title: Madame de Pompadour

text: By March, she was the King's mistress, installed at Versailles in an apartment directly above his. On 7 May, the official separation between her and her husband was pronounced. To be presented at court, she required a title. The King purchased the marquisate of Pompadour on 24 June and gave the estate, with title and coat-of-arms, to Jeanne Antoinette, making her a "Marquise". On 14 September 1745, Madame de Pompadour made her formal entry before the King, presented by the King's cousin, the Princess of Conti. Determined to make her place at court secure, Jeanne Antoinette immediately attempted to forge a good relationship with the royal family. After the Queen engaged Pompadour in a conversation by enquiring after a mutual acquaintance, Madame de Saissac, Pompadour responded in delight, swearing her respect and loyalty to Marie Leszczyńska. The Queen in return favored Jeanne Antoinette instead of the King's other mistresses. Pompadour quickly mastered the highly mannered court etiquette. However, her mother died on Christmas Day of the same year, and did not live to see her daughter's achievement of becoming the undisputed royal mistress.


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: Through her position as court favourite, Pompadour wielded considerable power and influence; she was elevated on 12 October 1752 to duchess and in 1756 to lady-in-waiting to the Queen, the most noble rank possible for a woman at court. Pompadour effectively played the role of prime minister, becoming responsible for appointing advancements, favors and dismissals, and contributing in domestic and foreign politics.


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: In 1755, she was approached by Wenzel Anton, Prince of Kaunitz-Rietberg, a prominent Austrian diplomat, asking her to intervene in the negotiations which led to the Treaty of Versailles. This was the beginning of the Diplomatic Revolution, which saw France allied to their former enemy Austria.


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: Under these changed alliances, the European powers entered the Seven Years' War, which saw France, Austria and Russia pitted against Britain and Prussia. France suffered a defeat at the hands of the Prussians in the Battle of Rossbach in 1757, and eventually lost the American colonies to the British. After Rossbach, Madame de Pompadour is alleged to have comforted the king with the now-famous: ""au reste, après nous, le Déluge"" ("Besides, after us, the Deluge"). France emerged from the war diminished and virtually bankrupt.


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: Madame de Pompadour persisted in her support of these policies, and when Cardinal de Bernis failed her, she brought Choiseul into office and supported and guided him in all his plans: the Pacte de Famille, the suppression of the Jesuits and the Treaty of Paris (1763). Britain's victories in the war had allowed it to surpass France as the leading colonial power — something which was commonly blamed on Pompadour.


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: Pompadour protected the Physiocrates school (its leader was Quesnay, her own doctor) which paved the way for Adam Smith's theories. She also defended the "Encyclopédie" edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert against those, among them the Archbishop of Paris Christophe de Beaumont, who sought to have it suppressed. In Diderot's first novel, "Les bijoux indiscrets" (The Indiscreet Jewels), the characters of Mangogul and Mirzoza are allegories of Louis XV and Pompadour respectively. Diderot portrayed Pompadour in a flattering light, most likely to ensure her support for "Encyclopedie". Pompadour had a copy of "Les bijoux indiscrets" in her library, which may explain why the crown did not pursue Diderot for such an indiscretion against the king.


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: The marquise had many enemies among the royal courtiers who felt it a disgrace that the king would thus compromise himself with a commoner. She was very sensitive to the unending libels called "poissonnades", analogous to mazarinade against Cardinal Mazarin and a pun on her family name, "Poisson", which means "fish" in French. Only with great reluctance did Louis take punitive action against her known enemies, such as Louis François Armand du Plessis, duc de Richelieu.


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: Madame de Pompadour was able to wield such influence at court due to the invaluable role she played as a friend and confidante of the King. In opposition to previous mistresses of Louis XV, Pompadour made herself invaluable to the King by becoming the only person whom Louis trusted and who could be counted on to tell him the truth. Pompadour was an indispensable comfort to Louis who was prone to melancholy and boredom. She alone was able to captivate and amuse him, and would entertain Louis with elegant private parties and operas sometimes even with his wife, Queen Marie Leszczyńska in attendance since she would


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: also invite her with the help of the King, afternoons of hunting, and journeying among their various real estate holdings.


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: Around 1750 Madame de Pompadour's role as friend of the King became her solitary role, as she ceased her sexual relationship with the King. The end of this sexual relationship was in part attributed to Pompadour's poor health, as she suffered the aftereffects of whooping cough, recurring colds and bronchitis, spitting blood, headaches, three miscarriages to the King, as well as an unconfirmed case of leucorrhoea. In addition Pompadour admitted to having “the misfortune to be of a very cold temperament” and attempts to increase her libido with a diet of truffles, celery and vanilla were unsuccessful. Furthermore, in 1750 the Jubilee year placed pressure upon the King to repent of his sins and renounce his mistress. In order to cement her continuing importance as favourite in the face of these impediments, Pompadour took on the role of "friend of the King" which she announced through artistic patronage. Pompadour's announcement was most prominently declared through her commission from Jean Baptiste Pigalle, of a sculpture representing herself as Amitié [friendship], offering herself to a now lost pendant sculpture of Louis XV. Pompadour also had a related sculpture depicted in a portrait of herself painted by François Boucher in 1759.


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: Built in the second half of the 17th century, the château de Saint-Ouen, (near Paris, in the Seine-Saint-Denis department), has belonged to the prestigious dukes of Gesvres until its destruction in 1821, to built the actual château for the comtesse du Cayla.


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: After the sale of her , unexpectedly, the marquise de Pompadour did not purchase Saint-Ouen but benefited from the usufruct of this residence from 1759 until her death in 1764.


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: The plan of the château, originally designed by Antoine Lepautre, was a classical U-shape and consisted of a long façade with two wings prolonging the main body, facing the river Seine on the garden side.


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: Saint-Ouen's originality resided in its interior distribution: the main body consisted of a succession of three "salons à l'italienne", whose decoration was entirely modified by the Slodtz family in the 1750s for the Gesvres family. In French architecture, a "salon à l'italienne" is a room filling all the height of a building: a memorable example is the Grand salon at Vaux-le-Vicomte.


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: In addition to this layout, as soon as Mme de Pompadour acquired the estate, a vast project of reorganisation of the entire buildings (including stables and dependences) was planned, costing more than 500.000 livres. In the absence of the original plans, a restitution of the ground floor has been proposed. It seems that the architect who supervised this reorganisation was Ange-Jacques Gabriel, who, at that time, directed all the renovation and building works of the different residences of Mme de Pompadour.


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: Using the central "salon à l'italienne" as a pivot, an appartement was created for the King as a counterpart to that of the henceforth Duchesse de Pompadour, making the prestigious château de Saint-Ouen into a reflection of her own status - a symbol of her social and political achievements.


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: Despite misconceptions perpetuated by her contemporaries and much of historical discourse, Pompadour did not supplement her role as mistress by employing replacement lovers for the king. Following the cessation of Pompadour's sexual relationship with Louis, the King met with young women in a house in Versailles established particularly for that purpose, called the Parc-aux-Cerfs, or Stag Park. It was not, as often described, a harem; it was occupied by only one woman at a time. Pompadour was not involved, other than to accept it as a “necessity”. Pompadour's only contribution to the Stag Park was to accept it as a favorable alternative to a rival at court, as she stated: "It is his heart I want! All these little girls with no education will not take it from me. I would not be so calm if I saw some pretty woman of the court or the capital trying to conquer it."


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: Madame de Pompadour was an influential patron of the arts who played a central role in making Paris the perceived capital of taste and culture in Europe. She attained this influence through the appointment of her guardian Charles François Paul Le Normant de Tournehem, and later her brother, Abel Poisson in the post of "Directeur Général des Bâtiments", which controlled government policy and expenditures for the arts. She championed French pride by constructing and later outright buying a porcelain factory at Sèvres in 1759, which became one of the most famous porcelain manufacturers in Europe, and which provided skilled jobs for the region. Numerous sculptors and portrait painters were patronized by Pompadour, among them the court artist Jean-Marc Nattier, in the 1750s François Boucher, Jean-Baptiste Réveillon and François-Hubert Drouais. She patronized Jacques Guay, the gemstone engraver, who taught her to engrave in onyx, jasper and other semi-precious stones.


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: Pompadour greatly influenced and stimulated innovation in what is known as the "Rococo" style in the fine and decorative arts: for example, through her patronage of the artists like Boucher and the constant refurnishing of the fifteen residences she held with Louis. Like Pompadour, this style was critiqued by some as a pernicious "feminine" influence, despite the fact that it was embraced by many men as well as women (Hyde, 456–458). However it is also widely recognised that Madame de Pompadour engaged with prominent artists as a way to capture the attention of the king whilst cultivating her public image. The oil sketch of Pompadour's lost portrait by Boucher sits in the Starhemberg room at Waddesdon Manor built by Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild, surrounded by Sèvres porcelain, another industry that she greatly influenced and innovated through personal dissemination across an international network of her own clientele.


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: In addition to supporting the arts as a patron, Pompadour also participated in them more directly. Besides being one of the few 18th-century practitioners of gem engraving, she was an acclaimed stage actress in plays staged at her private theaters at Versailles and Bellevue (Hyde, 463–4). Melissa Hyde has suggested that some of the artworks made under Pompadour's purview by other hands, notably the 1758 portrait by Boucher of "Mme de Pompadour at Her Toilette", can be fruitfully viewed as collaborations with Pompadour.


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: Madame de Pompadour is considered an "amateur printmaker" who made print engravings with the help of Boucher. She had engraving equipment, to create the prints of works by Boucher and Guay, brought within her personal apartments in Versailles


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: Her political mind can also be attributed to her great book collection. She collected influential books such as the "History of the Stuarts", printed in 1760 with her own printing press which can be determined through the stamp markings of her arms located on the cover. Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild, an avid 19th-century collector in London and Waddesdon Manor, collected a number of her books, including this previously mentioned book and a copy of her published catalogue of books from 1764, which lists her entire collection.


