state. Trying to jerk the spoon back out again, however, will trigger the return of the temporary solid state.


title: Non-Newtonian fluid

text: Silly Putty is a silicone polymer based suspension that will flow, bounce, or break, depending on strain rate.


title: Non-Newtonian fluid

text: Plant resin is a viscoelastic solid polymer. When left in a container, it will flow slowly as a liquid to conform to the contours of its container. If struck with greater force, however, it will shatter as a solid.


title: Non-Newtonian fluid

text: Quicksand is a shear thinning non-Newtonian colloid that gains viscosity at rest. Quicksand's non-Newtonian properties can be observed when it experiences a slight shock (for example, when someone walks on it or agitates it with a stick), shifting between its Gel and Sol phase and seemingly liquefying, causing objects on the surface of the quicksand to sink.


title: Non-Newtonian fluid

text: Ketchup is a shear thinning fluid. Shear thinning means that the fluid viscosity decreases with increasing shear stress. In other words, fluid motion is initially difficult at slow rates of deformation, but will flow more freely at high rates. Shaking an inverted bottle of ketchup can cause it to transition to a lower viscosity, resulting in a sudden gush of the shear-thinned condiment.


title: Non-Newtonian fluid

text: Under certain circumstances, flows of granular materials can be modelled as a continuum, for example using the "μ"("I") rheology. Such continuum models tend to be non-Newtonian, since the apparent viscosity of granular flows increases with pressure and decreases with shear rate. The main difference is the shearing stress and rate of shear.


title: Polish złoty

text: The złoty (; abbreviation: zł; code: PLN) is the official currency and legal tender of Poland. It is subdivided into 100 grosz ("gr"). The widely recognised English form of the currency name is the Polish zloty. It is the most traded currency in Central and Eastern Europe and ranks 22nd most-traded in the foreign exchange market.


title: Polish złoty

text: The word złoty is a masculine form of the Polish adjective 'golden', which closely relates with its name to the guilder whereas the grosz subunit was based on the groschen, cognate to the English word groat. It was officially introduced to replace its predecessor, the Polish mark, on 28 February 1919 and began circulation in 1924. The only body permitted to manufacture or mint złoty coins is Mennica Polska, founded in Warsaw on 10 February 1766.


title: Polish złoty

text: As a result of inflation in the early 1990s, the currency underwent redenomination. Thus, on 1 January 1995, 10,000 old złoty (PLZ) became one new złoty (PLN). Since then, the currency has been relatively stable, with an exchange rate fluctuating between 4 and 5 złoty for a euro. As a member of the European Union, Poland is obligated to eventually adopt the euro. As of 2022, polling suggests nearly 60% of Poles support replacing the złoty.


title: Polish złoty

text: The term "złoty" is an adjective derived from the noun "złoto", which in the Polish language denotes gold. A literal translation of the currency's name would be "golden" or "the golden one". The closest English pronunciation of the word is . There are two plural forms – "złote" as well as "złotych" , and their correct usage is as follows:


title: Polish złoty

text: Fractions should be rendered with "złotego" and "grosza" , for example 0.1 złotego; 2.5 złotego and so on.


title: Polish złoty

text: Native English speakers or English-language sources tend to avoid the complexity of plural forms and in turn use "złoty" for all denominations, for instance 2 złoty and 100 złoty instead of 2 złote and 100 złotych.


title: Polish złoty

text: The official currency symbol is zł, composed of lowercase z and ł which are the two first letters of "złoty". It has no representation in the Unicode Standard as a single sign, but previously it had representation in Polish typewriters. Now it can be typed electronically using Polish-language keyboards as Z, AltGr+L. The symbol of the "grosz" subunit is represented by lowercase gr.


title: Polish złoty

text: The first form of tangible currency in Poland was the denarius ("denar"), which circulated since the 10th century. During this period, Polish coinage had a single face value and was minted from bullion, primarily silver, but also compounded with copper and other precious metals. The standard unit of mass used at the time was the grzywna rather than the pound, with one grzywna being equivalent to 240 denars. From the 1300s to the mid-16th century, the Prague groschen (or groat) dominated the market and its high supply reduced the demand for a national currency across Central Europe. Certain cities and autonomous regions of the Polish Kingdom held the privilege of minting its own currency, for instance the shilling ("szeląg") in the Duchy of Prussia, which Poland co-adopted in 1526.


