title: Valletta

text: In 1823 the Valletta carnival was the scene of a human crush tragedy in which at least 110 boys perished. Suffocation of one hundred and ten boys. Extract of a private letter from Malta, of 21 February 1823. The Maltese Carnival is held every year. It is used without carnival trucks at 2020 and 2021 due to Covid, Carnival Trucks returned in 2022.


title: Valletta

text: Malta International Airport is from the city in the town of Luqa. Malta's public transport system, which uses buses, operates mostly on routes to or from Valletta, with their central terminus just outside the city gate. Traffic within the city itself is restricted, with some principal roads being completely pedestrian areas. In 2006, a park and ride system was implemented in order to increase the availability of parking spaces in the city. People can leave their vehicles in a nearby Floriana car park and transfer to a van for the rest of the trip.


title: Valletta

text: In 2007, a congestion pricing scheme was implemented to reduce long-term parking and traffic while promoting business in the city. An ANPR-based automated system takes photos of vehicles as they enter and exit the charging zone and vehicle owners are billed according to the duration of their stay.


title: Valletta

text: Valletta is served by a fleet of electric taxis which transport riders from 10 points in Valletta to any destination in the city.


title: Valletta

text: As of 2021, an underground Malta Metro is being planned, with a projected total cost of €6.2 billion, centred on the Valletta urban area.


title: Nanny McPhee

text: Nanny McPhee is a 2005 comedy drama fantasy film based on the Nurse Matilda character by Christianna Brand. It was directed by Kirk Jones, coproduced by StudioCanal, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Pictures, Working Title Films, Three Strange Angels, and Nanny McPhee Productions with music by Patrick Doyle, and produced by Lindsay Doran, Tim Bevan, and Eric Fellner. Set in Victorian England, the film stars Emma Thompson as Nanny McPhee, along with Colin Firth and Angela Lansbury.


title: Nanny McPhee

text: The film was theatrically released on 28 October 2005 in the UK by United International Pictures and on 27 January 2006 in the US by Universal Pictures. Thompson also scripted the film, which is adapted from Christianna Brand's "Nurse Matilda" books. The filming location was Penn House Estate, Buckinghamshire, UK. A sequel, "Nanny McPhee and the Big Bang", was released in 2010.


title: Nanny McPhee

text: In Victorian Britain, widowed undertaker Cedric Brown is the father of seven unruly children—Simon, Tora, Eric, Lily, Sebastian, Chrissie, and baby Aggie. He is clumsy and loves his children, but since the death of his wife, has spent little time with them and cannot handle them. The children have had a series of nannies, whom they have systematically driven out with their bad behaviour and pranks. They also take great pleasure in tormenting their cook, Mrs. Blatherwick, a former military cook who declares that there will be "snow in August" before the family is put to rights. Besides their father, the only one the children will ever listen to is Evangeline, the family's uneducated but sweet-natured scullery maid.


title: Nanny McPhee

text: One day, Cedric discovers multiple references for a "Nanny McPhee" throughout the home. That same night during a storm, while the children cause havoc in the kitchen, Cedric opens the door to reveal a hideous woman, who introduces herself as Nanny McPhee. With discipline and a little magic, she transforms the family's lives. The children, led by Simon, try to play their tricks on her, but gradually start to respect her and ask her for advice. Each time the children learn a lesson, one of Nanny McPhee's facial defects magically disappears. Over time, the children become more responsible, helping their clumsy father in solving the family problems, making Nanny McPhee less and less needed.


title: Nanny McPhee

text: The family is financially supported by Cedric's domineering and short-sighted aunt-in-law Lady Adelaide Stitch, who demands custody over one of the children. She first wants second-youngest daughter Chrissie, but Evangeline volunteers to go and Adelaide agrees, assuming she is one of the daughters. She also threatens to reduce the family to poverty unless Cedric remarries within the month, meaning the family would lose the house, and be forced to separate.


title: Nanny McPhee

text: Desperate, Cedric turns to vile and frequent widow, Mrs. Selma Quickly. The children assume from reading fairy tales that all stepmothers are terrible women who treat their stepchildren like slaves; together, they sabotage Mrs. Quickly's visit, and she leaves, angry at Cedric. After the financial rationale for the marriage is explained to the children, they realize their mistake; the children appease Mrs. Quickly by confessing they were to blame for ruining her visit. Mrs. Quickly, intrigued when she hears about Adelaide's wealth and status, reconciles with Cedric and agrees to marry him.


title: Nanny McPhee

text: However, the children soon discover that Mrs. Quickly is just as cruel and awful as any fairytale stepmother when she deliberately breaks baby Aggie's beloved rattle (which previously belonged to their late mother). When everybody is gathered for the gaudy wedding Quickly insisted on, the children disturb the ceremony by pretending there are bees (inspired by the way Quickly told them to "behave," and baby Aggie repeating the word but pronouncing it as "beehive"), chasing the guests, and starting a food fight using the pastries intended for the banquet. Cedric swiftly understands his children do not like the bride and, recognizing that she is not right for him or his children, joins in the commotion himself. Mrs. Quickly calls off the marriage and storms off in anger.


title: Nanny McPhee

text: When it seems that Adelaide's marriage deadline is missed, Lily suggests that Cedric marry Evangeline; the other children reveal to Adelaide that she is not, in fact, their sister. Evangeline and Cedric resist at first, but then realize their feelings for each other and agree to marry, satisfying Aunt Adelaide's conditions for maintaining her financial support. Nanny McPhee (who is now fully beautiful), magically makes it snow in August, transforming the wedding scene and changing Evangeline's clothes into a beautiful wedding dress, and restores the children's late mother's rattle for them.


title: Nanny McPhee

text: Nanny McPhee leaves surreptitiously, in accordance with what she told the children before on her first night: "When you need me, but do not want me, then I must stay. When you want me, but no longer need me, then I have to go".


title: Nanny McPhee

text: On 11 March 2002 Kirk Jones was hired and set to direct "Nanny McPhee" based on "Nurse Matilda" by Christianna Brand. Emma Thompson wrote the script for the film. Lindsay Doran, Tim Bevan and Eric Fellner produced the film with the budget of $25 million for release in 2005.


title: Nanny McPhee

text: On 22 April it was announced that Emma Thompson, Colin Firth, Thomas Sangster, Kelly Macdonald, Angela Lansbury, Eliza Bennett, Jennifer Rae Daykin, Raphaël Coleman, Samuel Honywood, Holly Gibbs, Celia Imrie, Imelda Staunton, Derek Jacobi, Patrick Barlow and Adam Godley joined the film.


title: Nanny McPhee

text: On 16 May it was announced that Patrick Doyle would compose the music for the film. Development of the film was completed in Dorset, England. Filming ran 1 April – 9 July 2004. The film reunites Emma Thompson, Colin Firth, Thomas Sangster and Adam Godley who all previously starred in the 2003 film "Love Actually". Thompson's work on this film prevented her from reprising her role as Frasier Crane's first wife, Nanny G. on his spin-off series, Frasier in the episode "Caught in the Act", so Laurie Metcalf played Nanny G. in the episode.


title: Nanny McPhee

text: The film was theatrically released on 28 October 2005 in the UK by United International Pictures and on 27 January 2006 in the US by Universal Pictures and was released on DVD on 9 May 2006 by Universal Studios Home Entertainment.


title: Nanny McPhee

text: Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives "Nanny McPhee" a score of 73% based on 135 reviews with an average rating of 6.7/10. The critical consensus reads, "A bit alarming at first, "Nanny McPhee" has a hard edge to counter "Mary Poppins"-style sweetness, but it still charms us and teaches some valuable lessons." Metacritic calculated an average score of 59 out of 100 based on 30 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A-" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Nanny McPhee

text: The film did well at the box office, earning $122,489,822 — $47,144,110 in the United States and $75,345,712 elsewhere. It premiered in the United States on 27 January 2006 with an opening weekend total of $14,503,650 in 1,995 theatres (an average of $7,270 per theatre) ranking at No. 2 (behind the Martin Lawrence film "Big Momma's House 2").


title: Nanny McPhee

text: Emma Thompson revealed on "Friday Night with Jonathan Ross" that two more films were planned. The second film, "Nanny McPhee and the Big Bang" (also called "Nanny McPhee Returns"), was released in March 2010. It co-stars Rhys Ifans, Maggie Smith, Ralph Fiennes and Maggie Gyllenhaal. The character of Aggie Brown returns as the now elderly Mrs. Docherty. In it, Nanny McPhee takes charge of the children of a woman whose husband has gone to war.


title: Nanny McPhee

text: A third film was planned to be set in modern-day Britain but, despite taking $93 million at the box-office, the sequel did not reach studio expectations and plans were cancelled for future films.


title: Code-switching

text: In linguistics, code-switching or language alternation occurs when a speaker alternates between two or more languages, or language varieties, in the context of a single conversation or situation. Code-switching is different from plurilingualism in that plurilingualism refers to the ability of an individual to use multiple languages, while code-switching is the act of using multiple languages together. Multilinguals (speakers of more than one language) sometimes use elements of multiple languages when conversing with each other. Thus, code-switching is the use of more than one linguistic variety in a manner consistent with the syntax and phonology of each variety. Code-switching may happen between sentences, sentence fragments, words, or individual morphemes (in synthetic languages). However, some linguists consider the borrowing of words or morphemes from another language to be different from other types of code-switching. There are many ways in which code-switching is employed, such as when a speaker is unable to express themselves adequately in a single language or to signal an attitude towards something. Several theories have been developed to explain the reasoning behind code-switching from sociological and linguistic perspectives.