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: Madame de Pompadour created 52 engraved prints, of drawings by Boucher, after gemstone engravings by Guay. Her collection of work, in book form, is called ""Suite d'Estampes Gravées Par Madame la Marquise de Pompadour d'Apres les Pierres Gravées de Guay, Graveur du Roy"" which translates to in English as ""Series of Prints engraved by Madame la Marquise de Pompadour after the engraved stones of Guay, engraver of the King"".


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: The personal portfolio of Madame de Pompadour was found in the Walters Art Museum manuscript room by art historian Susan Wager.


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: Some art historians argue whether or not she should be considered a collaborator with the artists under her patronage, since there is no documentation of how much Pompadour might have contributed to the works; whose idea, and whose composition, will remain a mystery.


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: Louis XV remained devoted to Pompadour until her death from tuberculosis in 1764 at the age of forty-two. Louis nursed her through her illness. Even her enemies admired her courage during the final painful weeks. Voltaire wrote: "I am very sad at the death of Madame de Pompadour. I was indebted to her and I mourn her out of gratitude. It seems absurd that while an ancient pen-pusher, hardly able to walk, should still be alive, a beautiful woman, in the midst of a splendid career, should die at the age of forty-two." Many of her enemies were, however, greatly relieved. Looking at the rain during the departure of his mistress's coffin from Versailles, the devastated king reportedly said: ""La marquise n'aura pas de beau temps pour son voyage."" ("The marquise will not have good weather for her journey".) She was buried at the Couvent des Capucines in Paris.


title: Madame de Pompadour

text: Madame de Pompadour has been depicted on screen in film and television on many occasions, beginning in 1924 with Paulette Duval opposite Rudolph Valentino in "Monsieur Beaucaire". A biopic came out three years later called "Madame Pompadour" directed by Herbert Wilcox, in which she was played by Dorothy Gish. Other actresses to have played her include:


title: Counterpart (TV series)

text: Counterpart is an American science fiction thriller television series starring J. K. Simmons. It was created by Justin Marks and was first broadcast on the premium cable network Starz. The series ran for 20 episodes across two seasons. It premiered on December 10, 2017, and aired its final episode on February 17, 2019.


title: Counterpart (TV series)

text: Howard Silk, a gentle, quiet office worker, has been working for a Berlin-based United Nations agency, the Office of Interchange (OI), for thirty years. His position is too low for him to be told what his work—exchanging apparently nonsensical messages—really involves. The OI oversees a checkpoint below its headquarters between parallel Earths (the "Alpha" and "Prime" worlds). The parallel Earths were created in 1987 during an experiment by East Germany when only a scientist named Yanek was on-site. The "Alpha world" Yanek met his "Prime world" counterpart, and they soon began studying how the initially identical Earths diverge.


title: Counterpart (TV series)

text: The differences between the two worlds become more pronounced after 1996, when a flu pandemic killed hundreds of millions in the Prime world, setting back the world technologically but advancing it in life sciences. The virus was suspected of being purposely released by the Alpha world into the Prime world, which resulted in a tense cold war between the two worlds, with counterparts used as spies and sleeper agents. Silk's Alpha world continues to resemble ours, but the Prime world becomes quite different. Howard Silk Prime is a ruthless intelligence operative. Matters escalate during the series when a powerful rogue faction on Prime executes long-simmering plans to get revenge on Alpha.


title: Counterpart (TV series)

text: The series was ordered in April 2015 with J. K. Simmons announced to star. Production began in December 2016 in Los Angeles. The series would also be filmed in additional locations across the U.S. and Europe in 2017, including Berlin, where the series is set, and in Potsdam at Babelsberg Studio, which co-produced the series. Amy Berg served as showrunner, executive producer, and writer for the first season, but departed before season two. Production began on the second season in February 2018 in Berlin. After Starz opted not to order more episodes, the series' production company Media Rights Capital sought another home for the show. The effort was not successful.


title: Counterpart (TV series)

text: "Counterpart" was well received by critics. The first season has a "certified fresh" 100% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 8.4 out of 10 based on 48 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads, "Tense and gripping, "Counterpart" is an absorbing thrill-fest led by J. K. Simmons' multi-faceted dual lead performance." On Metacritic, the first season has a score of 76 out of 100 based on 15 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Counterpart (TV series)

text: The second season also received positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 100% approval rating with an average rating 8 out of 10 based on 22 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads, "Double the J.K. Simmons brings double the aplomb in the second season of "Counterpart", which finds time to deliver relevant societal critiques while deepening its labyrinthine lore." On Metacritic, it has a score of 75 out of 100 based on 7 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Counterpart (TV series)

text: The first season was released on Blu-ray and DVD on July 31, 2018, in region 1. The set includes all 10 episodes plus two behind-the-scenes featurettes.


title: Exor (company)

text: Exor N.V. is a Dutch holding company incorporated in Netherlands and controlled by the Agnelli family through privately held company "Giovanni Agnelli B.V." In 2021 it recorded revenues of more than $136 billion, with a Net Asset Value (NAV) of around $31 billion, becoming the 37th largest group in the world by revenue, according to the 2021 "Fortune" Global 500 List. It has a history of investments running over a century, which currently include auto and truck manufacturers Stellantis, Ferrari and Iveco, agricultural and construction firm CNH Industrial, the football team Juventus F.C., the international newspaper "The Economist", and the Italian media company GEDI.


title: Exor (company)

text: The company was founded on 27 July 1927 under the name of "Istituto Finanziario Industriale" by the Senator Giovanni Agnelli, with the aim of reuniting under a single company all the shareholdings he had acquired, mainly in industrial sectors.


title: Exor (company)

text: In 1957, IFI acquired control of "Istituto Commerciale Laniero Italiano", which conducted activities in the financial field, particularly in the textile and wool sector. In 1963 it extended its operations to the banking system and changed its name to "Istituto Bancario Italiano Laniero". Three years later, having spun off the banking business to Banca Subalpina, the company became "Istituto Finanziario Italiano Laniero" (IFIL), playing a parallel role to that of IFI and conducting similar investment management activities.


title: Exor (company)

text: IFI gained holdings in numerous firms over the decades, including Unicem, Rockfeller Center, Cinzano, Club Med and 3M, which have been divested over time. IFI listed preference shares on the Borsa Italiana in 1968.


title: Exor (company)

text: A reorganisation of the Agnelli family's holdings in 2008 led to the merger of IFI and IFIL to create "Exor", the new name being taken from the French company (then the majority owner of Perrier water and the Château Margaux estate) which it acquired in 1991. Exor started trading with the ticker BIT: EXO on March 2, 2009.


title: Exor (company)

text: Exor's portfolio is principally composed by different Companies in which Exor is the largest shareholder. In addition, the holding manages other investments, of four different kind: Private, for unlisted companies - Public, for publicly-listed companies - Seeds, for early and late stage companies and Alliance, currently with one: NUO spa.


title: Exor (company)

text: Besides these major holdings, the company holds shares in the following listed and unlisted companies:


title: Exor (company)

text: Exor's interest in new 21st century companies led to the launch of Exor Seeds, later to become Exor Ventures, an early and late stage startup investment business, under the leadership of Noam Ohana since 2017. Exor Seeds has invested 700 million dollars in 53 companies around the world with a focus on mobility, fintech and healthcare sectors.


title: Exor (company)

text: In September 2021 Exor appointed Diego Piacentini, former Amazon and Apple Executive Manager, as Advisor of Exor and Chairman of Exor Seeds.


title: Exor (company)

text: On March 29, 2022, Exor Seeds announced the launch of the Italy Seeds Program, an initiative aimed to support the most promising Italian Startups.


title: Exor (company)

text: On 5 October 2017 EXOR held its first Investor Day event, which was led by Exor & PartnerRe's leadership teams which provided financial updates and the latest developments from their respective companies.


title: Exor (company)

text: On 21 November 2019 a second one was hosted on the occasion of Exor's 10th anniversary. During the meeting John Elkann, together with the management team, illustrated the company's performances, growth and key achievements over the past 10 years.


title: Exor (company)

text: On 30 November 2021 Exor held its third Investor Day where the primary focus of its future investments was shared, centered on three main sectors: Healthcare, Luxury and Technology.


title: Exor (company)

text: On May 24, 2018, Exor established the Partners Council, chaired by former UK Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne. The Council brings together a group of business leaders that provide additional external experience and counsel into Exor.


title: Exor (company)

text: On September 27, 2021, Jony Ive, former Apple Chief Design Officer of Apple, joined Exor's Partners Council along with the announcement of a multi-year collaboration with his creative collective LoveFrom.


title: Exor (company)

text: The Council consists of: George Osborne (Chairman) - Partner, Robey Warshaw; Daniel Ek - CEO and Founder, Spotify; John Elkann - chairman and CEO, Exor; Jony Ive - Co-founder, LoveFrom; Michael Larson - Chief Investment Officer, BMGI; Jorge Paulo Lemann - Co-founder, 3G Capital; Ruth Porat - Senior Vice President and Chief Financial Officer, Alphabet and Google; Nassef Sawiris - CEO, OCI ; Neil Shen - Founding and Managing Partner, Sequoia Capital China; Rob Speyer - President and CEO, Tishman Speyer; Joseph Tsai - Executive Vice Chairman, Alibaba Group; Mike Volpi - Co-founder, Index Ventures; Ruth Wertheimer - Founder, Owner and chairwoman, 7-Main.


title: Exor (company)

text: Exor actively supported the consolidiation of the car industry, first with the creation of Fiat Chrysler Automobiles in 2014 and later with Stellantis, which merged FCA and PSA.


title: Exor (company)

text: Since inception in march 2009, Exor’s total shareholders return was +1,460% or 24% on a compound annual rate. The family firm Giovanni Agnelli B.V. owns 52.01% of the share capital.


