title: Circassian genocide

text: Despite the conditions, Russian forces under Yevdokimov kept driving Circassians to the coast. In January he annihilated Ubykh villages, leaving the Ubykhs without shelter in the severe winter, and in March, the crowd of refugees at the Circassian port of Tuapse approached twenty thousand.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Only a portion of those who had left the Circassian coast actually made it to the Ottoman ports. Of the portion that made it to Ottoman shores, many more would die there soon after while they were quarantined on either beach, the vessels that had carried them, or in lazarettos, and many more died in makeshift accommodations, and still more died in the process of being transported a second time to their final destinations. One British eyewitness recalled that:


title: Circassian genocide

text: In 1864, the Ottoman Porte repeatedly asked the Russian government to stop the deportations on humanitarian grounds, in light of the human disaster unfolding on their shores, but the Ottoman requests were repeatedly refused as Yevdokimov argued with urgency that the deportations should instead be accelerated. When October 1864 was chosen as a cutoff point for the departures, Yevdokimov successfully got it delayed two weeks, after which he ignored the deadline and deported without stop Circassians even as winter set in again. Later in 1867, Grand Prince Mikhail Nikolaevich stated that the cleansing had had to be accelerated "in light of a possible European coalition".


title: Circassian genocide

text: As Russia made it clear that it would not do the best in its abilities to transport the Circassians alive, and would provide few ships, the Ottomans sent their navy to carry the Circassians. As the deportations increased, there were not enough Ottoman vessels to carry all the deportees, even when warships were recruited for the job, and the situation began taking a heavy toll on the Ottoman treasury, as they bore the brunt of the task.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Initially, on 17 May 1863, Tsar Alexander II ruled that those who "chose" to emigrate should pay their own way. Later, the Russians offered financial incentives for vessels to take the Circassians to Ottoman ports, but forced the Circassians themselves to pay. In some cases, Circassians were forced to sell their cattle or their belongings to pay; in others, one of every thirty Circassians were sold into slavery to pay. These funds ultimately ended up in the hands of the transporters, including Russian military officiers. Many vessels refused to carry Circassians because of the disease that was present among them as many of the ships that had been carrying Circassians had had their crews fall ill, while others that did agree tried to make as much profit out of it as possible by overloading their vessels with refugees, ultimately causing many transport boats to sink, killing their human cargo. In April 1864, after one Russian crew was entirely wiped out by disease, Russian vessels stopped offering themselves for transport, dumping the entire process onto the burden of the Ottomans; and Yevdokimov made no effort to make provisions for food, water or medical help.


title: Circassian genocide

text: The Russian consul based in the Ottoman Black Sea port of Trabzon reported the arrival of 240,000 Circassians with 19,000 dying shortly thereafter with the death rate being around 200 people per day.


title: Circassian genocide

text: On 25 May 1864, Henry Bulwer, the British ambassador in Istanbul, argued that the British government charter some of its own vessels for the purpose because the Ottomans simply did not have enough on their own, and innocent civilians would be left to rot; the vessels were not forthcoming but British government ships provided assistance at various points and British steamships also helped. On 29 May, eight Greek vessels were reported to be helping with the transportation of Circassians, as were one Moldavian, one German, and one British vessel.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Among the main peoples that moved to Turkey were Adyghe, Ubykhs, Muslim Abkhazians – hence the reference in the name to the deportation being of Circassians. The Shapsugh tribe, which had numbered some 300,000, was reduced to the 3,000 people who managed to flee into the forests and plains. The 140 Shapsugh that remained were sent to Siberia. Overall, calculations including those taking into account the Russian government's own archival figures as well as Ottoman figures have estimated a loss of 90%, 94% or 95–97% of the Circassian nation in the process. One of the biggest population changes came in the Circassian capital city of Sochi, which previously had a population of around 100,000, and according to Russian sources, was reduced to 98 after the events.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Sources state that as many as 1 to 1.5 million Circassians were forced to flee in total, but only a half could make it to land. Ottoman archives show nearly 1 million migrants entering their land from the Caucasus by 1879, with nearly half of them dying on the shores as a result of diseases. If Ottoman archives are correct, it would make it the biggest genocide of the 19th century, and indeed, in support of the Ottoman archives, the Russian census of 1897 records only 150,000 Circassians, one tenth of the original number, still remaining in the now conquered region.


title: Circassian genocide

text: However, although Circassians were the main (and most notorious) victims, the expulsions also gravely affected other peoples in the region. It was estimated that 80% of the Ingush left Ingushetia for the Middle East in 1865. Lowland Chechens as well were evicted in large numbers, and while many came back, the former Chechen lowlands lacked their historical Chechen populations for a long period until Chechens were settled in the region during the return from their 1944–1957 deportation to Siberia. The Arshtins, at that time a (debatably) separate people, were completely wiped out as a distinct group: according to official documents, 1,366 Arshtin families disappeared (i.e. either fled or were killed) and only 75 families remained. Additionally, in 1860–1861 the Russian army forced a series of evictions of lands in the Central Caucasus, forcing about 10,000 Circassians, 22,000 Chechens and additionally a significant number of Muslim Ossetians out and to Turkey. Two other Muslim peoples in the northwest Caucasus, the Karachay and the Balkars, were not deported in large numbers during the process as they were loyal to Russia since the beginning. Abkhazia, meanwhile, lost 60% of its ethnic Abkhaz population by the end of the 19th century.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Whether sources treat the evictions of these non-Circassian peoples as a part of the same process varies; most sources include the evictions and massacres of the Ubykh (considered by many to be part of the Circassian ethnos despite having a different language) and Abazin populations as part of the same operation against the neighboring ethnic Circassian populations, and some sources also include the Abkhaz in counts of the evicted while others group the expulsions of Chechens, Ingush, Arshtins and Ossetians with those of Kabardins, and also some include the earlier and less systematic expulsions of Nogai. The 1861 order by Yevdokimov the relocate populations of Circassians (including Ubykhs) to the swamps also included the Nogais and Abazas.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Shenfield has argued that those that died in the ensuing catastrophe were probably more than a million, likely approaching 1.5 million.


title: Circassian genocide

text: On 25 June 1861, Tsar Alexander II signed an imperial rescript titled "Settlement of the North Caucasus", reading as follows:


title: Circassian genocide

text: To speed up the process, Alexander offered monetary compensation and various privileges. From the spring of 1861 to 1862, 35 Cossack stanitsas were established, with 5,480 families newly settling the land. In 1864, seventeen new Cossack stanitsas were established in the Transkuban region.


title: Circassian genocide

text: With regard to Ottoman policy overall, Fabio Grassi argues that the Ottoman policy was quite successful with respect to the conditions at hand. He states that the Ottomans saw Circassians as fellow Muslims who were in hard times, but they could not do anything to help them. Rosser-Owen portrays the Ottomans as having been constrained by pragmatic concerns, at a loss for what to do about the flood of refugees, and notes the hardships suffered by British consular staff as they tried to help the Circassian refugees as well as the improvement of Ottoman policy toward accommodating the refugees over time so that by 1867 when the final Abkhaz refugees were transported, there were many fewer deaths in the process.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Others, however, disagree; historian Walter Richmond accuses the Ottoman government of "playing a double game", "gross irresponsibility" and being "either unconcerned with or oblivious to the consequences immigration would have for the refugees, by having at various points encouraged Circassian population movement", in its previous statements, having earlier encouraged immigration, urging the Circassians to "stay and fight" in late 1863 and promising the arrival of an international coalition force, and then encouraging another wave of immigration as late as June 1864 when the human costs were beyond clear, while Shenfield also describes the Ottoman response to the crisis as "grossly inadequate" and Marc Pinson accuses the Ottoman government of not trying to formulate a coherent policy toward the refugees.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Richmond also argues that the British, despite serious discussion of the possibility of military intervention to alleviate the situation in Circassia, have ultimately been concerned only with their own geopolitical interests and "deserting" Circassia to its fate. He further argues that Western European indignation at the unfolding situation in Circassia arose only after Russia leveraged the Ottomans to gain special rights in the Dardanelles thus threatening their trade interests.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Rosser-Owen emphasizes that the philanthropic efforts of British organizations and that the concern for the well-being of Circassians was most intense in Scotland where Circassian struggles were compared to past traumas in then-recent Scottish history.


title: Circassian genocide

text: In 1862, the Circassians sent a delegation of leaders to major cities in Britain, which had been covertly helping the Circassians with tactics and with organizing their resistance, visiting major English and Scottish cities including London, Manchester, Edinburgh and Dundee to advocate for their cause. The visits caused a swelling of public support for the Circassians and outrage directed at Russia, with sympathies particularly intense in Scotland perhaps owing to the recent Highland Clearances, and sparked lobbying for intervention by the Dundee Foreign Affairs Committee, calls to arms for the defense of Circassia, the founding of the Circassian Aid Committee in London, and constant reporting on the issue by various newspapers such as "The Scotsman". Politicians and newspapers began taking up the "Circassian cause", and calling for intervention to save Circassia from decimation, and at one point Parliament came close to going to war with Russia and attempting to establish a protectorate over struggling Circassia. Although such initiatives failed to change British government policy, the Circassian Aid Committee, organized by many individuals who were angry at inaction by London, managed to gather £2,067 for the provision of mattresses, blankets, pillows, woolens and clothings especially for Circassian orphans in Istanbul, while Russophobic commentary by some of its members has been attributed for its closing in March 1865. British consuls became involved with relief patterns and the organization of resettlement for Circassians, with various British consuls and consular staff catching illnesses from plague-ridden Circassian refugees, and a few died from such illnesses.