title: Code-switching

text: The earliest known use of the term code-switching in print was by Lucy Shepard Freeland in her 1951 book, "Language of the Sierra Miwok", referring to the indigenous people of California. In the 1940s and the 1950s, many scholars considered code-switching to be a substandard use of language. Since the 1980s, however, most scholars have come to regard it as a normal, natural product of bilingual and multilingual language use. The term "code-switching" is also used outside the field of linguistics. Some scholars of literature use the term to describe literary styles that include elements from more than one language, as in novels by Chinese-American, Anglo-Indian, or Latino writers. In popular usage, "code-switching" is sometimes used to refer to relatively stable informal mixtures of two languages, such as Spanglish, Taglish, or Hinglish. Both in popular usage and in sociolinguistic study, the name code-switching is sometimes used to refer to switching among dialects, styles or registers. This form of switching is practiced, for example, by speakers of African American Vernacular English as they move from less formal to more formal settings. Such shifts, when performed by public figures such as politicians, are sometimes criticized as signaling inauthenticity or insincerity.


title: Code-switching

text: As switching between languages is exceedingly common and takes many forms, we can recognize code-switching more often as sentence alternation. A sentence may begin in one language, and finish in another. Or phrases from both languages may succeed each other in apparently random order. Such behavior can be explained only by postulating a range of linguistic or social factors such as the following:


title: Code-switching

text: Code-switching is distinct from other language contact phenomena, such as borrowing, pidgins and creoles, and loan translation (calques). Borrowing affects the lexicon, the words that make up a language, while code-switching takes place in individual utterances. Speakers form and establish a pidgin language when two or more speakers who do not speak a common language form an intermediate, third language. Speakers also practice code-switching when they are each fluent in both languages. Code mixing is a thematically related term, but the usage of the terms "code-switching" and "code-mixing" varies. Some scholars use either term to denote the same practice, while others apply "code-mixing" to denote the formal linguistic properties of language-contact phenomena and "code-switching" to denote the actual, spoken usages by multilingual persons.


title: Code-switching

text: There is much debate in the field of linguistics regarding the distinction between code-switching and language transfer. According to Jeanine Treffers-Daller, "considering CS [code-switching] and [language] transfer as similar phenomena is helpful if one wants to create a theory that is as parsimonious as possible, and therefore it is worth attempting to aim for such a unified approach, unless there is compelling evidence that this is not possible."


title: Code-switching

text: Not all linguists agree on whether they should be considered similar phenomena. In some cases, linguists refer to the benefits and disadvantages of language transfer as two separate phenomena, i.e., language transference and language interference, respectively. In such views, these two kinds of language transfer, along with code-switching, comprise what is known as cross-linguistic influence.


title: Code-switching

text: Part of the debate may be solved by simply clarifying some key definitions. Evidently, linguists sometimes use different terminology to refer to the same phenomenon, which can make it confusing to distinguish between two phenomena from one another in investigative discourse. For instance, psycholinguists frequently make use of the term language switching in reference to the "controlled and willed switching" to another language. However, this term is hardly used by linguists working on natural code-switching.


title: Code-switching

text: Linguists adopted that code-switching involves switching between languages. But when a multilingual speaker fluent in the languages being alternated, can alleviate the contention behind this debate. This is so because language transfer does not require switching between language systems to be done by a multilingual speaker. As a result, this can account for transfer errors, when proficiency in one language is lower than proficiency in the other.


title: Code-switching

text: On the other hand, there are linguists that maintain "that CS and transfer are manifestations of the same phenomenon, i.e. the influence of one language on another, is an attractive null hypothesis that can be tested in experimental settings."


title: Code-switching

text: Most code-switching studies primarily focus on intra-sentential switching, as it creates many hybrid grammar structures that require explanation. The other types involve utterances that simply follow the grammar of one language or the other. Intra-sentential switching can be alternational or insertional. In alternational code-switching, a new grammar emerges that is a combination of the grammars of the two languages involved. Insertional code-switching involves "the insertion of elements from one language into the morphosyntactic frame of the other."


title: Code-switching

text: A portmanteau sentence is a particular type of intrasentential code-switching. It is a hybrid involving structures from two different languages in one sentence in which an item in one language as a bridge between portions of the sentence in languages which have differing word order typologies. It is more of a "syntactic blend" than the kind of lexical blend one sees in portmanteau words such as "smog".


title: Code-switching

text: Code-switching relates to, and sometimes indexes social-group membership in bilingual and multilingual communities. Some sociolinguists describe the relationships between code-switching behaviours and class, ethnicity, and other social positions.


title: Code-switching

text: In addition, scholars in interactional linguistics and conversation analysis have studied code-switching as a means of structuring speech in interaction. Some discourse analysts, including conversation analyst Peter Auer, suggest that code-switching does not simply reflect social situations, but that it is a means to create social situations.


title: Code-switching

text: The Markedness model, developed by Carol Myers-Scotton, is one of the more complete theories of code-switching motivations. It posits that language users are rational and choose to speak a language that clearly marks their rights and obligations, relative to other speakers, in the conversation and its setting. When there is no clear, unmarked language choice, speakers practice code-switching to explore possible language choices. Many sociolinguists, however, object to the Markedness Model's postulation that language-choice is entirely rational.


title: Code-switching

text: Scholars of conversation analysis such as Peter Auer and Li Wei argue that the social motivation behind code-switching lies in the way code-switching is structured and managed in conversational interaction; in other words, the question of why code-switching occurs cannot be answered without first addressing the question of how it occurs. Using conversation analysis (CA), these scholars focus their attention on the sequential implications of code-switching. That is, whatever language a speaker chooses to use for a conversational turn, or part of a turn, impacts the subsequent choices of language by the speaker as well as the hearer. Rather than focusing on the social values inherent in the languages the speaker chooses ("brought-along meaning"), the analysis concentrates on the meaning that the act of code-switching itself creates ("brought-about meaning").


title: Code-switching

text: The communication accommodation theory (CAT), developed by Howard Giles, professor of communication at the University of California, Santa Barbara, seeks to explain the cognitive reasons for code-switching, and other changes in speech, as a person either emphasizes or minimizes the social differences between himself and the other person(s) in conversation. Giles posits that when speakers seek approval in a social situation they are likely to converge their speech with that of the other speaker. This can include, but is not limited to, the language of choice, accent, dialect, and para-linguistic features used in the conversation. In contrast to convergence, speakers might also engage in divergent speech, in which an individual person emphasizes the social distance between himself and other speakers by using speech with linguistic features characteristic of his own group.


title: Code-switching

text: In a diglossic situation, some topics are better suited to the use of one language over another. Joshua Fishman proposes a domain-specific code-switching model (later refined by Blom and Gumperz) wherein bilingual speakers choose which code to speak depending on where they are and what they are discussing. For example, a child who is a bilingual Spanish-English speaker might speak Spanish at home and English in class, but Spanish at recess.


title: Code-switching

text: In studying the syntactic and morphological patterns of language alternation, linguists have postulated specific grammatical rules and specific syntactic boundaries for where code-switching might occur.


title: Code-switching

text: Shana Poplack's model of code-switching is an influential theory of the grammar of code-switching. In this model, code-switching is subject to two constraints. The "free-morpheme constraint" stipulates that code-switching cannot occur between a lexical stem and bound morphemes. Essentially, this constraint distinguishes code-switching from borrowing. Generally, borrowing occurs in the lexicon, while code-switching occurs at either the syntax level or the utterance-construction level. The "equivalence constraint" predicts that switches occur only at points where the surface structures of the languages coincide, or between sentence elements that are normally ordered in the same way by each individual grammar. For example, the sentence: "I like you "porque eres simpático"" ("I like you "because you are nice"") is allowed because it obeys the syntactic rules of both Spanish and English. Cases like the noun phrases "the casa white" and "the blanca house" are ruled out because the combinations are ungrammatical in at least one of the languages involved. Spanish noun phrases are made up of determiners, then nouns, then adjectives, while the adjectives come before the nouns in English noun phrases. "The casa white" is ruled out by the equivalence constraint because it does not obey the syntactic rules of English, and "the blanca house" is ruled out because it does not follow the syntactic rules of Spanish.


title: Code-switching

text: Critics cite weaknesses of Sankoff and Poplack's model. The free-morpheme and equivalence constraints are insufficiently restrictive, meaning there are numerous exceptions that occur. For example, the free morpheme constraint does not account for why switching is impossible between certain free morphemes. The sentence: "The students had "visto la película italiana"" ("The students had "seen the Italian movie"") does not occur in Spanish-English code-switching, yet the free-morpheme constraint would seem to posit that it can. The equivalence constraint would also rule out switches that occur commonly in languages, as when Hindi postpositional phrases are switched with English prepositional phrases like in the sentence: "John gave a book "ek larakii ko"" ("John gave a book "to a girl""). The phrase "ek larakii ko" is literally translated as "a girl to," making it ungrammatical in English, and yet this is a sentence that occurs in English-Hindi code-switching despite the requirements of the equivalence constraint. The Sankoff and Poplack model only identifies points at which switching is blocked, as opposed to explaining which constituents can be switched and why.


title: Code-switching

text: Carol Myers-Scotton's Matrix Language-Frame (MLF) model is the dominant model of insertional code-switching. The MLF model posits that there is a Matrix Language (ML) and an Embedded Language (EL). In this case, elements of the Embedded Language are inserted into the morphosyntactic frame of the Matrix Language. The hypotheses are as follows (Myers-Scotton 1993b: 7):


title: Code-switching

text: The Matrix Language Hypothesis states that those grammatical procedures in the central structure in the language production system which account for the surface structure of the Matrix Language + Embedded Language constituent (linguistics) are only Matrix Language–based procedures. Further, the hypothesis is intended to imply that frame-building precedes content morpheme insertion. A Matrix Language can be the first language of the speaker or the language in which the morphemes or words are more frequently used in speech, so the dominant language is the Matrix Language and the other is the Embedded Language. A Matrix Language island is a constituent composed entirely of Matrix Language morphemes.


title: Code-switching

text: According to the Blocking Hypothesis, in Matrix Language + Embedded Language constituents, a blocking filter blocks any Embedded Language content morpheme which is not congruent with the Matrix Language with respect to three levels of abstraction regarding subcategorization. "Congruence" is used in the sense that two entities, linguistic categories in this case, are congruent if they correspond in respect of relevant qualities.