title: Exor (company)

text: On 12 August 2015 the editor announced that Exor would purchase three-fifths of The Economist Group shares then owned by Pearson PLC. Exor held shares in the Economist Group prior to this purchase. This was considered to be the "most important change to "The Economist"s shareholding structure in almost 90 years." Pearson PLC which also owned the "Financial Times" had had a non-controlling 50% stake in the Economist Group since 1928. The Economist Group will buy back the remaining 40% of Pearson shares.


title: Exor (company)

text: On 2 September 2015 Exor closed the sale of Cushman & Wakefield to Chicago-based DTZ for $1,28 billion in net, generating a capital gain of $722 million.


title: Exor (company)

text: In 2016, Exor bought PartnerRe with a bid of $140 per share (total $6.9 billion). Originally it had offered $130 per share and in response Axis Re offered $120.31 per share in paper plus $11.50 in a pre-closing dividend.


title: Exor (company)

text: In March 2020, Exor announced an agreement to sell PartnerRe to French mutual insurer Covea for $9 billion plus a $50 million cash dividend upon closing. The sale was not finalised, as Covéa withdrew the offer on 12 May 2020. In August 2020, Exor stated that Covea would invest €1.5 billion, partly in entities managed by PartnerRe. In July 2022 Exor completed the sale of PartnerRe to Covéa for a total cash consideration of $9.3 billion (about 8.6 billion euros).


title: Exor (company)

text: In December 2019, Exor agreed to buy a 43.7 per cent stake in GEDI Gruppo Editoriale, Italy's leading media group, for €102.4m from CIR, the holding company of the De Benedetti dynasty. The acquisition was closed in April 2020.


title: Exor (company)

text: In December 2019, Fiat Chrysler Automobiles and the PSA Group announced a merger, to be completed in 12/14 months. In July 2020, FCA's Chairman John Elkann and the CEO Mike Manley announced that the combined company will be called Stellantis, upon completion of the trans-Atlantic merger. The merger completed on 16 January 2021, with its common shares subsequently trading under the ticker symbol "STLA" on the Italian Bourse, Euronext Paris and the New York Stock Exchange. At the completion date of merger, the combined company became the world's fifth-largest car maker by unit sales.


title: Exor (company)

text: On 14 April 2021, Exor and Peugeot 1810, both significant shareholders in Stellantis, signed a five-year agreement.


title: Exor (company)

text: In April 2020, Exor acquired 8.87% of Via Transportation. The participation was later increased to 16.9%.


title: Exor (company)

text: In December 2020, Exor announced an investment of circa €80 million in the Chinese group Shang Xia, thanks to which the holding became the first Shang Xia shareholder with Hermés International.


title: Exor (company)

text: In March 2021, Exor enters the French fashion house Christian Louboutin as a minority shareholder with 24% of the capital and with an investment of 541 million euros.


title: Exor (company)

text: On June 16, 2021, Exor signed an agreement with World-Wide Investments Company Limited of Hong Kong, setting up the newco Nuo spa, 50% owned by Exor and 50% owned by WWICL, to encourage and enhance the development of Italian medium-sized enterprises that produce high-end consumer goods like [Ludovico Martellihttps://proraso.com/ Ludovico Martelli] and Montura.


title: Exor (company)

text: On July 2022 Exor acquired, by way of a reserved capital increase, a 10% shareholding in Institut Mérieux, representing an investment of €833 million to support the company and provide innovative solutions in the public health field.


title: Mswati III

text: Mswati III (born Makhosetive; 19 April 1968) is the king (Swazi: Ngwenyama, Ingwenyama yemaSwati) of Eswatini and head of the Swazi royal family. He was born in Manzini in the Protectorate of Swaziland to King Sobhuza II and one of his younger wives, Ntfombi Tfwala. He was crowned as Mswati III, Ingwenyama and King of Swaziland, on 25 April 1986 at the age of 18, thus becoming the youngest ruling monarch in the world at that time. Together with his mother, Ntfombi Tfwala, now Queen Mother ("Ndlovukati"), he rules the country as an absolute monarch. Mswati III is known for his practice of polygamy (although at least two wives are appointed by the state) and currently has 15 wives.


title: Mswati III

text: Mswati III was born on 19 April 1968 at Raleigh Fitkin Memorial Hospital, Manzini, the son of Sobhuza II (who had more than 125 wives during his reign of 82 years), and the only child of Ntfombi Tfwala, also known as "Inkhosikati" LaTfwala, one of Sobhuza's younger wives. He was born four months before Eswatini attained independence from the United Kingdom. When he and his mother were discharged from the hospital, they went to live at one of Sobhuza's residences, Etjeni, near the Masundwini royal residence. His birth name was Makhosetive (lit. "Kings of Nations", in reference to the heads of state who visited eSwatini that year for the independence celebrations), and his half-siblings included Mantfombi, a future queen of the South African Zulus.


title: Mswati III

text: As a young prince, Makhosetive attended Masundwini Primary School and later Lozitha Palace School. He sat for the Swaziland Primary Certificate examination in December 1982 at Phondo Royal Residence and received First Class with merit in Mathematics and English. He developed a great interest in the royal guard, becoming the first young cadet to join the Umbutfo Swaziland Defence Force (USDF).


title: Mswati III

text: When King Sobhuza II died on 21 August 1982, the Great Council of State (the "Liqoqo") selected the 14-year-old prince Makhosetive to be the next king. For the next four years, two wives of Sobhuza II, Queen Dzeliwe Shongwe (1982–1983) and Queen Ntfombi Tfwala (1983–1986), served as regent while he continued his education in the United Kingdom, attending Sherborne School (International College), before he was called back to ascend to the throne.


title: Mswati III

text: Mswati was introduced as crown prince in September 1983 and was crowned king on 25 April 1986, aged 18 years and 6 days, thus making him one of the youngest reigning monarchs of the late 20th century, before surpassed by Oyo, who was crowned leader of the Tooro kingdom when only 3 in 1995. The king and his mother, whose title is "Indlovukati" ("Great She-Elephant"), rule jointly.


title: Mswati III

text: Today King Mswati III is Africa's last absolute monarch in the sense that he has the power to choose the prime minister, other top government posts and top traditional posts. Even though he makes the appointments, he still has to get special advice from the queen mother and council, for example when he chooses the prime minister. In matters of cabinet appointments, he gets advice from the prime minister. He ruled by decree, but did restore the nation's Parliament, which had been dissolved by his father in order to ensure concentration of power remained with the king. Parliamentarians are appointed by himself (two-thirds of the senators and ten deputies) or elected by traditional chiefs close to power. Close to the evangelical churches, he banned divorce and the wearing of miniskirts.


title: Mswati III

text: In 2006, Mswati promulgated a new constitution that even though it allows freedom of speech and assembly, is actually restricted in practice, as criticized by Amnesty International.


title: Mswati III

text: In an attempt to mitigate the HIV and AIDS pandemic in 2001, the king used his traditional powers to invoke a time-honoured chastity rite ("umcwasho") under the patronage of a princess, which encouraged all Swazi maidens to abstain from sexual relations for five years. This was last done under Sobhuza II in 1971. This rite banned sexual relations for Swazis under 18 years of age from 9 September 2001 to 19 August 2005, but just two months after imposing the ban, he violated this decree when a 17-year-old "liphovela" (royal fiancée) was chosen, who became his 13th wife. As per custom, he was fined a cow by members of her regiment, which he duly paid.


title: Mswati III

text: Mswati has visited Taiwan seventeen times as of June 2018, and has promised to continue recognizing Taiwan instead of the People's Republic of China.


title: Mswati III

text: Eswatini is predominantly rural and is one of the poorest countries in the world (63% of its population lives below the poverty line). An economic circle of 15,000 businessmen takes most of the country's wealth. This circle includes South African investors who have come to Eswatini to find labour at one-third the cost and a group of white businessmen who are heirs to the British settlers.


title: Mswati III

text: In January 2021, Mswati contracted COVID-19, and later thanked Taiwan for providing antiviral medication that helped with his recovery. Mswati did not disclose that he had been hospitalized until after his recovery.


title: Mswati III

text: In June 2021, the 2021 Eswatini protests broke out against authoritarianism and the suppression of opposition. The Communist Party of Swaziland alleged he had fled to South Africa on the night of 28–29 June, whereas the Swaziland Solidarity Network claimed he fled to Mozambique. Both of these claims were denied by acting prime minister Themba Nhlanganiso Masuku.


title: Mswati III

text: The king currently has 15 wives and 36 children. A Swazi king's first two wives are chosen for him by the national councillors. There are complex rules on succession. Traditionally the king is chosen through his mother as represented in the Swazi saying "Inkhosi, yinkhosi ngenina", meaning "a king is king through his mother". According to tradition, he can marry his fiancées only after they have become pregnant, proving they can bear heirs. Until then, they are termed "liphovela", or "concubines".


title: Mswati III

text: Mswati's reign has brought some changes in the government and political transformation. However, critics such as the People's United Democratic Movement (PUDEMO) believe that these changes are solely aimed at strengthening and perpetuating the traditional order. His attendance at the May 2012 Sovereign Monarchs lunch, to celebrate the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II, caused some controversy, given criticisms of his regime's human rights record.


title: Mswati III

text: Eswatini has been described as having been gripped by years of fiscal indiscipline, government corruption, and lavish lifestyles of the royal family. The nation has also been described as being on the brink of economic disaster due to these factors.


title: Mswati III

text: Mswati's reign has been criticized for its several alleged human rights violations. His regime has been accused of using torture and excessive force to control the masses as well as blatant discrimination against various dissenting groups. His regime has been accused of extrajudicial killings by his forces, along with arbitrary arrests, detentions, and unwarranted searches and seizures of homes and property. His government has restricted freedom of speech, assembly and association, and has harassed activists and journalists. The government has reportedly targeted the LGBT community, labour leaders, and activists against child labour, among other groups. The courts took little or no action to punish Mswati's actions or the officials who committed the abuses.


title: Mswati III

text: Mswati has been accused of kidnapping women he desires to marry, although no case can be brought against him. In addition, in 2000 he allegedly called for a parliamentary meeting to debate if HIV-positive people should be "sterilized and branded".