title: Circassian genocide

text: In the initial stages of the process, relief efforts were also made by the Ottoman population, both by Muslims and Christians. In Vidin, in Bulgaria, the Muslim and Christian inhabitants volunteered to increase their grain production and send it to the local Circassian refugees, while in Cyprus, the Muslim population sheltered Circassian orphans. The Ottoman government built mosques for them and provided them with teachers, while the Sultan donated £50,000 from his Privy Purse, although there were some reports in the British press that most of this money did not actually end up helping Circassian refugees, having been embezzled by Ottoman officials at various steps along the way. As the burden of the refugees increased however, sentiments against the refugees, particularly among the Bulgarian and Turkish populations, grew and tensions began to develop between the Bulgarian and Turkish natives and the Circassian refugees.


title: Circassian genocide

text: The Ottoman authorities often failed to offer any support to the newly arrived. They were settled in the inhospitable mountainous regions of Inner Anatolia and were employed on menial and exhausting jobs.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Imam Shamil's son Muhamed Shafi was appalled by the conditions the migrants had faced upon their arrival to Anatolia and went to investigate the situation: "I will write to (Turkish sultan) Abdülmecid that he should stop fooling mountaineers ... The government's cynicism could not be more pronounced. The Turks triggered the resettlement by their proclamations, probably hoping to use refugees for military ends ... but after facing the avalanche of refugees, they turned turtle and shamefully condemned to slow death those people who were ready to die for Turkey's glory".


title: Circassian genocide

text: In 1864 alone about 220,000 people disembarked in Anatolia. Between 6 March and 21 May 1864, the entire Ubykh nation had departed the Caucasus for Turkey, leading to the extinction of the Ubykh language in 1992. By the end of the movement, more than 400,000 Circassians, as well as 200,000 Abkhazians and Ajars, fled to Turkey. The term "Çerkes", "Circassians", became the blanket term for them in Turkey because the majority were Circassians (Adyghe). Some other Circassian refugees fled to the border areas of the Danube Vilayet where Ottomans had expanded their military forces to defend the new province and some Circassians enrolled in military service while others settled in the region.


title: Circassian genocide

text: The Ottoman authorities often opted to settle Circassians in Christian-majority regions that were beginning to clamor for independence, as a loyal counterweight population to the rebellious natives. These places had just recently taken on large numbers of around a hundred thousand Crimean Tatar refugees, in a previous resettlement operation that had also seen widespread complications and problems. In Varna, it was reported that the situation was particularly bad, with 80,000 Circassians settled on the outskirts of the city in "camps of death" where they were unprotected from weather or disease and left without food. When Circassians tried to beg for bread, Turkish soldiers chased them out for fear of the diseases they carried. It was reported that the Turks were unable to keep up with burying Circassian corpses, and recruited convicts to do the work as well; one Circassian wrote to the Governor-General "We rather go to Siberia than live in this Siberia ... one can die, not live, on the indicated place".


title: Circassian genocide

text: In 1861–1862 alone, in the Danube Vilayet, there were 41,000 Circassian refugee families. By the end of the process, there were around 250,000 Circassians in the Balkans, accounting for 5 to 7 percent of the total Balkan population, on top of the earlier arrival of 100,000 Crimean Tatars that Balkan populations had just recently had to absorb.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Kadir Natho notes that "a net of Circassian settlements enveloped practically all the European part of the Ottoman Empire". Very large numbers of Circassians were settled in Bulgaria. "Istoria Bulgarii" reports that "about 6,000 families were transferred through Burgas and settled in Thrace; 13,000 families – through Varna and Shumen – to Silistra and Vidin; 12,000 families to Sofia and Nish. The remainder 10,000 families were distributed in Svishtovsk, Nikipolsk, Oriskhovsk, and other outskirts." There was a chain of Circassian settlements stretching from Dobruja (see Circassians in Romania) to the Serbian border, with an additional cluster of 23 settlements in the Kosovo field. Circassians also settled in a few mostly Greek areas, particularly in the southern part of Epirus, Cyprus and one colony at Panderma in the Sea of Marmara.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Russians raped Circassian girls during the 1877 Russo-Turkish war from the Circassian refugees who were settled in the Ottoman Balkans. Circassian girls were sold into Turkish harems by their relatives. Circassians in the Ottoman army also raped and murdered Bulgarians during the 1877 Russo-Turkish war.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Kadir Natho lists the following areas as having notable concentrations of Circassian refugee settlements: "in spacious Anatolia ... near Amasya, Samsun, Cilicia, Mesopotamia, on the Charshamba peninsula, along the Aegean Sea, in Turkish Armenia, Adapazar, Duzge, Eskisehir, and Balikesir. From Trebizond the mountaineers were directly sent to Kars and Erzincan ... many exiles were distributed in ... the vilayet of Sivas, on the extensive desert between Tokat and Sivas".


title: Circassian genocide

text: Many Circassian households petitioned the Russian embassy in Constantinople for their resettlement back in the Caucasus. By the end of the century, the Russian consulates all over the Ottoman Empire were deluged with such petitions. Later, re-emigration was sanctioned only on a limited scale, as mostly large villages (up to 8,500 inhabitants) applied for re-emigration and their relocation posed formidable difficulties to the imperial authorities. Perhaps more importantly, Alexander II suspected that the British and Ottoman governments had instructed Circassians to seek return with the purpose of sparking a new war against their Russian overlords. As a consequence, he was known to personally decline such petitions.


title: Circassian genocide

text: The overall resettlement was accompanied by hardships for the common people. A significant number died of starvation – many Turks of Adyghe descent still do not eat fish today, in memory of the tremendous number of their kinfolk that they lost during the passage across the Black Sea.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Some of the deportees and their descendants did well and they would eventually earn high positions within the Ottoman Empire. A significant number of Young Turks had Caucasian origins.


title: Circassian genocide

text: All nationals of Turkey are considered Turkish for official purposes. However, there are several hundred villages which are considered purely "Circassian", whose total "Circassian" population is estimated to be 1,000,000, although there is no official data in this respect, and the estimates are based on informal surveys. The "Circassians" in question may not always speak the languages of their ancestors, and Turkey's center-right parties, often with varying tones of Turkish nationalism, generally do well in localities where they are known to constitute sizable parts of the population (such as in Akyazı).


title: Circassian genocide

text: Along with Turkey's aspirations to join the European Union, population groups with specificities started receiving more attention on the basis of their ethnicity or culture.


title: Circassian genocide

text: In Middle Eastern countries, which were created from the dismembered Ottoman Empire (and were initially under an Allied protectorate), the fate of the ethnos was better. The "Al Jeish al Arabi" (Arab Legion), created in Trans-Jordan under the influence of Lawrence of Arabia, in significant part consisted of Chechens – arguably because the Bedouin were reluctant to serve under the centralized command. In addition, the modern city of Amman was born after Circassians settled there in 1887.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Apart from substantial numbers of Kabardian Circassians consisting of "qalang" tribes, small communities of mountainous Circassians ("nang" tribes) remained in their original homeland under Russian rule that were separated from among one another within an area heavily resettled by Russian Cossacks, Slavs and other settlers. For example, the capital of the Shapsugh tribe was renamed after the Russian general that committed atrocities in the region along with the erection of a victory statue to him. In the Caucusus, some 217,000 Circassians remained in 1897.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Misha Glenny notes that the settlement of the Circassian deportees played a major role in destabilizing the Ottoman Balkans, especially Bulgaria. Their arrival helped spread starvation and epidemics (including smallpox) in the Balkan territories, and worse, the Porte ordered that Christians be evicted "en masse" from their homes in certain areas in order to accommodate the need to house the deportees. This, and the outbreak of armed conflict between the Circassians and the Christian and Muslim natives, accelerated the growth of nationalist sentiments in the Balkans. Kadir Natho argues that the Ottomans coopted the Circassians into a "police force" in the Balkans as well as for settling them to increase the local Muslim population, with Circassians being made to take arms against rebellions, even those Circassians that had not settled in affected regions. The local Balkan peoples, having just taken on large numbers of Crimean Tatar refugees, an operation which had caused the deaths of thousands of refugees and natives alike due to disease and starvation, loathed to take in more Muslim refugees expelled by the Russians, and some Bulgarians, in particular, were convinced that Circassians had been placed into scattered Bulgarian villages "in order to paralyze any kind of liberation and independence Slavic movement". While in many areas, Bulgarian Christians had initially been very hospitable to the Circassian refugees, including by producing extra resources to support them, the collapsing humanitarian situation combined with the political instability caused relations between the two groups to spiral downward.


title: Circassian genocide

text: In many cases, lands were assigned to North Caucasian refugees by the Ottoman government, but the locals refused to give up their homes, causing outbreaks of fighting between Circassians and Chechens on one side, and the Bulgarian, Serbian, Arab, Bedouin, Druze, Armenian, Turkish and Kurdish natives on the other, leading to armed conflict. In "Uzun Aile", between Kayseri and Sivas, Circassians ultimately pushed the local Kurdish population out, and to this day the Kurds with roots in that region recall in a folk song how a "cruel fair-haired and blue-eyed people with sheep-skin hats" drove them from their homes.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Traumatized, desperate, and having lived for many decades previously in a situation where Circassians and Russians would regularly raid each other, Circassians sometimes resorted to raiding the native populations, ultimately causing a reputation for the Circassians as being particularly barbaric to spread throughout the Empire.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Eventually, fear of the Circassians, due to the diseases they spread and the stereotype of them as either beggars or bandits, became so great that Christian and Muslim communities alike would protest upon hearing that Circassians were to be settled near them.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Later, in the 1870s, war again struck in the Balkans where most Circassians had made their homes, and they were deported by Russian and Russian-allied forces a second time.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Alan Fisher notes that accurate counts of the refugees were difficult to impossible to obtain because "Most of those leaving the Caucasus did it in a hurry,


title: Circassian genocide

text: in a disorganised fashion, without passing any official border point where they might have been counted or officially noted", however estimates have been made primarily based on the available documents including Russian archival documents as well as Ottoman documents.


title: Circassian genocide

text: In recent times, scholars and Circassian activists have proposed that the deportations and mass killings can certainly be considered as a manifestation of the modern-day concept of genocide, though the term had not been in use in the 19th century. Noting the systematic massacre of villages by Russian soldiers that was accompanied by the Russian colonization of these lands, Circassian activists claim it is "certainly and undeniably" a genocide. Scholars estimate that some 90 percent of Circassians (estimated at more than one million) had vanished from the territories occupied by Russia. During these events, at least hundreds of thousands of people were "killed or starved to death".