title: Code-switching

text: We see that example 1 is consistent with the Blocking Hypothesis and the system content morpheme criteria, so the prediction is that the Hindi or Urdu equivalents are also content morphemes. Sometimes non-congruence between counterparts in the Matrix Language and Embedded Language can be circumvented by accessing bare forms. "Cell" is a bare form and so the thematic role of "cell" is assigned by the verb "-wek-" 'put in/on'; this means that the verb is a content morpheme.


title: Code-switching

text: The Embedded Language Island Trigger Hypothesis states that when an Embedded Language morpheme appears which is not permitted under either the Matrix Language Hypothesis or Blocking Hypothesis, it triggers the inhibition of all Matrix Language accessing procedures and completes the current constituent as an Embedded Language island. Embedded Language islands consist only of Embedded Language morphemes and are well-formed by Embedded Language grammar, but they are inserted in the Matrix Language frame. Therefore, Embedded Language islands are under the constraint of Matrix Language grammar.


title: Code-switching

text: Example 1 is ungrammatical (indicated by the leading asterisk) because "your" is accessed, so the Embedded Language Island Trigger Hypothesis predicts that it must be followed by an English head (e.g., "your letter") as an Embedded Language island. The reason is that possessive adjectives are system morphemes. We see the same thing happen in example 2, which is therefore ungrammatical. However, the correct way to finish the sentence is not "for wewe", switching back to Swahili; rather, it should end with "for you", which would be an Embedded Language island.


title: Code-switching

text: We see example 1 work because the French Embedded Language island "Le matin de bonne heure", "early in the morning", is a time expression. (Also, it is repeated in Wolof in the second sentence.) In example 2, we see the quantifier "a lot of" is a predicted Embedded Language island. Here we see an objective complement of a finite verb begin with the quantifier.


title: Code-switching

text: Jeff MacSwan has posited a "constraint-free approach" to analyzing code-switching. This approach views explicit reference to code-switching in grammatical analysis as tautological, and seeks to explain specific instances of grammaticality in terms of the unique contributions of the grammatical properties of the languages involved. MacSwan characterizes the approach with the refrain, "Nothing constrains code-switching apart from the requirements of the mixed grammars." The approach focuses on the repudiation of any rule or principle which explicitly refers to code-switching itself. This approach does not recognize or accept terms such as "matrix language", "embedded language", or "language frame", which are typical in constraint-based approaches such as the MLF Model.


title: Code-switching

text: Rather than posit constraints specific to language alternation, as in traditional work in the field, MacSwan advocates that mixed utterances be analyzed with a focus on the specific and unique linguistic contributions of each language found in a mixed utterance. Because these analyses draw on the full range of linguistic theory, and each data set presents its own unique challenges, a much broader understanding of linguistics is generally needed to understand and participate in this style of codeswitching research.


title: Code-switching

text: For example, Cantone and MacSwan (2009) analyzed word order differences for nouns and adjectives in Italian-German codeswitching using a typological theory of Cinque that had been independently proposed in the syntax literature; their account derives the word order facts of Italian-German codeswitching from underlying differences between the two languages, according to Cinque's theory.


title: Code-switching

text: Much remains to be done before a more complete understanding of code-switching phenomena is achieved. Linguists continue to debate apparent counter-examples to proposed code-switching theories and constraints.


title: Code-switching

text: The "Closed-class Constraint", developed by Aravind Joshi, posits that closed class items (pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, etc.) cannot be switched. The "Functional Head Constraint" developed by Belazi et al. holds that code-switching cannot occur between a functional head (a complementizer, a determiner, an inflection, etc.) and its complement (sentence, noun-phrase, verb-phrase). These constraints, among others like the Matrix Language-Frame model, are controversial among linguists positing alternative theories, as they are seen to claim universality and make general predictions based upon specific presumptions about the nature of syntax.


title: Code-switching

text: Myers-Scotton and MacSwan debated the relative merits of their approaches in a series of exchanges published in 2005 in "", issues 8(1) and 8(2).


title: Code-switching

text: Compared to their monolingual peers, bilingual children seem to have some advantage in non-linguistic tasks related to executive and attentional control. For instance, they are able to identify relevant visual information and ignore irrelevant perceptual information better than monolingual children. Bilinguals employ these executive and attentional processes daily as they need to quickly be able to select the correct vocabulary and grammar in context.


title: Code-switching

text: Research has shown that the knowledge and use of more than one language alters both the anatomical and functional organization of the brain, which leads to different functional capabilities both in language and other areas. Certain regions of the bilingual brain have been repeatedly shown to differ from those of monolinguals in both size and neural activity.


title: Code-switching

text: One such study (Michelli et al., 2004) showed significant increase in grey matter density in the left inferior parietal cortex of bilinguals relative to monolinguals as a specific instance of experience-dependent brain plasticity. Another study (Coggins et al., 2004) showed an increase in the volume of the anterior midbody of the corpus callosum, which is involved in primary and somatosensory function, in bilinguals. The research suggests the increase is an accommodation for the increased phonemic capacity requirement of bilinguals.


title: Code-switching

text: By using case studies of bilingual patients with cerebral lesions, researchers theorized that language switching relies on the inhibition of the non-target language using the left basal ganglia alongside executive control processes with the anterior cingulate, prefrontal, and front cortices, or bilateral supramarginal gyri and Broca's area. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex has also been shown as significant in controlling language switching and inhibiting the unused language through observations of uncontrollable language switching in patients with damage to this brain area. Increased activation is seen in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during language switching, but not regularly.


title: Code-switching

text: It is postulated that the language not in use is "active" during another language's use and can be primed by a conversation. That priming is what makes it difficult to pinpoint changes in activation within any given network. Based on various studies, it is shown that the immediate spoken context affects the likelihood of a code-switch; "prior utterances can influence the activation of lexico-syntactic representations, making such representations more available for selection".


title: Code-switching

text: The extended control process model states the following:"Language control signals operate on a subcortical gate that acts as a constructor of utterance plans. The gate interacts with frontal regions to select a syntactic structure and binds roles in that structure to a specific lexical content. Plans are constructed in the planning layer of competition queuing CQ network. The competitive choice layer of this network allows serial order to emerge from the parallel activation of items in the plan." The model hypothesizes that single language use and code-switching use two different types of language control, which is competitive control and cooperative control, respectfully. In competitive language control, the "gate" will only allow constructions from a single language to enter the plan. On the other hand, there are two forms of cooperative control: coupled control ("the matrix language temporarily cedes control to other language to allow intended insertion or alternation before control is returned back") and open control ("entry into the utterance planning mechanism is determined by whichever items from either language are most active at some moment in time").


title: Code-switching

text: In a study published in 2001, event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded from native English speakers as they randomly named digits in English or their L2. The results of the study showed that participants named digits slower after a language switch, regardless of the switch direction. Language switches from the L1 to L2 were characterized with an N320 ERP, indicating inhibition of unwanted lexicon, which may reflect a greater need to suppress an active L1 when using L2. However, code-switching during language comprehension, as opposed to production, did not result in an N320.


title: Code-switching

text: A 2002 study showed that language switches based on expected endings to sentences (from context) elicited a response consistent with code switches being treated like "unexpected events at the physical level than at the lexico-semantic level. The more proficient the bilingual in L2, the earlier the latency and the smaller the amplitude was this positivity to the code-switch."


title: Code-switching

text: The lack of controlled environments for test subjects and their cognitive capabilities regarding language use and fluency has long been a concern in multilingual experimentation. Researchers try to "offset" results that follow no trends by analyzing social and linguistic history of the populations they are testing, but a good method to standardize data patterns and variation based on individual idiolects has yet to be created and implemented.


title: Code-switching

text: Only a few studies have been done to measure brain activity during code switches, and so general trends cannot be expanded into larger theories without additional research.


title: Code-switching

text: In this section, segments that are switched from the primary language of the conversation are shown in bold.


title: Code-switching

text: Children growing up in African American communities, who natively speak African-American Vernacular English (AAVE), acquire a kind of bilingualism (or bidialectism) when entering mainstream American classrooms. Teachers and academic expectations they encounter require them to use standard, higher-prestige linguistic features for school assignments and classroom participation, often effectively leading these students to develop an ability to code-switch rapidly between nonstandard AAVE and standard English features. This can pose a processing obstacle for some students who have to navigate subtle grammatical differences between the two varieties of English when interpreting prompts and instructions (see, e.g., Terry, et al., 2010 on past tense copula "was/were"). Age is a significant factor in determining how many AAVE forms vs. more standard forms are produced by a given student with a significant downshift in classroom AAVE production occurring around the transition from preschool to kindergarten and first grade. Craig and Washington (2004) found a reduction in five out of six morpho-syntactic characteristics studied across the transition from pre-kindergarten to kindergarten including null copula, zero articles, zero past tense, zero plurals, and zero prepositions. The bidialectism developed by these children offers similar advantages to other kinds of bilingualism including increased executive function and advances in critical thinking. As an example of this code-switching in action, see the following transcript of Rachel Jeantel's testimony in the trial of George Zimmerman for the murder of Trayvon Martin below. This transcript was analyzed in Rickford and King (2016); the bolded elements represent places where initially a null copula (indicated by the symbol ∅) was used which was switched to an overt copula ("'s") when asked for clarification by the court reporter:


title: Code-switching

text: Code-switching between English and Tagalog (Filipino), as well as English and other native languages, are very widespread in the Philippines. Known generally as Taglish, it has become the de facto lingua franca among the urbanized and/or educated middle class. It is largely considered the "normal acceptable conversation style of speaking and writing" in informal settings. It is so widespread that a non-native speaker can be identified easily because they predominantly use pure Tagalog, whereas a native speaker would switch freely with English.


