title: Hydrazine

text: Being a good nucleophile, can attack sulfonyl halides and acyl halides. The tosylhydrazine also forms hydrazones upon treatment with carbonyls.


title: Hydrazine

text: Hydrazine is used to cleave "N"-alkylated phthalimide derivatives. This scission reaction allows phthalimide anion to be used as amine precursor in the Gabriel synthesis.


title: Hydrazine

text: Illustrative of the condensation of hydrazine with a simple carbonyl is its reaction with propanone to give the diisopropylidene hydrazine (acetone azine). The latter reacts further with hydrazine to yield the hydrazone:


title: Hydrazine

text: The propanone azine is an intermediate in the Atofina-PCUK process. Direct alkylation of hydrazines with alkyl halides in the presence of base yields alkyl-substituted hydrazines, but the reaction is typically inefficient due to poor control on level of substitution (same as in ordinary amines). The reduction of hydrazones to hydrazines present a clean way to produce 1,1-dialkylated hydrazines.


title: Hydrazine

text: In a related reaction, 2-cyanopyridines react with hydrazine to form amide hydrazides, which can be converted using 1,2-diketones into triazines.


title: Hydrazine

text: Hydrazine is the intermediate in the anaerobic oxidation of ammonia (anammox) process. It is produced by some yeasts and the open ocean bacterium anammox ("Brocadia anammoxidans").


title: Hydrazine

text: The false morel produces the poison gyromitrin which is an organic derivative of hydrazine that is converted to monomethylhydrazine by metabolic processes. Even the most popular edible "button" mushroom "Agaricus bisporus" produces organic hydrazine derivatives, including agaritine, a hydrazine derivative of an amino acid, and gyromitrin.


title: Hydrazine

text: The name "hydrazine" was coined by Emil Fischer in 1875; he was trying to produce organic compounds that consisted of mono-substituted hydrazine. By 1887, Theodor Curtius had produced hydrazine sulfate by treating organic diazides with dilute sulfuric acid; however, he was unable to obtain pure hydrazine, despite repeated efforts. Pure anhydrous hydrazine was first prepared by the Dutch chemist Lobry de Bruyn in 1895.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Bipolar II disorder (BP-II) is a mood disorder on the bipolar spectrum, characterized by at least one episode of hypomania and at least one episode of major depression. Diagnosis for BP-II requires that the individual must never have experienced a full manic episode. Otherwise, one manic episode meets the criteria for bipolar I disorder (BP-I).


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Hypomania is a sustained state of elevated or irritable mood that is less severe than mania yet may still significantly affect the quality of life and result in permanent consequences including reckless spending, damaged relationships and poor judgment. Unlike mania, hypomania is not associated with psychosis. The hypomanic episodes associated with BP-II must last for at least four days.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Commonly, depressive episodes are more frequent and more intense than hypomanic episodes. Additionally, when compared to BP-I, type II presents more frequent depressive episodes and shorter intervals of well-being. The course of BP-II is more chronic and consists of more frequent cycling than the course of BP-I. Finally, BP-II is associated with a greater risk of suicidal thoughts and behaviors than BP-I or unipolar depression. Although BP-II is commonly perceived to be a milder form of type I, this is not the case. Types I and II present equally severe burdens.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: BP-II is notoriously difficult to diagnose. Patients usually seek help when they are in a depressed state, or when their hypomanic symptoms manifest themselves in unwanted effects, such as high levels of anxiety, or the seeming inability to focus on tasks. Because many of the symptoms of hypomania are often mistaken for high-functioning behavior or simply attributed to personality, patients are typically not aware of their hypomanic symptoms. In addition, many people with BP-II have periods of normal affect. As a result, when patients seek help, they are very often unable to provide their doctor with all the information needed for an accurate assessment; these individuals are often misdiagnosed with unipolar depression. BP-II is more common than BP-I, while BP-II and major depressive disorder have about the same rate of diagnosis. Of all individuals initially diagnosed with major depressive disorder, between 40% and 50% will later be diagnosed with either BP-I or BP-II. Substance use disorders (which have high co-morbidity with BP-II) and periods of mixed depression may also make it more difficult to accurately identify BP-II. Despite the difficulties, it is important that BP-II individuals be correctly assessed so that they can receive the proper treatment. Antidepressant use, in the absence of mood stabilizers, is correlated with worsening BP-II symptoms.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Multiple factors contribute to the development of bipolar spectrum disorders, although there have been very few studies conducted to examine the possible causes of BP-II specifically. While no identifiable single dysfunctions in specific neurotransmitters have been found, preliminary data has shown that calcium signal transmission, the glutamatergic system, and hormonal regulation play a role in the pathophysiology of the disease. The cause of Bipolar disorder can be attributed to misfiring neurotransmitters that overstimulate the amygdala, which in turn causes the prefrontal cortex to stop working properly. The bipolar patient becomes overwhelmed with emotional stimulation with no way of understanding it, which can trigger mania and exacerbate the effects of depression.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Bipolar disorder is characterized by marked swings in mood, activity, and behavior. BP-II is characterized by periods of hypomania, which may occur before, after, or independently of a depressive episode.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Hypomania is the signature characteristic of BP-II, defined by an experience of elevated mood. A patient's mood is typically cheerful, enthusiastic, euphoric, or irritable. In addition, they can present with symptoms of inflated self-esteem or grandiosity, decreased need for sleep, talkativeness or pressured speech, flight of ideas or rapid cycling of thoughts, distractibility, increased goal-directed activity, psychomotor agitation, and/or excessive involvement in activities that have a high potential for painful consequences (engaging in unrestrained buying sprees, sexual indiscretions, or foolish business investments.)


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Hypomania is distinct from mania. During a typical hypomanic episode, patients may present as upbeat, may show signs of poor judgment or display signs of increased energy despite lack of sleep, but do not meet the full criteria for an acute manic episode. Patients may display elevated confidence, but do not express delusional thoughts as in mania. They can experience increase in goal-directed activity and creativity, but do not reach the severity of aimlessness and disorganization. Speech may be rapid, but interruptible. Patients with hypomania never present with psychotic symptoms and do not reach the severity to require psychiatric hospitalization.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: For these reasons, hypomania commonly goes unnoticed. Individuals often will only seek treatment during a depressive episode, and their history of hypomania may go undiagnosed. Although hypomania may increase functioning, episodes require treatment as they may indicate increasing instability and can precipitate a depressive episode.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: It is during depressive episodes that BP-II patients often seek help. Symptoms may be syndromal or subsyndromal.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Depressive episodes in BP-II can present similarly to those experienced in unipolar depressive disorders. Patients characteristically experience a depressed mood and may describe themselves as feeling sad, gloomy, down in the dumps, or hopeless, for most of the day, nearly every day. In children, this can present with an irritable mood. Most patients report significant fatigue, loss of energy, or tiredness. Patients or their family members may note diminished interest in usual activities such as sex, hobbies, or daily routines. Many patients report a change in appetite along with associated weight change. Sleep disturbances may be present, and can manifest as problems falling or staying asleep, frequent awakenings, excessive sleep, or difficulties getting up in the morning. Around half of depressed patients develop changes in psychomotor activity, described as slowness in thinking, speaking, or movement. Conversely, they may also present with agitation, with inability to sit still or wringing their hands. Changes in posture, speech, facial expression, and grooming can be observed. Other signs and symptoms include changes in posture and facial expression, slowed speech, poor hygiene, unkempt appearance, feelings of guilt, shame, or helplessness, diminished ability to concentrate, nihilistic thoughts, and suicidal ideation.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Many experts in the field have attempted to find reliable differences between BP-I depressive episodes and episodes of major depressive disorder, but the data is inconsistent. However, some clinicians report that patients who came in with a depressive episode, but were later diagnosed as having bipolar disorder often presented with hypersomnia, increased appetite, psychomotor retardation, and a history of antidepressant-induced hypomania. Evidence also suggests that BP-II is strongly associated with atypical depression.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: A mixed episode is defined by the presence of a hypomanic or depressive episode that is accompanied by symptoms of the opposite polarity. This is commonly referred to as a mood episode with mixed features (e.g. depression with mixed features or hypomania with mixed features), but can also be referred to as mixed episodes or mixed states. For example, a patient with depression with mixed features may have a depressed mood, but has simultaneous symptoms of rapid speech, increased energy, and flight of ideas. Conversely, a patient with hypomania with mixed features will present with the full criteria for a hypomanic episode, but with concurrent symptoms of decreased appetite, loss of interest, and low energy.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Episodes with mixed features can last up to several months. They occur more frequently in patients with an earlier onset of bipolar disorder, are associated with higher frequency of episodes, and are associated with a greater risk of substance use, anxiety disorders, and suicidality. In addition, they are associated with increased treatment resistance compared to non-mixed episodes.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Bipolar disorder is often a lifelong condition, and patients should be followed up regularly for relapse prevention. Although BP-II is thought to be less severe than BP-I in regard to symptom intensity, BP-II is associated with higher frequencies of rapid cycling and depressive episodes. In the case of a relapse, patients may experience new onset sleep disturbance, racing thoughts and/or speech, anxiety, irritability, and increase in emotional intensity. Family and/or friends may notice that patients are arguing more frequently with them, spending more money than usual, are increasing their binging on food, drugs, or alcohol, and may suddenly start taking on many projects at once. These symptoms often occur and are considered early warning signs.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Psychosocial factors in a person's life can trigger a relapse in patients with BP-II. These include stressful life events, criticism from peers or relatives, and a disrupted circadian rhythm. In addition, the addition of antidepressant medications can trigger a hypomanic episode.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Comorbid conditions are extremely common in individuals with BP-II. In fact, individuals are twice as likely to present a comorbid disorder than not. These include anxiety, eating, personality (cluster B), and substance use disorders. For BP-II, the most conservative estimate of lifetime prevalence of alcohol or other substance use disorders is 20%. In patients with comorbid substance use disorder and BP-II, episodes have a longer duration and treatment compliance decreases. Preliminary studies suggest that comorbid substance use is also linked to increased risk of suicidality.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: BP-II is diagnosed according to the criteria established in the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). In addition, alternative diagnostic criteria is established in the World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases-10th Revision (ICD-10). The diagnostic criteria are established from self-reported experiences from patients or their family members, the psychiatric assessment, and the mental status examination. In addition, Screening instruments like the Mood Disorders Questionnaire are helpful tools in determining a patient's status on the bipolar spectrum. In addition, certain features have been shown to increase the chances that depressed patients have a bipolar disorder, including atypical symptoms of depression like hypersomnia and hyperphagia, a family history of bipolar disorder, medication-induced hypomania, recurrent or psychotic depression, antidepressant refractory depression, and early or postpartum depression.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: According to the DSM-5, a patient diagnosed with BP-II will have experienced at least one hypomanic episode, at least one major depressive episodes, and no manic episode. Furthermore, the occurrence of the mood episodes are not better explained by schizoaffective disorder, schizophrenia, delusional disorder, or other specified or unspecified schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorder. The final criteria that must be met is that the mood episodes cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning (from the depressive symptoms or the unpredictability of cycling between periods of depression and hypomania).