title: Circassian genocide

text: In Russia, a presidential commission has been set up to try and deny the Circassian genocide, with respect to the events of the 1860s. There is concern by the Russian government that acknowledging the events as genocide would entail possible claims of financial compensation in addition to efforts toward repatriating diaspora Circassians back to Circassia.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Former Russian President Boris Yeltsin's May 1994 statement stated that Circassian resistance to the Tsarist forces was legitimate, and that there were sad casualties, but he did not recognize "the guilt of the tsarist government for the genocide".


title: Circassian genocide

text: In 1997 and 1998, the leaders of Kabardino-Balkaria and Adygea sent appeals to the Duma to reconsider the situation and to issue an apology; to date, there has been no response from Moscow. In October 2006, the Adygeyan public organizations of Russia, Turkey, Israel, Jordan, Syria, the United States, Belgium, Canada, and Germany have sent the president of the European Parliament a letter with the request to recognize the genocide against Adygean (Circassian) people.


title: Circassian genocide

text: On 5 July 2005, the Circassian Congress, an organization that unites representatives of the various Circassian peoples in the Russian Federation, has called on Moscow first to acknowledge and then to apologize for tsarist policies that Circassians say constituted a genocide. Their appeal pointed out that "according to the official tsarist documents more than 400,000 Circassians were killed, 497,000 were forced to flee abroad to Turkey, and only 80,000 were left alive in their native area." The Russian parliament (Duma) rejected the petition in 2006 in a statement that acknowledged past actions of the Soviet and previous regimes while referring to in overcoming multiple contemporary problems and issues in the Caucasus through cooperation.


title: Circassian genocide

text: On 21 May 2011, the Parliament of Georgia passed a resolution, stating that pre-planned mass killings of Circassians by Imperial Russia, accompanied by "deliberate famine and epidemics", should be recognized as "genocide" and those deported during those events from their homeland, should be recognized as "refugees". Georgia has made outreach efforts to North Caucasian ethnic groups since the 2008 Russo-Georgian War. Following a consultation with academics, human rights activists and Circassian diaspora groups and parliamentary discussions in Tbilisi in 2010 and 2011, Georgia became the first country to use the word "genocide" to refer to the events. On 20 May 2011 the parliament of the Republic of Georgia declared in its resolution that the mass annihilation of the Cherkess (Adyghe) people during the Russian-Caucasian war and thereafter constituted genocide as defined in the Hague Convention of 1907 and the UN Convention of 1948. The next year, on the same day of 21 May, a monument was erected in Anaklia, Georgia, to commemorate the suffering of the Circassians.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Circassians in Turkey have made multiple attempts to get Turkey to recognize the genocide. There are multiple monuments in Turkey erected to commemorate the Circassian genocide. Turkish politicians have referenced the events multiple times. Every year in 21 May, Turkish politicians and major political parties post Tweets commemorating the events, while referring to it as an "exile", including Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. Some political parties such as the Pluralist Democracy Party (ÇDP), Labour Party (EMEP) and Peoples' Democratic Party (HDP) have called for Turkey to recognize the genocide.


title: Circassian genocide

text: On 1 December 2015, in the Great Union Day (the national day of Romania), a large number of Circassian representatives sent a request to the Romanian government asking it to recognize the Circassian genocide. The letter was specifically sent to the President (Klaus Iohannis), the Prime Minister (Dacian Cioloș), the President of the Senate (Călin Popescu-Tăriceanu) and the President of the Chamber of Deputies (Valeriu Zgonea). The document included 239 signatures and was written in Arabic, English, Romanian and Turkish. Similar requests had already been sent earlier by Circassian representatives to Estonia, Lithuania, Moldova, Poland and Ukraine. In the case of Moldova, the request was sent on 27 August of the same year (2015), on the Moldovan Independence Day, to the President (Nicolae Timofti), the Prime Minister (Valeriu Streleț) and the President of the Parliament (Andrian Candu). The request was also redacted in Arabic, English, Romanian and Turkish languages and included 192 signatures.


title: Circassian genocide

text: Most scholars today agree that the term "genocide" is justified to define the events, except some Russian scholars in the minority. Some scholarly views include:


title: Mikoyan PAK DP

text: The Mikoyan PAK DP (, ) is a Russian programme to develop a stealth interceptor aircraft/heavy fighter under development by Mikoyan to replace the Mikoyan MiG-31 in the Russian Air Force in mid-2030s. It is often referred to as the Mikoyan MiG-41, because its project code is izdeliye 41 (product 41), but an official designation has not been given, as Russian planes only receive an official designation when they are about to enter service. According to Russian defence analyst Vasily Kashin, the MiG-41 would be considered a 5++ or 6th generation project.


title: Mikoyan PAK DP

text: It was argued at first that the work on the supersonic PAK DP MiG-41 interceptor was making use of the MiG-701 (Izdeliye 7.01), Mikoyan MiG-301 and Mikoyan MiG-321 projects begun in the 1990s.


title: Mikoyan PAK DP

text: As of July 2016, no official data was available concerning the aircraft's capabilities. It was speculated that it could enter service by the mid-2020s or 2030s. As an interceptor, its primary mission was rumored to offset future reconnaissance aircraft currently being developed by the United States and China. To achieve high speeds, the aircraft would need to be equipped with ramjet or turboramjet engines.


title: Mikoyan PAK DP

text: The design of the PAK DP was finalized by the end of 2019, at the same time the research work was completed. In 2020, within that research framework, the Russian Ministry of Defense selected the most promising project. Work in this area now continues in R&D and with wind tunnel models. Ilya Tarasenko, the general director of the MiG corporation, as well as the head of the Sukhoi company, said in an interview in July 2020 that the PAK DP will be created on the basis of the MiG-31's design.


title: Mikoyan PAK DP

text: According to "Izvestia", the PAK DP is envisioned to become an interceptor of hypersonic missiles by carrying a multifunctional long-range interceptor missile system (MPKR DP) that will dispense several sub-missiles in order to increase the chance of intercepting hypersonic weapons. The PAK DP is also intended to carry anti-satellite missiles.


title: Mikoyan PAK DP

text: In January 2021, Rostec Corporation, the owner of Mikoyan, announced that the PAK DP had entered the development phase.


title: Mikoyan PAK DP

text: In an interview for RT, the Director General of RSK MiG, Ilya Tarasenko, speculated that it would be a new construction capable of Mach number 4–4.3, equipped with an anti-missile laser, and said would be able to operate at very high altitudes and even in near space. He also stated that it could be transformed into an unmanned version later. If purchased by the Russian Air Force, he said that the first production PAK DP would be completed in 2025.


title: Mikoyan PAK DP

text: The aircraft may cruise at speeds of at least and fly at high altitudes (at levels between the stratopause and the tropopause, i.e. below 45,000 meters and above 12,000 meters) to cover the most amount of Russia's very large territory in the shortest period of time. It could use a variant of the Izdeliye 30 engines currently under development for the Su-57. It was said that the PAK DP will use stealth technology.


title: Sakura Miyawaki

text: Miyawaki began her music career with the girl group HKT48 in 2011, and was a concurrent member of their sister group AKB48 from 2014 to 2018. During her tenure, she held center positions for the singles "Kimi wa Melody" and "No Way Man". Miyawaki took a hiatus from HKT48 in 2018 after placing second in the reality competition show "Produce 48", joining the girl group Iz*One until 2021.


title: Sakura Miyawaki

text: Miyawaki joined HKT48 as a first generation trainee in July 2011. She made her first official appearance as an HKT48 member on October 23 at a national handshake event for the song "Flying Get". She made her theater debut on November 26 with a revival of SKE48 Team S stage "Te wo Tsunaginagara".


title: Sakura Miyawaki

text: Miyawaki was officially promoted to full member status of HKT48 Team H on March 4, 2012, along with 15 other trainees.


title: Sakura Miyawaki

text: In 2012, Miyawaki became the first HKT48 member to have ranked in the AKB48 general election. She received 6,635 votes, placing her at the 47th position. Later that year, she landed her first A-side participation on AKB48's 28th single "Uza". Although she did not make the A-side for the 29th and 30th singles, she appeared on the A-side for the 31st single, "Sayonara Crawl", released on May 22, 2013, and placed 26th overall in AKB48's 2013 general election with 25,760 votes.


title: Sakura Miyawaki

text: Miyawaki's first A-side participation with HKT48 was on its first single "Suki! Suki! Skip!" (Like! Like! Skip!) and Melon Juice.


title: Sakura Miyawaki

text: On January 11, 2014, it was announced during the first day of HKT48's Kyushu 7 Prefecture Tour at Oita, that Miyawaki would be transferred to the newly formed Team KIV. Later, at AKB48's Group Grand Reformation Festival, she was promoted to vice captain of Team KIV and given a concurrent position in AKB48 Team A.


title: Sakura Miyawaki

text: Miyawaki participated in the 2014 AKB48 general election and placed 11th overall with 45,538 votes, landing her a position on the A-side for "Kokoro no Placard". In that year's rock-paper-scissors tournament, Miyawaki lost in the 3rd round of the preliminary competition. However, management decided she would share the lead position with winner Mayu Watanabe for AKB48's 38th single, "Kiboteki Refrain", and became the first local HKT48 member to have lead position on an A-side single.


title: Sakura Miyawaki

text: In 2015, Miyawaki was given a lead role in AKB48's drama "Majisuka Gakuen 4" along with Haruka Shimazaki. The season premiered on January 19. She placed 7th overall in the general election the same year with 81,422 votes.


title: Sakura Miyawaki

text: In July 2015, she released her first photobook, titled "Sakura" which reached number 1 on the weekly Oricon photobook chart and number 3 on the general book chart.