title: Code-switching

text: According to the linguist Maria Lourdes S. Bautista, there are two contrasting types of code-switching in the Philippines: deficiency-driven and proficiency-driven. Deficiency-driven code-switching is when a person is not competent in one language and thus has to switch back to the language they are more familiar with. This is common among younger children, as in the example below given by Bautista:


title: Code-switching

text: Proficiency-driven code-switching, on the other hand, is when a person is fully competent in both languages being used and can switch between them easily. It is the main type of code-switching in the islands. The example below is given by Bautista, taken from an interview with the television journalist Jessica Soho:


title: Code-switching

text: Proficiency-driven code-switching is characterized by frequent switching of the Matrix Language (ML) between Tagalog and English, demonstrating the high proficiency of the speakers in both languages. There are also a wide range of strategies involved, including: the formation of bilingual verbs by the addition of prefixes, suffixes, and infixes (e.g. Nagsa-"sweat" ako = "I was sweating"); switching at the morphological, word, phrasal, or clausal levels; and the use of system morphemes (like enclitics, conjunctions, etc.) within long stretches of ML content; and even the inversion of the verb–subject–object word order of Tagalog into the subject-verb-object order of English.


title: Code-switching

text: According to Bautista, the reason for this type of code-switching is what she termed "communicative efficiency", wherein a speaker can "convey meaning using the most accurate, expressive, or succinct lexical items available to them." The linguist Rosalina Morales Goulet also enumerated several reasons for this type of code-switching. They are: "for precision, for transition, for comic effect, for atmosphere, to bridge or create social distance, for snob appeal, and for secrecy."


title: Code-switching

text: This example of switching from French to Tamil comes from ethnographer Sonia Das's work with immigrants from Jaffna, Sri Lanka, to Quebec. , who moved from Sri Lanka to Quebec as a child and now identifies as Québécois, speaks to Das in French. When Selvamani's sister, Mala, laughs, switches to Tamil to ask Mala why she is laughing. After this aside, continues to speak in French. also uses the word "tsé" ("you know", contraction of "tu sais") and the expression "je me pas poigner" ("I will not be caught"), which are not standard French but are typical of the working-class Montreal dialect Joual.


title: Code-switching

text: Researcher Paul Kroskrity offers the following example of code-switching by , who are trilingual in Tewa, Hopi, and English. They are discussing the selection of a site for a new high school in the eastern Hopi Reservation. In their two-hour conversation, the primarily speak Tewa; however, when addresses the Hopi Reservation as a whole, he code-switches to Hopi. His speaking Hopi when talking of Hopi-related matters is a conversational norm in the Arizona Tewa speech community. Kroskrity reports that these Arizona Tewa men, who culturally identify themselves as Hopi "and" Tewa, use the different languages to linguistically construct and maintain their discrete ethnic identities.


title: Code-switching

text: Irish annals were written in Ireland between the 8th and 17th centuries by Christian monks and priests. These were fluent in both Irish and Latin and wrote the annals in both languages, often switching between them within a single sentence.


title: Code-switching

text: According to the scholar Nike Stam, "Many switches consisted of inserted Latin fragments: short phrases or single words. Some of these Latin phrases appeared to be of a formulaic nature and seemed to have originated in the medieval catena tradition. They are often used to provide cross-references to other sources or to combine conflicting opinions on a text. These are phrases like "ut in proverbio dicitur ["as is said in the proverb"]" and "ut ferunt peritii ["as experience bears out"]". Most of the language switches, however, consisted of what Muysken called alternation: longer fragments like clauses or long phrases. This type of code-switching has been linked to bilingualism in societies that are strongly diglossic, and thus suggests that the scribes compiling and writing the glosses preferred to use their two languages according to specific norms."


title: Code-switching

text: Researcher Ana Celia Zentella offers this example from her work with Puerto Rican Spanish-English bilingual speakers in New York City. In this example, and her younger sister, , speak Spanish and English with outside of their apartment building. Zentella explains that the children of the predominantly Puerto Rican neighbourhood speak both English and Spanish: "Within the children's network, English predominated, but code-switching from English to Spanish occurred once every three minutes, on average."


title: Ättestupa

text: The name supposedly denotes sites where ritual senicide took place during pagan Nordic prehistoric times, whereby elderly people threw themselves, or were thrown, to their deaths. According to legend, this was done when old people were unable to support themselves or assist in a household.


title: Ättestupa

text: Senicide and suicide precipices are mentioned in several sources from antiquity, e.g. the Ligurians in "Paradoxographus Vaticanus" and Procopius in his description of the Heruli from the 6th century CE. Solinus wrote about the happy hyperboreans at the North Pole, where it is daylight for half a year—between the vernal equinox to the autumnal equinox, and described the climate as being so healthy that the people there didn't die, but instead, threw themselves from a precipice into the sea.


title: Ättestupa

text: The term "ättestupa" came into use in Sweden in the seventeenth century, inspired by the Old Icelandic saga "Gautreks saga", which is partly set in the Swedish region of Götaland. The saga contains a comical episode known as "Dalafíflaþáttr" ('the story of the fools from the valleys') in which one particular family is so miserly that they prefer to kill themselves than see their wealth spent on hospitality. In this tale, the family members kill themselves by jumping off a cliff which the saga calls the "Ættarstapi" or "Ætternisstapi" ("dynasty precipice"), a word which occurs in no Old Norse texts other than this saga. "Gautreks saga" became known in Sweden in 1664, when an edition and Swedish translation was published by Olaus Verelius. This seems to have inspired Swedish antiquarians from the seventeenth century through into the nineteenth to label various cliffs with the name "ättestupa". The Swedish linguist Adolf Noreen started questioning the myth at the end of the nineteenth century, and it is now generally accepted among researchers that the practice of suicide precipices never existed. Place-names which "Gautreks saga" inspired, however, continue to exist in the Swedish landscape.


title: Ättestupa

text: The term "ättestupa" has been used often in modern times, in political contexts, to underline how bad an insufficiently funded social security program can be, especially for retirees.


title: Ättestupa

text: In the 1960s, the Swedish comedy radio program "Mosebacke Monarki" satirically introduced ättestupa, abbreviated ÄTP, as an alternative to ATP, a state-provided pension.


title: Ättestupa

text: The 2016 comedy series "Norsemen" depicts a group of elderly men reluctant to perform the ritual after being informed that the tribe no longer has the resources to support them. Rather than commit Ättestupa, they form their own self-sufficient society hidden from the original tribe.


title: Ättestupa

text: The 2019 horror film "Midsommar" by Ari Aster uses the term to describe a fictional tradition in which elderly cult members throw themselves off a high cliff in ritual suicide once they reach the age of 72.


title: Brand New Cherry Flavor

text: Brand New Cherry Flavor is an American horror-drama streaming TV series created by Nick Antosca and Lenore Zion, based on the novel of the same name by Todd Grimson. The cast includes Rosa Salazar, Catherine Keener, Eric Lange, Manny Jacinto and Jeff Ward. The series premiered on Netflix on August 14, 2021.


title: Brand New Cherry Flavor

text: On November 15, 2019, it was announced that Netflix had given the production a series order for an 8-episode series. The limited series was created, written and executive produced by Nick Antosca and Lenore Zion. Arkasha Stevenson directed the first episode. Production companies involved with the limited series consists of Eat the Cat and Universal Content Productions. Alongside the series order announcement, it was confirmed that Rosa Salazar, Catherine Keener, Eric Lange, Manny Jacinto, and Jeff Ward had joined the cast. On December 17, 2020, Hannah Levien, Leland Orser, and Patrick Fischler were announced as recurring cast members. Principal photography took place on location in Vancouver and Los Angeles from November 2019 to March 2020. The series was released on August 13, 2021.


title: Brand New Cherry Flavor

text: Rotten Tomatoes collected 37 reviews and identified 78% of them as positive, with an average rating of 6.9/10. The critics consensus is: "Though definitely not for all tastes, "Brand New Cherry Flavor" is a delightfully deranged trip anchored by another incredible performance from Rosa Salazar." According to Metacritic, the series received "generally favorable reviews" based on a weighted average score of 62 out of 100 from 13 reviews.


title: High-functioning autism

text: High-functioning autism (HFA) is an autism classification where a person exhibits no intellectual disability, but may exhibit deficits in communication, emotion recognition and expression, and social interaction. HFA is not included in either the American Psychological Association's DSM-5 or the World Health Organization's ICD-10, neither of which subdivides autism based on intellectual capabilities.


title: High-functioning autism

text: High-functioning autism is characterized by features similar to those of Asperger syndrome. The defining characteristic recognized by psychologists is a significant delay in the development of early speech and language skills, before the age of three years. The diagnostic criteria of Asperger syndrome "exclude" a general language delay.


title: High-functioning autism

text: Further differences in features of people with high-functioning autism from those with Asperger syndrome include the following:


title: High-functioning autism

text: As of 2013, Asperger Syndrome and High-functioning autism are no longer terms used by the American Psychological Association, and have instead both been merged into autism spectrum disorder (ASD). As of 2021, the World Health Organization also retired the terms and merged them into autism spectrum disorder.


title: High-functioning autism

text: Individuals with autism spectrum disorders, including high-functioning autism, risk developing symptoms of anxiety. While anxiety is one of the most commonly occurring mental health symptoms, children and adolescents with high functioning autism are at an even greater risk of developing symptoms.


title: High-functioning autism

text: There are other comorbidities, the presence of one or more disorders in addition to the primary disorder, associated with high-functioning autism. Some of these include bipolar disorder and obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). In particular the link between HFA and OCD, has been studied; both have abnormalities associated with serotonin.


title: High-functioning autism

text: Observable comorbidities associated with HFA include ADHD and Tourette syndrome. HFA does not cause, nor include, intellectual disabilities. This characteristic distinguishes HFA from low-functioning autism; between 40 and 55% of individuals with autism also have an intellectual disability.


title: High-functioning autism

text: An association between HFA and criminal behavior is not completely characterized. Several studies have shown that the features associated with HFA may increase the probability of engaging in criminal behavior. While there is still a great deal of research that needs to be done in this area, recent studies on the correlation between HFA and criminal actions suggest that there is a need to understand the attributes of HFA that may lead to violent behavior. There have been several case studies that link the lack of empathy and social naïveté associated with HFA to criminal actions.