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: A hypomanic episode is established if a patient's symptoms last for most of the day each day for at least four days. Furthermore, three or more of the following symptoms must be present: Inflated sense of self-esteem or grandiose thoughts, feeling well rested despite getting low amounts of sleep (3 hours), talkativeness, racing thoughts, distractibility, and increase in goal-directed activity or psychomotor agitation, or excessive involvement in activities with high risk of painful consequences. Per DSM-5 criteria, a major depressive episode consists of the presence of a depressed mood or loss of interest/pleasure in activities (anhedonia). In addition to the former symptoms, five out of the nine following symptoms must occur for more than two weeks (to the extent in which it impairs functioning): weight loss/gain, insomnia or hypersomnia, psychomotor agitation or retardation, fatigue, feelings of worthlessness/inappropriate guilt, decreased concentration, or thoughts of death/suicide.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: According to the ICD-11, a BP-II patient will have experienced episodic experiences of one or more hypomaniac episodes and one or more major depressive episodes, and no history of a manic episode or mixed episode. These symptoms cannot be explained by other diagnoses such as


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: The specifiers are the same as the DSM-5 with the exception of catatonic features and if symptoms have occurred with or without psychosis about 6 weeks after childbirth


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: The signs and symptoms of BP-II may overlap significantly with those of other conditions. Thus, a comprehensive history, medication review, and laboratory work are key to diagnosing BP-II and differentiating it from other conditions. The differential diagnosis of BP-II is as follows: unipolar major depression, borderline personality disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, substance use disorders, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. In clinical practice, the difficulty of diagnosing BP-II depends on the accurate detection of hypomania, which is frequently dismissed by patients. Patients can present with increased productivity and energy with the absence of signs of instability or disturbance. As such, there is a risk that BP-II is misdiagnosed as generalized anxiety disorder or unipolar major depression. An accurate evaluation of differential diagnoses are crucial, as they guide treatment and prognostic implications.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Major differences between BP-I and BP-II have been identified in their clinical features, comorbidity rates and family histories. During depressive episodes, BP-II patients tend to show higher rates of psychomotor agitation, guilt, shame, suicidal ideation, and suicide attempts. BP-II patients have shown higher lifetime comorbidity rates of phobias, anxiety disorders, substance use, and eating disorders. In addition, there is a higher correlation between BP-II patients and family history of psychiatric illness, including major depression and substance-related disorders compared to BP-I. The occurrence rate of psychiatric illness in first degree relatives of BP-II patients was 26.5%, versus 15.4% in BP-I patients.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Although BP-II is a prevalent condition associated with morbidity and mortality, there has been an absence of robust clinical trials and systematic reviews that investigate the efficacy of pharmacologic treatments for the hypomanic and depressive phases of BP-II. Thus, the current treatment guidelines for the symptoms of BP-II are derived and extrapolated from the treatment guidelines in BP-I, along with limited randomized controlled trials published in the literature.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: The treatment of BP-II consists of the following: treatment of hypomania, treatment of major depression, and maintenance therapy for the prevention of relapse of hypomania or depression. As BP-II is a chronic condition, the goal of treatment is to achieve remission of symptoms and prevention of self-harm in patients. Treatment modalities of BP-II include medication-based pharmacotherapy, along with various forms of psychotherapy.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: The most common pharmacologic agents utilized in the treatment of BP-II includes mood stabilizers, antipsychotics, and antidepressants.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Mood stabilizers used in the treatment of hypomanic and depressive episodes of BP-II include lithium, and the anticonvulsant medications valproate, carbamazepine, lamotrigine, and topiramate.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: There is strong evidence that lithium is effective in treating both the depressive and hypomanic symptoms in BP-II, along with the reduction of hypomanic switch in patients treated with antidepressants. Furthermore, lithium is the only mood stabilizer to demonstrate a decrease in suicide and self-harm in patients with mood disorders. Due to lithium's narrow therapeutic index, lithium levels must be monitored regularly for prevention of lithium toxicity.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: There is also evidence that the anticonvulsants valproate, lamotrigine, carbamazepine, and topiramate are effective in the reduction of symptoms of hypomanic and depressive episodes of bipolar disorder. Potential mechanisms contributing to these effects include a decrease in brain excitation due to blockage of low-voltage sodium-gated channels, decrease in glutamate and excitatory amino acids, and potentiation of levels of GABA. There is evidence that lamotrigine decreases the risk of relapse in rapid-cycling BP-II. It is more effective in BP-II than BP-I, suggesting that lamotrigine is more effective for the treatment of depressive rather than manic episodes. Doses ranging from 100 to 200 mg have been reported to have the most efficacy, while experimental doses of 400 mg have rendered little response. A large, multicenter trial comparing carbamazepine and lithium over two and a half years found that carbamazepine was superior in terms of preventing future episodes of BP-II, although lithium was superior in individuals with BP-I. There is also some evidence for the use of valproate and topiramate, although the results for the use of gabapentin have been disappointing.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Antipsychotics are utilized as a second line option for hypomanic episodes, typically indicated patients who do not respond to mood stabilizers. However, quetiapine is the only antipsychotic that has demonstrated efficacy in multiple meta-analyses of Randomized controlled trials for treating acute BP-II depression, and is a first-line option for patients with BP-II depression. Other antipsychotics that are used to treat BP-II include lurasidone, olanzapine, cariprazine, aripiprazole, asenapine, paliperidone, risperidone, ziprasidone, haloperidol, and chlorpromazine. As a class, the first generation antipsychotics are associated with movement disorders, along with anticholinergic side effects compared with second generation antipsychotics.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: There is evidence to support the use of SSRI and SNRI antidepressants in BP-II, but the use of these treatments are controversial. Potential risks of antidepressant pharmacotherapy in patients with bipolar disorder include increased mood cycling, development of rapid cycling, dysphoria, and switch to hypomania. In addition, the evidence for their efficacy in bipolar depression is mixed. Thus, in most cases, antidepressant monotherapy in patients with BP-II is not recommended. However, antidepressants may provide benefit some patients when used in addition to mood stabilizers and antipsychotics, as these drugs reduce the risk of manic/hypomanic switching. However, the risk still exists, and should be used with caution.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Although medication therapy is the standard of care for treatment of both BP-I and BP-II, additional non-pharmaceutical therapies can also help those with the illness. Benefits include prevention of relapse and improved maintenance medication adherence. These include psychotherapy (e.g. cognitive behavioral therapy, psychodynamic therapy, psychoanalysis, interpersonal therapy, behavioral therapy, cognitive therapy, and family-focused therapy), social rhythm therapy, art therapy, music therapy, psychoeducation, mindfulness, and light therapy. Meta-analyses in the literature has shown that psychotherapy plus pharmacotherapy was associated with a lower relapse rate compared with patients treated with pharmacotherapy alone. However, relapse can still occur, despite continued medication and therapy. People with bipolar disorder may develop dissociation to match each mood they experience. For some, this is done intentionally, as a means by which to escape trauma or pain from a depressive period, or simply to better organize one's life by setting boundaries for one's perceptions and behaviors.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: There is evidence to suggest that BP-II has a more chronic course of illness than BP-I. This constant and pervasive course of the illness leads to an increased risk in suicide and more hypomanic and major depressive episodes with shorter periods between episodes than BP-I patients experience. The natural course of BP-II, when left untreated, leads to patients spending the majority of their lives with some symptoms, primarily stemming from depression. Their recurrent depression results in personal distress and disability.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: This disability can present itself in the form of psychosocial impairment, which has been suggested to be worse in BP-II patients than in BP-I patients. Another facet of this illness that is associated with a poorer prognosis is rapid cycling, which denotes the occurrence of four or more major Depressive, Hypomanic, and/or mixed episodes in a 12-month period. Rapid cycling is quite common in those with BP-II, much more so in women than in men (70% vs. 40%), and without treatment leads to added sources of disability and an increased risk of suicide. Women are more prone to rapid cycling between hypomanic episodes and depressive episodes. To improve a patient's prognosis, long-term therapy is most favorably recommended for controlling symptoms, maintaining remission and preventing relapses. With treatment, patients have been shown to present a decreased risk of suicide (especially when treated with lithium) and a reduction of frequency and severity of their episodes, which in turn moves them toward a stable life and reduces the time they spend ill. To maintain their state of balance, therapy is often continued indefinitely, as around 50% of the patients who discontinue it relapse quickly and experience either full-blown episodes or sub-syndromal symptoms that bring significant functional impairments.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: The deficits in functioning associated with BP-II stem mostly from the recurrent depression that BP-II patients experience. Depressive symptoms are much more disabling than hypomanic symptoms and are potentially as, or more disabling than mania symptoms. Functional impairment has been shown to be directly linked with increasing percentages of depressive symptoms, and because sub-syndromal symptoms are more common—and frequent—in BP-II, they have been implicated heavily as a major cause of psychosocial disability. There is evidence that shows the mild depressive symptoms, or even sub-syndromal symptoms, are responsible for the non-recovery of social functioning, which furthers the idea that residual depressive symptoms are detrimental for functional recovery in patients being treated for BP-II. It has been suggested that symptom interference in relation to social and interpersonal relationships in BP-II is worse than symptom interference in other chronic medical illnesses such as cancer. This social impairment can last for years, even after treatment that has resulted in a resolution of mood symptoms.