title: Sakura Miyawaki

text: She got her first solo lead position on AKB's 43rd single with "Kimi wa Melody", released on March 9, 2016.


title: Sakura Miyawaki

text: In 2018, Miyawaki participated and placed second in reality girl group survival show "Produce 48" and became a member of Korean-Japanese idol group Iz*One that debuted in October of the same year. She and the other two Japanese members of the group took a hiatus from their respective Japanese groups until their contracts with Iz*One expired in April 2021. She also launched her own video gaming channel on YouTube. As of August 6, 2021, Miyawaki has over 692,000 subscribers and garnering 22 million video views.


title: Sakura Miyawaki

text: After Iz*One's disbandment in April 2021, a preview of her interview with the July issue of "Vivi" leaked that she was leaving HKT48. On May 15, 2021, Miyawaki confirmed her departure, with a graduation concert scheduled to be held on June 19. A short version for the music video of her graduation song, , was uploaded to YouTube on June 14, while the official audio was released on June 20. Her final performance with HKT48 was on June 27. In May 2021, Miyawaki became the face of the hair care brand Kerastase and the Chinese cosmetics brand Flower Knows. On November 1, 2021, Vernalossom announced that Miyawaki's contract with them has concluded.


title: Sakura Miyawaki

text: On March 14, 2022, Miyawaki, alongside former Iz*One member Kim Chae-won, signed exclusive contracts with Source Music, and were confirmed to debut as members of Le Sserafim in May. On March 21, 2022, she joined Japanese talent agency A.M. Entertainment for individual activities in Japan. On May 2, 2022, Le Sserafim made their debut with the extended play, "Fearless".


title: Sakura Miyawaki

text: All song credits are adapted from the Korea Music Copyright Association's database, unless otherwise noted.


title: Motionless in White

text: Motionless in White is an American metalcore band from Scranton, Pennsylvania. Formed in 2004, the band consists of lead vocalist Chris "Motionless" Cerulli, guitarists Ryan Sitkowski and Ricky "Horror" Olson, drummer Vinny Mauro and bassist Justin Morrow. The band has stated that their band name derived from the Eighteen Visions song "Motionless and White".


title: Motionless in White

text: Motionless in White was signed to Fearless Records for their first three studio albums; their fourth album, "Graveyard Shift", was released in May 2017 through Roadrunner Records. Their fifth album, "Disguise", was released in June 2019, followed by their sixth album, "Scoring the End of the World", in June 2022.


title: Motionless in White

text: Motionless in White was founded in summer of 2004 by members Chris Motionless, who played guitar and lead vocals, Angelo Parente on drums, Frank Polumbo on guitar and Kyle White on bass during high school. For their first two shows at the Northeast Fair in Pittston, PA, the band was known as "One Way Ticket" and then as "When Breathing Stops" for the remainder of 2004. On New Year's Day of 2005, they settled on their current name. Chris Motionless and other members have noted bands such as Poison the Well, Slipknot, Marilyn Manson, Johnny Cash, Depeche Mode, and other musical groups as their inspiration. In 2005, they released their self-distributed demo.


title: Motionless in White

text: Within the year after the release of their demo, new member Josh Balz was added as the band's keyboardist, Frank Polumbo took over on bass and new members, Michael Costanza and Thomas "TJ" Bell, were added to the band as the new guitarists, moving Chris Motionless solely to lead vocals. The band was discovered by Zach Neil while performing at a local nightclub called The Staircase. Neil signed the band first to management and then later to his record label Masquerade recordings. They recorded their first EP "The Whorror" which was produced by Zach Neil and mixed by Dan Malsch and released it through Masquerade Recordings/Warner music group in 2007.


title: Motionless in White

text: After touring in support of "The Whorror", Motionless in White had written enough songs to complete a full-length album. The album was named "When Love Met Destruction". "When Love Met Destruction" was recorded in 2008 initially at Soundmine recording studio then finished at Zach Neil's home by Dave Cutrone and Zach Neil, and was released the same year on Masquerade Recordings. Neil added the band to his stage on the Warped tour with the new record in hand and the band quickly caught the attention of Shawn Milke from Alesana who offered to manage the band. Shortly thereafter Bob Becker of Fearless Records contacted Zach Neil to make an offer to buy the band's recording contract and sign the band to Fearless. The band and Neil agreed and Tragic Hero was offered to incubate the first official release to help grow the band leading up to their Fearless debut. The band was never actually signed to Tragic Hero Records.


title: Motionless in White

text: The band parted ways with guitarist Michael Costanza and brought in current guitarist Ryan Sitkowski as his replacement. Despite being signed to Fearless before the months leading up to the release of the EP form of "When Love Met Destruction", it was distributed through Tragic Hero on February 17, 2009. The song "Ghost in the Mirror" was made as the band's first ever single and had a music video produced for it.


title: Motionless in White

text: After the release of "When Love Met Destruction", bassist Frank Polumbo departed Motionless in White due to unknown reasons, leaving Bellevue, Washington native, Ricky "Horror" Olson as their new permanent bass player in October 2009. Months later, Motionless in White entered the studio during May 2010 to record their debut full-length, "Creatures" with Andrew Wade as the chosen producer. The record's first single, "Abigail", premiered in Revolver Magazine on August 30 and was the released on iTunes the day after. A music video for the song was released a few months afterwards, along with following music videos over the next 2 years for title track "Creatures", the first track of the record "Immaculate Misconception" and a live music video for "Puppets (The First Snow)" which was filmed during the band's summer on The All Stars Tour in 2011.


title: Motionless in White

text: "Creatures" was released on October 12, 2010, through Fearless, and claimed the 175th slot on the "Billboard" Top 200 charts, and No. 6 on the "Heatseekers" chart.


title: Motionless in White

text: On Wednesday May 4, 2011, guitarist Thomas Joseph "TJ" Bell was fired from the band. Reasons for the matter explained from Bell's perspective were that while he was handling bass substitution duties for Escape the Fate, he was expected to meet along with the rest of Motionless in White in Orlando, Florida by that tour's end. According to the band, Bell left in the middle of Motionless in White's tour schedule to fill-in as a bassist for Escape the Fate and also did not inform the rest of the members early enough in advance that he would not be available during those weeks. This action forced the band to be without their rhythm guitar parts during their performances. Motionless in White stated "If our live performance didn't heavily depend on having 2 guitarists then it wouldn't have been a huge deal to us... but unfortunately having one guitar player in a band like ours causes your show to suffer greatly. We agreed to let TJ go," along with an explanation about how they experienced many disagreements with Bell throughout the years of being a band.


title: Motionless in White

text: After Bell's departure, Olson then switched his position in the band from playing bass to rhythm guitar, which then left the group in-audition, once again, for a new bass player. In the tours Motionless in White performed after Olson's switch to rhythm guitar, a man with an unknown name began playing bass, finally confirmed as being Devin Sola, who now goes by "Ghost", a substitute bassist. Sola was officially confirmed as the band's new bassist on November 27, 2011.


title: Motionless in White

text: In early 2012, Motionless in White contributed to the "Kerrang! Metallica The Black Album: Covered" on the song, "My Friend of Misery."


title: Motionless in White

text: Motionless in White decided on working with two separate producers to accomplish a very wide array of sounds and styles for Infamous. It was then announced that Infamous was to be produced by Jason Suecof and musician Tim Sköld. On September 25 "Devil's Night" was released as the first single for the album. On October 9, their second single "If It's Dead, We'll Kill It" was released. On November 13, 2012, the music video for the single "Devil's Night" was released, along with the full album itself. "Infamous" initially hit No. 53 on the "Billboard" 200, No. 19 on Top Rock Albums, No. 9 on Top Independent Albums, and No. 5 on Top Hard Rock Albums.


title: Motionless in White

text: Motionless in White's ex-drummer, Angelo Parente, announced his departure from the band on March 11 via Tumblr, saying 'After doing this since I was 17, the nonstop touring, and everything else that comes with the life of a musician has finally caught up with me.'. He has left the band on good terms, and there is no sign of internal rifts. Brandon Richter formally of 'The Witch Was Right' was announced as the replacement drummer on April 23, 2013. This action left Chris Motionless as the band's last original member.


title: Motionless in White

text: On April 23, the band released the third single from "Infamous", "America", accompanied by a lyric video. On June 3, another video, directed by Slipknot percussionist Shawn Crahan, was released for the single. The video also starred Slipknot percussionist Chris Fehn. On June 11, 2013, Motionless in White released the Deluxe Edition of Infamous, featuring remixed and remastered versions of all the original tracks, alongside two new songs, remixes by Celldweller, Combichrist and Ricky Horror, and re-recorded drums by Richter.


title: Motionless in White

text: Motionless in White did their first full UK tour in September 2013 with The Defiled and Glamour of the Kill. They later supported acts such as In This Moment on the 'Hellpop Tour' in October to November and All That Remains in November to December 2013. Motionless in White performed at the 2013 Mayhem Festival.


title: Motionless in White

text: On January 23, 2014, the band announced a short headlong tour in March with The Plot in You, Like Moths to Flames, For the Fallen Dreams and The Defiled with For Today appearing in San Antonio. Following the tour the band would enter the studio to work on their follow-up to their 2012 album, "Infamous".


title: Motionless in White

text: On February 5, Motionless in White was announced to play the Vans Warped Tour on the main stage. The same day, the band confirmed that they will be covering "Du hast" by Rammstein for the Punk Goes... compilation series, "Punk Goes 90s Vol. 2". Later that month, drummer Brandon Richter released a statement that he will no longer be part of the band; however, he has thanked all of the support he has gained and has left on good terms, although he won't give out any specific reasons to leaving the band.


title: Motionless in White

text: In an interview with Rock Sound magazine, Chris Motionless expressed that recording the third album was much easier compared to "Infamous" as "...the timeframe worked against me, and there was an inner conflict going on, trying to move into a different style of music and making a lot of mistakes as I went." He stated that the album's sound will contain the aggressiveness 'Creatures' had which 'Infamous' lacked in and will also have a more consistent style.