title: High-functioning autism

text: There is still a need for more research on the link between HFA and crimes, because many other studies point out that most people with ASD are more likely to be victims and less likely to commit crimes than the general population. But there are also small-subgroups of people with autism that commit crimes because they lack understanding of the laws they have broken. Misunderstandings are especially common regarding autism and sex offenses, since many people with autism do not receive sex education.


title: High-functioning autism

text: Although little is known about the biological basis of autism, studies have revealed structural abnormalities in specific brain regions. Regions identified in the "social" brain include the amygdala, superior temporal sulcus, fusiform gyrus area and orbitofrontal cortex. Further abnormalities have been observed in the caudate nucleus, believed to be involved in restrictive behaviors, as well as in a significant increase in the amount of cortical grey matter and atypical connectivity between brain regions.


title: High-functioning autism

text: HFA is not a recognised diagnosis by the American Psychological Association (DSM-5) or the World Health Organization (ICD-10). HFA is often, however, used in clinical settings to describe a set of symptoms related to an autism spectrum disorder whereby they exhibit standard autism indicators although have an intelligence quotient (IQ) of 70 or greater.


title: High-functioning autism

text: For modern IQ tests, the raw score is transformed to a normal distribution with mean 100 and standard deviation 15. This results in approximately two-thirds of the population scoring between IQ 85 and IQ 115 and about 2.5 percent each above 130 and below 70.


title: High-functioning autism

text: IQ scales are ordinally scaled. The raw score of the norming sample is usually (rank order) transformed to a normal distribution with mean 100 and standard deviation 15. While one standard deviation is 15 points, and two SDs are 30 points, and so on, this does not imply that mental ability is linearly related to IQ, such that IQ 50 would mean half the cognitive ability of IQ 100. In particular, IQ points are not percentage points.


title: High-functioning autism

text: A diagnosis of intellectual disability is in part based on the results of IQ testing. Borderline intellectual functioning is the categorization of individuals of below-average cognitive ability (an IQ of 71–85), although not as low as those with an intellectual disability (70 or below).


title: High-functioning autism

text: People with high IQs are found at all levels of education and occupational categories. The biggest difference occurs for low IQs with only an occasional college graduate or professional scoring below 90.


title: High-functioning autism

text: While there exists no single treatment or medicine for people with autism, there exists several strategies to help lessen the symptoms and effects of the condition.


title: High-functioning autism

text: Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) is used for autistic people who cannot communicate orally. People who have problems speaking may be taught to use other forms of communication, such as body language, computers, interactive devices, and pictures. The Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) is a commonly used form of augmentative and alternative communication with children and adults who cannot communicate well orally. People are taught how to link pictures and symbols to their feelings, desires and observation, and may be able to link sentences together with the vocabulary that they form.


title: High-functioning autism

text: Speech–language therapy can help those with autism who need to develop or improve communication skills. According to the organization Autism Speaks, "speech-language therapy is designed to coordinate the mechanics of speech with the meaning and social use of speech". People with autism may have issues with communication, or speaking spoken words. Speech-language pathologists (SLP) may teach someone how to communicate more effectively with others or work on starting to develop speech patterns. The SLP will create a plan that focuses on what the child needs.


title: High-functioning autism

text: Occupational therapy helps autistic children and adults learn everyday skills that help them with daily tasks, such as personal hygiene and movement. These skills are then integrated into their home, school, and work environments. Therapists will oftentimes help people learn to adapt their environment to their skill level. This type of therapy could help autistic people become more engaged in their environment. An occupational therapist will create a plan based on a person's needs and desires and work with them to achieve their set goals.


title: High-functioning autism

text: Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is considered the most effective therapy for autism spectrum disorders by the American Academy of Pediatrics. ABA focuses on teaching adaptive behaviors like social skills, play skills, or communication skills and diminishing problematic behaviors such as self-injury by creating a specialized plan that uses behavioral therapy techniques, such as positive or negative reinforcement, to encourage or discourage certain behaviors over-time. However, ABA has been strongly criticised by the autistic community, who view it as abusive and detrimental to autistic children's growth.


title: High-functioning autism

text: Sensory integration therapy helps people with autism adapt to different kinds of sensory stimuli. Many with autism can be oversensitive to certain stimuli, such as lights or sounds, causing them to overreact. Others may not react to certain stimuli, such as someone speaking to them. Many types of therapy activities involve a form of play, such as using swings, toys and trampolines to help engage people with sensory stimuli. Therapists will create a plan that focuses on the type of stimulation the person needs integration with.


title: High-functioning autism

text: Studies suggest Neurofeedback alleviates certain symptoms of autism, such as emotional outbursts, hyperactivity, resistance to change, and stimming. Although considered a safe, non-invasive procedure, it may potentially involve some side effects.


title: High-functioning autism

text: There are no medications specifically designed to treat autism. Medication is usually used for symptoms associated with autism, such as depression, anxiety, or behavioral problems. Medicines are usually used after other alternative forms of treatment have failed.


title: High-functioning autism

text: Many medical professionals, autistic people, and supporters of autistic rights disagree with the categorisation of individuals into "high-functioning autism" and "low-functioning autism", stating that the "low-functioning" label causes people to put low expectations on a child and view them as lesser. Furthermore, critics of functioning labels state that an individual's functioning can fluctuate from day to day, and categories do not take this into consideration. Levels of functioning are unrelated to intellectual disability. Additionally, individuals with "medium-functioning autism" are typically left out of the discussion entirely, and due to the non-linear nature of the autistic spectrum, individuals can be high-functioning in some areas while at the same time being medium or low functioning in other areas.


title: Bamburgh Castle

text: Bamburgh Castle is a castle on the northeast coast of England, by the village of Bamburgh in Northumberland. It is a Grade I listed building.


title: Bamburgh Castle

text: The site was originally the location of a Celtic Brittonic fort known as "Din Guarie" and may have been the capital of the kingdom of Bernicia from its foundation in 420 to 547. In that latter year, it was captured by King Ida of Bernicia. After passing between the Britons and the Anglo-Saxons three times, the fort came under Anglo-Saxon control in 590. The fort was destroyed by Vikings in 993, and the Normans later built a new castle on the site, which forms the core of the present one. After a revolt in 1095 supported by the castle's owner, it became the property of the English monarch.


title: Bamburgh Castle

text: In the 17th century, financial difficulties led to the castle deteriorating, but it was restored by various owners during the 18th and 19th centuries. It was finally bought by the Victorian era industrialist William Armstrong, who completed its restoration. The castle still belongs to the Armstrong family and is open to the public.


title: Bamburgh Castle

text: Built on top of a black crag of volcanic dolerite, and part of the Whin Sill, the location was previously home to a fort of the indigenous Celtic Britons known as "Din Guarie". It may have been the capital of the kingdom of Bernicia, the realm of the Gododdin people, from the realm's foundation in c. 420 until 547, the year of the first written reference to the castle. In that year the citadel was captured by the Anglo-Saxon ruler Ida of Bernicia (Beornice) and became Ida's seat.


title: Bamburgh Castle

text: The castle was briefly retaken by the Britons from his son Hussa during the war of 590 before being retaken later the same year. In c. 600, Hussa's successor Æthelfrith passed it on to his wife Bebba, from whom the early name "Bebbanburh" was derived. Vikings destroyed the original fortification in 993.


title: Bamburgh Castle

text: The Normans built a new castle on the site, which forms the core of the present one. William II unsuccessfully besieged it in 1095 during a revolt supported by its owner, Robert de Mowbray, Earl of Northumbria. After Robert was captured, his wife continued the defence until coerced to surrender by the king's threat to blind her husband.


title: Bamburgh Castle

text: Bamburgh then became the property of the reigning English monarch. Henry II probably built the keep as it was complete by 1164. Following the Siege of Acre in 1191, and as a reward for his service, King Richard I appointed Sir John Forster the first Governor of Bamburgh Castle. Following the defeat of the Scots at the Battle of Neville's Cross in 1346, King David II was held prisoner at Bamburgh Castle.


title: Bamburgh Castle

text: During the civil wars at the end of King John's reign, the castle was under the control of Philip of Oldcoates. In 1464 during the Wars of the Roses, it became the first castle in England to be defeated by artillery, at the end of a nine-month siege by Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, the "Kingmaker", on behalf of the Yorkists.


title: Bamburgh Castle

text: The Forster family of Northumberland continued to provide the Crown with successive governors of the castle until the Crown granted ownership (or a lease according to some sources) of the church and the castle to another Sir John Forster in the mid-1500s, after the Dissolution of the Monasteries. The family retained ownership until Sir William Forster (d. 1700) was posthumously declared bankrupt, and his estates, including the castle, were sold to Lord Crew, Bishop of Durham (husband of his sister Dorothy) under an Act of Parliament to settle the debts in 1704.


title: Bamburgh Castle

text: Crewe placed the castle in the hands of a board of trustees chaired by Thomas Sharp, the Archdeacon of Northumberland. Following the death of Thomas Sharp, leadership of the board of trustees passed to John Sharp (Thomas Sharp's son) who refurbished the castle keep and court rooms and established a hospital on the site. In 1894, the castle was bought by the Victorian industrialist William Armstrong, who completed the restoration.


title: Bamburgh Castle

text: During the Second World War, pillboxes were established in the sand dunes to protect the castle and surrounding area from German invasion and, in 1944, a Royal Navy corvette was named HMS "Bamborough Castle" after the castle. The castle still remains in the ownership of the Armstrong family.


title: Bamburgh Castle

text: After the War, the castle became a Grade I Listed property. The description included this comment about the status of the building in 1952 and its history:Castle, divided into apartments. C12; ruinous when acquired by Lord Crewe in 1704 and made habitable after his death by Dr. Sharpe ... Acquired by Lord Armstrong, who had extensive restoration and rebuilding of high quality by C.J. Ferguson, 1894-1904. Squared sandstone and ashlar.


title: Bamburgh Castle

text: About to the south on a point of coastal land is the ancient fortress of Dunstanburgh Castle and about to the north is Lindisfarne Castle on Holy Island. Inland about 16 miles (26 km) to the south is Alnwick Castle, the home of the Duke of Northumberland.