title: Mswati III

text: Mswati has been criticized for his lavish lifestyle, especially by the media; in one report he was accused of living a luxurious lifestyle while the people of his country starve. In the 2014 national budget, parliament allocated $61 million (US) for the King's annual household budget, while 63% of Swazis live on less than $1.25 per day. Mswati banned photography of his automobiles after he was criticized for purchasing luxury cars, such as a $500,000 DaimlerChrysler Maybach 62. According to the Forbes 2009 list of the World's 15 Richest Royals, King Mswati is worth a reported $200 million. In January 2004 the "Times of Swaziland" reported that the king asked his government to spend about $15-million to redecorate three main palaces and build others for each of his 11 wives. The Prime Minister's Office issued a press statement saying the article in the "Times of Swaziland" was "reckless and untrue" and that the proposal was for the construction of 5 State Houses, not Palaces, and the cost was only €19.9 million. Later that year the go-ahead was given to build five new buildings at a cost of more than $4-million out of public funds. In August 2008, Swazi scouts marched through the capital protesting the cost of a shopping spree taken abroad by nine of the King's thirteen wives. The demonstration was organized by Positive Living, a non-governmental organization for Swazi women living with AIDS.


title: Mswati III

text: Mswati has a personal stake in a large portion of Eswatini's economy which is a factor in its below-average economic growth for a Sub-Saharan nation. As an absolute monarch, he holds the power to dissolve parties, and can veto any legislation parliament passes.


title: Mswati III

text: According to accusations by Amnesty International, Zena Mahlangu, an 18-year-old high school student, disappeared from her school in October 2002. Her mother, Lindiwe Dlamini, learned that her daughter had been taken by two men, Qethuka Sgombeni Dlamini and Tulujani Sikhondze, and she reported the matter to the police. Some time later, she was told that her daughter was at Ludzidzini Royal Village and was being prepared to be the next wife of the king. She demanded that her daughter be returned to her custody, and threatened to sue.


title: Mswati III

text: Among the criteria for a "liphovela" (future bride) is that the girl must not be a twin; Zena Mahlangu was half of a brother-sister twin set, and therefore not eligible. The matter went to the High Court, but Swaziland's Attorney-General Phesheya Dlamini intervened.


title: Mswati III

text: On 19 April 2018, King Mswati III changed the name of the country from Swaziland to Eswatini to mark its 50th anniversary of independence. The name change coincided with the king's birthday. The actual anniversary took place on 6 September, though in the same year. Eswatini is the ancient, original name for the country, chosen as a departure from its colonial past.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Sewage treatment (or domestic wastewater treatment, municipal wastewater treatment) is a type of wastewater treatment which aims to remove contaminants from sewage to produce an effluent that is suitable for discharge to the surrounding environment or an intended reuse application, thereby preventing water pollution from raw sewage discharges. Sewage contains wastewater from households and businesses and possibly pre-treated industrial wastewater. There are a high number of sewage treatment processes to choose from. These can range from decentralized systems (including on-site treatment systems) to large centralized systems involving a network of pipes and pump stations (called sewerage) which convey the sewage to a treatment plant. For cities that have a combined sewer, the sewers will also carry urban runoff (stormwater) to the sewage treatment plant. Sewage treatment often involves two main stages, called primary and secondary treatment, while advanced treatment also incorporates a tertiary treatment stage with polishing processes and nutrient removal. Secondary treatment can reduce organic matter (measured as biological oxygen demand) from sewage,  using aerobic or anaerobic biological processes.


title: Sewage treatment

text: A large number of sewage treatment technologies have been developed, mostly using biological treatment processes. Engineers and decision makers need to take into account technical and economical criteria, as well as quantitative and qualitative aspects of each alternative when choosing a suitable technology. Often, the main criteria for selection are: desired effluent quality, expected construction and operating costs, availability of land, energy requirements and sustainability aspects. In developing countries and in rural areas with low population densities, sewage is often treated by various on-site sanitation systems and not conveyed in sewers. These systems include septic tanks connected to drain fields, on-site sewage systems (OSS), vermifilter systems and many more. On the other hand, advanced and relatively expensive sewage treatment plants in cities that can afford them may include tertiary treatment with disinfection and possibly even a fourth treatment stage to remove micropollutants.


title: Sewage treatment

text: At the global level, an estimated 52% of sewage is treated. However, sewage treatment rates are highly unequal for different countries around the world. For example, while high-income countries treat approximately 74% of their sewage, developing countries treat an average of just 4.2%.


title: Sewage treatment

text: The treatment of sewage is part of the field of sanitation. Sanitation also includes the management of human waste and solid waste as well as stormwater (drainage) management. The term "sewage treatment plant" is often used interchangeably with the term "wastewater treatment plant".


title: Sewage treatment

text: The term "sewage treatment plant" (STP) (or "sewage treatment works" in some countries) is nowadays often replaced with the term wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). Strictly speaking, the latter is a broader term that can also refer to industrial wastewater.


title: Sewage treatment

text: The overall aim of treating sewage is to produce an effluent that can be discharged to the environment while causing as little water pollution as possible, or to produce an effluent that can be reused in a useful manner. This is achieved by removing contaminants from the sewage. It is a form of waste management.


title: Sewage treatment

text: With regards to biological treatment of sewage, the treatment objectives can include various degrees of the following: transform dissolved and particulate biodegradable components (especially organic matter) into acceptable end products, transform and remove nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), remove or inactivate pathogenic organisms, and remove specific trace organic constituents (micropollutants).


title: Sewage treatment

text: Some types of sewage treatment produce sewage sludge which can be treated before safe disposal or reuse. Under certain circumstances, the treated sewage sludge might be termed "biosolids" and can be used as a fertilizer.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Sewage can be treated close to where the sewage is created, which may be called a "decentralized" system or even an "on-site" system (on-site sewage facility, septic tanks, etc.). Alternatively, sewage can be collected and transported by a network of pipes and pump stations to a municipal treatment plant. This is called a "centralized" system (see also sewerage and pipes and infrastructure).


title: Sewage treatment

text: A large number of sewage treatment technologies have been developed, mostly using biological treatment processes (see list of wastewater treatment technologies). Very broadly, they can be grouped into high tech (high cost) versus low tech (low cost) options, although some technologies might fall into either category. Other grouping classifications are "intensive" or "mechanized" systems (more compact, and frequently employing high tech options) versus "extensive" or "natural" or "nature-based" systems (usually using natural treatment processes and occupying larger areas) systems. This classification may be sometimes oversimplified, because a treatment plant may involve a combination of processes, and the interpretation of the concepts of high tech and low tech, intensive and extensive, mechanized and natural processes may vary from place to place.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Examples for more low-tech, "natural", often less expensive sewage treatment systems are shown below. They often use little or no energy. Some of these systems do not provide a high level of treatment, or only treat part of the sewage (for example only the toilet wastewater), or they only provide pre-treatment, like septic tanks. On the other hand, some systems are capable of providing a good performance, satisfactory for several applications. Many of these systems are based on natural treatment processes, requiring large areas, while others are more compact. In most cases, they are used in rural areas or in small to medium-sized communities. For example, waste stabilization ponds are a low cost treatment option with practically no energy requirements but they require a lot of land. Due to their technical simplicity, most of the savings (compared with high tech systems) are in terms of operation and maintenance costs.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Examples for more high-tech, intensive or "mechanized", often relatively expensive sewage treatment systems are listed below. Some of them are energy intensive as well. Many of them provide a very high level of treatment. For example, broadly speaking, the activated sludge process achieves a high effluent quality but is relatively expensive and energy intensive.


title: Sewage treatment

text: There are other process options which may be classified as disposal options, although they can also be understood as basic treatment options. These include: Application of sludge, irrigation, soak pit, leach field, fish pond, floating plant pond, water disposal/groundwater recharge, surface disposal and storage.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Application of sewage to land can be considered as a form of final disposal or of treatment, or both. It leads to groundwater recharge and/or to evapotranspiration. Land application include slow-rate systems, rapid infiltration, subsurface infiltration, overland flow. It is done by flooding, furrows, sprinkler and dripping. It is a treatment/disposal system that requires a large amount of land per person.


title: Sewage treatment

text: The "per person organic matter load" is a parameter used in the design of sewage treatment plants. This concept is known as population equivalent (PE). The base value used for PE can vary from one country to another. Commonly used definitions used worldwide are: 1 PE equates to 60 gram of BOD per person per day, and it also equals 200 liters of sewage per day. This concept is also used as a comparison parameter to express the strength of industrial wastewater compared to sewage.


title: Sewage treatment

text: When choosing a suitable sewage treatment process, decision makers need to take into account technical and economical criteria, as well as quantitative and qualitative aspects of each alternative. Therefore, each analysis is site-specific. A life cycle assessment (LCA) can be used, and criteria or weightings can be attributed to the various aspects. The final decision may have a degree of subjectivity. A range of publications exist to help with technology selection.


title: Sewage treatment

text: In industrialized countries, the critical items in process selection are, in decreasing order of importance: efficiency, reliability, sludge disposal aspects and land requirements. In developing countries, the main critical items might be different and revolve more around construction costs, sustainability, simplicity and operational costs.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Choosing the most suitable treatment process is complicated and requires expert inputs, often in the form of feasibility studies. This is because the main important factors to be considered when evaluating and selecting sewage treatment processes are numerous: process applicability, applicable flow, acceptable flow variation, influent characteristics, inhibiting or refractory compounds, climatic aspects, process kinetics and reactor hydraulics, performance, treatment residuals, sludge processing, environmental constraints, chemical product requirements, energy requirements, requirements of other resources, personnel requirements, operating and maintenance requirements, ancillary processes, reliability, complexity, compatibility, area availability.