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: The factors related to this persistent social impairment are residual depressive symptoms, limited illness insight (a very common occurrence in patients with BP-II), and impaired executive functioning. Impaired ability in executive functions is directly tied to poor psychosocial functioning, a common side-effect in patients with BP-II.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: The impact on a patient's psychosocial functioning stems from the depressive symptoms (more common in BP-II than BP-I). An increase in these symptoms' severity seems to correlate with a significant increase in psychosocial disability. Psychosocial disability can present itself in poor semantic memory, which in turn affects other cognitive domains like verbal memory and (as mentioned earlier) executive functioning leading to a direct and persisting impact on psychosocial functioning.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: An abnormal semantic memory organization can manipulate thoughts and lead to the formation of delusions and possibly affect speech and communication problems, which can lead to interpersonal issues. BP-II patients have also been shown to present worse cognitive functioning than those patients with BP-I, though they demonstrate about the same disability when it comes to occupational functioning, interpersonal relationships, and autonomy. This disruption in cognitive functioning takes a toll on their ability to function in the workplace, which leads to high rates of work loss in BP-II patient populations. After treatment and while in remission, BP-II patients tend to report a good psychosocial functioning but they still score less than patients without the disorder. These lasting impacts further suggest that a prolonged period of untreated BP-II can lead to permanent adverse effects on functioning.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: BP-II has a chronic relapsing nature. It has been suggested that BP-II patients have a higher degree of relapse than BP-I patients. Generally, within four years of an episode, around 60% of patients will relapse into another episode. Some patients are symptomatic half the time, either with full on episodes or symptoms that fall just below the threshold of an episode.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Because of the nature of the illness, long-term therapy is the best option and aims to not only control the symptoms but to maintain sustained remission and prevent relapses from occurring. Even with treatment, patients do not always regain full functioning, especially in the social realm. There is a very clear gap between symptomatic recovery and full functional recovery for both BP-I and BP-II patients. As such, and because those with BP-II spend more time with depressive symptoms that do not quite qualify as a major depressive episode, the best chance for recovery is to have therapeutic interventions that focus on the residual depressive symptoms and to aim for improvement in psychosocial and cognitive functioning. Even with treatment, a certain amount of responsibility is placed in the patient's hands; they have to be able to assume responsibility for their illness by accepting their diagnosis, taking the required medication, and seeking help when needed to do well in the future.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Treatment often lasts after remission is achieved, and the treatment that worked is continued during the continuation phase (lasting anywhere from 6–12 months) and maintenance can last 1–2 years or, in some cases, indefinitely. One of the treatments of choice is Lithium, which has been shown to be very beneficial in reducing the frequency and severity of depressive episodes. Lithium prevents mood relapse and works especially well in BP-II patients who experience rapid-cycling. Almost all BP-II patients who take lithium have a decrease in the amount of time they spend ill and a decrease in mood episodes.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Along with medication, other forms of therapy have been shown to be beneficial for BP-II patients. A treatment called a "well-being plan" serves several purposes: it informs the patients, protects them from future episodes, teaches them to add value to their life, and works toward building a strong sense of self to fend off depression and reduce the desire to succumb to the seductive hypomanic highs. The plan has to aim high. Otherwise, patients will relapse into depression. A large part of this plan involves the patient being very aware of warning signs and stress triggers so that they take an active role in their recovery and prevention of relapse.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Several studies have shown that the risk of suicide is higher in patients who have BP-II than those with BP-I, and especially higher than patients with major depressive disorder.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: In results of a summary of several lifetime study experiments, it was found that 24% of BP-II patients experienced suicidal ideation or suicide attempts compared to 17% in BP-I patients and 12% in major depressive patients. Bipolar disorders, in general, are the third leading cause of death in 15- to 24-year-olds. BP-II patients were also found to employ more lethal means and have more complete suicides overall.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: BP-II patients have several risk factors that increase their risk of suicide. The illness is very recurrent and results in severe disabilities, interpersonal relationship problems, barriers to academic, financial, and vocational goals, and a loss of social standing in their community, all of which increase the likelihood of suicide. Mixed symptoms and rapid-cycling, both very common in BP-II, are also associated with an increased risk of suicide. The tendency for BP-II to be misdiagnosed and treated ineffectively, or not at all in some cases, leads to an increased risk.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: As a result of the high suicide risk for this group, reducing the risk and preventing attempts remains a main part of the treatment; a combination of self-monitoring, close supervision by a therapist, and faithful adherence to their medication regimen will help to reduce the risk and prevent the likelihood of suicide.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Suicide is a common endpoint for many patients with severe psychiatric illness. The mood disorders (depression and bipolar) are by far the most common psychiatric conditions associated with suicide. At least 25% to 50% of patients with bipolar disorder also attempt suicide at least once. Aside from lithium—which is the most demonstrably effective treatment against suicide—little is known about contributions of specific mood-altering treatments to minimizing mortality rates in persons with either major mood disorders or bipolar depression specifically. Suicide is usually a manifestation of severe psychiatric distress that is often associated with a diagnosable and treatable form of depression or other mental illness. In a clinical setting, an assessment of suicidal risk must precede any attempt to treat psychiatric illness.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: The global estimated lifetime prevalence of bipolar disorder among adults range from 1 to 3 percent. The annual incidence is estimated to vary from 0.3 to 1.2 percent worldwide. According to the World Mental Health Survey Initiative, the lifetime prevalence of BP-II was found to be 0.4%, with a 12-month prevalence of 0.3%. Other meta-analyses have found lifetime prevalence of BP-II up to 1.57%. In the United States, the estimated lifetime prevalence of BP-II was found to be 1.1%, with a 12-month prevalence of 0.8%. The mean age of onset for BP-II was 20 years. Thus far, there have been no studies that have conclusively demonstrated that an unequal distribution of bipolar disorders across sex and ethnicity exists.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: It must be noted that a vast majority of studies and meta-analysis do not differentiate between BP-I and BP-II, and current epidemiology data may not accurately describe true prevalence and incidence. In addition, BP-II is underdiagnosed in practice, and it is easy to miss milder forms of the condition.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: In 19th century psychiatry, mania covered a broad range of intensity, and hypomania was equated by some to concepts of 'partial insanity' or monomania. A more specific usage was advanced by the German neuro-psychiatrist Emanuel Ernst Mendel in 1881, who wrote "I recommend (taking under consideration the word used by Hippocrates) to name those types of mania that show a less severe phenomenological picture, 'hypomania'". Narrower operational definitions of hypomania were developed from the 1960s/1970s.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: The first diagnostic distinction to be made between manic-depression involving mania and involving hypomania came from Carl Gustav Jung in 1903. In his paper, Jung introduced the non-psychotic version of the illness with the statement, "I would like to publish a number of cases whose peculiarity consists in chronic hypomanic behavior" where "it is not a question of real mania at all but of a hypomanic state which cannot be regarded as psychotic." Jung illustrated the hypomanic variation with five case histories, each involving hypomanic behavior, occasional bouts of depression, and mixed mood states, which involved personal and interpersonal upheaval for each patient.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: In 1975, Jung's original distinction between mania and hypomania gained support. Fieve and Dunner published an article recognizing that only individuals in a manic state require hospitalization. It was proposed that the presentation of either the one state or the other differentiates two distinct diseases; the proposition was initially met with skepticism. However, studies since confirm that BP-II is a phenomenologically distinct disorder.


title: Bipolar II disorder

text: Empirical evidence, combined with treatment considerations, led the DSM-IV Mood Disorders Work Group to add BP-II as its own entity in the 1994 publication. Only one other mood disorder was added to this edition, indicating the conservative nature of the DSM-IV work group. In May 2013, the DSM-5 was released. Two revisions to the existing BP-II criteria are anticipated. The first expected change will reduce the required duration of a hypomanic state from four to two days. The second change will allow hypomania to be diagnosed without the manifestation of elevated mood; that is, increased energy/activity will be sufficient. The rationale behind the latter revision is that some individuals with BP-II manifest only visible changes in energy. Without presenting elevated mood, these individuals are commonly misdiagnosed with major depressive disorder. Consequently, they receive prescriptions for antidepressants, which unaccompanied by mood stabilizers, may induce rapid cycling or mixed states.


