title: India–Russia relations

text: The Soviet Union was an important supplier of defence equipment for several decades, and this role has been inherited by the Russian federation. Russia 68%, USA 14% and Israel 7.2% are the major arms suppliers to India (2012-2016), and India and Russia have deepened their Make in India defence manufacturing cooperation by signing agreements for the construction of naval frigates, KA-226T twin-engine utility helicopters (joint venture (JV) to make 60 in Russia and 140 in India), Brahmos cruise missile (JV with 50.5% India and 49.5% Russia) (Dec 2017 update). In December 1988, an India–Russia co-operation agreement was signed, which resulted in the sale of a multitude of defence equipment to India and also the emergence of the countries as development partners as opposed to purely a buyer-seller relationship, including the joint ventures projects to develop and produce the Fifth Generation Fighter Aircraft (FGFA) and the Multirole Transport Aircraft (MTA). The agreement is pending a 10-year extension. In 1997, Russia and India signed a ten-year agreement for further military-technical cooperation encompassed a wide range of activities, including the purchase of completed weaponry, joint development and production, and joint marketing of armaments and military technologies.


title: India–Russia relations

text: The co-operation is not limited to a buyer-seller relationship but includes joint research and development, training, service to service contacts, including joint exercises. The last joint naval exercises took place in April 2007 in the Sea of Japan and joint airborne exercises were held in September 2007 in Russia. An Inter-Governmental commission on military-technical co-operation is co-chaired by the defence ministers of the two countries. The seventh session of this Inter-Governmental Commission was held in October 2007 in Moscow. During the visit, an agreement on joint development and production of prospective multi-role fighters was signed between the two countries.


title: India–Russia relations

text: In 2012, both countries signed a defence deal worth $2.9 billion during President Putin's visit to India for the 42 new Sukhois to be produced under license by defence PSU Hindustan Aeronautics, which will add to the 230 Sukhois earlier contracted from Russia. Overall, the price tag for the 272 Sukhois - three of the over 170 inducted until now have crashed - stands at over $12 billion. The medium-lift Mi-17 V5 helicopters (59 for IAF and 12 for home ministry/BSF) will add to the 80 such choppers already being inducted under a $1.34 billion deal inked in 2008. The value of India's defence projects with Russia will further zoom north after the imminent inking of the final design contract for the joint development of a futuristic stealth fifth-generation fighter. This R&D contract is itself pegged at US$11 billion, to be shared equally by the two countries. So if India inducts over 200 of these 5th Gen fighters, as it hopes to do from 2022 onwards, the overall cost of this gigantic project for India will come to around US$35 billion since each of the jets will come for upwards of US$100 million at least.


title: India–Russia relations

text: In October 2018, India inked the historic agreement worth US$5.43 billion with Russia to procure five S-400 Triumf surface-to-air missile defence system, one of the best missile defence system in the world ignoring America's CAATSA act. The United States threatened India with sanctions over India's decision to buy the S-400 missile defense system from Russia.


title: India–Russia relations

text: Russia said that despite the ongoing conflict with Ukraine, which caused international sanctions, it fulfilled its contractual obligations and delivered all weapon systems, including the S-400 air defense system, according to schedule. Also, Moscow said that they expect that serial production of AK 203 assault rifles in India will begin in late 2022- early 2023.


title: India–Russia relations

text: Dmitry Shugaev, head of the Federal Service for Military Technical Cooperation (FSMTC), said that the Russian side was ready for cooperation and had already submitted proposals on the joint development and production of modern types of military equipment and actively uses the principle of "Make in India.


title: India–Russia relations

text: At the Army-2022 forum, the Russian side declared its readiness for cooperation and presented proposals for the joint development and production of modern types of military equipment, namely, "the main battle tank of the future, infantry fighting vehicle, fifth-generation aircraft, diesel-electric submarines and other types of modern weapons."


title: India–Russia relations

text: In 2023, Russia and India have planned to hold several joint military exercises. Exercises will be held in the Southern Military District as part of the Indra military project, which was first implemented back in 2003. For the coming year, the countries have also planned to hold an event "AviaIndra".


title: India–Russia relations

text: On October 18, 2022, the Director General of the Indian-Russian organization BrahMos informed Russian journalists about the timing of the test of the BrahMos NG missile being developed as part of a joint project. According to him, "missile tests are scheduled for 2024." At the moment, design engineers are working on a scheme of weapons. The defense of the project, as the chief director expects, should take place in Moscow at the site of the NPO Mashinostroeniya.