title: Sewage treatment

text: With regards to environmental impacts the following aspects are included in the selection process: Odors, vector attraction, sludge transportation, sanitary risks, air contamination, soil and subsoil contamination, surface water pollution or groundwater contamination, devaluation of nearby areas, inconvenience to the nearby population.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Odors emitted by sewage treatment are typically an indication of an anaerobic or "septic" condition. Early stages of processing will tend to produce foul-smelling gases, with hydrogen sulfide being most common in generating complaints. Large process plants in urban areas will often treat the odors with carbon reactors, a contact media with bio-slimes, small doses of chlorine, or circulating fluids to biologically capture and metabolize the noxious gases. Other methods of odor control exist, including addition of iron salts, hydrogen peroxide, calcium nitrate, etc. to manage hydrogen sulfide levels.


title: Sewage treatment

text: The energy requirements vary with type of treatment process as well as sewage strength. For example, constructed wetlands and stabilization ponds have low energy requirements, associated mainly with the occasional presence of pumps and other equipment. On the other hand, the activated sludge process includes an aeration step, which is highly energy consuming. Sewage treatment plants that produce biogas in their sewage sludge treatment process with anaerobic digestion can produce enough energy to meet most of the energy needs of the sewage treatment plant itself. For activated sludge treatment plants in the United States, around 30 percent of the annual operating costs is usually required for energy. Most of this electricity is used for aeration, pumping systems and equipment for the dewatering and drying of sewage sludge. Advanced sewage treatment plants, e.g. for nutrient removal, require more energy than plants that only achieve primary or secondary treatment.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Small rural plants using trickling filters may operate with no net energy requirements, the whole process being driven by gravitational flow, including tipping bucket flow distribution and the desludging of settlement tanks to drying beds. This is usually only practical in hilly terrain and in areas where the treatment plant is relatively remote from housing because of the difficulty in managing odors.


title: Sewage treatment

text: In highly regulated developed countries, industrial wastewater usually receives at least pretreatment if not full treatment at the factories themselves to reduce the pollutant load, before discharge to the sewer. The pretreatment has the following aims: to remove constituents that may pose risks to the sewerage system and its workers; prevent toxic or inhibitory compounds to the microorganisms in the biological stage in the municipal treatment plant; hinder beneficial use of the produced sewage sludge; or that will still be present in the final effluent from the treatment plant. Some industrial wastewater may contain pollutants which cannot be removed by sewage treatment plants. Also, variable flow of industrial waste associated with production cycles may upset the population dynamics of biological treatment units.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Urban residents in many parts of the world rely on on-site sanitation systems without sewers, such as septic tanks and pit latrines, and fecal sludge management in these cities is an enormous challenge.


title: Sewage treatment

text: For sewage treatment the use of septic tanks and other on-site sewage facilities (OSSF) is widespread in some rural areas, for example serving up to 20 percent of the homes in the U.S.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Sewage treatment often involves two main stages, called primary and secondary treatment, while advanced treatment also incorporates a tertiary treatment stage with polishing processes. Different types of sewage treatment may utilize some or all of the process steps listed below.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Preliminary treatment (sometimes called pretreatment) removes coarse materials that can be easily collected from the raw sewage before they damage or clog the pumps and sewage lines of primary treatment clarifiers.


title: Sewage treatment

text: The influent in sewage water passes through a bar screen to remove all large objects like cans, rags, sticks, plastic packets, etc. carried in the sewage stream. This is most commonly done with an automated mechanically raked bar screen in modern plants serving large populations, while in smaller or less modern plants, a manually cleaned screen may be used. The raking action of a mechanical bar screen is typically paced according to the accumulation on the bar screens and/or flow rate. The solids are collected and later disposed in a landfill, or incinerated. Bar screens or mesh screens of varying sizes may be used to optimize solids removal. If gross solids are not removed, they become entrained in pipes and moving parts of the treatment plant, and can cause substantial damage and inefficiency in the process.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Grit consists of sand, gravel, rocks, and other heavy materials. Preliminary treatment may include a sand or grit removal channel or chamber, where the velocity of the incoming sewage is reduced to allow the settlement of grit. Grit removal is necessary to (1) reduce formation of deposits in primary sedimentation tanks, aeration tanks, anaerobic digesters, pipes, channels, etc. (2) reduce the frequency of tank cleaning caused by excessive accumulation of grit; and (3) protect moving mechanical equipment from abrasion and accompanying abnormal wear. The removal of grit is essential for equipment with closely machined metal surfaces such as comminutors, fine screens, centrifuges, heat exchangers, and high pressure diaphragm pumps.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Grit chambers come in three types: horizontal grit chambers, aerated grit chambers, and vortex grit chambers. Vortex grit chambers include mechanically induced vortex, hydraulically induced vortex, and multi-tray vortex separators. Given that traditionally, grit removal systems have been designed to remove clean inorganic particles that are greater than , most of the finer grit passes through the grit removal flows under normal conditions. During periods of high flow deposited grit is resuspended and the quantity of grit reaching the treatment plant increases substantially. It is therefore important that the grit removal system not only operates efficiently during normal flow conditions but also under sustained peak flows when the greatest volume of grit reaches the plant.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Equalization basins can be used to achieve flow equalization, with the aim to reduce peak dry-weather flows or peak wet-weather flows in the case of combined sewer systems. The benefits are performance improvements of the biological treatment processes, the secondary clarifiers and any effluent filtration equipment. Disadvantages include the basins' capital cost and space requirements. Basins can also provide a place to temporarily hold, dilute and distribute batch discharges of toxic or high-strength wastewater which might otherwise inhibit biological secondary treatment (such was wastewater from portable toilets or fecal sludge that is brought to the sewage treatment plant in vacuum trucks). Flow equalization basins require variable discharge control, typically include provisions for bypass and cleaning, and may also include aerators and odor control.


title: Sewage treatment

text: In some larger plants, fat and grease are removed by passing the sewage through a small tank where skimmers collect the fat floating on the surface. Air blowers in the base of the tank may also be used to help recover the fat as a froth. Many plants, however, use primary clarifiers with mechanical surface skimmers for fat and grease removal.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Primary treatment is the "removal of a portion of the suspended solids and organic matter from the sewage".It consists of allowing sewage to pass slowly through a basin where heavy solids can settle to the bottom while oil, grease and lighter solids float to the surface and are skimmed off. These basis are called "primary sedimentation tanks" or "primary clarifiers" and typically have a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 1.5 to 2.5 hours. The settled and floating materials are removed and the remaining liquid may be discharged or subjected to secondary treatment. Primary settling tanks are usually equipped with mechanically driven scrapers that continually drive the collected sludge towards a hopper in the base of the tank where it is pumped to sludge treatment facilities.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Sewage treatment plants that are connected to a combined sewer system sometimes have a bypass arrangement after the primary treatment unit. This means that during very heavy rainfall events, the secondary and tertiary treatment systems can be bypassed to protect them from hydraulic overloading, and the mixture of sewage and storm-water receives primary treatment only.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Primary sedimentation tanks can be expected to remove 50–70% of the suspended solids and 25–40% of the biological oxygen demand (BOD).


title: Sewage treatment

text: The main processes involved in secondary sewage treatment are designed to remove as much of the solid material as possible. They use biological processes to digest and remove the remaining soluble material, especially the organic fraction. This can be done with either suspended-growth or biofilm processes. The microorganisms that feed on the organic matter present in the sewage grow and multiply, constituting the biological solids, or biomass. These grow and group together in the form of flocs or biofilms and, in some specific processes, as granules. In several treatment processes, the biological floc or biofilm and remaining fine solids can then be settled as a sludge, leaving a liquid substantially free of solids, and with a greatly reduced concentration of pollutants.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Secondary treatment can reduce organic matter (measured as biological oxygen demand) from sewage,  using aerobic or anaerobic processes. The organisms involved in these processes are sensitive to the presence of toxic materials, although these are not expected to be present at high concentrations in typical municipal sewage.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Advanced sewage treatment generally involves three main stages, called primary, secondary and tertiary treatment but may also include intermediate stages and final polishing processes. The purpose of tertiary treatment (also called "advanced treatment") is to provide a final treatment stage to further improve the effluent quality before it is discharged to the receiving water body or reused. More than one tertiary treatment process may be used at any treatment plant. If disinfection is practiced, it is always the final process. It is also called "effluent polishing". Tertiary treatment may include biological nutrient removal (alternatively, this can be classified as secondary treatment), disinfection and removal of micropollutants, such as environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Tertiary treatment is sometimes defined as anything more than primary and secondary treatment in order to allow discharge into a highly sensitive or fragile ecosystem such as estuaries, low-flow rivers or coral reefs. Treated water is sometimes disinfected chemically or physically (for example, by lagoons and microfiltration) prior to discharge into a stream, river, bay, lagoon or wetland, or it can be used for the irrigation of a golf course, greenway or park. If it is sufficiently clean, it can also be used for groundwater recharge or agricultural purposes.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Sand filtration removes much of the residual suspended matter. Filtration over activated carbon, also called "carbon adsorption," removes residual toxins. Micro filtration or synthetic membranes are also used, for example in membrane bioreactors which also remove pathogens.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Settlement and further biological improvement of treated sewage may be achieved through storage in large human-made ponds or lagoons. These lagoons are highly aerobic, and colonization by native macrophytes, especially reeds, is often encouraged.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Disinfection of treated sewage may be attempted to kill pathogens (disease-causing microorganisms) prior to disposal, and is increasingly effective after more elements of the foregoing treatment sequence have been completed. The purpose of disinfection in the treatment of sewage is to substantially reduce the number of pathogens in the water to be discharged back into the environment or to be reused. The effectiveness of disinfection depends on the quality of the water being treated (e.g. turbidity, pH, etc.), the type of disinfection being used, the disinfectant dosage (concentration and time), and other environmental variables. Water with high turbidity will be treated less successfully, since solid matter can shield organisms, especially from ultraviolet light or if contact times are low. Generally, short contact times, low doses and high flows all militate against effective disinfection. Common methods of disinfection include ozone, chlorine, ultraviolet light, or sodium hypochlorite. Monochloramine, which is used for drinking water, is not used in the treatment of sewage because of its persistence.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Chlorination remains the most common form of treated sewage disinfection in many countries due to its low cost and long-term history of effectiveness. One disadvantage is that chlorination of residual organic material can generate chlorinated-organic compounds that may be carcinogenic or harmful to the environment. Residual chlorine or chloramines may also be capable of chlorinating organic material in the natural aquatic environment. Further, because residual chlorine is toxic to aquatic species, the treated effluent must also be chemically dechlorinated, adding to the complexity and cost of treatment.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Ultraviolet (UV) light can be used instead of chlorine, iodine, or other chemicals. Because no chemicals are used, the treated water has no adverse effect on organisms that later consume it, as may be the case with other methods. UV radiation causes damage to the genetic structure of bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens, making them incapable of reproduction. The key disadvantages of UV disinfection are the need for frequent lamp maintenance and replacement and the need for a highly treated effluent to ensure that the target microorganisms are not shielded from the UV radiation (i.e., any solids present in the treated effluent may protect microorganisms from the UV light). In many countries, UV light is becoming the most common means of disinfection because of the concerns about the impacts of chlorine in chlorinating residual organics in the treated sewage and in chlorinating organics in the receiving water.