title: Fargo (season 3)

text: The third season of "Fargo", an American anthology dark comedy–crime drama television series created by Noah Hawley, premiered on April 19, 2017, on the basic cable network FX. The season had ten episodes, and its initial airing concluded on June 21, 2017. As an anthology, each "Fargo" season possesses its own self-contained narrative, following a set of characters in various settings in a connected shared universe.


title: Fargo (season 3)

text: The third season is set primarily between 2010 and 2011, in three Minnesota towns: St. Cloud, Eden Valley, and Eden Prairie, and is the first season not to feature the titular Fargo, North Dakota. It follows the lives of a couple, Ray Stussy (Ewan McGregor) and Nikki Swango (Mary Elizabeth Winstead), who, after unsuccessfully trying to rob Ray's wealthy older brother Emmit (also played by McGregor), become involved in a double murder case. One of the victims is an old man with a mysterious past whose stepdaughter, Gloria Burgle (Carrie Coon), is a policewoman. Meanwhile, Emmit tries to cut his ties with a shady organization he borrowed money from a year before, but the company, represented by V. M. Varga (David Thewlis) has other plans.


title: Fargo (season 3)

text: Michael Stuhlbarg, Hamish Linklater, Olivia Sandoval, Shea Whigham, Mark Forward, Mary McDonnell, and Scoot McNairy make recurring appearances. Sylvester Groth, Ray Wise, Fred Melamed, Francesca Eastwood, Frances Fisher, DJ Qualls, and Rob McElhenney guest star.


title: Fargo (season 3)

text: Billy Bob Thornton, who appeared as Lorne Malvo in season one, narrates "Peter and the Wolf" in the fourth episode, "The Narrow Escape Problem".


title: Fargo (season 3)

text: Ewan McGregor was cast in the lead dual role as Emmit and Ray Stussy, and Carrie Coon plays the lead female role, Gloria Burgle. In September 2016, Mary Elizabeth Winstead was cast in a major role as Nikki Swango and Scoot McNairy in a recurring role. In November 2016, it was announced that Jim Gaffigan had joined the main cast in the role of Donny Mashman, Gloria Burgle's partner. However, it was later announced that Gaffigan would not appear in the season due to scheduling conflicts. Mark Forward was later cast to replace him as Mashman, and Mashman's role in the story was reduced. In December 2016, several new actors joined the cast, including David Thewlis, Michael Stuhlbarg, Shea Whigham, Fred Melamed and Thomas Mann.


title: Fargo (season 3)

text: Regarding filming with Ewan McGregor while he is portraying dual roles, co-star Mary Elizabeth Winstead said, "For some takes, I was standing with Ewan's double and for some takes, I was standing with Ewan." She added, "Watching how the doubles interact with him and have to learn his way of walking and his posture and his way of standing was interesting. They make it feel very natural and grounded and real. They're reading the lines and the scenes are existing as they would regularly, just swapping out the people. Which is somewhat strange, but it still doesn't feel like you're doing a trick of any sort."


title: Fargo (season 3)

text: As with the previous two seasons, the third season had its own distinct visual style, achieved through color grading by removing the blue channel. Noah Hawley described the technique, saying "So you take the blue channel on the digital image and you just dial it out. And what you end up with is a very distinctive look in which colors like red and orange and yellow; they just really pop in a different way. Usually in cold weather you add blue, because blue denotes cold. So it was interesting to take the blue out and see what it did to the image. And once we did that it became clear that it doesn’t look at all like any of the other years, which I really liked."


title: Fargo (season 3)

text: The third season has received acclaim from critics. On Metacritic, it has a score of 89 out of 100 based on 32 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim." On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 93% "certified fresh" rating with an average score of 8.56 out of 10 based on 50 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads: "Thanks in part to a memorable dual performance from Ewan McGregor, "Fargo" mostly maintains the sly wit and off-kilter sensibility it displayed in its first two seasons."


title: Fargo (season 3)

text: In addition to the six Emmy nominations listed below, the series earned an additional ten nominations in various technical and creative categories.


title: Flag carrier

text: A flag carrier is a transport company, such as an airline or shipping company, that, being locally registered in a given sovereign state, enjoys preferential rights or privileges accorded by the government for international operations.


title: Flag carrier

text: Historically, the term was used to refer to airlines owned by the government of their home country and associated with the national identity of that country. Such an airline may also be known as a national airline or a national carrier, although this can have different legal meanings in some countries. Today, it is any international airline with a strong connection to its home country or that represents its home country internationally, regardless of whether it is government-owned.


title: Flag carrier

text: Flag carriers may also be known as such due to laws requiring aircraft or ships to display the state flag of the country of their registry. For example, under the law of the United States, a U.S. flag air carrier is any airline that holds a certificate under Section 401 of the Federal Aviation Act of 1958 (i.e., any U.S.-based airline operating internationally), and any ship registered in the United States is known as a U.S. flag vessel.


title: Flag carrier

text: The term "flag carrier" is a legacy of the time when countries established state-owned airline companies. Governments then took the lead due to the high capital costs of establishing and running airlines. However, not all such airlines were government-owned; Pan Am, TWA, Cathay Pacific, Union de Transports Aériens, Canadian Pacific Air Lines and Olympic Airlines were all privately owned. Most of these were considered to be flag carriers as they were the "main national airline" and often a sign of their country's presence abroad.


title: Flag carrier

text: The heavily regulated aviation industry also meant aviation rights are often negotiated between governments, denying airlines access to an open market. These Bilateral Air Transport Agreements similar to the Bermuda I and Bermuda II agreements specify rights awardable only to locally registered airlines, forcing some governments to jump-start airlines to avoid being disadvantaged in the face of foreign competition. Some countries also establish flag carriers such as Israel's El Al or Lebanon's Middle East Airlines for nationalist reasons or to aid the country's economy, particularly in the area of tourism.


title: Flag carrier

text: In many cases, governments would directly assist in the growth of their flag carriers typically through subsidies and other fiscal incentives. The establishment of competitors in the form of other locally registered airlines may be prohibited or heavily regulated to avoid direct competition. Even where privately run airlines may be allowed to be established, the flag carriers may still be accorded priority, especially in the apportionment of aviation rights to local or international markets.


title: Flag carrier

text: Near the end of the 20th century, many of these airlines have been corporatized as a public company or a state-owned enterprise, while others have been completely privatized. The aviation industry has also been gradually deregulated and liberalized, permitting greater freedoms of the air particularly in the United States and in the European Union with the signing of the Open Skies agreement. One of the features of such agreements is the right of a country to designate multiple airlines to serve international routes with the result that there is no single "flag carrier".