title: Polish złoty

text: Initially, the term "złoty" (lit. the golden one) was used in the 14th and 15th centuries for a number of foreign gold coins, most notably Venetian ducats, florins and guldens. In 1496, the Sejm parliament debated on the creation of a domestic currency and approved the złoty, which until then acted as a unit of account. An exchange rate of 30 grosz was imposed for one gold piece, which remained the traditional subdivision until the 19th century. In the years 1526–1535, as part of an extensive monetary reform proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus and Justus Decius, king Sigismund I defined the złoty as a legal tender in the minting ordinance on 16 February 1528.


title: Polish złoty

text: The Polish monetary system stayed complex and intricate from the 16th to 18th centuries until a monetary reform was done by Stanisław II Augustus which removed all other monetary units except the złoty divided into 30 groszy. Polish currency was then linked to that of the Holy Roman Empire by setting the Conventionsthaler = 8 złoty = 23.3856 g fine silver and the North German thaler = 6 złoty = 17.5392 g silver (hence 2.9232 g silver in a złoty).


title: Polish złoty

text: Radical changes to the currency were made during the Kościuszko Uprising. The second partition of the vast Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth resulted in the loss of approximately 200,000 square kilometres of land and precipitated an economic collapse. The widespread shortage of funds to finance the defense of remaining territories forced the insurrectionist government to look for alternatives. In June 1794, Tadeusz Kościuszko began printing paper money and issuing first Polish banknotes as a substitute for coinage, which could not be minted in required quantities. These entered circulation on 13 August 1794.


title: Polish złoty

text: The złoty remained in circulation after the Partitions of Poland and Napoleon's Duchy of Warsaw issued coins denominated in grosz, złoty and talars, with the "talar" (thaler) of 6 złoty slightly reduced in value to the Prussian thaler of 16.704 g fine silver (hence 2.784 g silver in a złoty). Talar banknotes were also issued. In 1813, while Zamość was under siege, the town authorities issued 6 grosz and 2 złoty coins. Following the 1815 Congress of Vienna, Austrian and Russian sectors of partitioned Poland continued to use the złoty for some time; whereas the German sector replaced the "talar" and "złoty" with the Prussian thaler and afterwards the German gold mark.


title: Polish złoty

text: On 19 November O.S. (1 December N.S.) 1815, the law regarding the monetary system of Congress Poland (in Russia) was passed, which pegged the złoty at 15 kopecks (0.15 Imperial roubles, or almost 2.7 g fine silver) and the groszy at kopeck, and with silver 1, 2, 5 and 10 złotych coins issued from 1816 to 1855.


title: Polish złoty

text: At the time of the 1830 November Uprising, the insurrectionists issued their own "rebel money" – golden ducats and silver coins in the denomination of 2 and 5 złoty, with the revolutionary coat of arms, and the copper 3 and 10 grosz. These coins were still traded long after the uprising was quelled. As a consequence of the uprising, the rubel became the sole legal tender of Congress Poland, and in 1892 the Austro-Hungarian krone was introduced in Austrian Galicia. Between 1835 and 1846, the Free City of Kraków also used its own independent currency, the Kraków złoty, with the coins actually being made in Vienna.


title: Polish złoty

text: During World War I, the rouble and krone were replaced by the Polish mark, a currency initially equivalent to the German mark. The mark stayed in use after Poland regained its independence in 1918, but was extremely unstable, disrupted the whole economy, and triggered galloping inflation.


title: Polish złoty

text: The złoty was reintroduced by the Minister of Finance, Władysław Grabski, in April 1924. It replaced the mark at a rate of 1 złoty equaling 1,800,000 marks and was subdivided into 100 grosz, instead of the traditional 30 grosz, as it had been earlier.