title: Motionless in White

text: On April 23, 2014, the band's third studio album, "Reincarnate", was announced through social media, with an intended release date of September 16, 2014. The band stated that they remain as a quintet and will be working with touring and session drummers. On June 11, Fearless Records released a video featuring the album's artwork and contained a teaser for their next upcoming single of the same name, which was to be released on July 1 however was delayed to July 8. The band was announced as a support act for A Day to Remember's tour titled "Parks & Devastation Tour" that takes place throughout September and October, and will be supporting them alongside Bring Me the Horizon and Chiodos. The band also announced a co-headline tour with gothic metal band Lacuna Coil in Europe, with the gothic metal band Devilment (fronted by Cradle of Filth frontman Dani Filth) supporting them. The tour started at the end of October continuing through November.


title: Motionless in White

text: The band was announced as one of the acts to perform in the South by So What?! festival in March at QuikTrip Park in Grand Prairie.


title: Motionless in White

text: During the summer of 2015 Motionless in White toured along with Slipknot, Lamb of God, and Bullet for My Valentine as part of the "Summer's Last Stand Tour" running from July 24 to September 5.


title: Motionless in White

text: Vocalist Chris Motionless has stated that their new album will not be released through Fearless Records. On June 23, 2016, Motionless In White released the single titled "570", from the band's forthcoming studio album, which will be released via Roadrunner Records. In the fall of 2016, the band embarked on the Nocturnal Underground tour with Breaking Benjamin and Korn. On October 31, Roadrunner announced the album was to be titled "Graveyard Shift". The band reached out to the fans with a contest to design the new album's artwork.


title: Motionless in White

text: On January 10, 2017, keyboardist Josh Balz announced his departure from the band after 10 full years. He cited that he wanted more time available to run his oddities parlor, "The Strange and Unusual".


title: Motionless in White

text: On January 26, the band released the second single from "Graveyard Shift", titled "Eternally Yours". A day later, it was revealed that "Graveyard Shift" is set to be released on May 5, 2017. The band also revealed they were opening an artwork contest for the new album, the winner of which would have their artwork featured for "Graveyard Shift".


title: Motionless in White

text: On March 3, the band revealed the album's official artwork created by Crystal Johnson and tracklist, followed by the release of their third single, "LOUD (Fuck It)".


title: Motionless in White

text: On April 30, Motionless in White premiered their song "Rats", a few days before the initial album drop. After the album was released, the band embarked on the Half God Half Devil tour with In This Moment, touring across the United States and to multiple areas around Europe.


title: Motionless in White

text: The band embarked on the US leg of their headlining tour; The Graveyard Shift Tour, running from September–October 2017 and will bring the tour to Europe in early 2018. Motionless In White was joined on the US portion of this tour by Miss May I and The Amity Affliction, along with special guest, William Control. As well as European/US legs from January to March 2018.


title: Motionless in White

text: On May 4, 2018, the band announced the departure of longtime bassist Devin "Ghost" Sola, citing personal mental health problems as a major factor. Former guitarist, TJ Bell, was later announced to be filling in, in regards to the duties needed for the Summer Warped Tour festival.


title: Motionless in White

text: On May 6, 2018, Chris Motionless announced via Instagram that a new record would be released in 2019. He claimed that he, along with Ryan Sitkowski and Ricky Olson, would begin full-time writing prior to touring with Warped Tour that summer.


title: Motionless in White

text: Throughout the summer of 2018, the band embarked on the final cross-country run of Vans Warped Tour, spanning from June 21 to August 5, 2018. After the departure of Devin Sola, the band reunited with former guitarist TJ Bell for the tour. Once the tour wrapped, the band took the rest of the year off, with the exception of a few festivals, Halloween shows, and a club show in their hometown of Scranton, to work on the upcoming album. For their final appearances of 2018, Justin Morrow of Ice Nine Kills toured with them on bass guitar.


title: Motionless in White

text: In early March, the band announced they would be touring over the summer with Alice Cooper and Halestorm. A few days later, they announced they would be embarking on a co-headliner with Atreyu over the course of April and early May. The day prior to the Spring Invasion tour with Atreyu beginning, the band began teasing new music through their social media accounts.


title: Motionless in White

text: On March 24, 2019, Motionless in White announced via Instagram that Ice Nine Kills member, Justin Morrow would be leaving Ice Nine Kills and joining Motionless in White full-time on bass guitar.


title: Motionless in White

text: On April 17, the band announced their new album "Disguise" set for release on June 7, 2019. On the same day, they released two singles off of the album titled "Disguise", which had been premiered at Earthday Birthday in Orlando a few days prior, and "Brand New Numb".


title: Motionless in White

text: On May 10, the band released their third single "Undead Ahead 2: The Tale of the Midnight Ride" and its corresponding music video.


title: Motionless in White

text: On June 5, a few days before the album was due to drop, the band premiered the song "Thoughts & Prayers" on BBC's Radio 1's Rock Show with Daniel P. Carter. This was the first appearance of lead guitarist Ryan Sitkowski performing vocals on a record. On June 27, the band released a corresponding music video for their second single of the album, "Brand New Numb".


title: Motionless in White

text: Before the band was set to embark on their "Disguise Tour" in Europe, the band embarked on "The Trick 'R Treat Tour" in which they were headliners, along with some east coast shows with In This Moment. The band also announced that they would be touring with Beartooth on "The Diseased and Disguised Tour" in January 2020. As 2019 came to a close, they announced multiple shows at European festivals over the summer such as Rock am Ring and Graspop Metal Meeting along with a show in Warsaw, Poland with August Burns Red, marking their first time ever in the country of Poland. However, all of the European shows are cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Motionless in White

text: In May 2020, during a livestream interview, Chris Motionless announced that they were already working on their next album, and assured that the songs for the album will be heavier, although the recording could be delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On September 9, the band released their cover of The Killers' "Somebody Told Me" on streaming music services. On October 5, the band announced that they'll release a 10th anniversary re-issue of the album titled "Creatures X" on October 9.


title: Motionless in White

text: On May 14, 2021, the band released the final of what they call "The Quarantine Experiments" in the form of a synthwave-edition of their song "Voices". On August 20, the band released a new single titled "Timebomb".


title: Motionless in White

text: On March 7, 2022, the band announced that they are planning to release new music on Friday, March 11, with a 30-second video teaser hinting at some potentially new music. On that day, the band officially released the single "Cyberhex" featuring Lindsay Schoolcraft along with its music video. At the same time, they officially released the cover and track list for their sixth studio album, "Scoring the End of the World", which was released on June 10, 2022.


title: Motionless in White

text: On April 14, the band unveiled the second single "Masterpiece" and its corresponding music video. On May 13, the band released the third single "Slaughterhouse" featuring Bryan Garris of Knocked Loose. On June 3, one week before the album release, the band released the title track "Scoring the End of the World" featuring Mick Gordon.


title: Motionless in White

text: The band is described by AllMusic as a blend of metalcore, gothic metal and industrial metal. They have also been called "horror-metal" and nu metal.


title: Motionless in White

text: The group's song structure commonly features intricate riffs coupled with occasional blast beats during verses and breakdowns present in songs. The band's keyboard effects are also noted, having been claimed to add a "dark and uneasy atmosphere" to the group's music on their debut album "Creatures". The sound on their second album, "Infamous", was said to have resembled Marilyn Manson's by "Alternative Press", "Revolver" and "Kerrang!"


title: Motionless in White

text: The band members themselves have stated that they are influenced from a wide variety of artists such as AFI, Aiden, As I Lay Dying, Atreyu, August Burns Red, Avenged Sevenfold, Bauhaus, The Black Dahlia Murder, Bleeding Through, Christian Death, Cradle of Filth, The Cure, Danzig, Depeche Mode, Eighteen Visions, Every Time I Die, Gojira, HIM, Black Sabbath, Himsa, It Dies Today, KMFDM, Johnny Cash, Korn, Sex Pistols, Linkin Park, Marilyn Manson, Misfits, Metallica, Morrissey, Nine Inch Nails, Underoath, Psyclon Nine, Rammstein, Rob Zombie, Slipknot, The Sisters of Mercy, The Smiths, Suicide Commando, System of a Down, The Prodigy, and Paradise Lost.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Patrick Joseph Toomey Jr. (born November 17, 1961) is an American businessman and politician serving as the junior United States senator for Pennsylvania since 2011. A member of the Republican Party, he served three terms as the U.S. representative for , from 1999 to 2005.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Of mixed Irish Catholic and Azorean descent, Toomey graduated from Harvard College. A former Wall Street banker, Toomey narrowly lost the Republican primary for United States Senate in 2004. From 2005 to 2009, he served as president of the Club for Growth. Toomey won the Republican primary for the 2010 U.S. Senate election in Pennsylvania, and was elected to the seat after defeating the Democratic nominee, former U.S. Navy three-star admiral and congressman Joe Sestak, in the general election. He was reelected to the Senate in 2016, defeating Democratic nominee Katie McGinty.


title: Pat Toomey

text: On October 5, 2020, Toomey announced that he would not run for reelection to a third Senate term in 2022. On February 13, 2021, Toomey was one of seven Republican senators to vote to convict Donald Trump of incitement of insurrection in his second impeachment trial.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey was born on November 17, 1961, in Providence, Rhode Island, the third of six children of Catholic parents, Mary Ann (née Andrews) of East Providence and Patrick Joseph Toomey of Providence. His father was a union worker who laid cable for the Narragansett Electric Company, and his mother worked as a part-time secretary at St. Martha's Catholic Church.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey was a member of the Boy Scouts of America and attained the organization's highest rank, Eagle Scout. His father was of Irish descent and his mother of Portuguese ancestry. His mother's grandparents were all born in the Azores.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey attended La Salle Academy on scholarship participating in the Close Up Washington civic education program. He graduated as valedictorian of his high school class. He graduated from Harvard College in 1984 with an A.B. in government.