title: Flag carrier

text: The chart below lists airlines considered to be a "flag carrier", based on current or former state ownership or other verifiable designation as a national airline.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: Freaks (also re-released as The Monster Story, Forbidden Love, and Nature's Mistakes) is a 1932 American pre-Code horror film produced and directed by Tod Browning, starring Wallace Ford, Leila Hyams, Olga Baclanova, and Roscoe Ates.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: "Freaks", originally intended as a vehicle for Lon Chaney, is set amongst the backdrop of a travelling French circus and follows a conniving trapeze artist who joins a group of carnival sideshow performers with a plan to seduce and murder a dwarf in the troupe to gain his inheritance. However, her plot proves to have dangerous consequences. The film is based on elements from the short story "Spurs" by Tod Robbins, first published in "Munsey's Magazine" in February 1923, with the rights being purchased by the studio, responsible by MGM art department chief Cedric Gibbons.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: Filmed in Los Angeles in the fall of 1931, some employees at MGM were discomfited by the presence of the actors portraying the "freaks" on set, and, other than the so-called more normal looking "freaks", the Siamese twins and the Earles, the performers were not allowed to be on the studio lot, relegated instead to a specially-built tent. The film had test screenings in January 1932, with many members of the audience reacting negatively, finding the film too grotesque. In response to this, MGM executive Irving Thalberg, without consent of director Browning, edited the original 90-minute feature, which was significantly cut, with additional alternate footage incorporated to help increase the running time. The final abridged cut of the film, released in February 1932, was 64 minutes; the original version no longer exists.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: Despite the cuts made to the film, "Freaks" still garnered notice for the portrayal of its eponymous characters by people who worked as sideshow performers and had real disabilities. These cast members included dwarf siblings Harry and Daisy Earles; Johnny Eck, who had sacral agenesis; the conjoined twin sisters Daisy and Violet Hilton; and Schlitzie, a man with microcephaly. Because of its controversial content, the film was banned in the United Kingdom for over 30 years, and was labelled as "brutal and grotesque" in Canada.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: Though it received critical backlash and was a box-office failure upon initial release, "Freaks" was subject to public and critical reappraisal in the 1960s, as a long forgotten Hollywood classic, particularly in Europe, and was screened at the 1962 Venice Film Festival. In retrospect, numerous film critics have suggested that the film presents a starkly sympathetic portrait of its sideshow characters rather than an exploitative one, with Andrew Sarris declaring "Freaks" one of the "most compassionate" films ever made. Nonetheless, critics have continued to take note of the film's horror elements; in 2009, Joe Morgenstern proclaimed that "Freaks" contains some of the most terrifying scenes in film history. Film scholars have interpreted the film as a metaphor for class conflict, reflecting the Great Depression, and it has been studied for its portrayal of people with disabilities, with theorists arguing that it presents an anti-eugenics message. The film has been highly influential, has become a cult classic, and, in 1994, was selected for preservation by the United States National Film Registry, which seeks to preserve films that are "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: A beautiful and conniving trapeze artist named Cleopatra seduces a carnival sideshow little person named Hans after learning of his large inheritance, much to the chagrin of Frieda, his fiancée, also a little person. Cleopatra also conspires with circus strongman Hercules to kill Hans and inherit his wealth. Meanwhile, other romances flourish among the sideshow performers: the Bearded Lady, who is in love with the Human Skeleton, gives birth to their daughter. The news is spread among the friends by the Stork Woman. Additionally, Violet, a conjoined twin whose sister Daisy is married to Roscoe, the stuttering circus clown, becomes engaged to the circus's owner.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: Hans, enamored of Cleopatra, ultimately marries her. At their wedding, Cleopatra begins poisoning Hans's wine but drunkenly kisses Hercules in front of Hans, revealing her affair. Oblivious, the other "freaks" announce that they accept Cleopatra in spite of her being a "normal" outsider; they hold an initiation ceremony in which they pass a loving cup around the table while chanting, "We accept her, one of us. We accept her, one of us. Gooble-gobble, gooble-gobble." However, Cleopatra's mean-spirited amusement at this ceremony soon turns into fear and anger after Hercules jokes that the rest of the entertainers plan to turn her into one of them. She mocks them, tosses the wine in their faces and drives them away before berating Hans and drunkenly parading him around on her shoulders like a child. The humiliated Hans realizes that he has been played for a fool and rejects Cleopatra's attempts to apologize, but then he falls ill from the poison. While bedridden, Hans pretends to apologize to Cleopatra and also pretends to take the poisoned medicine that she is giving him, but he secretly plots with the other entertainers to strike back at Cleopatra and Hercules.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: In the film's climax, Hans confronts Cleopatra with three of the entertainers as backup thugs. However, Hans's circus wagon is overturned in a storm, giving Cleopatra the chance to escape into the forest, closely pursued by them. At the same time Hercules goes to kill seal-trainer Venus for knowing about the plot. Venus's boyfriend, Phroso the clown, attempts to stop Hercules but is nearly killed before the rest of them intervene and injure Hercules, saving Phroso. They all pursue an injured Hercules.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: The freaks then capture Cleopatra and sometime later, she is shown to be a grotesque, squawking "human duck" on display for carnival patrons; her tongue has been removed, one eye has been gouged out, the flesh of her hands has been melted and deformed to look like duck feet, her legs have been cut off, and what is left of her torso has been permanently tarred and feathered. In the original version of the film, it is revealed that after the freaks caught Hercules, they made him into a castrato singer.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: While some versions end on Cleopatra as the human duck, another ending shows Hans, now living in a mansion from his inheritance and still humiliated, visited by Phroso, Venus and Frieda. Frieda tells Hans she knows he just wanted to demand the bottle of poison from Cleopatra, not to mutilate her, and not to blame himself for what happened; and that she still loves him. The two then share a heartwarming hug.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: Film critic Melvin Matthews has interpreted "Freaks" within the context of the Great Depression, writing that it "is essentially a story of the little people (average Americans) versus the big people (the rich and businessmen). The film makes it clear that the big people, personified by Cleopatra and Hercules, scorn the Freaks. Such a disdainful attitude was reflected in the real-life social outlook of some business tycoons during the Depression." Film studies academic Jennifer Peterson similarly identifies "Freaks" as an example of an "outsider film". Historian Jane Nicholas suggests that the film's conclusion, in which the circus performers mutilate Cleopatra whilst chanting "one of us," is reinforcing the freaks' social currency: "It is interesting that a statement that reads as one of inclusion is often cited as one that embodies horror in the film. What does it mean to be 'one of us'? The chilling horror of the chant 'one of us' reveals why the freak show persists."


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: In the book "Midnight Movies" (1991), critics J. Hoberman and Jonathan Rosenbaum compare "Freaks" to "Gold Diggers of 1933", writing that the former is "almost literally dealing with the same thing [class disparity]... but more directly—because the end product isn't just putting on a show, but slaves breaking their chains and triumphing over their masters. "Freaks" is asking a Depression audience to identify not with the Beautiful People, but with sideshow mutations, a total underclass."


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: John Stanley, longtime publisher of the "San Francisco Chronicle", describes the film as "A Classic of the Grotesque" in "Creature Features".


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: The film's depiction of people with disabilities has been a significant point of analysis amongst film critics and scholars. In his book "Subversive Horror Cinema: Countercultural Messages of Films from Frankenstein to the Present" (2014), critic Jon Towlson proposes that "Freaks" exemplifies an anti-eugenics sentiment. In presenting this idea, Towlson cites vignette sequences that make up the beginning of the film, largely consisting of the freaks in the context of their sideshow, before Browning "begins to undercut the voyeuristic aspects of the traditional freakshow by showing the freaks engaged in the activities of everyday life, dispelling the initial shock and revulsion, and encouraging the viewer to see the freaks as individuals who have overcome their disabilities."


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: Towlson also notes that the freaks' everyday interactions with the able-bodied sideshow performers, such as Phroso, Roscoe, and Venus, further blurs the distinction between the able-bodied and disabled members of the circus, and that the physically beautiful characters—such as trapeze artist Cleopatra—are the ones who are vindictive and immoral. He further argues that the implied sexuality in the film—such as the implication that the conjoined twin sisters (played by Daisy and Violet Hilton) carry on their own separate sex lives—is an affront to the eugenic stance against reproduction and sexual activity among the "physically unfit." Towlson ultimately concludes that this subversion of character exemplifies a stark opposition to the core belief of eugenics, which is that physical appearance is equated with internal worth.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: Angela Smith, a scholar of film and disability, similarly notes that "Freaks" presents numerous scenes in which the freaks engage in routine and ordinary domestic behavior. Among them, Smith cites the freaks' celebration of the birth of the Bearded Lady's baby, and the film's key dinner party sequence in which Cleopatra grows enraged when the freaks sing "We accept her, we accept her, one of us, one of us" as a welcoming song. Film scholars Martin Norden and Madeleine Cahill, however, question Browning's intention of the film's final revenge sequence, in which the freaks mutilate the able-bodied, morally cruel Cleopatra. "The implications of the violence against [Cleopatra] are far from clear," they write. "Members of a traditionally disempowered minority use their collective force to disempower a majority member—turn her into one of them, in effect—leading us to wonder if she is truly disempowered or empowered in a new way. Browning's ambiguity on this point only enhances the film's unsettling properties."


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: Though widely considered a horror film, some critics, such as John Thomas and Raymond Durgnat, have noted that "Freaks" does not fully embody the genre. Thomas wrote in "Film Quarterly" that "Freaks" would "disappoint no one but the mindless children who consume most horror films... Certainly it is macabre... But the point is that "Freaks" is not really a horror film at all, though it contains some horrifying sequences." Durgnat made a similar observation, writing that, like the films of Luis Buñuel, its shock value "mingles with moments which seem shallow, but by the end of the film one begins to catch their mood, a calm, cold combination of guignol and eerily matter-of-fact ."


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: Film-studies scholar Joan Hawkins describes the evolution of how the film's genre was perceived, noting that it "started as a mainstream horror film that migrated into the exploitation arena before finally being recuperated as an avant-garde or art project." Hawkins notes that Browning inverts the audience's expectations, demonstrating that it is "the ordinary, the apparently normal, the beautiful which horrify—the monstrous and distorted which compel our respect, our sympathy, ultimately our affection." Smith writes that the inclusion of "Freaks" within the horror genre "forces our reconsideration of the genre's status [and] challenges readings in which all horror movies are seen to use monstrous bodies to the same effects." Film theorist Eugenie Brinkema suggests that "Freaks" functions as a horror film "not because Cleo is mutilated and Hercules killed, all lightning and dark shadows—no, "Freaks" is a horror film because the gaze itself is horrific, because locating the gaze is a work in terror."


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) had purchased the rights to Tod Robbins's short story "Spurs" in the mid-1920s at Tod Browning's urging for a reported $8,000. Harry Earles, a dwarf who had appeared in Browning's "The Unholy Three" (1925)—and who would ultimately star as Hans in "Freaks"—had originally proposed the idea of making a film version of "Spurs" to Browning. The studio agreed to hire Browning to direct the project based on his past success at Universal Pictures with "Dracula" (1931) and for his collaborations with Lon Chaney.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: In June 1931, MGM production supervisor Irving Thalberg offered Browning the opportunity to direct "Arsène Lupin" with John Barrymore. Browning declined, preferring to develop "Freaks", a project he had started as early as 1927; Browning had worked with a traveling carnival prior to becoming a filmmaker. Screenwriters Willis Goldbeck and Elliott Clawson were assigned to the project at Browning's request. Leon Gordon, Edgar Allan Woolf, Al Boasberg and an uncredited Charles MacArthur would also contribute to the script. The script was shaped over five months. Little of the original story was retained beyond the marriage between a dwarf and an average-sized woman and their wedding feast, and the setting—originally France—was relocated to the United States. Both Thalberg and Harry Rapf served as uncredited co-producers on the film.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: Victor McLaglen was considered for the role of Hercules, while Myrna Loy was initially slated to star as Cleopatra, with Jean Harlow as Venus. Ultimately, Thalberg decided not to cast any major stars in the picture. Instead, Russian actress Olga Baclanova was cast as Cleopatra, based on her success in a Los Angeles-produced stage production of "The Silent Witness". Harry Earles was cast as Hans, the carnival sideshow performer whom Cleopatra attempts to murder for his estate. Earles' real-life sister, Daisy, portrayed his dwarf love interest, Frieda.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: Among the supporting characters featured as "freaks" were Peter Robinson ("The Human Skeleton"); Olga Roderick ("The Bearded Lady"); Frances O'Connor and Martha Morris ("armless wonders"); and the conjoined twins Daisy and Violet Hilton. Among the microcephalic characters who appear in the film (and are referred to as "pinheads" throughout) were Zip and Pip (Elvira and Jenny Lee Snow) and Schlitzie, a male named Simon Metz who wore a dress.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: Also featured were the intersex Josephine Joseph, with her left-right divided gender; Johnny Eck, the legless man, who was scouted for the role while performing in Montreal; the completely limbless Prince Randian (also known as The Human Torso and miscredited as "Rardion"); Elizabeth Green the Stork Woman; and Koo-Koo the Bird Girl, who had Virchow-Seckel syndrome or bird-headed dwarfism and is most remembered for the scene wherein she dances on the table.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: "Freaks" began principal photography in November 1931, with a 24-day shooting schedule. At the time of the production's beginning, the film had a budget of approximately $209,000, though it would eventually expand to more than $300,000. The film was shot on the MGM studio lot in Culver City, California. Baclanova recalled her time first meeting her co-stars on the set:


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: During the shoot, the film had already begun to draw disgusted reactions, resulting in MGM segregating the film's cast and crew to a separate cafeteria so that "people could get to eat in the commissary without throwing up." Filming was completed on December 16, 1931, and Browning began retakes on December 23.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: In January 1932, MGM held test screenings of the film which proved disastrous: Art director Merrill Pye recalled that "Halfway through the preview, a lot of people got up and ran out. They didn't walk out. They "ran" out." Others reportedly became ill, or fainted; one woman who attended the screening threatened to sue MGM, claiming the film had caused her to suffer a miscarriage. Due to the extremely unfavorable response, the studio cut the picture down from its original 90-minute running time to just over an hour. Much of the sequence of the circus entertainers attacking Cleopatra as she lies under a lightning-struck tree was removed, as well as a sequence showing Hercules being castrated and made into a castrato, a number of comedy sequences, and most of the film's original epilogue, which included Hercules singing in a falsetto (a reference to his castration) with Cleopatra quacking along. These excised sequences are considered lost. In order to pad the running time after these cuts, a new prologue featuring a carnival barker was added, as was the alternate epilogue featuring the reconciliation of the dwarf lovers.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: The truncated version—now only 64 minutes long—had its premiere at the Fox Criterion in Los Angeles on February 12, 1932. It subsequently opened in New York City that summer, premiering on July 8, 1932. Regionally, the film attracted controversy upon its theatrical release, and was pulled from screenings in Atlanta. In the United Kingdom, the film was banned by the British censors, and remained as so for more than 30 years before being passed with an X rating in August 1963.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: "Freaks" was a box-office bomb, recording a total loss of $164,000. It grossed $289,000 in the United States, and $52,000 internationally. Though not a financial success, the film had greater earnings in smaller cities such as Cincinnati, Boston, and Saint Paul than it did in larger metropolitan cities such as Los Angeles or Chicago.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: Despite the extensive cuts, the film was still negatively received by moviegoers, and remained an object of extreme controversy amongst the public upon initial release. Critics' responses were also divided. MGM attempted to address criticisms of exploitation by promoting the film as one compassionate toward its subjects, with tagline such as "What about abnormal people? They have their lives, too!" At the time of its release, the film was regarded by numerous critics as marking the end of Browning's career. "Freaks" became the only MGM film ever to be pulled from release before completing its domestic engagements, and it was pulled from distribution after its New York engagements concluded in the summer of 1932. Disillusioned by the backlash the film received, MGM studio head Louis B. Mayer sold the distribution rights to Dwain Esper for a 25-year period for $50,000.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: A number of reviews were not only highly critical of the film, but expressed outrage and revulsion. "Harrison's Reports" wrote that "Any one who considers this entertainment should be placed in the pathological ward in some hospital." In "The Kansas City Star", John C. Moffitt wrote, "There is no excuse for this picture. It took a weak mind to produce it and it takes a strong stomach to look at it." "The Hollywood Reporter" called the film an "outrageous onslaught upon the feelings, the senses, the brains and the stomachs of an audience." "Variety" also published an unfavorable review, writing that the film was "sumptuously produced, admirably directed, and no cost was spared, but Metro heads failed to realize that even with a different sort of offering the story is still important. Here the story is not sufficiently strong to get and hold the interest, partly because interest cannot easily be gained for too fantastic a romance." The review went on to state that the story "does not thrill and at the same time does not please, since it is impossible for the normal man or woman to sympathize with the aspiring midget. And only in such a case will the story appeal."


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: While a significant number of reviews were unfavorable, the film was well-received by some: "The New York Times" called it "excellent at times and horrible, in the strict meaning of the word, at others" as well as "a picture not to be easily forgotten." The "New York Herald Tribune" wrote that it was "obviously an unhealthy and generally disagreeable work," but that "in some strange way, the picture is not only exciting, but even occasionally touching." Columnist Louella Parsons wrote an enthusiastic report on the film, noting that "for pure sensationalism, "Freaks" tops any pictures yet produced...  In "Freaks" there are monstrosities such as never before have been known. If you are normal go and see them for yourself, if not, well, use your own judgment."


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: John Mosher of "The New Yorker" wrote a favorable review, calling it "a little gem" that "stands in a class by itself, and probably won't be forgotten in a hurry by those who see it." He found its "perfectly plausible story" a key to the effectiveness of its horror, writing that "It's a chilling notion to imagine these weird beings, with their own lives and vanities and passions, all allied in a bitter enmity against us." Addressing the controversial subject matter, Mosher stated: "if the poor things themselves can be displayed in the basement of Madison Square Garden, pictures of them might as well be shown in the Rialto. They may hereafter even be regarded in the flesh with a new dread bordering on respect."


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: In the mid/late 20th century, "Freaks" began to garner critical reassessment after developing a cult following in Europe, and was subject to renewed praise by critics and audiences. The film's growing popularity abroad led to a renewed interest in it among American audiences, and it was subject of a retrospective review in "Film Quarterly" by John Thomas in 1964, in which he deemed it "a minor masterpiece."


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: Critic Kim Newman suggests that the film's warmer reception amongst mid/late-20th-century audiences was partly due to the term "freak" having taken on a more positive connotation, as something to be celebrated rather than reviled; Newman also adds that the film "shows obvious fondness for its carny cast." The "Los Angeles Times"s Mark Chalon Smith declared in a 1995 retrospective review: ""Freaks" is a wild ride, but it's not the monster-trip some say it is. It is macabre and disturbing, but Browning chose to humanize the deformed characters at the movie's shadowy center, not to demonize them." Nonetheless, the film has still been noted for its stark horror imagery in the 21st century, with Joe Morgenstern writing in 2009 that it boasts "some of the most terrifying scenes ever consigned to film." Jamie Russell of the BBC similarly observed in 2002: "It's easy to see why reactions to the film have been so strong—it's a catalogue of the abnormal, the bizarre, and the grotesque that's still as unsettling today as it was 70 years ago."


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: Film critic Mark Kermode awarded the film four out of five stars in a 2015 review, noting that, "today, Browning's sympathies are clear; if there are 'freaks' on display here, they are not the versatile performers to whom the title seems to allude." Film theorist and critic Andrew Sarris echoed this sentiment, proclaiming "Freaks" "one of the most compassionate films ever made." Ed Gonzalez of "Slant Magazine" wrote in a 2003 retrospective that the film's moral significance has often been obscured by critical attention to its more shocking elements, noting that this "seriously underplay[s] the film's blistering humanity and the audacious aesthetic and philosophical lengths to which Browning goes to challenge the way we define beauty and abnormality."


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: , "Freaks" holds an approval rating of 94% on the internet review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on 53 reviews, and boasts an average rating of 8.48/10. Its consensus reads, "Time has been kind to this horror legend: "Freaks" manages to frighten, shock, and even touch viewers in ways that contemporary viewers missed."


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: "Freaks" was first issued on LaserDisc by MGM/UA Home Video in 1986, and on VHS by Warner Home Entertainment in 1990. In 2004, Warner issued the film on DVD for the first time.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: "Freaks" is now widely considered among director Browning's best films. The film's growing esteem among critics traces back to the early 1960s, when it was rediscovered as a counterculture cult film, particularly among European audiences. It was screened at the 1962 Venice Film Festival, and shortly after was shown for the first time in the United Kingdom, having been banned there since 1932. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the film was regularly shown at midnight movie screenings in the United States. It also enjoyed a critical reappraisal in France during this period, as, according to Hawkins, Browning had achieved a "certain Poe-esque stature among French intellectuals." Critic Derek Malcolm noted in 1999 that the film is "one of the masterpieces of baroque cinema," and a "damning antidote to the cult of physical perfection and an extraordinary tribute to the community of so-called freaks who made up its cast."


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: In 1994, "Freaks" was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry, which preserves "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" films. Film scholar Jennifer Peterson cites "Freaks" as one of the 50 most important American films ever made. In a 2018 retrospective on Browning's career, Martyn Conterio of the British Film Institute assesses the film as "best approached with a fuller understanding of Browning's work, specifically, the director's emotionally complicated interest in human abnormality and the severely disabled," and considers it among Browning's films that "are pioneering and boundary-pushing, amounting to repeat attacks on Hollywood's standardised images of beauty and glamour." It is also listed in the film reference book "1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die", which says "No mere plot summary can do justice to this alarming yet profound movie, which truly must be seen to be believed. It is a supreme oddity (freak?) of world cinema considered by many to be the most remarkable film in the career of a director whose credits include the original version of "Dracula" (1931)."