title: Polish złoty

text: Following its inauguration, the second złoty was pegged to the United States dollar through a stabilization loan provided by the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. The budget deficit ballooned and out-of-control inflation ensued. The złoty began to stabilise in 1926 (chiefly due to significant exports of coal), and was re-set on the dollar-złoty rate 50% higher than in 1924. Up to 1933 the złoty was freely exchanged into gold and foreign currency. Based on these developments, the Polish government made the decision to adopt the gold standard and maintain it for a significant period to attract global investors.


title: Polish złoty

text: Under the occupation during World War II, the Germans created an Emissary Bank ("Bank Emisyjny") in Kraków, as Polish bank officials fled to Paris in France. It started operating on 8 April 1940, and in May old banknotes from 1924 to 1939 were overstamped by the new entity. Money exchange was limited per individual; the limits varied according to the status of the person. The fixed exchange rate was 2 złoty per 1 Reichsmark. A new issue of notes appeared in the years 1940–1941.


title: Polish złoty

text: On 15 January 1945 the National Bank of Poland was formed, and a new printing plant opened in Łódź. The series II and III notes were designed by Ryszard Kleczewski and Wacław Borowski. The first three series were taken out of circulation in line with legislation signed on 28 October 1950, covering the introduction of a new złoty with a revived coinage system.


title: Polish złoty

text: In 1950, the third złoty () was introduced, replacing all notes issued up to 1948 at a rate of one hundred to one, while all bank assets were re-denominated in the ratio 100:3. The new banknotes were dated in 1948, while the new coins were dated in 1949. Initially, by law with effect from 1950 1 złoty was worth 0.222168 grams of pure gold.


title: Polish złoty

text: With the fall of communism in 1989 and successive hyperinflation in 1990, the złoty had to be redenominated. On 11 May 1994 a redenomination project from the NBP was approved; the act allowing the project to come into force was ratified on 7 July 1994. Thus, on 1 January 1995 the old 10,000 PLZ became the new 1 PLN. Redesigned coins and banknotes were released, featuring Polish monarchs, which were printed by De La Rue in London (until 1997) and PWPW in Warsaw (from 1997).


title: Polish złoty

text: Between 2013 and 2014, the banknotes received additional security features. The design does not differ greatly from the original 1994 series, but are distinguishable by the added white-coloured field with a watermark on the obverse. The updated notes also possess randomly arranged dotting, which are part of the EURion constellation.


title: Polish złoty

text: On 10 February 2017, a 500zł banknote with the likeness of John III Sobieski began circulating. In 2021, Adam Glapiński, president of the National Bank of Poland, announced that a 1000zł note will be introduced in the near future.


title: Polish złoty

text: One of the conditions of Poland's joining the European Union in May 2004 obliges the country to eventually adopt the euro, though not at any specific date and only after Poland meets the necessary stability criteria. Serious discussions regarding joining the Eurozone have ensued. However, article 227 of the Constitution of the Republic of Poland will need to be amended first. While opinion on the euro has not always been in favor, recent opinion polling on behalf of the European Commission has found around 60% support for adopting the Euro.


title: Polish złoty

text: The banknotes range from 120 to 150 millimetres in length and from 60 to 75 millimetres in width. The length increases by 6mm and the width by 3mm with every higher denomination. The obverse features the left profile of a Polish monarch clothed in armour or royal regalia; the sovereigns are arranged chronologically based on the period of reign. The reverse illustrates important landmarks, early coinage or important objects from Poland's history. Architectural elements comprising portals, columns, windows or flower motifs are scattered throughout each banknote, both on the obverse and on the reverse. Predominant colours used include shades of brown, pink or purple, blue, green and gold. Face value is given in numerals in the upper-left and upper-right corners on the obverse, and in the upper-right corner on the reverse. The written form of the nominal value is embedded vertically on the obverse and horizontally on the reverse.


title: Polish złoty

text: The notes are adorned by the shieldless coat of arms of the Republic of Poland, along with signatures of the President and General Treasurer of NBP – the National Bank of Poland.


title: Polish złoty

text: Diameter (Ø) shown in mm, mass in grams. 1 - Minted both in Budapest and Warsaw in numbers of 300,100,600 coins.