title: Pat Toomey

text: After graduation, Toomey was hired by Chemical Bank where he was involved in currency swap transactions. In 1986, he was hired by Morgan, Grenfell & Co., where he dealt in multiple foreign currencies, interest rates, and currency-related derivatives.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In 1991, Toomey resigned from Morgan, Grenfell after it was acquired by Deutsche Bank. He later said he resigned out of concern that Deutsche Bank would impose a less flexible and entrepreneurial work environment. The same year, Toomey and two younger brothers, Steven and Michael opened Rookie's Restaurant in Allentown, Pennsylvania.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In 1994, Toomey was elected to Allentown's newly established Government Study Commission. During his term, he drafted a new charter for the commission requiring a supermajority for any tax increase and established a split-roll tax system that levied taxes on land at higher rate than taxes on buildings. Allentown voters approved the charter on April 23, 1996.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In 1998, Toomey ran for the Pennsylvania's 15th congressional district, based in the Lehigh Valley region after Democratic incumbent U.S. Representative Paul McHale decided to retire. Toomey won the six-candidate Republican primary with 27% of the vote.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In the general election, Toomey faced Roy C. Afflerbach, State Senator and former state representative. During the campaign, Toomey criticized the agenda of the Clinton-Gore administration, especially its plans to modify the Internal Revenue Service. He said the plan did not "address the real fundamental problems plaguing American taxpayers" and said the IRS should be abolished.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Later in the campaign, Toomey and Afflerbach debated the effectiveness of a flat tax-based system, an issue on which they sharply disagreed. Toomey promised to serve no more than three terms if elected. He defeated Afflerbach, 55%–45%.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey was reelected to a second term, defeating Ed O'Brien, president of the Bethlehem-based United Steelworkers Local 2598, 53%–47%. He won Lehigh County with 54% and Northampton with 51%.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey was reelected to a third term, defeating O'Brien again, 57%–43%. He won Lehigh with 58% and Northampton with 54%.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In accordance with his 1998 pledge not to serve more than three terms in the House, Toomey did not run for reelection in 2004. He decided to challenge incumbent Republican U.S. Senator Arlen Specter in the primary instead.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey served as the U.S. Representative for from 1999 to 2005. In the House, he distinguished himself as a fiscal expert. He pushed to decrease government spending and to set aside money for debt reduction.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In 2001, Toomey proposed a budget that would cut taxes worth $2.2 trillion over ten years, exceeding Bush's $1.6 trillion plan.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey strongly opposed Bush's plan for comprehensive immigration reform, saying "I think it's a slap in the face for the millions of people throughout the world who decide to take the effort to legally enter our country." He was a longtime supporter of creating Medicare Part D, but said he would not vote for it unless it lowered costs and guaranteed competition between government and private insurers.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In 2004, Toomey challenged longtime incumbent Senator Arlen Specter in the Republican primary election. His campaign was aided by $2 million of advertising from the Club for Growth. Toomey's election campaign theme was that Specter was not a conservative, especially on fiscal issues. Most of the state's Republican establishment including Pennsylvania's other U.S. Senator, Rick Santorum, and President George W. Bush supported Specter. Specter won by 1.6 percentage points, about 17,000 votes out of over one million cast.


title: Pat Toomey

text: On April 15, 2009, Toomey announced his intention to again challenge Specter in the 2010 Republican primary.


title: Pat Toomey

text: On April 28, 2009, Specter announced he would switch parties and run as a Democrat, after polls showed him losing to Toomey in the primary. Specter's withdrawal left Toomey as the front-runner for the 2010 Republican nomination. Both primaries were held on May 18, 2010.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey defeated Peg Luksik in the Republican primary, 81%–19%, and Specter lost the Democratic primary, 54%–46% to U.S. Representative Joe Sestak of Delaware County. The general election was spiteful and cost over $50 million including spending by the candidates, political parties, and outside groups. Toomey won 51%–49%, carrying most of the state's counties.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey ran for reelection to the Senate in 2016. He was endorsed by the Club for Growth. He was unopposed in the Republican primary and won the general election with 48.9% of the vote, to Democratic nominee Katie McGinty's 47.2% and Libertarian challenger Ed Clifford's 3.85%.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey was the first Lehigh Valley resident to serve as Senator from Pennsylvania since Richard Brodhead in the mid-19th century. He was elected to the United States Senate on November 2, 2010, and his term began on January 3, 2011. He joined the Congressional Hispanic Conference, a caucus of which he was an original member in his days in the House.


title: Pat Toomey

text: On August 11, 2011, Senate minority leader Mitch McConnell named Toomey to the United States Congress Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction. The committee's duties included composing a package of spending cuts for submission to both Houses of Congress.


title: Pat Toomey

text: On April 26, 2012, Toomey was selected to chair the United States Senate Steering Committee, a caucus of several Republican senators who collaborate on legislation. He succeeded Senator Jim DeMint, who had previously expressed his intention to transfer the committee's chairmanship to a member of the Republican 2010 Senate class.


title: Pat Toomey

text: On October 6, 2018, Toomey was one of 50 senators (49 Republicans, 1 Democrat) to vote to confirm Brett Kavanaugh to the Supreme Court. Toomey and Senator Bob Casey disagreed on how evidence of sexual assault against Kavanaugh should be handled.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Some activists have criticized Toomey for not meeting frequently enough with his constituents, including never having held an in-person town hall in Philadelphia despite having held at least 47 "teleconference town-hall meetings" with his constituents. These "teleconference town-hall meetings" could have as many as 10,000 people on a single call, and when he has held in-person town-hall meetings Toomey has been accused of having selected the audience.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In February 2019, Toomey was one of 16 senators to vote against legislation preventing a partial government shutdown and containing $1.375 billion for barriers along the U.S.-Mexico border which included 55 miles of fencing.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In March 2019, Toomey was one of 12 Republican senators to cosponsor a resolution that would impose a constitutional amendment limiting the Supreme Court to nine justices. The resolution was introduced after multiple Democratic presidential candidates expressed openness to the idea of expanding the Supreme Court.


title: Pat Toomey

text: On April 17, 2020, Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell appointed Toomey to the COVID-19 Congressional Oversight Commission to oversee the implementation of the CARES Act.


title: Pat Toomey

text: On October 4, 2020, Toomey was reported to be retiring at the conclusion of his term, forgoing a reelection campaign or a run for governor in 2022. He confirmed the report the next day.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey has strongly supported increased public spending on charter schools. In 2017, he supported Betsy DeVos as President Trump's pick for Secretary of Education. At the time of the vote, Toomey's campaigns had received $60,500 from the DeVos family during his career. There were weekly protests at his office and high numbers of calls, faxes, and emails were noted.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey rejects that there is a scientific consensus on climate change. In 2010, he said, "I think it's clear that [climate change] has happened. The extent to which that has been caused by human activity I think is not as clear. I think that is still very much disputed and has been debated." In 2011, he voted to limit the Environmental Protection Agency's ability to regulate greenhouse gas emissions. In 2013, he voted for a point of order opposing a carbon tax or a fee on carbon emissions. In 2015, he voted against the Clean Power Plan.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey has a consistent record of voting against environmental interests or supporting them only with limiting provisions. In 2000, he opposed implementing the Kyoto Protocol, an international treaty to curb greenhouse gases. In 2001, he voted against raising corporate average fuel economy standards and providing incentives for alternative fuels. In 2003, he supported the Healthy Forests Initiative, which aimed to combat wildfires by allowing timber harvests in protected forests. In 2014, he supported protecting the Allegheny National Forest, saying, "Congress should ensure that the Forest Service prioritize limited resources to adequately manage the lands for which it is currently responsible, rather continue to acquire additional property." In 2017, he opposed restricting oil drilling and development in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In a series of roll-call votes attached to debate over the Keystone pipeline on January 21, 2015, Toomey voted against an amendment offered by Brian Schatz expressing the sense of Congress regarding climate change but in favor of a similar amendment offered by John Hoeven.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In July 2021, Toomey said that the data on global warming is not clear enough to justify imposing new regulatory burdens on consumers.


title: Pat Toomey

text: The League of Conservation Voters (LCV) 2021 National Environmental Scorecard gave Toomey a 18% score, with a lifetime score of 7%.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In 2013, Toomey was one of 18 senators to vote against the bill to reopen the government during the United States government shutdown of 2013. Of his vote, he said: "The one major redeeming aspect of this bill is that it reopens the government... I cannot support piling hundreds of billions of dollars of debt on current and future generations of Americans without even a sliver of reform to start putting our fiscal house in order."