title: Bamburgh Castle

text: Air quality levels at Bamburgh Castle are excellent due to the absence of industrial sources in the region. Sound levels near the north–south road passing by Bamburgh Castle are in the range of 59 to 63 dBA in the daytime ("Northumberland Sound Mapping Study", Northumberland, England, June 2003). Nearby are breeding colonies of Arctic and common terns on the inner Farne Islands, and of Atlantic puffin, European shag and razorbill on Staple Island.


title: Bamburgh Castle

text: Archaeological excavations were started in the 1960s by Brian Hope-Taylor, who discovered the gold plaque known as the Bamburgh Beast as well as the Bamburgh Sword. Since 1996, the Bamburgh Research Project has been investigating the archaeology and history of the Castle and Bamburgh area. The project has concentrated on the fortress site and the early medieval burial ground at the Bowl Hole, located in sand dunes to the south of the castle, evidence of which had first been revealed in a storm of 1817.


title: Bamburgh Castle

text: During excavations at the Bowl Hole between 1998 and 2007, the remains of 120 individuals from the 7th and 8th century were discovered in that graveyard. The research project was led by Professor Charlotte Roberts of Durham University, and found remains of individuals who had originated from Ireland, Scotland, Scandinavia, the Mediterranean and North Africa.


title: Bamburgh Castle

text: Finally, in 2016, they were moved into the crypt of St Aidan's Church, Bamburgh; the crypt can be viewed by visitors through a small gate.


title: Bamburgh Castle

text: The castle's laundry rooms feature the Armstrong and Aviation Artefacts Museum, with exhibits about Victorian industrialist William Armstrong and Armstrong Whitworth, the manufacturing company he founded. Displays include engines, artillery and weaponry, and aviation artefacts from two world wars.


title: Bamburgh Castle

text: Bamburgh Castle was a civil parish, in 1951 the parish had a population of 18. Bamburgh Castle was formerly a township in Bambrough parish, from 1866 Bamburgh Castle was a civil parish in its own right until it was abolished on 1 April 1955 and merged with Bamburgh.


title: Bamburgh Castle

text: The castle features in the ballad "" written in circa 1270. Late medieval British author Thomas Malory identified Bamburgh Castle with "Joyous Gard", the mythical castle home of Sir Launcelot in Arthurian legend.


title: Bamburgh Castle

text: In literature, Bamburgh, under its Saxon name Bebbanburg, is the home of Uhtred Uhtredson, the main character in Bernard Cornwell's "The Saxon Stories". It features either as a significant location or as the inspiration for the protagonist in all books in the series, starting with "The Last Kingdom", and the sequels "The Pale Horseman," "The Lords of the North," "Sword Song," "The Burning Land", "Death of Kings", "The Pagan Lord", "The Empty Throne", "Warriors of the Storm", "The Flame Bearer", "War of the Wolf", "Sword of Kings" and "War Lord".


title: Bamburgh Castle

text: In addition to appearances as itself, Bamburgh Castle has been used as a filming location for a number of television and film projects:


title: Raising Dion

text: Raising Dion is an American superhero drama streaming television series that premiered on October 4, 2019 on Netflix. It is based on the 2015 comic book and short film of the same name by Dennis Liu. In January 2020, Netflix renewed the series for a second and final season which premiered on February 1, 2022.


title: Raising Dion

text: "Raising Dion" follows the story of a woman named Nicole who raises her son Dion after the death of her husband Mark. The normal dramas of raising a son as a single mom are amplified when Dion starts to manifest several magical, superhero-like abilities. Nicole must now keep her son's gifts secret with the help of Mark's best friend Pat, and protect Dion from people out to exploit him while figuring out the origin of his abilities.


title: Raising Dion

text: On October 5, 2017, it was announced that Netflix had given the production a straight-to-series order for a first season consisting of nine episodes. The series is based on the comic book of the same name written by Dennis Liu and illustrated by Jason Piperberg. Liu then directed a short film based on his comic. Carol Barbee adapted a screenplay from the short film and comic and is the showrunner for the series. Executive producers for the series were set to include Liu, Barbee, Michael B. Jordan, Charles D. King, Kim Roth, Poppy Hanks, Kenny Goodman, and Michael Green. Production companies involved with the series were slated to consist of Outlier Society Productions and MACRO. The series premiered on October 4, 2019. On January 2, 2020, Netflix renewed the series for an eight-episode second season, which was released on February 1, 2022. In April 2022, the series was canceled.


title: Raising Dion

text: Alongside the initial announcement of the series order, it was confirmed that Michael B. Jordan had been cast in a supporting role in the series. In June 2018, it was announced that Jason Ritter, Jazmyn Simon, Alisha Wainwright, and Ja'Siah Young had been cast as a series regulars. In July 2018, Donald Paul was cast as a recurring role in the series. On January 29, 2019, it was reported that Ali Ahn had joined the cast in a recurring capacity. On February 23, 2021, Rome Flynn, Aubriana Davis, Tracey Bonner, and Josh Ventura joined the cast undisclosed capacities while Ali Ahn and Griffin Robert Faulkner were promoted to series regulars for the second season. On August 24, 2021, Michael Anthony joined the cast in a recurring role for the second season.


title: Raising Dion

text: Principal photography for the series began in late July 2018 in various cities and towns in Georgia including Chattahoochee Hills and Fairburn. Filming continued in the same areas in August 2018 and also took place in Midtown Atlanta at locations including the Fox Theatre. Filming for the second season began on January 25, 2021 and concluded on May 25, 2021.


title: Raising Dion

text: The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 83% approval rating for the series, based on 29 reviews, with an average rating of 6.8/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "While its family drama and superhero aspirations don't quite come together, compelling performances and a sense of wonder keep "Raising Dion" afloat and suggest that with a little more guidance it could become something great". On Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, the series was assigned a score of 61 out of 100 based on 7 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Raising Dion

text: The second season was watched for over 108.75 million hours in its first 26 days on the platform according to Netflix top 10s.


title: Raising Dion

text: The show received six nominations at the 1st Children's and Family Emmy Awards: Outstanding Children's or Family Viewing Series, Outstanding Younger Performer in a Preschool, Children's or Young Teen Program (for Young and Haney), Outstanding Stunt Coordination for a Live Action Program, Outstanding Sound Mixing and Sound Editing for a Live Action Program and Outstanding Visual Effects for a Live Action Program.


title: Raising Dion

text: Despite multiple sources covering the show crediting both Dennis Liu and Jason Piperberg as creators, the show has yet to credit Jason. In October 2019, Multiversity Comics was the first to report the show falsely credits Dennis Liu as the sole creator of the original comic book.


title: Raising Dion

text: In February 2022, Jason Piperberg posted a series to Tweets regarding the legal matters surrounding the credits. In the thread, he states "Dennis wrote the script. I did all the art, letters, and vast majority of book layout/file prep for the 1 and only issue of the comic. With that in mind, it seems pretty odd that only Dennis is credited when the show states that it's 'based on the comic book by' both of us." The next tweet in the thread shows visual comparisons between his original art, including the logo he created for the comic, and screenshots of the Netflix show which highlight the similarities. Jason closes the thread by saying "Suffice it to say, I don't think a byline is too much to ask for when the show is 'based on the comic book' where I did all the art, and that book (with 1 issue) ended on a cliffhanger."


title: Mafia: Definitive Edition

text: Mafia: Definitive Edition is a 2020 action-adventure game developed by Hangar 13 and published by 2K. It is a remake of the 2002 video game "Mafia". Like the original game, the remake is set within the fictional city of Lost Heaven, Illinois, during the 1930s, and follows the rise and fall of Tommy Angelo, a Sicilian American cab driver-turned-gangster, within the Salieri crime family.


title: Mafia: Definitive Edition

text: The game's open world nature allows players to explore Lost Heaven at their leisure when not completing missions to advance the narrative. This is mostly done in the Free Ride game mode, where players are not restricted by the linear nature of missions and can find hidden side missions and collectibles exclusive to this mode. The gameplay builds upon 2016's "Mafia III", and features enhanced mission dynamics and the introduction of motorcycles to the series. While some of the veteran Czech "Mafia" voice cast returned for the remake, the English voices were recast. An original score was also created for the game.


title: Mafia: Definitive Edition

text: The game was released for PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One on September 25, 2020, both individually and as part of the "Mafia: Trilogy" pack, which also includes a remastered version of the second game and a lightly altered port of the third game which includes its additional story packs. It received generally favorable reviews from critics, with praise for revitalizing the story, performances, and graphics, yet faced some criticism over its animations.


title: Mafia: Definitive Edition

text: Conceived as a full remake of the original, "Mafia: Definitive Edition" was built from the ground up with new assets and an expanded story, although missions and arcs from the original game are carried over. As with the 2002 game, players control Tommy Angelo throughout the game's single-player campaign, and its world is navigated on foot or by vehicle. New to the remake is the introduction of motorcycles, a first in the series. "Mafia: Definitive Edition"'s gameplay mechanics are based on those of "Mafia III". A 'Classic Difficulty' setting is also included, serving as the game's hardest difficulty setting that changes some gameplay mechanics such as ammunition management and police response to crimes, bringing the game closer to the original 2002 game.


title: Mafia: Definitive Edition

text: Outside the main story mode, a separate Free Ride mode is included "as a nod to the original game", allowing the player to explore the city at their own leisure without any mandatory mission objectives. Unlike the original game, however, Free Ride and Free Ride Extreme are merged into one game mode, with the latter's outlandish and over-the-top side missions incorporated into the main Free Ride segment as hidden secrets to be uncovered by the player.


title: Mafia: Definitive Edition

text: A post-release update released in October 2020 added new activities in the game's Free Ride mode, including taxi missions and a racing mode which takes place in the autodrome featured in the mission "Fair Play". Also included in the update is the ability to play the game in black and white, labeled in the game's settings menu as "Noir Mode" as a homage to film noir movies of the era, as well as various options allowing the player to show or hide parts of the game's HUD.