title: B movie

text: A B movie or B film is a low-budget commercial motion picture. In its original usage, during the Golden Age of Hollywood, the term more precisely identified films intended for distribution as the less-publicized bottom half of a double feature (akin to B-sides for recorded music). However, the U.S. production of films intended as second features largely ceased by the end of the 1950s. With the emergence of commercial television at that time, film studio B movie production departments changed into television film production divisions. They created much of the same type of content in low budget films and series. The term "B movie" continues to be used in its broader sense to this day. In its post-Golden Age usage, B movies can range from lurid exploitation films to independent arthouse films.


title: B movie

text: In either usage, most B movies represent a particular genre—the Western was a Golden Age B movie staple, while low-budget science-fiction and horror films became more popular in the 1950s. Early B movies were often part of series in which the star repeatedly played the same character. Almost always shorter than the top-billed feature films, many had running times of 70 minutes or less. The term connoted a general perception that B movies were inferior to the more lavishly budgeted headliners; individual B films were often ignored by critics.


title: B movie

text: Latter-day B movies still sometimes inspire multiple sequels, but series are less common. As the average running time of top-of-the-line films increased, so did that of B pictures. In its current usage, the term has somewhat contradictory connotations: it may signal an opinion that a certain movie is (a) a genre film with minimal artistic ambitions or (b) a lively, energetic film uninhibited by the constraints imposed on more expensive projects and unburdened by the conventions of putatively serious independent film. The term is also now used loosely to refer to some higher-budget, mainstream films with exploitation-style content, usually in genres traditionally associated with the B movie.


title: B movie

text: From their beginnings to the present day, B movies have provided opportunities both for those coming up in the profession and others whose careers are waning. Celebrated filmmakers such as Anthony Mann and Jonathan Demme learned their craft in B movies. They are where actors such as John Wayne and Jack Nicholson first became established, and they have provided work for former A movie actors, such as Vincent Price and Karen Black. Some actors, such as Bela Lugosi, Eddie Constantine, Bruce Campbell and Pam Grier, worked in B movies for most of their careers. The term "B actor" is sometimes used to refer to a performer who finds work primarily or exclusively in B pictures.


title: B movie

text: In 1927–28, at the end of the silent era, the production cost of an average feature from a major Hollywood studio ranged from $190,000 at Fox to $275,000 at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. That average reflected both "specials" that might cost as much as and films made quickly for around $50,000. These cheaper films (not yet called "B movies") allowed the studios to derive maximum value from facilities and contracted staff in between a studio's more important productions, while also breaking in new personnel.


title: B movie

text: Studios in the minor leagues of the industry, such as Columbia Pictures and Film Booking Offices of America (FBO), focused on exactly those sorts of cheap productions. Their movies, with relatively short running times, targeted theaters that had to economize on rental and operating costs, particularly small-town and urban neighborhood venues, or "nabes". Even smaller production houses, known as Poverty Row studios, made films whose costs might run as low as $3,000, seeking a profit through whatever bookings they could pick up in the gaps left by the larger concerns.


title: B movie

text: With the widespread arrival of sound film in American theaters in 1929, many independent exhibitors began dropping the then-dominant presentation model, which involved live acts and a broad variety of shorts before a single featured film. A new programming scheme developed that soon became standard practice: a newsreel, a short and/or serial, and a cartoon, followed by a double feature. The second feature, which actually screened before the main event, cost the exhibitor less per minute than the equivalent running time in shorts.


title: B movie

text: The majors' "clearance" rules favoring their affiliated theaters prevented timely access to top-quality films for independent theaters; the second feature allowed them to promote quantity instead. The additional movie also gave the program "balance"—the practice of pairing different sorts of features suggested to potential customers that they could count on something of interest no matter what specifically was on the bill. The low-budget picture of the 1920s thus evolved into the second feature, the B movie, of Hollywood's Golden Age.