title: India–Russia relations

text: In 2023, Russia plans to supply India with the frigate "Tushil" and the frigate "Tamala" of project 11356, created at the Baltic shipyard "Yantar". Initially, they were built for the Russian Navy, but due to Ukraine's refusal to provide engines, the ships are being prepared for the Indian side. The frigate "Tushil" was launched in October 2021, "Tamala" according to the plan will be launched at the end of 2022.


title: India–Russia relations

text: Bilateral trade between both countries is concentrated in key value chain sectors. These sectors include highly diversified segments such as machinery, electronics, aerospace, automobile, commercial shipping, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, fertilisers, apparels, precious stones, industrial metals, petroleum products, coal, high-end tea and coffee products. Bilateral trade in 2002 stood at $1.5 billion and increased by over 7 times to $11 billion in 2012 and with both governments setting a bilateral trade target of $30 billion by 2025. Bilateral bodies that conduct economic relations between the two countries include IRIGC, the Indo-Russian Forum on Trade and Investment, the India-Russia Business Council, the India-Russia Trade, Investment and Technology Promotion Council, the India-Russia CEOs' Council and the India-Russia Chamber of Commerce.


title: India–Russia relations

text: Both Governments have jointly developed an economic strategy that involves using a number of economic components to increase future bilateral trade. These include development of an FTA between India & the EEU, a bilateral treaty on the promotion and protection of investments, a new economic planning mechanism built into IRIGC, simplication of customs procedures, new long-term agreements in the expansion of energy trade including nuclear, oil and gas. Finally, long term supplier contracts in key sectors such as oil, gas and rough diamonds. Companies such as Rosneft, Gazprom, Essar & Alrosa will act as long term suppliers respectively.


title: India–Russia relations

text: Russia has stated it will co-operate with India on its "Make in India" initiative by engagement in the development of "Smart Cites", the DMIC, the aerospace sector, the commercial nuclear sector and enhancement in manufacturing of Russian military products through co-development and co-production. Russia agreed to participate in the vast, over $100 billion, DMIC infrastructure project which will eventually connect Delhi and Mumbai with railways, highways, ports, interconnecting smart cities and industrial parks. Russian President Vladimir Putin stated in an interview that one of his government's priorities was of building a smart city in India, "a smart city on the basis of Russian technologies." AFK Sistema will likely be the primary Russian company involved in the project due to its previous experience in smart city projects in Ufa, Kazan and Rostov.


title: India–Russia relations

text: Both countries have also agreed to work together in the aerospace sector to co-development and co-produce aircraft, examples include the Sukhoi Superjet 100, MS-21, FGFA, MTA and Kamov Ka-226. Some of the co-developed aircraft will be jointly commercially exported to third countries and foreign markets e.g. FGFA and Kamov Ka-226. President of Russia's UAC Mikhail Pogosyan stated in an interview, "We are planning to sell in India about 100 passenger aircraft by 2030, which will account for 10 percent of the Indian market of airliners in the segment" and further stated, "The unprecedented scope of Russian-Indian cooperation in military aviation has created a scientific and engineering basis for undertaking joint projects in civil aviation."


title: India–Russia relations

text: India is currently the world's largest cutting & polishing centre for diamonds. Both countries have agreed to streamline their bilateral trade in diamonds through reductions in regulations and tariffs. Indian Prime Minister Modi stated in an interview, "I made three proposals to President Putin. First, I would like Alrosa to have direct long-term contracts with more Indian companies. I am pleased to know that they are moving in this direction. Second, I want Alrosa and others to trade directly on our diamond bourse. We have decided to create a Special Notified Zone where mining companies can trade diamonds on consignment basis and re-export unsold ones. Third, I asked to reform regulation so that Russia can send rough diamonds to India and reimport polished diamonds without extra duties". Analysts predict through streamlined procedures and initiatives bilateral trade in this area will significantly increase.