title: Mafia: Definitive Edition

text: In 1930, during the Great Depression, impoverished taxi driver Thomas "Tommy" Angelo is strong-armed by two members of the Salieri crime family—Paulie Lombardo and Sam Trapani—into helping them escape an ambush by the rival Morello family. Tommy is compensated for his help and offered a position in Don Salieri's organization, which he initially refuses, but is forced to accept after being attacked by two Morello gangsters who trash his cab in an act of revenge. After exacting retribution upon his attackers, Tommy begins to assist with running Salieri's rackets across Lost Heaven, overseen by his "consigliere" Frank Colletti. He befriends Paulie and Sam during the jobs they perform together while earning Salieri's respect for thwarting Don Morello's attempts to take over his businesses.


title: Mafia: Definitive Edition

text: In 1932, Tommy, now a made man, begins a relationship with Sarah Marino, the daughter of Salieri's bartender Luigi, after protecting her from a gang of street thugs. On Salieri's orders, Tommy and Paulie retaliate against the gang, but quickly learn that their leader, whom Paulie killed, was the son of corrupt city councillor Roberto Ghillotti, who vows revenge. Later, Tommy is ordered to destroy a brothel for switching its loyalties to Morello, and kill an informant working there, but ends up sparing her at Sam's request. He then covers up his actions and assists Sam on a hit against a witness to Ghillotti's son's murder. In 1933, Morello ramps up his efforts to dismantle Salieri's organization, ambushing their bootlegging operations and gaining support from Ghillotti. When Frank disappears with the family's account books, Salieri reluctantly orders Tommy to kill him. Discovering Frank was forced to make a deal with the FBI after Morello threatened his family, Tommy allows him to flee the country with his family in exchange for the books, and covers up his actions once again.


title: Mafia: Definitive Edition

text: In 1935, the Salieri and Morello families begin moving out into new rackets following the end of prohibition, while Tommy, promoted to "caporegime" for his successes, marries Sarah and starts a family with her. Learning that Salieri is making moves to gain control over law enforcement, Morello attempts to have him killed. After Tommy saves him, Salieri declares open war on his rival. Tommy helps to weaken Morello's position by assassinating Ghillotti, to reduce Morello's control on law enforcement and city politics, and Morello's brother Sergio, to reduce his control on the port unions. The war eventually comes to an end after Tommy, Sam, and Paulie kill Morello himself as he attempts to flee Lost Heaven.


title: Mafia: Definitive Edition

text: By 1938, the Salieri family is in full control of Lost Heaven's rackets and ruthlessly eliminating anyone who opposes them. When Tommy, Paulie, and Sam agree to recover a stash of diamonds hidden amongst a shipment of impounded cigars, they are shocked to discover heroin instead. Enraged at Salieri lying to them about the cargo's true nature and becoming involved in the drug trade despite telling them to never do so, Tommy and Paulie decide to carry out a bank heist that will allow them to retire, without cutting Salieri in. Although the job is a success, Tommy finds Paulie dead in his apartment the following day and the stolen money missing. When he meets with Sam to discuss the matter, he quickly learns that Salieri ordered him to kill Tommy and Paulie for going behind his back, and that Frank and the brothel informant were murdered by Salieri's men after Tommy's past cover-ups were exposed. Tommy survives Sam's ambush and manages to kill him, but is forced to go into hiding with his family. Fearing for their safety, he eventually contacts Detective Norman for help. After relaying his story to him, Tommy offers to testify against the Salieri family in exchange for a reduced prison sentence and protection for his family. Norman agrees to the request, being a family man himself, and the resulting investigation and mob trials lead to most of the Salieri family, including Don Salieri, being convicted and sentenced.


title: Mafia: Definitive Edition

text: After serving eight years in prison, Tommy is reunited with his family as they are all placed under witness protection and relocated to Empire Bay. Tommy lives a peaceful life with his family until 1951, when two hitmen approach him. Accepting his fate and knowing that his criminal past has caught up to him, Tommy is shot with a lupara and left to die on his front lawn. He succumbs to his wounds surrounded by his family, content that they are safe now. The game ends with a speech Tommy made at his daughter's wedding about the importance of family; concluding that while everything else comes and goes, family is forever.


title: Mafia: Definitive Edition

text: On May 13, 2020, a remake of "Mafia" was announced by 2K Games titled "Mafia: Definitive Edition", as a part of the "Mafia: Trilogy" — the other parts being a remaster of "Mafia II" and a version of "Mafia III" bundled with its expansion story packs. Development was placed in the hands of Hangar 13, who opted to expand on the original story and gameplay, and create a brand new, original score. To ensure the game would be suitable for the latest generation of consoles and systems - Xbox One, PlayStation 4, and Windows - Hangar 13 rebuilt the game with an updated game engine taken from "Mafia III".


title: Mafia: Definitive Edition

text: As part of the rebuild, the entire setting of the original game was redesigned. The development team focused on restyling the city to match those of the United States around the 1920s and 1930s following World War I, improving on the atmosphere and aesthetic designs of the city's various districts. One example of this was redesigning the original setting's district of Chinatown to feature more recognizable buildings and decorations. Other improvements focused on modifying the street layouts to coincide with the smoother driving mechanics implemented into the game, including smoother corners and intersections, as well as relocating several buildings and landmarks to new sites and adding in shortcuts and alleys, in order to help with the remaking of the original game's missions - Hangar 13 specifically altered how players traversed between objectives by using specialized data-mapping to view the driving patterns of players in the original game, assessing how to best change this for the remake.


title: Mafia: Definitive Edition

text: The English-language soundtrack for the game was recorded with a different cast, with Italian-Australian actor Andrew Bongiorno lending his voice, likeness and motion capture performance to Tommy Angelo. Hangar 13 president Haden Blackman stated "since our cinematics rely heavily on motion capture data, it was essential that we have both voice and physical performances," and they wanted to ensure that the actors not only "looked the part" but could also perform well on both motion capture and voice-over booths. Conversely, the Czech dub has most of the surviving cast from the 2002 game reprise their roles for the remake, namely Marek Vašut who returned to voice Tommy.


title: Mafia: Definitive Edition

text: Efforts to prepare the game for release on August 28, 2020, were hampered by the COVID-19 pandemic, which presented several challenges with completion of the game. One problem was completing the main theme of the remake, which was solved by conducting several sessions with their orchestra - each session having a selected group of members to perform their pieces while complying with social distancing protocols - and then mixing all recordings post-production. Overcoming the problems meant that the game's launch date was pushed back towards the end of September.


title: Mafia: Definitive Edition

text: The game includes collectibles hidden throughout its world in the form of period-accurate magazines and comics, such as "Black Mask", "Super Science Stories", "Dime Detective Magazine", and "Terror Tales", along with fictional collectibles based on the "Mafia" mythos, such as the "Gangsters Monthly" comic series based on events that take place throughout the game and cigarette cards featuring likenesses of "Mafia" series characters and their backstories.


title: Mafia: Definitive Edition

text: "Mafia: Definitive Edition" received "generally favorable reviews" from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic.


title: Mafia: Definitive Edition

text: "IGN" gave the game 8/10, writing: "Completely rebuilt from the ground up, "Mafia: Definitive Edition" features excellent performances from its new cast, a fantastic driving model, and a beautiful and authentic city oozing with 1930s atmosphere like overfilled cannoli."


title: Mafia: Definitive Edition

text: "GameSpot" gave the game a 6/10, praising the story and performances but criticizing the dated combat and movements. "Game Informer" gave the game a 5.5/10, writing: "Faithful almost to a fault, Hangar 13's remake puts a glossy finish on a title that is fundamentally musty by contemporary standards."


title: Mafia: Definitive Edition

text: The original developer and writer of the first game, Dan Vávra, praised the remake's graphics, though criticised some changes to the script, as well as certain physics elements involving weapons and vehicles. Vavra departed 2K Games in 2009, and had no involvement or knowledge about the game's production.


title: Mafia: Definitive Edition

text: In its first week of release the game was the third-best-selling in the UK, with the "Mafia Trilogy" finishing sixth.


title: Hadean

text: The Hadean ( ) is a geologic eon of Earth history preceding the Archean. On Earth, the Hadean began with the planet's formation about 4.54 billion years ago (although the start of the Hadean is defined as the age of the oldest solid material in the Solar System, found in some meteorites, about 4.567 billion years old). The Hadean ended, as defined by the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), 4 billion years ago. , the ICS describes its status as "informal".


title: Hadean

text: Hadean rocks are very rare, largely consisting of zircons from one locality in Western Australia. Hadean geophysical models remain controversial among geologists: it appears that plate tectonics and the growth of continents may have started in the Hadean. Earth in the early Hadean had a very thick carbon dioxide atmosphere, but eventually oceans of liquid water formed.


title: Hadean

text: "Hadean" (from Hades, the Greek god of the underworld, and the underworld itself) describes the hellish conditions then prevailing on Earth: the planet had just formed and was still very hot owing to its recent accretion, the abundance of short-lived radioactive elements, and frequent collisions with other Solar System bodies.


title: Hadean

text: The term was coined by American geologist Preston Cloud, after the Greek mythical underworld Hades, originally to label the period before the earliest-known rocks on Earth. W. Brian Harland later coined an almost synonymous term, the Priscoan Period, from "priscus", the Latin word for 'ancient'. Other, older texts refer to the eon as the Pre-Archean.


title: Hadean

text: Since few geological traces of this eon remain on Earth, there is no official subdivision. However, the lunar geologic timescale embraces several major divisions relating to the Hadean, so these are sometimes used in an informal sense to refer to the same time intervals on Earth.


title: Hadean

text: In 2010, an alternative scale was proposed that includes the addition of the Chaotian and Prenephelean eons preceding the Hadean and divides the Hadean into three eras with two periods each. The Paleohadean Era consists of the Hephaestean period () and the Jacobian period (4.4-4.3 Ga). The Mesohadean is divided into the Canadian (4.3-4.2 Ga) and the Procrustean periods (4.2-4.1 Ga). The Neohadean is divided into the Acastan (4.1-4.0 Ga) and the Promethean periods (4.0-3.9 Ga). , this has not been adopted by the IUGS.