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey is a strong supporter of banking deregulation. In 2019, "The Washington Post" reported "10 of his 17 biggest campaign contributors are financial company officials."


title: Pat Toomey

text: Regarding deregulation of the financial services industry, Toomey said in 1999, "The trend in deregulation, beginning in the early 1980s, is one of the biggest reasons for the sustained economic expansion. I would like to see us continue to deregulate on many fronts, including the financial services industry."


title: Pat Toomey

text: While serving on the House Banking Committee, in 1999 Toomey helped write House Resolution 10, which led to the repeal of parts of the Depression-era Glass-Steagall Act. The repeal of the Act which had regulated the separation of banks and investment firms, allowed for companies that combined banking and investment operations.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey was also a supporter of the deregulation of the derivatives market, an area in which he had professional experience, stating that he believed the market to be adequately regulated by banking supervisors and state-level regulators. He pressed the House to pass the Commodity Futures Modernization Act of 2000 because it would "eliminate most of the cloud of legal and regulatory uncertainty that has shadowed" derivatives since their invention. He stated that he hoped that the Senate would modify the bill to "allow greater flexibility in the electronic trading" of over-the-counter derivatives.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey was a leading sponsor of the JOBS Act which passed the Senate in March 2012. The Act would reduce costs for businesses that go public by phasing in SEC regulations for "emerging growth companies" over a five-year period. It would also help startup companies raise capital by reducing some SEC regulations.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey orchestrated legislation to repeal consumer protection measures enacted by the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau which had been intended to prevent auto lenders from discriminating on the basis of race.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In 2013, in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, Toomey and Senator Joe Manchin introduced legislation that would have required a background check for most gun sales. The legislation failed and failed again when it was reintroduced in 2015, and again in 2016 after the mass shooting at an Orlando nightclub. In June 2016, Toomey voted against a bill that would prohibit gun purchases by people on the no-fly list because of concerns that there was no process for those on the no-fly list to seek removal if they were on the list in error. Instead, he sought to find compromise across a number of competing proposals, some partisan, and some bipartisan; none succeeded. After the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting, Toomey renewed his calls for background checks, but a bill never came to vote. Toomey's and Manchin's background check proposal came up again after the Robb Elementary School shooting. The two senators were part of a bipartisan group of 20 senators working on a "modest" deal for gun control that included a red flag provision, a support for state crisis intervention orders, funding for school safety resources, stronger background checks for buyers under the age of 21, and penalties for straw purchases. That deal later became the Bipartisan Safer Communities Act, which Toomey voted for.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey opposed President Obama's executive orders on gun control as contrary to the constitutional system of checks and balances, but believes Congress should pass background checks. He received nearly $93,000 from gun-rights groups, including the National Rifle Association, but received a poor rating ("C") from the NRA after he started championing background check legislation.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In a 2022 interview with "Face the Nation", Toomey said that Republicans can stay consistent on Second Amendment rights while still supporting gun-control measures like background checks and state red flag laws (with respect to due process), and addressing school safety and mental health issues.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In 2004, Toomey said he believes society should give special benefits only to couples who meet the "traditional" definition of marriage as "one man, one woman." That same year, he voted in support of an amendment to the U.S. Constitution to ban same-sex marriage. In 2015, Toomey disagreed with the Supreme Court decision which found that same-sex marriage bans were unconstitutional.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In 2010, Toomey supported the repeal of Don't ask, don't tell, a policy that banned openly gay or bisexual persons from serving in the military, in a statement made while he was Senator-elect.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In November 2013, Toomey proposed an amendment exempting private religious entities from following the Employment Non-Discrimination Act. The amendment failed. After the bill received the 60 votes required for cloture, Toomey cast his vote in support.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Following the cloture vote, Toomey said he had long believed that more legal protections are appropriate to prevent employment discrimination based on sexual orientation, but planned to modify the bill to offer religious groups more "leeway".


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey opposed the passage of the Medicare Prescription Drug Act which he argued was fiscally irresponsible. His 2012 budget proposal called for turning Medicaid into a block grant to states and cutting federal funding for the program in half by 2021, which exceeded even the budget cuts proposed by Paul Ryan.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey opposes the Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) and has supported multiple efforts to dismantle, repeal or defund it.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey intervened to have Sarah Murnaghan, a 10-year-old girl dying of cystic fibrosis at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, moved ahead of other recipients in obtaining a lung transplant, on the grounds that the existing policy reduced access for children. As a 10-year-old, Murnaghan was eligible for transplants only from other children, not from adults leading to a longer waiting time than adult patients. Some doctors said this decision privileged Murnaghan and another child over other recipients, and privileged them above a national policy of allocating organs according to well-established rules. Murnaghan's case resulted in a permanent organ transplant policy change for pediatric patients.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In 2017, as Republicans tried to repeal Obamacare, Toomey said the independent insurance market was in a "death spiral" because of the ACA. Toomey helped write the Republican bill to repeal Obamacare.


title: Pat Toomey

text: On August 7, 2022, Toomey was one of 43 votes against a failed amendment in the Senate that would cap insulin costs at $35 per month.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey advocates for replacing graduated taxes based with a flat tax based upon income levels. He also favors abolishing the IRS, and has voted to reduce the capital gains tax, eliminate the estate tax, cut small business taxes, eliminate the "marriage penalty", cut federal income taxes and corporate taxes, and expand tax credits.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey publicly opposed the 2009 federal stimulus package. He opposes government-run or subsidized healthcare and farm subsidies.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In 2011, Toomey sponsored a federal balanced budget amendment. He supported extending unemployment benefits and offsetting the cost with reduced government spending in other areas.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In his first term in Congress, Toomey took credit for getting $12 million in earmark spending for businesses in his district. In 2010 he claimed but provided no proof that he eventually ceased getting earmarks as a congressman, when as a Senate candidate he signed the "No Pork" pledge. In December 2011, Toomey and Senator Claire McCaskill introduced the Earmark Elimination Act of 2011. The bill failed and failed again when it was reintroduced in 2014.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In September 2018, Toomey was among six Republican senators who voted against a $854 billion spending bill meant to avoid another government shutdown. The bill included funding for the departments of Defense, Health and Human Services, Labor and Education.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey opposes abortion access. While running for the Senate in 2010, he said he supports legislation to ban abortions and jail sentences for doctors who perform them. As a senator, Toomey voted for a bill that would have banned abortions after 20 weeks with no exceptions for the health of pregnant women and girls and new limits in cases of rape and incest. In January 2020, Toomey also signed an amicus brief urging the US Supreme Court to overturn several of its past rulings protecting abortion rights, including "Roe v. Wade". When he first ran for Congress in 1998, Toomey said he believed abortion should be legal only in the first trimester.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In March 2015, Toomey voted for an amendment to establish a deficit-neutral reserve fund to allow employees to earn paid sick time.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In July 2020, Toomey joined fellow Republican Senator Mitt Romney in condemning Trump's decision to commute Roger Stone's sentence, saying that while Trump "clearly has the legal and constitutional authority to grant clemency for federal crimes," commuting Stone's sentence was a "mistake" due in part to the severity of the charges against him and that "Attorney General Bill Barr stated he thought Mr. Stone's prosecution was 'righteous' and 'appropriate' and the sentence he received was 'fair.'"


title: Pat Toomey

text: Toomey supported Trump's 2017 executive order to impose a ban on entry to the U.S. to citizens of seven Muslim-majority countries.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In February 2019, Toomey was one of 16 senators to vote against legislation preventing a partial government shutdown and containing $1.375 billion for barriers along the U.S.-Mexico border that included 55 miles of fencing. In March 2019, Toomey was one of 12 Republican senators to vote to block Trump's national emergency declaration that would have granted him access to $3.6 billion in military construction funding to build border barriers.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In February 2018, Toomey said that it was worth discussing whether to impeach justices on the Pennsylvania Supreme Court who had ruled that a gerrymandered congressional map violated the Pennsylvania constitution.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In December 2019, Toomey said that it was not worth discussing whether to impeach Trump after he allegedly tried to extort the President of Ukraine, Volodymyr Zelenskyy, by demanding that Zelenskyy start a criminal investigation of Vice President Joseph Biden or at least falsely announce an investigation was underway of Trump's allegation that Biden engaged in corruption in Ukraine. "Where is the crime?" said Toomey at a Republican fundraiser. Earlier Toomey had described Trump's attempt to force Zelenskyy to make false allegations about the Democratic presidential candidate as "errors of judgment". Toomey had harsher words for House Democrats, accusing them of "disgracefully breaking with" bipartisan precedent on impeachment inquiries.


title: Pat Toomey

text: Later that month, the House impeached Trump on multiple charges, including abuse of power in the attempted extortion of Zelenskyy. Even after Trump was impeached, Toomey continued to insist that his offenses were "not impeachable" and opposed hearing from any witnesses at Trump's trial. "We should move as quickly as we can to get this thing over with, get this behind us," Toomey said, adding, "Even if someone believes that everything John Bolton says is going to confirm what's charged in these articles, it's still not impeachable." (The "New York Times" reported Bolton had written in his forthcoming book that Trump had told him in August 2019 that he wanted to continue freezing the Ukraine aid until officials there helped with investigations into Democrats, including the Bidens.) Along with all but one of the other Republican senators, Toomey voted against convicting Trump on the two articles for which he had been impeached by the House.


title: Pat Toomey

text: On January 9, 2021, Toomey said he thought Trump had performed an impeachable offense for his role in the January 6 United States Capitol attack, but he did not say if he would vote to convict in the Senate. On February 13, 2021, he joined all Democratic senators and six Republicans in voting to convict.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In September 2016, Toomey was one of 34 senators to sign a letter to United States Secretary of State John Kerry advocating that the United States use "all available tools to dissuade Russia from continuing its airstrikes in Syria" from an Iranian airbase near Hamadan "that are clearly not in our interest" and stating that there should be clear enforcement by the US of the airstrikes violating "a legally binding Security Council Resolution" on Iran.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In November 2017, Toomey co-sponsored the Israel Anti-Boycott Act (s. 720), which made it a federal crime for Americans to encourage or participate in boycotts against Israel and Israeli settlements in the West Bank if protesting actions by the Israeli government.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In March 2018, Toomey voted to table a resolution spearheaded by Bernie Sanders, Chris Murphy, and Mike Lee which would have required Trump to withdraw American troops either in or influencing Yemen within the next 30 days unless they were combating Al-Qaeda.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In April 2018, Toomey was one of eight Republican senators to sign a letter to United States Secretary of the Treasury Steve Mnuchin and acting Secretary of State John Sullivan expressing "deep concern" over a report by the United Nations exposing "North Korean sanctions evasion involving Russia and China" and asserting that the findings "demonstrate an elaborate and alarming military-venture between rogue, tyrannical states to avoid United States and international sanctions and inflict terror and death upon thousands of innocent people" while calling it "imperative that the United States provides a swift and appropriate response to the continued use of chemical weapons used by President Assad and his forces, and works to address the shortcomings in sanctions enforcement."


title: Pat Toomey

text: In January 2018, Toomey was one of 36 Republican senators to sign a letter to Trump requesting that he preserve the North American Free Trade Agreement by modernizing it for the economy of the 21st century.