title: B movie

text: The major studios, at first resistant to the double feature, soon adapted; all established B units to provide films for the expanding second-feature market. Block booking became standard practice: to get access to a studio's attractive A pictures, many theaters were obliged to rent the company's entire output for a season. With the B films rented at a flat fee (rather than the box office percentage basis of A films), rates could be set virtually guaranteeing the profitability of every B movie. The parallel practice of blind bidding largely freed the majors from worrying about their Bs' quality — even when booking in less than seasonal blocks, exhibitors had to buy most pictures sight unseen. The five largest studios — Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Paramount Pictures, Fox Film Corporation (20th Century Fox as of 1935), Warner Bros., and RKO Radio Pictures (descendant of FBO) — also belonged to companies with sizable theater chains, further securing the bottom line.


title: B movie

text: Poverty Row studios, from modest outfits like Mascot Pictures, Tiffany Pictures, and Sono Art-World Wide Pictures down to shoestring operations, made exclusively B movies, serials, and other shorts, and also distributed totally independent productions and imported films. In no position to directly block book, they mostly sold regional distribution exclusivity to "states rights" firms, which in turn peddled blocks of movies to exhibitors, typically six or more pictures featuring the same star (a relative status on Poverty Row). Two "major-minors" — Universal Studios and rising Columbia Pictures — had production lines roughly similar to, though somewhat better endowed than, the top Poverty Row studios. In contrast to the Big Five majors, Universal and Columbia had few or no theaters, though they did have top-rank film distribution exchanges.


title: B movie

text: In the standard Golden Age model, the industry's top product, the A films, premiered at a small number of select first-run houses in major cities. Double features were not the rule at these prestigious venues. As described by Edward Jay Epstein, "During these first runs, films got their reviews, garnered publicity, and generated the word of mouth that served as the principal form of advertising." Then it was off to the subsequent-run market where the double feature prevailed. At the larger local venues controlled by the majors, movies might turn over on a weekly basis. At the thousands of smaller, independent theaters, programs often changed two or three times a week. To meet the constant demand for new B product, the low end of Poverty Row turned out a stream of micro-budget movies rarely much more than sixty minutes long; these were known as "quickies" for their tight production schedules—as short as four days.


title: B movie

text: As Azam Patel describes, "Many of the poorest theaters, such as the 'grind houses' in the larger cities, screened a continuous program emphasizing action with no specific schedule, sometimes offering six quickies for a nickel in an all-night show that changed daily." Many small theaters never saw a big-studio A film, getting their movies from the states rights concerns that handled almost exclusively Poverty Row product. Millions of Americans went to their local theaters as a matter of course: for an A picture, along with the trailers, or screen previews, that presaged its arrival, "[t]he new film's title on the marquee and the listings for it in the local newspaper constituted all the advertising most movies got", writes Epstein. Aside from at the theater itself, B films might not be advertised at all.


title: B movie

text: The introduction of sound had driven costs higher: by 1930, the average U.S. feature film cost $375,000 to produce. A broad range of motion pictures occupied the B category. The leading studios made not only clear-cut A and B films, but also movies classifiable as "programmers" (also known as "in-betweeners" or "intermediates"). As Taves describes, "Depending on the prestige of the theater and the other material on the double bill, a programmer could show up at the top or bottom of the marquee."


title: B movie

text: On Poverty Row, many Bs were made on budgets that would have barely covered petty cash on a major's A film, with costs at the bottom of the industry running as low as $5,000. By the mid-1930s, the double feature was the dominant U.S. exhibition model, and the majors responded. In 1935, B movie production at Warner Bros. was raised from 12 to 50% of studio output. The unit was headed by Bryan Foy, known as the "Keeper of the Bs". At Fox, which also shifted half of its production line into B territory, Sol M. Wurtzel was similarly in charge of more than twenty movies a year during the late 1930s.