title: Sewage treatment

text: As with UV treatment, heat sterilization also does not add chemicals to the water being treated. However, unlike UV, heat can penetrate liquids that are not transparent. Heat disinfection can also penetrate solid materials within wastewater, sterilizing their contents. Thermal effluent decontamination systems provide low resource, low maintenance effluent decontamination once installed.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Ozone () is generated by passing oxygen () through a high voltage potential resulting in a third oxygen atom becoming attached and forming . Ozone is very unstable and reactive and oxidizes most organic material it comes in contact with, thereby destroying many pathogenic microorganisms. Ozone is considered to be safer than chlorine because, unlike chlorine which has to be stored on site (highly poisonous in the event of an accidental release), ozone is generated on-site as needed from the oxygen in the ambient air. Ozonation also produces fewer disinfection by-products than chlorination. A disadvantage of ozone disinfection is the high cost of the ozone generation equipment and the requirements for special operators. Ozone sewage treatment requires the use of an ozone generator, which decontaminates the water as ozone bubbles percolate through the tank.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Membranes can also be effective disinfectants, because they act as barriers, avoiding the passage of the microorganisms. As a result, the final effluent may be devoid of pathogenic organisms, depending on the type of membrane used. This principle is applied in membrane bioreactors.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Sewage may contain high levels of the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus. Typical values for nutrient loads per person and nutrient concentrations in raw sewage in developing countries have been published as follows: 8 g/person/d for total nitrogen (45 mg/L), 4.5 g/person/d for ammonia-N (25 mg/L) and 1.0 g/person/d for total phosphorus (7 mg/L). The typical ranges for these values are: 6-10 g/person/d for total nitrogen (35-60 mg/L), 3.5-6 g/person/d for ammonia-N (20-35 mg/L) and 0.7-2.5 g/person/d for total phosphorus (4-15 mg/L).


title: Sewage treatment

text: Excessive release to the environment can lead to nutrient pollution, which can manifest itself in eutrophication. This process can lead to algal blooms, a rapid growth, and later decay, in the population of algae. In addition to causing deoxygenation, some algal species produce toxins that contaminate drinking water supplies.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Ammonia nitrogen, in the form of free ammonia (NH) is toxic to fish. Ammonia nitrogen, when converted to nitrite and further to nitrate in a water body, in the process of nitrification, is associated with the consumption of dissolved oxygen. Nitrite and nitrate may also have public health significance if concentrations are high in drinking water, because of a disease called metahemoglobinemia.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Phosphorus removal is important as phosphorus is a limiting nutrient for algae growth in many fresh water systems. Therefore, an excess of phosphorus can lead to eutrophication. It is also particularly important for water reuse systems where high phosphorus concentrations may lead to fouling of downstream equipment such as reverse osmosis.


title: Sewage treatment

text: A range of treatment processes are available to remove nitrogen and phosphorus. Biological nutrient removal (BNR) is regarded by some as a type of secondary treatment process, and by others as a tertiary (or "advanced") treatment process.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Nitrogen is removed through the biological oxidation of nitrogen from ammonia to nitrate (nitrification), followed by denitrification, the reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas. Nitrogen gas is released to the atmosphere and thus removed from the water.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Nitrification itself is a two-step aerobic process, each step facilitated by a different type of bacteria. The oxidation of ammonia (NH) to nitrite (NO) is most often facilitated by bacteria such as "Nitrosomonas" spp. ("nitroso" referring to the formation of a nitroso functional group). Nitrite oxidation to nitrate (NO), though traditionally believed to be facilitated by "Nitrobacter" spp. (nitro referring the formation of a nitro functional group), is now known to be facilitated in the environment predominantly by "Nitrospira" spp.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Denitrification requires anoxic conditions to encourage the appropriate biological communities to form. "Anoxic conditions" refers to a situation where oxygen is absent but nitrate is present. Denitrification is facilitated by a wide diversity of bacteria. The activated sludge process, sand filters, waste stabilization ponds, constructed wetlands and other processes can all be used to reduce nitrogen. Since denitrification is the reduction of nitrate to dinitrogen (molecular nitrogen) gas, an electron donor is needed. This can be, depending on the wastewater, organic matter (from the sewage itself), sulfide, or an added donor like methanol. The sludge in the anoxic tanks (denitrification tanks) must be mixed well (mixture of recirculated mixed liquor, return activated sludge, and raw influent) e.g. by using submersible mixers in order to achieve the desired denitrification.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Over time, different treatment configurations for activated sludge processes have evolved to achieve high levels of nitrogen removal. An initial scheme, the Ludzack–Ettinger Process, placed an anoxic treatment zone before the aeration tank and clarifier, using the return activated sludge (RAS) from the clarifier as a nitrate source. The sewage (either raw or as effluent from primary clarification) serves as the electron source for the facultative bacteria to metabolize carbon, using the inorganic nitrate as a source of oxygen instead of dissolved molecular oxygen. This denitrification scheme was naturally limited to the amount of soluble nitrate present in the RAS. Nitrate reduction was limited because RAS rate is limited by the performance of the clarifier.


title: Sewage treatment

text: The "Modified Ludzak–Ettinger Process" (MLE) is an improvement on the original concept, for it recycles mixed liquor from the discharge end of the aeration tank to the head of the anoxic tank to provide a consistent source of soluble nitrate for the facultative bacteria. In this instance, raw sewage continues to provide the electron source, and sub-surface mixing maintains the bacteria in contact with both electron source and soluble nitrate in the absence of dissolved oxygen.


title: Sewage treatment

text: There are other process configurations, including anoxic tanks before and after the aeration tanks, such as variations of the Bardenpho process.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Studies of United States sewage in the late 1960s estimated mean per capita contributions of in urine and feces, in synthetic detergents, and lesser variable amounts used as corrosion and scale control chemicals in water supplies. Source control via alternative detergent formulations has subsequently reduced the largest contribution, but naturally the phosphorus content of urine and feces remained unchanged.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Phosphorus can be removed biologically in a process called enhanced biological phosphorus removal. In this process, specific bacteria, called polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (PAOs), are selectively enriched and accumulate large quantities of phosphorus within their cells (up to 20 percent of their mass).


title: Sewage treatment

text: Phosphorus removal can also be achieved by chemical precipitation, usually with salts of iron (e.g. ferric chloride) or aluminum (e.g. alum), or lime. This may lead to a higher sludge production as hydroxides precipitate and the added chemicals can be expensive. Chemical phosphorus removal requires significantly smaller equipment footprint than biological removal, is easier to operate and is often more reliable than biological phosphorus removal. Another method for phosphorus removal is to use granular laterite or zeolite.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Some systems use both biological phosphorus removal and chemical phosphorus removal. The chemical phosphorus removal in those systems may be used as a backup system, for use when the biological phosphorus removal is not removing enough phosphorus, or may be used continuously. In either case, using both biological and chemical phosphorus removal has the advantage of not increasing sludge production as much as chemical phosphorus removal on its own, with the disadvantage of the increased initial cost associated with installing two different systems.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Once removed, phosphorus, in the form of a phosphate-rich sewage sludge, may be sent to landfill or used as fertilizer in admixture with other digested sewage sludges. In the latter case, the treated sewage sludge is also sometimes referred to as biosolids. 22% of the world's phosphorus needs could be satisfied by recycling residential wastewater.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Micropollutants such as pharmaceuticals, ingredients of household chemicals, chemicals used in small businesses or industries, environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants (EPPP) or pesticides may not be eliminated in the commonly used sewage treatment processes (primary, secondary and tertiary treatment) and therefore lead to water pollution. Although concentrations of those substances and their decomposition products are quite low, there is still a chance of harming aquatic organisms. For pharmaceuticals, the following substances have been identified as "toxicologically relevant": substances with endocrine disrupting effects, genotoxic substances and substances that enhance the development of bacterial resistances. They mainly belong to the group of EPPP.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Techniques for elimination of micropollutants via a fourth treatment stage during sewage treatment are implemented in Germany, Switzerland, Sweden and the Netherlands and tests are ongoing in several other countries. Such process steps mainly consist of activated carbon filters that adsorb the micropollutants. The combination of advanced oxidation with ozone followed by granular activated carbon (GAC) has been suggested as a cost-effective treatment combination for pharmaceutical residues. For a full reduction of microplasts the combination of ultrafiltration followed by GAC has been suggested. Also the use of enzymes such as laccase secreted by fungi is under investigation. Microbial biofuel cells are investigated for their property to treat organic matter in sewage.