title: Hadean

text: In the last decades of the 20th-century geologists identified a few Hadean rocks from western Greenland, northwestern Canada, and Western Australia. In 2015, traces of carbon minerals interpreted as "remains of biotic life" were found in 4.1-billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.


title: Hadean

text: The oldest dated zircon crystals, enclosed in a metamorphosed sandstone conglomerate in the Jack Hills of the Narryer Gneiss Terrane of Western Australia, date to 4.404 ± 0.008 Ga. This zircon is a slight outlier, with the oldest consistently-dated zircon falling closer to 4.35 Ga—around 200 million years after the hypothesized time of Earth's formation.


title: Hadean

text: In many other areas, xenocryst (or relict) Hadean zircons enclosed in older rocks indicate that younger rocks have formed on older terranes and have incorporated some of the older material. One example occurs in the Guiana shield from the Iwokrama Formation of southern Guyana where zircon cores have been dated at 4.22 Ga.


title: Hadean

text: A sizable quantity of water would have been in the material that formed Earth. Water molecules would have escaped Earth's gravity more easily when it was less massive during its formation. Hydrogen and helium are expected to continually escape (even to the present day) due to atmospheric escape.


title: Hadean

text: Part of the ancient planet is theorized to have been disrupted by the impact that created the Moon, which should have caused the melting of one or two large regions of Earth. Earth's present composition suggests that there was not complete remelting as it is difficult to completely melt and mix huge rock masses. However, a fair fraction of material should have been vaporized by this impact. The material would have condensed within 2000 years, leaving behind hot volatiles which probably resulted in a heavy atmosphere with hydrogen and water vapor. Liquid water oceans existed despite the surface temperature of because at an atmospheric pressure of above 27 atmospheres, caused by the heavy atmosphere, water is still liquid. As the cooling continued, subduction and dissolving in ocean water removed most from the atmosphere but levels oscillated wildly as new surface and mantle cycles appeared.


title: Hadean

text: Studies of zircons have found that liquid water may have existed between 4.0 and 4.4 billion years ago, very soon after the formation of Earth. For this time interval, meteorite impacts may be been less frequent than previously hypothesized, and Earth may have gone through long periods when liquid oceans and life were possible.


title: Hadean

text: Asteroid impacts during the Hadean and into the Archean would have periodically disrupted the ocean. The geological record from 3.2 Gya contains evidence of multiple impacts of objects up to in diameter. Each such impact would have boiled off up to of a global ocean, and temporarily raised the atmospheric temperature to .


title: Hadean

text: A 2008 study of zircons found that Australian Hadean rock contains minerals pointing to the existence of plate tectonics as early as 4 billion years ago (approximately 600 million years after Earth's formation). However, some geologists suggest that the zircons could have been formed by meteorite impacts. The direct evidence of Hadean geology from zircons is limited, because the zircons are largely gathered in one locality in Australia. Geophysical models are underconstrained, but can paint a general picture of the state of Earth in the Hadean.


title: Hadean

text: Mantle convection in the Hadean was likely vigorous, due to lower viscosity. The lower viscosity was due to the high levels of radiogenic heat and the fact that water in the mantle had not yet fully outgassed. Whether the vigorous convection led to plate tectonics in the Hadean or was confined under a rigid lid is still a matter of debate. The presence of an ocean during the Hadean is generally accepted, due to zircon evidence. The presence of oceans are thought to trigger plate tectonics. The removal of the CO-rich early atmosphere also indicates that plate tectonics were active in the Hadean.


title: Hadean

text: If plate tectonics occurred in the Hadean, it would have formed continental crust. Different models predict different amounts of continental crust during the Hadean. The work of Dhiume et al. predicts that by the end of the Hadean, the continental crust had only 25% of today's area. The models of Korenaga, et al. predict that the continental crust grew to present-day volume sometime between 4.0 and 4.2 Gya.


title: Hadean

text: The amount of exposed land in the Hadean is only loosely dependent on the amount of continental crust: it also depends on the ocean level. In models where plate tectonics started in the Archean, Earth has a global ocean in the Hadean. The high heat of the mantle may have made it difficult to support high elevations in the Hadean. If continents did form in the Hadean, their growth competed with outgassing of water from the mantle. Continents may have appeared in the mid-Hadean, and then disappeared under a thick ocean by the end of the Hadean. The limited amount of land has implications for the origin of life.


title: Lauren Hutton

text: Lauren Hutton (born Mary Laurence Hutton; November 17, 1943) is an American model and actress. Born and raised in the southern United States, Hutton relocated to New York City in her early adulthood to begin a modeling career. Though she was initially dismissed by agents for a signature gap in her teeth, Hutton signed a modeling contract with Revlon in 1973, which at the time was the biggest contract in the history of the modeling industry.


title: Lauren Hutton

text: Over her career, Hutton has worked both as a model and an actress, making her film debut in the sports drama "Paper Lion" in 1968, opposite Alan Alda. She also played central roles in "The Gambler" (1974) and "American Gigolo" (1980), and later appeared on television in the network series "Paper Dolls" and "Nip/Tuck".


title: Lauren Hutton

text: Hutton has continued to model into her seventies, appearing in numerous advertising campaigns for H&M, Lord and Taylor, and Alexander Wang, and performed on the runway for Tom Ford's spring 2012 collection, as well as for Bottega Veneta at the 2016 New York Fashion Week.


title: Lauren Hutton

text: Hutton was born Mary Laurence Hutton on November 17, 1943 in Charleston, South Carolina, to Lawrence Bryan Hutton and Minnie (Behrens) Hutton. Her father was a native of Mississippi, where he grew up next-door to William Faulkner, and was stationed in England, during World War II when Lauren was born.


title: Lauren Hutton

text: After the war, Hutton's mother divorced her father in 1945, and she relocated to Miami, and later, Tampa, Florida. Hutton spent the remainder of her early life in Tampa, not knowing her father, who died June 24, 1956 from a heart attack at age 37. He was working as a Farm Editor for "The Cotton Trade Journal", living in Shelby, Tennessee with his second wife, Mary Elizabeth (Everette) Hutton. He is buried at Oxford Memorial Cemetery, in Oxford, Mississippi. "Never meeting my father was the most painful thing in my life," Hutton said in 1996. "I look just like him and I'm named for him, but all I have are these two books of his letters and drawings from the war. The day of my birth he wrote and told me about our ancestors, what he thought was important in the world, what books I should read and what he wanted for me."


title: Lauren Hutton

text: After her mother remarried, Hutton took the surname "Hall", although her stepfather never formally adopted her. She graduated from Chamberlain High School in Tampa in 1961 and was among the first students to attend the University of South Florida in 1961. Hutton later relocated with former Tampa disc jockey Pat Chamburs, a war veteran 19 years her senior who had lost a leg in a kamikaze attack, to New York City, where she worked as a "Bunny" waitress at the Playboy Club, at which time she made her first appearance on camera as a decoy contestant on To Tell The Truth in 1963. The pair lived in Europe, the Bahamas and later moved to New Orleans, where she attended Newcomb College, then a coordinate college within Tulane University, and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1964.


title: Lauren Hutton

text: Hutton returned to New York by herself in the mid 1960s, changed her name to "Lauren Hutton", and embarked on a career as a model. She was advised by agents to hide the gap in her teeth and tried using morticians' wax to cover the gap; she later used a cap to hide it, which she would often swallow, laugh out, or misplace. Hutton eventually retained this "imperfection" and the "All Movie Guide" stated that it "gave her on-camera persona a down-home sensibility that other, more ethereal models lacked." She continued to book modeling jobs, and appeared in a Chanel advertisement in 1968, photographed by Richard Avedon.


title: Lauren Hutton

text: In 1973, Hutton signed a contract with Revlon cosmetics, worth US$250,000 a year for 20 days' work (), a professional relationship that lasted for 10 years. At the time, it was the biggest contract in the history of the modeling industry. Hutton's initial contract with Revlon involved representation of the Ultima II brand. Twenty years later, she signed a new contract with Revlon to be the spokeswoman for Results, a collection of corrective moisturizing treatments. Her contract with Revlon garnered Hutton further modeling work, and she became a "cover girl," appearing on the front cover of "Vogue" a record 26 times.


title: Lauren Hutton

text: In 1982, Hutton appeared in two Pepsi Light commercials, one where she strips down to her one-piece swimsuit and dives into a swimming pool and one where she gets all wet when the shower turns on by itself.


title: Lauren Hutton

text: In 1988, she appeared in a campaign for Barneys New York, and in 1993, performed as a runway model for designer Calvin Klein, to which "The New York Times" responded by publishing an article stating that Hutton was "just as good as the current flock of fledglings." In 1997, Hutton became a brand ambassador and appeared in multiple advertising campaigns for the Australian department store David Jones; in 2001, she was replaced by Megan Gale.


title: Lauren Hutton

text: Hutton was presented on the November 1999 Millennium cover of American "Vogue" as one of the "Modern Muses". Following her recovery from a motorcycle accident in 2000, she became the spokeswoman for her own signature brand of cosmetics, "Lauren Hutton's Good Stuff", a line of cosmetic products for mature women. The brand was sold primarily in the USA, but was also available through secondary distribution channels throughout Europe and South America.


title: Lauren Hutton

text: In October 2005, Hutton was interviewed on ABC's "Good Morning America" program in relation to the future release of an edition of "Big" magazine that was entirely dedicated to Hutton's career and included eight pages of nude photos. Hutton agreed to pose nude for the feature, titled "Lauren Hutton: The Beautiful Persists", when she was 61 years old, and explained to "GMA":


title: Lauren Hutton

text: I want them [women] not to be ashamed of who they are when they're in bed. Society has told us to be ashamed ... The really important [thing] is that women understand not to listen to a 2,000-year-old patriarchal society.


title: Lauren Hutton

text: Hutton, who is supposedly one of four women offered US$1 million by Larry Flynt to pose nude, also explained that she first sought permission from her 14 godchildren, who told her the photographs would be "inspirational".