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: Several sequences in the film have been noted for their lasting cultural impact, particularly the freaks' climactic revenge sequence, which was ranked 15th on Bravo TV's list of the 100 Scariest Movie Moments. The banquet sequence in which the freaks chant "We accept her, we accept her, one of us" has also been noted, with Mike D'Angelo of "The A.V. Club" describing it as "the film's greatest cultural legacy...  "One of us, one of us, one of us" reliably gets trotted out in situations involving an individual being forced to conform by the masses—I can recall seeing homages on both "The Simpsons" and "South Park", and there are probably dozens of others out there."


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: "Freaks" has inspired two unofficial remakes: "She Freak" (1967) and "Freakshow" (2007). It also served as a major inspiration for the fourth season of the television series "American Horror Story", titled "" (2014–2015). "Freaks" was adapted into a 1992 comic book series, published by Fantagraphics, written by Jim Woodring and illustrated by Francisco Solano Lopez.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: Clips and audio of the film was used in a music video by Insane Clown Posse for wrestling stable The Oddities, in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) in 1998.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: The song "Pinhead" (1977) by the punk-rock band Ramones was inspired by "Freaks", which the band saw in Cleveland, Ohio, after their gig was cancelled. Joey Ramone's brother Mickey Leigh said that the line "Gabba Gabba, we accept you, we accept you one of us" was specifically taken from the scene in which "the midget groom does a dance on the banquet table and sings 'Goobble gobble, we accept you, one of us' to his bride." The song is an audience participation song, and during live performances, Leigh used to appear on stage holding a sign that bore the text "Gabba Gabba, Hey." The song was featured on their album "Leave Home".


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: The film was mentioned in the third season episode of "the Sopranos", "University," when the character Caitlin expresses disgust at her classmates' callous reaction to characters in the film.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: In "Butters' Very Own Episode," a 2001 episode of "South Park", a "support group" of people who have killed loved ones and make up nebulous stories scapegoating minorities or criminals for their murders begin the "gooble gobble, one of us..." chant when inducting new members.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: In Martin Scorsese's 2013 film "Wolf of Wall Street", the men working in the firm put on a dwarf-tossing event. They mockingly use the chant as they plan the event and purport that they will treat the dwarves they enlist with some dignity.


title: Freaks (1932 film)

text: This audio clip and the opening monologue of the film also feature in the song "Separated Out" on the album "Anoraknophobia" by the band Marillion.


title: Lara Trump

text: Lara Lea Trump ( Yunaska; born October 12, 1982) is an American former television producer who is married to Eric Trump, third child of Donald Trump. She was the producer and host of Trump Productions' "Real News Update" and a producer of "Inside Edition".


title: Lara Trump

text: Lara Yunaska was born in Wilmington, North Carolina, on October 12, 1982, to Robert Luke Yunaska and Linda Ann Sykes. She has a younger brother, Kyle Robert Yunaska. She attended Emsley A. Laney High School. Trump graduated cum laude with a bachelor of arts degree in communication from North Carolina State University and also studied at the French Culinary Institute in New York.


title: Lara Trump

text: Trump was a story coordinator and producer for the TV news magazine "Inside Edition" from 2012 to 2016. On March 29, 2021, Trump joined Fox News as a contributor.


title: Lara Trump

text: In December 2022, Fox News announced they parted ways with Trump after her father in-law, Donald Trump, declared his reelection bid. Fox's policy is not to employ anyone running for office or involved with a candidate.


title: Lara Trump

text: During Donald Trump's 2016 presidential campaign, she spearheaded the "Trump–Pence Women's Empowerment Tour" and served as the Trump Tower liaison for Brad Parscale's Giles-Parscale company. After her father-in-law was elected president, she became an online producer and fundraiser for him.


title: Lara Trump

text: In April 2019, she described German chancellor Angela Merkel's decision to accept refugees during the European migrant crisis of 2015 as "the downfall of Germany; it was one of the worst things that ever happened to Germany."


title: Lara Trump

text: She was a senior consultant to Parscale for Trump's reelection campaign in 2020. The campaign paid her $180,000 a year through Parscale's private company, Parscale Strategy. Lara Trump was a surrogate on the stump and took on broad advisory roles. She also campaigned with far right activist and conspiracy theorist Laura Loomer.


title: Lara Trump

text: After Lara Trump's father-in-law left office in 2021, it was widely rumored that she would run for the United States Senate seat being vacated by the retiring Richard Burr. However, after several months of media speculation, she declined to run and endorsed the eventual winner, Representative Ted Budd.


title: Lara Trump

text: On November 8, 2014, after a six-year relationship, Lara Trump married her husband in a ceremony at Donald Trump's Mar-a-Lago estate in Palm Beach, Florida. On September 12, 2017, the couple's first child, Eric "Luke" Trump, was born. On August 19, 2019, Lara gave birth to Carolina Dorothy Trump, the couple's second child.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: Second-wave feminism was a period of feminist activity that began in the early 1960s and lasted roughly two decades. It took place throughout the Western world, and aimed to increase equality for women by building on previous feminist gains.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: Whereas first-wave feminism focused mainly on suffrage and overturning legal obstacles to gender equality ("e.g.", voting rights and property rights), second-wave feminism broadened the debate to include a wider range of issues: sexuality, family, domesticity, the workplace, reproductive rights, "de facto" inequalities, and official legal inequalities. It was a movement that was focused on critiquing the patriarchal, or male-dominated, institutions and cultural practices throughout society. Second-wave feminism also drew attention to the issues of domestic violence and marital rape, created rape-crisis centers and women's shelters, and brought about changes in custody laws and divorce law. Feminist-owned bookstores, credit unions, and restaurants were among the key meeting spaces and economic engines of the movement.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: The term "second-wave feminism" itself was brought into common parlance by journalist Martha Lear in a "New York Times Magazine" article in March 1968 titled "The Second Feminist Wave: What do These Women Want?". She wrote, "Proponents call it the Second Feminist Wave, the first having ebbed after the glorious victory of suffrage and disappeared, finally, into the great sandbar of Togetherness."


title: Second-wave feminism

text: Many historians view the second-wave feminist era in America as ending in the early 1980s with the intra-feminism disputes of the feminist sex wars over issues such as sexuality and pornography, which ushered in the era of third-wave feminism in the early 1990s.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: The second wave of feminism in the United States came as a delayed reaction against the renewed domesticity of women after World War II: the late 1940s post-war boom, which was an era characterized by an unprecedented economic growth, a baby boom, a move to family-oriented suburbs and the ideal of companionate marriages. During this time, women did not tend to seek employment due to their engagement with domestic and household duties, which was seen as their primary duty but often left them isolated within the home and estranged from politics, economics, and law making. This life was clearly illustrated by the media of the time; for example television shows such as "Father Knows Best" and "Leave It to Beaver" idealized domesticity.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: Some important events laid the groundwork for the second wave, specifically the work of French writer Simone de Beauvoir in the 1940s where she examined the notion of women being perceived as "other" in the patriarchal society. Simone de Beauvoir is an existentialist, meaning she believed in the existence of the individual person as a free and responsible agent determining their own development through acts of the will. She went on to conclude in her 1949 treatise "The Second Sex" that male-centered ideology was being accepted as a norm and enforced by the ongoing development of myths, and that the fact that women are capable of getting pregnant, lactating, and menstruating is in no way a valid cause or explanation to place them as the "second sex". This book was translated from French to English (with some of its text excised) and published in America in 1953.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: In 1960, the Food and Drug Administration approved the combined oral contraceptive pill, which was made available in 1961. This made it easier for women to have careers without having to leave due to unexpectedly becoming pregnant. It also meant young couples would not be routinely forced into unwanted marriages due to accidental pregnancies.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: Though it is widely accepted that the movement lasted from the 1960s into the early 1980s, the exact years of the movement are more difficult to pinpoint and are often disputed. The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when Betty Friedan published "The Feminine Mystique", and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: The administration of President Kennedy made women's rights a key issue of the New Frontier, and named women (such as Esther Peterson) to many high-ranking posts in his administration. Kennedy also established a Presidential Commission on the Status of Women, chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt and comprising cabinet officials (including Peterson and Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy), senators, representatives, businesspeople, psychologists, sociologists, professors, activists, and public servants. The report recommended changing this inequality by providing paid maternity leave, greater access to education, and help with child care to women.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: There were other actions by women in wider society, presaging their wider engagement in politics which would come with the second wave. In 1961, 50,000 women in 60 cities, mobilized by Women Strike for Peace, protested above ground testing of nuclear bombs and tainted milk.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: In 1963, Betty Friedan, influenced by Simone de Beauvoir's ground-breaking, feminist "The Second Sex", wrote the bestselling book "The Feminine Mystique". Discussing primarily white women, she explicitly objected to how women were depicted in the mainstream media, and how placing them at home (as 'housewives') limited their possibilities and wasted potential. She had helped conduct a very important survey using her old classmates from Smith College. This survey revealed that the women who played a role at home and the workforce were more satisfied with their life compared with the women who stayed home. The women who stayed home showed feelings of agitation and sadness. She concluded that many of these unhappy women had immersed themselves in the idea that they should not have any ambitions outside their home. Friedan described this as "The Problem That Has No Name". The perfect nuclear family image depicted and strongly marketed at the time, she wrote, did not reflect happiness and was rather degrading for women. This book is widely credited with having begun second-wave feminism in the United States.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: The report from the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women, along with Friedan's book, spoke to the discontent of many women (especially housewives) and led to the formation of local, state, and federal government women's groups along with many independent feminist organizations. Friedan was referencing a "movement" as early as 1964.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: The movement grew with legal victories such as the Equal Pay Act of 1963, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the "Griswold v. Connecticut" Supreme Court ruling of 1965. In 1966 Friedan joined other women and men to found the National Organization for Women (NOW); Friedan would be named as the organization's first president.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: Despite the early successes NOW achieved under Friedan's leadership, her decision to pressure the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to use Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act to enforce more job opportunities among American women met with fierce opposition within the organization. Siding with arguments among several of the group's African-American members, many of NOW's leaders were convinced that the vast number of male African-Americans who lived below the poverty line were in need of more job opportunities than women within the middle and upper class. Friedan stepped down as president in 1969.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: In 1963, freelance journalist Gloria Steinem gained widespread popularity among feminists after a diary she authored while working undercover as a Playboy Bunny waitress at the Playboy Club was published as a two-part feature in the May and June issues of "Show". In her diary, Steinem alleged the club was mistreating its waitresses in order to gain male customers and exploited the Playboy Bunnies as symbols of male chauvinism, noting that the club's manual instructed the Bunnies that "there are many pleasing ways they can employ to stimulate the club's liquor volume". By 1968, Steinem had become arguably the most influential figure in the movement and support for legalized abortion and federally funded day-cares had become the two leading objectives for feminists.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: Among the most significant legal victories of the movement after the formation of NOW were a 1967 Executive Order extending full affirmative action rights to women, a 1968 EEOC decision ruling illegal sex-segregated help wanted ads, Title IX and the Women's Educational Equity Act (1972 and 1974, respectively, educational equality), Title X (1970, health and family planning), the Equal Credit Opportunity Act (1974), the Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, the outlawing of marital rape (although not outlawed in all states until 1993), and the legalization of no-fault divorce (although not legalized in all states until 2010), a 1975 law requiring the U.S. Military Academies to admit women, and many Supreme Court cases such as "Reed v. Reed" of 1971 and "Roe v. Wade" of 1973. However, the changing of social attitudes towards women is usually considered the greatest success of the women's movement. In January 2013, US Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta announced that the longtime ban on women serving in US military combat roles had been lifted.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: In 2013, the US Department of Defense (DoD) announced their plan to integrate women into all combat positions by 2016.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: Second-wave feminism also affected other movements, such as the civil rights movement and the student's rights movement, as women sought equality within them. In 1965 in "Sex and Caste," a reworking of a memo they had written as staffers in civil-rights organizations SNCC, Casey Hayden and Mary King proposed that "assumptions of male superiority are as widespread and deep rooted and every much as crippling to the woman as the assumptions of white supremacy are to the Negro," and that in the movement, as in society, women can find themselves "caught up in a common-law caste system."