title: Pat Toomey

text: In November 2018, Toomey was one of 12 Republican senators to sign a letter to Trump requesting that the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement be submitted to Congress by the end of the month to allow a vote before the end of the year; they were concerned that "passage of the USMCA as negotiated will become significantly more difficult" in the incoming 116th United States Congress.


title: Pat Toomey

text: On May 28, 2021, Toomey abstained from voting on the creation of an independent commission to investigate the January 6 United States Capitol attack.


title: Mobile operating system

text: A mobile operating system is an operating system for mobile phones, tablets, smartwatches, smartglasses, or other non-laptop personal mobile computing devices. While computers such as typical laptops are "mobile", the operating systems used on them are generally not considered mobile ones, as they were originally designed for desktop computers that historically did not have or need specific "mobile" features. This line distinguishing mobile and other forms has become blurred in recent years, due to the fact that newer devices have become smaller and more mobile unlike hardware of the past. Key notabilities blurring this line are the introduction of tablet computers and light-weight laptops and the hybridization of the two in 2-in-1 PCs.


title: Mobile operating system

text: Mobile operating systems combine features of a desktop computer operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use, and usually including a wireless inbuilt modem and SIM tray for telephony and data connection. In Q1 2018, over 383 million smartphones were sold (highest ever recorded) with 86.2 percent running Android and 12.9 percent running iOS. Nonetheless, although not as many as 2018 (1.56 billion), 2021 still had soaring sales, 1.43 billion to be exact with 83.32 percent being Android. Android alone is more popular than the popular desktop operating system Microsoft Windows, and in general smartphone use (even without tablets) outnumbers desktop use.


title: Mobile operating system

text: Mobile devices, with mobile communications abilities (e.g., smartphones), contain two mobile operating systemsthe main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level proprietary real-time operating system which operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious base stations to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.


title: Mobile operating system

text: Mobile operating systems have majority use since 2017 (measured by web use); with even only the smartphones running them (excluding tablets) having majority use, more used than any other kind of device. Thus traditional desktop OS is now a minority-used kind of OS; see usage share of operating systems. However, variations occur in popularity by regions, while desktop-minority also applies on some days in countries such as United States and United Kingdom.


title: Mobile operating system

text: These operating systems often run atop baseband or other real-time operating systems that handle hardware aspects of the phone.


title: Mobile operating system

text: Android (based on the modified Linux kernel) is a mobile operating system developed by Google. The base system is open-source (and only the kernel copyleft), but the apps and drivers which provide functionality are increasingly becoming closed-source. Besides having the largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, it is also the most popular operating system for general purpose computers (a category that includes desktop computers and mobile devices), even though Android is not a popular operating system for regular (desktop) personal computers (PCs). Although the Android operating system is free and open-source software, in devices sold, much of the software bundled with it (including Google apps and vendor-installed software) is proprietary software and closed-source.


title: Mobile operating system

text: Android's releases before 2.0 (1.0, 1.5, 1.6) were used exclusively on mobile phones. Android 2.x releases were mostly used for mobile phones but also some tablets. Android 3.0 was a tablet-oriented release and does not officially run on mobile phones. Both phone and tablet compatibility were merged with Android 4.0. The current Android version is Android 13, released on August 15, 2022.


title: Mobile operating system

text: Android One, a successor to Google Nexus, is a software experience that runs on the unmodified Android operating system. Unlike most of the "stock" Androids running on the market, the Android One User Interface (UI) closely resembles the Google Pixel UI, due to Android One being a software experience developed by Google and distributed to partners such as Nokia Mobile (HMD) and Xiaomi. Thus, the UI is intended to be as clean as possible. Original equipment manufacturer (OEM) partners may tweak or add additional apps such as cameras to the firmware, but most of the apps are handled proprietarily by Google. Operating system updates are handled by Google and internally tested by OEMs before being distributed via an OTA update to end users.


title: Mobile operating system

text: BlackBerry Secure is an operating system developed by BlackBerry, based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP). BlackBerry officially announced the name for their Android-based front-end touch interface in August 2017, before which BlackBerry Secure was running on BlackBerry brand devices, such as BlackBerry Priv, DTEK 50/60 and BlackBerry KeyOne. Currently, BlackBerry plans to license out the BlackBerry Secure to other OEMs.


title: Mobile operating system

text: CalyxOS is an operating system for smartphones based on Android with mostly free and open-source software. It is produced by the Calyx Institute as part of its mission to "defend online privacy, security and accessibility."


title: Mobile operating system

text: ColorOS is a custom front-end touch interface based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP) and developed by OPPO Electronics Corp. In 2016, OPPO officially released ColorOS with every OPPO and Realme device and released an official ROM for the OnePlus One. Future Realme devices will have their own version of ColorOS.


title: Mobile operating system

text: DivestOS is a soft fork of LineageOS. Includes Monthly Updates, FOSS Focus, Deblobbing, Security and Privacy focus, and F-Droid


title: Mobile operating system

text: Huawei EMUI is a front-end touch interface developed by Huawei Technologies Co. Ltd. and its sub-brand Honor which is based on Google's Android Open Source Project (AOSP). EMUI is preinstalled on most Huawei and Honor devices. While it was based on the open-source Android operating system, it consists of closed-source proprietary software.


title: Mobile operating system

text: /e/ is an operating system forked from the source code of LineageOS (based on Android). /e/ targets Android smart phone devices and uses MicroG as a replacement for Google Play Services. /e/OS is not completely open source software, because it comes with the proprietary Magic Earth 'Maps' app.


title: Mobile operating system

text: Amazon Fire OS is a mobile operating system forked from Android and produced by Amazon for its Fire range of tablets, Echo and Echo Dot, and other content delivery devices like Fire TV (previously for their Fire Phone). Fire OS primarily centers on content consumption, with a customized user interface and heavy ties to content available from Amazon's own storefronts and services.


title: Mobile operating system

text: Flyme OS is an operating system developed by Meizu Technology Co., Ltd., an open-source operating system based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP). Flyme OS is mainly installed on Meizu smartphones such as the MX series. However, it also has official ROM support for a few Android devices.


title: Mobile operating system

text: FuntouchOS is a custom user interface developed by Vivo that is based on the Android Open Source Project. FuntouchOS 10.5 had a redesigned UI that resembled stock Androids.


title: Mobile operating system

text: HiOS is an Android-based operating system developed by Hong Kong mobile phone manufacturer Tecno Mobile, a subsidiary of Transsion Holdings, exclusively for their smartphones. HiOS allows for a wide range of user customization without requiring rooting the mobile device. The operating system is also bundled with utility applications that allow users to free up memory, freeze applications, limit data accessibility to applications among others. HiOS comes with features like Launcher, Private Safe, Split Screen and Lockscreen Notification.


title: Mobile operating system

text: HTC Sense is a software suite developed by HTC, used primarily on the company's Android-based devices. Serving as a successor to HTC's TouchFLO 3D software for Windows Mobile, Sense modifies many aspects of the Android user experience, incorporating added features (such as an altered home screen and keyboard), widgets, HTC-developed applications, and redesigned applications. The first device with Sense, the HTC Hero, was released in 2009.


title: Mobile operating system

text: iQOO UI is a custom user interface that is based on Vivo's Funtouch OS, which itself is based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP). The UI mostly resembles its predecessor, but with a customized UI on top of the Funtouch OS.


title: Mobile operating system

text: Indus OS is a custom mobile operating system based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP). It is developed by the Indus OS team based in India. No longer valid as of 2018, Indus OS is available on Micromax, Intex, Karbonn, and other Indian smartphone brands.


title: Mobile operating system

text: LG UX (formerly Optimus UI) is a front-end touch interface developed by LG Electronics and partners, featuring a full touch user interface. It is not an operating system. LG UX is used internally by LG for sophisticated feature phones and tablet computers, and is not available for licensing by external parties.


title: Mobile operating system

text: Optimus UI 2, based on Android 4.1.2, has been released on the Optimus K II and the Optimus Neo 3. It features a more refined user interface compared to the prior version based on Android 4.1.1, along with new functionalities such as voice shutter and quick memo.


title: Mobile operating system

text: Lineage Android Distribution is a custom mobile operating system based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP). It serves as the successor to the highly popular custom ROM, CyanogenMod, from which it was forked in December 2016 when Cyanogen Inc. announced it was discontinuing development and shut down the infrastructure behind the project. Since Cyanogen Inc. retained the rights to the Cyanogen name, the project rebranded its fork as LineageOS.


title: Mobile operating system

text: Similar to CyanogenMod, it does not include any proprietary apps unless the user installs them. It allows Android users who can no longer obtain update support from their manufacturer to continue updating their OS version to the latest one based on official release from Google AOSP and heavy theme customization.


title: Mobile operating system

text: Magic UI is a front-end touch interface developed by Honor as a subsidiary of Huawei Technologies Co. Ltd before Honor became an independent company.


title: Mobile operating system

text: Magic UI is based on Huawei EMUI, which is based on Google's Android Open Source Project (AOSP). The overall user interface looks almost identical to EMUI, even after the separation. While it was based on the open-source Android operating system, it consists of closed-source proprietary software.


title: Mobile operating system

text: Due to sanctions imposed by the US on Huawei, new devices released by both Huawei and Honor are no longer allowed to include Google mobile services. To allow Honor to regain access to Google services, Huawei sold off Honor to become an independent company, thereby allowing them to pre-install Google mobile services on their latest devices.


title: Mobile operating system

text: Microsoft Launcher (formerly known as Arrow Launcher) is an application launcher for the Android mobile platform developed by Microsoft and intended to provide a more convenient integration between Windows desktop PCs and Android smartphones. Originally available as a beta in October 2015 and published to the Google Play Store on October 5, 2017. It does not replace the stock Android operating system, but adds an additional graphical layer with a focus on Microsoft applications and services. It was pre-installed on both the Surface Duo and Surface Duo 2.


title: Mobile operating system

text: Starting from Android 12 onwards, the UI on both Surface Duo and Duo 2 has been updated with the Fluent Design System, which closely resemble to those of Windows 11.