title: Sewage treatment

text: To reduce pharmaceuticals in water bodies, "source control" measures are also under investigation, such as innovations in drug development or more responsible handling of drugs. In the US, the National Take Back Initiative is a voluntary program with the general public, encouraging people to return excess or expired drugs, and avoid flushing them to the sewage system.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Sewage treatment plants can have significant effects on the biotic status of receiving waters and can cause some water pollution, especially if the treatment process used is only basic. For example, for sewage treatment plants without nutrient removal, eutrophication of receiving water bodies can be a problem.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Increasingly, people use treated or even untreated sewage for irrigation to produce crops. Cities provide lucrative markets for fresh produce, so are attractive to farmers. Because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce water resources with industry and municipal users, there is often no alternative for farmers but to use water polluted with sewage directly to water their crops. There can be significant health hazards related to using water loaded with pathogens in this way. The World Health Organization developed guidelines for safe use of wastewater in 2006. They advocate a ‘multiple-barrier’ approach to wastewater use, where farmers are encouraged to adopt various risk-reducing behaviors. These include ceasing irrigation a few days before harvesting to allow pathogens to die off in the sunlight, applying water carefully so it does not contaminate leaves likely to be eaten raw, cleaning vegetables with disinfectant or allowing fecal sludge used in farming to dry before being used as a human manure.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Before the 20th century in Europe, sewers usually discharged into a body of water such as a river, lake, or ocean. There was no treatment, so the breakdown of the human waste was left to the ecosystem. This could lead to satisfactory results if the assimilative capacity of the ecosystem is sufficient which is nowadays not often the case due to increasing population density.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Today, the situation in urban areas of industrialized countries is usually that sewers route their contents to a sewage treatment plant rather than directly to a body of water. In many developing countries, however, the bulk of municipal and industrial wastewater is discharged to rivers and the ocean without any treatment or after preliminary treatment or primary treatment only. Doing so can lead to water pollution. Few reliable figures exist on the share of the wastewater collected in sewers that is being treated in the world. A global estimate by UNDP and UN-Habitat in 2010 was that 90% of all wastewater generated is released into the environment untreated. A more recent study in 2021 estimated that globally, about 52% of sewage is treated. However, sewage treatment rates are highly unequal for different countries around the world. For example, while high-income countries treat approximately 74% of their sewage, developing countries treat an average of just 4.2%. As of 2022, without sufficient treatment, more than 80% of all wastewater generated globally is released into the environment. High-income nations treat, on average, 70% of the wastewater they produce, according to UN Water. Only 8% of wastewater produced in low-income nations receives any sort of treatment.


title: Sewage treatment

text: The Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation by WHO and UNICEF report in 2021 that 82% of people with sewer connections are connected to sewage treatment plants providing at least secondary treatment.However, this value varies widely between regions. For example in Europe, North America, Northern Africa and Western Asia, a total of 31 countries had universal (>99%) wastewater treatment. However, in Albania, Bermuda, North Macedonia and Serbia "less than 50% of sewered wastewater received secondary or better treatment" and in Algeria, Lebanon and Libya the value was less than 20% of sewered wastewater that wasbeing treated. The report also found that "globally, 594 million people have sewer connections that don’t receive sufficient treatment. Many more are connected to wastewater treatment plants that do not provide effective treatment or comply with effluent requirements.".


title: Sewage treatment

text: In October 2021, British Members of Parliament voted to continue allowing untreated sewage from combined sewer overflows to be released into waterways.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Sustainable Development Goal 6 has a Target 6.3 which is formulated as follows: "By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally." The corresponding Indicator 6.3.1 is the "proportion of wastewater safely treated". It is anticipated that wastewater production would rise by 24% by 2030 and by 51% by 2050.


title: Sewage treatment

text: Data in 2020 showed that there is still too much uncollected household wastewater: Only 66% of all household wastewater flows were collected at treatment facilities in 2020 (this is determined from data from 128 countries). Based on data from 42 countries in 2015, the report stated that "32 per cent of all wastewater flows generated from point sources received at least some treatment". For sewage that has indeed been collected at centralized sewage treatment plants, about 79% went on to be safely treated in 2020.


title: Sewage treatment

text: The history of sewage treatment had the following developments: It began with land application (sewage farms) in the 1840s in England, followed by chemical treatment and sedimentation of sewage in tanks, then biological treatment the late 19th century, which led to the development of the activated sludge process starting in 1912.


title: Sewage treatment

text: In most countries, sewage collection and treatment are subject to local and national regulations and standards.


title: Sewage treatment

text: In the European Union, 0.8% of total energy consumption goes to wastewater treatment facilities. The European Union needs to make extra investments of €90 billion in the water and waste sector to meet its 2030 climate and energy goals. An estimated 60–70% of wastewater's potential value is still untapped (that is, heat, energy, nutrients, minerals, metals, chemicals, etc.).


title: Sewage treatment

text: The 'Delhi Jal Board' (DJB) is currently operating on the construction of the largest sewage treatment plant in India. It will be operational by the end of 2022 with an estimated capacity of 564 MLD. It is supposed to solve the existing situation wherein untreated sewage water is being discharged directly into the river ‘Yamuna’.


title: Bald and Bankrupt

text: Bald and Bankrupt is an English travel vlog Youtube channel operated by Benjamin Rich (born 1 July 1974), Rich is better known as Mr. Bald on his YouTube channel. As of December 2022, the channel had 3.7 million subscribers and 539 million views.


title: Bald and Bankrupt

text: The defining characteristic of Rich's channel is his interest in the post-Soviet states. However, he first started vlogging from India after filing for bankruptcy in the UK due to a failed business venture, which (alongside his shaved head) inspired the name of his channel. Ever since he ventured into Eastern Europe, the attention to his videos has increased.


title: Bald and Bankrupt

text: On 12 April 2018, under the pen name Arthur Chichester, Rich released the book "The Burning Edge: Travelling Through Irradiated Belarus" about his experiences travelling through the parts of Belarus affected by the Chernobyl disaster.


title: Bald and Bankrupt

text: Rich's video about a trip to Patamanta in Bolivia was reported by "Gizmodo Español" as "more scary than entering Chernobyl". In the video, he informed a local woman that he was a tourist, prompting her to warn him that "they burn people" in the area. Two men later approached Rich, inspected his passport, and gave him 30 minutes to explore and leave the area.


title: Bald and Bankrupt

text: Following a November 2019 video filmed on a train to Chechnya, Rich was forced to apologize on camera by Chechen authorities for referring to a Chechen woman as a "chick", which the Chechen authorities claimed was disparaging.


title: Bald and Bankrupt

text: In May 2020, after exploring no-lockdown areas during the COVID-19 pandemic in Serbia, Rich disappeared for two months. He later revealed that he had caught COVID-19, and that he could not walk to the bathroom or breathe by the time he sought medical attention. He learned that he had low blood oxygen and was suffering from multiple organ failure before spending a week in an intensive care unit. After uploading a video about his illness, treatment, and recovery, he urged fans not to make the same mistakes and to take the virus seriously.


title: Bald and Bankrupt

text: On 7 May 2022, Rich was allegedly arrested for unsanctioned entry to a guarded site, an administrative offence that was punished with a fine of up to 5,000 rubles. Rich denied the reports and stated he was fined by Russian police after being questioned for a few hours for going to see the "Buran" spaceplane without permission.


title: Bald and Bankrupt

text: On 1 September 2022, Rich posted a vlog to his Bald and Bankrupt YouTube channel announcing he had been arrested and subsequently ordered to leave Russia; he announced that it would be his final video covering travels through Russia, as he had been banned from returning. He previously called Vladimir Putin "crazy" and posted a link to fundraise for Ukraine.


title: Bald and Bankrupt

text: Rich's content has attracted coverage in various national media, particularly publications in the towns and regions he visits. New Delhi publication "The New Learn" reported on Rich's travels in India in January 2019. They praised his visits to refugee camps for Hindus in North Delhi stranded after the crisis in Pakistan, describing his videos as "introducing the world to an India that is real and authentic, where people still open up their lunch boxes to strangers, where tea is the beginning of lifelong associations, where trust means more than money and where there is vibrancy everywhere".


title: Bald and Bankrupt

text: In March 2019, "Hindustan Times" reported on how he exposed scams against tourists in Delhi Airport, from inflated prices to rickshaw drivers and false claims. In June 2019, Rich was discussed in the Slovak press for his visit to Luník IX, which he described as "Europe's largest poor Roma neighbourhood". The article described how, despite warnings about the estate being among the most dangerous in Europe, he was welcomed by local people who spoke fluent English and invited him to their homes, which he described as "better than [his] apartment in Britain". Swedish YouTube personality PewDiePie stated in a July 2019 episode of the YouTube podcast series Cold Ones that Bald and Bankrupt is his favourite YouTube channel.


title: Bald and Bankrupt

text: "Afisha Daily" journalist Lyubava Zaitseva wrote about Rich's choice of Russian destinations in September 2019, stating that even its Russian readers had "not seen such Russia" and praising him for "trying to distance himself from tourist places" and showing cities "from the inside, communicating with local residents".


title: James MacArthur

text: James Gordon MacArthur (December 8, 1937 – October 28, 2010) was an American actor with a long career in both movies and television. MacArthur's early work was predominantly in supporting roles in films. Later, he had a starring role as Danny "Danno" Williams, the reliable second-in-command of the fictional Hawaii State Police in the long-running television series "Hawaii Five-O".


title: James MacArthur

text: Born in Los Angeles, MacArthur was the adopted son of playwright Charles MacArthur and his wife, actress Helen Hayes. He grew up in Nyack, New York, along with his elder sister, the MacArthurs' biological daughter Mary, who died of polio in 1949. He was educated at Allen-Stevenson School in New York, and later at the Solebury School in New Hope, Pennsylvania, where he starred in basketball, football, and baseball.


title: James MacArthur

text: In his final year at Solebury, MacArthur played guard on the football team; captained the basketball team; was president of his class, the student government, and the drama club; rewrote the school's constitution; edited the school paper, "The Scribe"; and played Scrooge in a local presentation of "A Christmas Carol". He also started dating a fellow student, future actress Joyce Bulifant; they were married in November 1958 and divorced nine years later.