title: Second-wave feminism

text: In June 1967, Jo Freeman attended a "free school" course on women at the University of Chicago led by Heather Booth and Naomi Weisstein. She invited them to organize a woman's workshop at the then-forthcoming National Conference of New Politics (NCNP), to be held over Labor Day weekend 1967 in Chicago. At that conference, a woman's caucus was formed (led by Freeman and Shulamith Firestone), who tried to present their own demands to the plenary session. However, the women were told their resolution was not important enough for a floor discussion, and when through threatening to tie up the convention with procedural motions they succeeded in having their statement tacked to the end of the agenda, it was never discussed. When the National Conference for New Politics (NCNP) Director William F. Pepper refused to recognize any of the women waiting to speak and instead called on someone to speak about American Indians, five women, including Firestone, rushed the podium demanding to know why. But Willam F. Pepper allegedly patted Firestone on the head and said, "Move on little girl; we have more important issues to talk about here than women's liberation", or possibly, "Cool down, little girl. We have more important things to talk about than women's problems." Freeman and Firestone called a meeting of the women who had been at the "free school" course and the women's workshop at the conference; this became the first Chicago women's liberation group. It was known as the Westside group because it met weekly in Freeman's apartment on Chicago's west side. After a few months, Freeman started a newsletter which she called "Voice of the women's liberation movement." It circulated all over the country (and in a few foreign countries), giving the new movement of women's liberation its name. Many of the women in the Westside group went on to start other feminist organizations, including the Chicago Women's Liberation Union.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: In 1968, an SDS organizer at the University of Washington told a meeting about white college men working with poor white men, and "[h]e noted that sometimes after analyzing societal ills, the men shared leisure time by 'balling a chick together.' He pointed out that such activities did much to enhance the political consciousness of poor white youth. A woman in the audience asked, 'And what did it do for the consciousness of the chick? (Hole, Judith, and Ellen Levine, "Rebirth of Feminism", 1971, pg. 120). After the meeting, a handful of women formed Seattle's first women's liberation group.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: Some black feminists who were active in the early second-wave feminism include civil rights lawyer and author Florynce Kennedy, who co-authored one of the first books on abortion, 1971's "Abortion Rap"; Cellestine Ware, of New York's Stanton-Anthony Brigade; and Patricia Robinson. These women "tried to show the connections between racism and male dominance" in society.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: The Indochinese Women's Conferences (IWC) in Vancouver and Toronto in 1971, demonstrated the interest of a multitude of women's groups in the Vietnam Antiwar movement. Lesbian groups, women of color, and Vietnamese groups saw their interests mirrored in the anti-imperialist spirit of the conference. Although the IWC used a Canadian venue, membership was primarily composed of American groups.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: The second wave of the feminist movement also marks the emergence of women's studies as a legitimate field of study. In 1970, San Diego State University was the first university in the United States to offer a selection of women's studies courses.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: The 1977 National Women's Conference in Houston, Texas, presented an opportunity for women's liberation groups to address a multitude of women's issues. At the conference, delegates from around the country gathered to create a National Plan of Action, which offered 26 planks on matters such as women's health, women's employment, and child care. By the early 1980s, it was largely perceived that women had met their goals and succeeded in changing social attitudes towards gender roles, repealing oppressive laws that were based on sex, integrating the "boys' clubs" such as military academies, the United States Armed Forces, NASA, single-sex colleges, men's clubs, and the Supreme Court, and making gender discrimination illegal. However, in 1982, adding the Equal Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution failed, having been ratified by only 35 states, leaving it three states short of ratification.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: Second-wave feminism was largely successful, with the failure of the ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment and Nixon's veto of the Comprehensive Child Development Bill of 1972 (which would have provided a multibillion-dollar national day care system) the only major legislative defeats. Efforts to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment have continued. Ten states have adopted constitutions or constitutional amendments providing that equal rights under the law shall not be denied because of sex, and most of these provisions mirror the broad language of the Equal Rights Amendment. Furthermore, many women's groups are still active and are major political forces. , more women earn bachelor's degrees than men, half of the Ivy League presidents are women, the numbers of women in government and traditionally male-dominated fields have dramatically increased, and in 2009 the percentage of women in the American workforce temporarily surpassed that of men. The salary of the average American woman has also increased over time, although as of 2008 it is only 77% of the average man's salary, a phenomenon often referred to as the gender pay gap. Whether this is due to discrimination is very hotly disputed, however economists and sociologists have provided evidence to that effect.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: Second-wave feminism ended in the early 1980s with the feminist sex wars and was succeeded by third-wave feminism in the early 1990s.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: Betty Friedan published "The Feminine Mystique" in the United States in 1963 and set a new standard and gender roles for women. Friedan argued that the feminine mystique hurt women both personally and professionally. The feminine mystique described the persuasive dissatisfaction among women in mainstream American society. Friedan coined the term feminine mystique to describe the societal assumption that women could find fulfillment through housework, marriage, child-rearing, and sexual passivity alone. Friedan noted that many housewives were unsatisfied with their lives but had difficulty articulating their feelings, and she used statistics and interviews to illustrate women's desire to achieve the feminine mystique. The feminine mystique was one of many catalysts for the second-wave-feminism. Friedan's thesis was that women suffered a variety of more or less subtle forms of discrimination and victims of a pervasive system of false values under which they were urged to fund fulfillment and identity through the husbands and housework. Friedan believes that education and only education saved American women from the dangers of the feminine mystique.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: In 1967, at the International Alliance of Women Congress held in London, delegates were made aware of an initiative by the UN Commission on the Status of Women to study and evaluate the situation of women in their countries. Many organizations and NGOs like the Association of Business and Professional Women, Soroptimists Clubs, as well as teaching and nursing associations developed committees in response to the initiative to prepare evaluations on the conditions of women and urge their governments to establish National Commissions on the Status of Women.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: During the 1960s several German feminist groups were founded, which were characterized as the second wave.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: The 1960s in Spain saw a generational shift in Spanish feminist in response to other changes in Spanish society. This included increased emigration and tourism (resulting in the spread of ideas from the rest of the world), greater opportunities in education and employment for women and major economic reforms. Feminism in the late Franco period and early transition period was not unified. It had many different political dimensions, however, they all shared a belief in the need for greater equality for women in Spain and a desire to defend the rights of women. Feminism moved from being about the individual to being about the collective. It was during this period that second-wave feminism arrived in Spain.


title: Second-wave feminism

text: Second-wave Spanish feminism was about the struggle for the rights of women in the context of the dictatorship. PCE would start in 1965 to promote this movement with MDM, creating a feminist political orientation around building solidarity for women and assisting imprisoned political figures. MDM launched its movement in Madrid by establishing associations among the housewives of the Tetuán and Getafe in 1969. In 1972, Asociación Castellana de Amas de Casa y Consumidora was created to widen the group's ability to attract members.