title: B movie

text: A number of the top Poverty Row firms consolidated: Sono Art joined another company to create Monogram Pictures early in the decade. In 1935, Monogram, Mascot, and several smaller studios merged to establish Republic Pictures. The former heads of Monogram soon sold off their Republic shares and set up a new Monogram production house. Into the 1950s, most Republic and Monogram product was roughly on par with the low end of the majors' output. Less sturdy Poverty Row concerns—with a penchant for grand sobriquets like Conquest, Empire, Imperial, and Peerless—continued to churn out dirt-cheap quickies. Joel Finler has analyzed the average length of feature releases in 1938, indicating the studios' relative emphasis on B production (United Artists produced little, focusing on the distribution of prestigious films from independent outfits; Grand National, active 1936–40, occupied an analogous niche on Poverty Row, releasing mostly independent productions):


title: B movie

text: Taves estimates that half of the films produced by the eight majors in the 1930s were B movies. Calculating in the three hundred or so films made annually by the many Poverty Row firms, approximately 75% of Hollywood movies from the decade, more than four thousand pictures, are classifiable as Bs.


title: B movie

text: The Western was by far the predominant B genre in both the 1930s and, to a lesser degree, the 1940s. Film historian Jon Tuska has argued that "the 'B' product of the Thirties—the Universal films with [Tom] Mix, [Ken] Maynard, and [Buck] Jones, the Columbia features with Buck Jones and Tim McCoy, the RKO George O'Brien series, the Republic Westerns with John Wayne and the Three Mesquiteers ... achieved a uniquely American perfection of the well-made story." At the far end of the industry, Poverty Row's Ajax put out oaters starring Harry Carey, then in his fifties. The Weiss outfit had the Range Rider series, the American Rough Rider series, and the Morton of the Mounted "northwest action thrillers". One low-budget oater of the era, made totally outside the studio system, profited from an outrageous concept: a Western with a cast consisting of only little people, "The Terror of Tiny Town" (1938) was such a success in its independent bookings that Columbia picked it up for distribution.


title: B movie

text: Series of various genres, featuring recurrent, title-worthy characters or name actors in familiar roles, were particularly popular during the first decade of sound film. Fox's many B series, for instance, included Charlie Chan mysteries, Ritz Brothers comedies, and musicals with child star Jane Withers. These series films are not to be confused with the short, cliffhanger-structured serials that sometimes appeared on the same program. As with serials, however, many series were intended to attract young people—a theater that twin-billed part-time might run a "balanced" or entirely youth-oriented double feature as a matinee and then a single film for a more mature audience at night. In the words of one industry report, afternoon moviegoers, "composed largely of housewives and children, want quantity for their money while the evening crowds want 'something good and not too much of it.'"


title: B movie

text: Series films are often unquestioningly consigned to the B movie category, but even here there is ambiguity: at MGM, for example, popular series like the Andy Hardy and the Dr. Kildare–Dr. Gillespie chronicles had leading stars and budgets that would have been A-level at most of the lesser studios. For many series, even a lesser major's standard B budget was far out of reach: Poverty Row's Consolidated Pictures featured Tarzan, the Police Dog in a series with the proud name of Melodramatic Dog Features.


title: B movie

text: By 1940, the average production cost of an American feature was $400,000, a negligible increase over ten years. A number of small Hollywood companies had folded around the turn of the decade, including the ambitious Grand National, but a new firm, Producers Releasing Corporation (PRC), emerged as third in the Poverty Row hierarchy behind Republic and Monogram. The double feature, never universal, was still the prevailing exhibition model: in 1941, fifty percent of theaters were double-billing exclusively, and others employed the policy part-time.


title: B movie

text: In the early 1940s, legal pressure forced the studios to replace seasonal block booking with packages generally limited to five pictures. Restrictions were also placed on the majors' ability to enforce blind bidding. These were crucial factors in the progressive shift by most of the Big Five over to A-film production, making the smaller studios even more important as B movie suppliers. Genre pictures made at very low cost remained the backbone of Poverty Row, with even Republic's and Monogram's budgets rarely climbing over $200,000. Many smaller Poverty Row firms folded as the eight majors, with their proprietary distribution exchanges, now commanded about 95% of U.S. and Canadian box office receipts.


title: B movie

text: In 1946, independent producer David O. Selznick brought his bloated-budget spectacle "Duel in the Sun" to market with heavy nationwide promotion and wide release. The distribution strategy was a major success, despite what was widely perceived as the movie's poor quality. The "Duel" release anticipated practices that fueled the B movie industry in the late 1950s; when the top Hollywood studios made them standard two decades after that, the B movie was hard hit.