title: James MacArthur

text: MacArthur grew up among people of literary and theatrical talent. Lillian Gish was his godmother, and his family's guests included John Steinbeck, John Barrymore, Harpo Marx, Ben Hecht, Beatrice Lillie, and the humorist Robert Benchley (whose grandson, Jaws-author Peter Benchley, was three years behind James at Allen-Stevenson).


title: James MacArthur

text: His first radio role was on the "Theatre Guild on the Air", in 1948. It was the premier radio program of its day, producing one-hour plays that were performed in front of a live audience of 800. Hayes accepted a role in one of the plays, which also had a small role for a child. Her son was asked if he would like to do it and he agreed.


title: James MacArthur

text: MacArthur made his stage debut at Olney, Maryland in 1949 with a two-week stint in "The Corn Is Green". His sister Mary was in the play and telephoned their mother to request that James go to Olney to be in it too. The following summer, he repeated the role at Dennis, Massachusetts, and his theatrical career was underway.


title: James MacArthur

text: In 1954, he played John Day in "Life with Father" with Howard Lindsay and Dorothy Stickney. He became involved in important Broadway productions only after receiving his training in summer stock theatre.


title: James MacArthur

text: He worked as a set painter, lighting director, and chief of the parking lot. During a Helen Hayes festival at the Falmouth Playhouse on Cape Cod, he had a few walk-on parts. He also helped the theatre electrician and grew so interested that he was allowed to stay on after his mother's plays had ended. As a result, he lit the show for Barbara Bel Geddes in "The Little Hut" and for Gloria Vanderbilt in "The Swan".


title: James MacArthur

text: In 1955, at the age of 18, he played Hal Ditmar in the television play, '"Deal a Blow," an episode of the series "Climax!" directed by John Frankenheimer and starring Macdonald Carey, Phyllis Thaxter, and Edward Arnold. The critical response was excellent, with the "New York Times" saying he "performed splendidly."


title: James MacArthur

text: The following year Frankenheimer directed the movie version of the play, which was renamed "The Young Stranger" (1957), with MacArthur again in the starring role. Again, his performance was critically acclaimed, earning him a nomination for Most Promising Newcomer at the 1958 BAFTA awards.


title: James MacArthur

text: In late 1956 it was announced MacArthur would make "Underdog", based on a novel by W. R. Burnett, alongside his mother and Susan Strasberg but the project never materialized.


title: James MacArthur

text: MacArthur returned to TV to appear in "World in White" (1957) and episodes of "General Electric Theater", "Studio One in Hollywood," and "Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse".


title: James MacArthur

text: MacArthur was selected by Walt Disney to star in "The Light in the Forest" (1958), playing a white man raised by Native Americans. In April 1957, he signed a three-picture deal with Disney. On "Light in the Forest" he was paid $2,500 a week. This went up to $3,000 a week for the second film and $3,500 for the third, although he could not be forced to work other than during his summer vacation at Harvard, where he was studying history.


title: James MacArthur

text: Disney executives liked his performance and cast him in "Third Man on the Mountain" (1959), playing a young man who climbs the Matterhorn. His mother had a cameo.


title: James MacArthur

text: Deciding to make acting his full-time career, he left Harvard in his second year to make two more Disney movies, "Kidnapped" (1960) alongside Peter Finch, and "Swiss Family Robinson" (1960) with John Mills. The latter was especially popular. He was named a possibility for "Bon Voyage" but ended up not appearing in the final film.


title: James MacArthur

text: MacArthur made his Broadway debut in 1960, playing opposite Jane Fonda in "Invitation to a March", for which he received a Theatre World Award. Although he never returned to Broadway, he would remain active in theatre throughout his career, appearing in such productions as "Under the Yum Yum Tree", "The Moon Is Blue", "John Loves Mary" (with his then-wife Joyce Bulifant), "Barefoot in the Park", and "Murder at the Howard Johnson's". He also released several records in the early 1960s, scoring two minor hits with "(The Story of) The In-Between Years" and "The Ten Commandments of Love," both of which peaked at number 94 in the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: James MacArthur

text: MacArthur gave a particularly chilling performance as baby-faced opium dealer Johnny Lubin in "The Untouchables" episode, "Death For Sale." He was in "Bus Stop" and "Wagon Train". He returned to features as one of several young actors in "The Interns" (1962), Columbia's popular medical drama.


title: James MacArthur

text: He did episodes of "The Dick Powell Theatre", "Sam Benedict," and "Arrest and Trial", then made "Spencer's Mountain" (1963) at Warner Bros. with Henry Fonda and "Cry of Battle" (1963) in Philippines.


title: James MacArthur

text: In 1963, he was nominated for the "Top New Male Personality" category of the Golden Laurel Awards 1963. That year he starred in and produced a pilot for a series about a writer, "Postmark: Jim Fletcher", but it was not picked up.


title: James MacArthur

text: He guest starred in "Burke's Law", "The Eleventh Hour", and "The Great Adventure". After an episode of "The Alfred Hitchcock Hour" he did "The Truth About Spring" and "The Bedford Incident", both in 1965. His role in "The Bedford Incident" was of a young ensign who became so rattled by the needling of his captain (Richard Widmark), that he accidentally fired an ASROC at a Soviet submarine, thus creating a nuclear incident when the submarine returned fire, resulting in the destruction of both vessels.


title: James MacArthur

text: In "Battle of the Bulge" (1965), he again played the role of a young and inexperienced officer. MacArthur was in "Ride Beyond Vengeance" (1966) and guest starred in "Branded", "Combat!", "Gunsmoke", "Hondo", "Insight", "Death Valley Days", "Bonanza," and "The Virginian". In 1966, he guest-starred as Lt. Harley Wilson in "The Outsider," episode 20 in the second season of "Twelve O'Clock High". He co-starred with his mother in the 1968 episode "The Pride of the Lioness" on the "Tarzan" television series.


title: James MacArthur

text: MacArthur returned to Disney to make "Willie and the Yank" (1967) for television, released theatrically as "Mosby's Marauders". He had a role in "The Love-Ins" (1967) for Sam Katzman.


title: James MacArthur

text: "Hang 'Em High" was written by Leonard Freeman, who was producing a new police procedural, "Hawaii Five-0". Tim O'Kelly was originally cast as Jack Lord's assistant but test audiences thought he was too young, so MacArthur was given the role. MacArthur said the producer "told us, 'We can be a big hit. This is a morality play. It's good versus evil and the good guys are going to win.' That was during the Vietnam era, and I think many people were looking for something like that."


title: James MacArthur

text: MacArthur said Lord "said 'book him' to others in the cast, but I guess he said it to me the most. It wasn't anything we really thought about at first. But the phrase just took off and caught the public's imagination."


title: James MacArthur

text: Appearing in the show made MacArthur very wealthy. He invested much of his earnings in Hawaiian real estate.


title: James MacArthur

text: Bored with "Hawaii Five-O", MacArthur left the show in 1979, one year before it ended. "It was just time," he said. "I called the producer from South America and told him I was heading down the Amazon River..."


title: James MacArthur

text: "I grew bored," he explained. "The stories became more bland and predictable, and presented less and less challenge to me as an actor."


title: James MacArthur

text: William Smith, who replaced him on the show, claimed MacArthur quit "because Jack Lord wouldn't let him have a dressing room. He had to change in the prop truck for eleven years."


title: James MacArthur

text: After leaving "Hawaii Five-O", McArthur guest-starred on such television shows as "Time Express", "Murder, She Wrote", "The Love Boat", "Fantasy Island", "Walking Tall", "The Littlest Hobo", "Vega$," and "Superboy", as well as in the miniseries "" (1980) and "The Night the Bridge Fell Down" (1983). He appeared in "A Bedfull of Foreigners" in Chicago in 1984 and in Michigan in 1985. He followed this with "The Hasty Heart" before taking a year out of show business.


title: James MacArthur

text: In 1987, he returned to the stage in "The Foreigner", then played Mortimer in the national tour of "Arsenic and Old Lace" with Jean Stapleton, Marion Ross, and Larry Storch. In 1989, he followed another stint in "The Foreigner" with "Love Letters" and in 1990–1991, "A Bedfull of Foreigners" in Las Vegas.


title: James MacArthur

text: Throughout his career, MacArthur had also found time for various other ventures. From 1959 to 1960, he partnered with actors James Franciscus and Alan Ladd, Jr. in a Beverly Hills telephone answering service. In June 1972, he directed the Honolulu Community Theatre in a production of his father's play "The Front Page".


title: James MacArthur

text: For a period in the 1990s, he was part owner of Senior World publication, where he would write the occasional celebrity interview. He continued to appear at conventions, collectors' shows, and celebrity sporting events. A keen golfer, he was winner of the 2002 Frank Sinatra Invitational Charity Golf Tournament.


title: James MacArthur

text: He also appeared in television and radio specials and interview programs. His latest appearances included spots on "Entertainment Tonight", "Christopher's Closeup", and the BBC Radio 5 Live obituary program "Brief Lives", in which he paid tribute to his "Hawaii Five-O" castmate, the late Kam Fong. In 1997, MacArthur returned without Jack Lord (who was in declining health) to reprise his character, who had become Hawaii's governor, in the 1997 unaired pilot of "Hawaii Five-O" which starred actor Gary Busey.


title: James MacArthur

text: In April 2003, he traveled to Honolulu's historic Hawaii Theatre for a cameo role in Joe Moore's play "Dirty Laundry". Negotiations were underway in summer 2010 for MacArthur to make a cameo appearance in the new CBS primetime "remake of Hawaii Five-O" at the time of his death, a role that eventually was given to Al Harrington . On the November 1, 2010, episode, MacArthur's death was mentioned in a short tribute that played before the start of that episode.


title: James MacArthur

text: MacArthur's first wife was Joyce Bulifant. On the set of "The Angry Breed" (1968), MacArthur met actress Melody Patterson, who became his second wife. They wed on Kauai in July 1970 and divorced five years later. His third wife was former LPGA golfer Helen Beth Duntz. MacArthur had two daughters and two sons.