title: India–Russia relations

text: Russia has agreed to build more than 20 nuclear reactors over the next 20 year. Russian president stated in an interview, "It contains plans to build over 20 nuclear power units in India, as well as cooperation in building Russia-designed nuclear power stations in third countries, in the joint extraction of natural uranium, production of nuclear fuel and waste elimination." In 2012 Gazprom Group and India's GAIL agreed to LNG shipments to India of 2.5 million tons a year for the period of 20 years. LNG shipments for this contract are expected to begin anytime between 2017 and 2021. Indian oil companies have invested in the Russia's oil sector a notable example is ONGC-Videsh which has invested over $8 billion with major stakes in oil fields such Sakhalin-1. In joint statement released by both governments they stated, "It is expected that Indian companies will strongly participate in projects related to new oil and gas fields in the territory of the Russian Federation. The sides will study the possibilities of building a hydrocarbon pipeline system, connecting the Russian Federation with India."


title: India–Russia relations

text: Officials from both countries have discussed how to increase co-operation between their countries respective IT industries. Russian Minister of Communication Nikolai Nikiforov stated in an interview, "The development of IT products and software has traditionally been a strong point of India. We welcome possible joint projects in the field and closer contacts between Russian and Indian companies."


title: India–Russia relations

text: Due to India simplifying recent visa rule changes for Russians travelling to India, the number of tourists increased by over 22%. In 2011 the Indian consulates in Moscow, Vladivostok and St. Petersburg issued 160,000 visas, an increase of over 50% compared to 2010.


title: India–Russia relations

text: Both the countries set the investment target of $30 billion by 2025. Since they met the target by 2018, India and Russia expect to enhance the figure to $50 billion. India also proposed to set up a special economic zone for Russian companies.


title: India–Russia relations

text: On 5 September 2019, India pledged a USD 1 billion line of credit (concessional loans) for the development of Russia's far east.


title: India–Russia relations

text: In March 2022, when Western nations imposed economic sanctions on Russia in the aftermath of its invasion of Ukraine, India and Russia explored alternative payment systems due to exclusion of most Russian banks from SWIFT and Visa/Mastercard. Officials from both countries were discussing accepting RuPay and MIR cards. The Reserve Bank of India and the Bank of Russia seek to facilitate financial transactions through an independent rupee-ruble exchange system, particularly for the purchase of sunflower oil by India, and the export of petroleum products and fertilizers by the Russian Federation. India also depends crucially on Russia for its defence equipment and parts. Additionally, Indian Oil Corp. had reportedly reached a deal to buy 3 million barrels of oil from Russia's Rosneft at a 20% discount to global prices.


title: India–Russia relations

text: On August 2, 2022, the Russian Ambassador to India announced the Indian side's interest in the presence on the Russian market, in particular, Indian pharmaceutical products, leather goods, textiles and agricultural goods.


title: India–Russia relations

text: Russian imports from India amounted to $3.1 billion or 1% of its overall imports, and 0.7% of India's overall exports in 2014. The 10 major commodities exported from India to Russia were:


title: India–Russia relations

text: Russian exports to India amounted to $6.2 billion or 1.3% of its overall exports, and 0.9% of India's overall imports in 2014. The 10 major commodities exported from Russia to India were:


title: India–Russia relations

text: In just five months of 2022, bilateral trade between Russia and India reached a record growth of $18.229 billion. For comparison, last year this figure amounted to $ 13.124 billion, and the year before that – $ 8.141 billion. Now Russia has become India's seventh largest trading partner, having risen to this place from the 25th position it occupied last year. Russia's share in India's total trade volume increased to 3.54% compared to 1.27% in 2021-222.


title: India–Russia relations

text: Russia and India are successfully cooperating in the banking sector. In 2010, the Russian Federation opened an office of Sberbank in New Delhi. Last year, the branch was capitalized and by now the equity of the branch has reached $ 100 million. In 2022, Russia received permission from the regulator in India to open a second office in Mumbai. The countries plan to implement the project in 2023.


title: India–Russia relations

text: Both governments have long viewed their bilateral trade well below its optimal potential, with the only long term way of rectifying this through having a Free trade agreement (FTA). Both governments have set up a joint study group (JSG) to negotiate the specifications of an agreement, a final agreement would be signed between India and Eurasian Economic Union of which Russia is a part of (also including Kazakhstan, Armenia, Kyrgyzstan & Belarus). Thereby, the Indo-Russian FTA would result in a much bigger free trade agreement including India, Russia, Kazakhstan, Armenia, Kyrgyzstan & Belarus. It is predicted once an FTA is in place bilateral trade will increase manifold, thereby significantly increasing the importance of economics in bilateral ties.


title: India–Russia relations

text: Energy sector is an important area in Indo-Russian bilateral relations. In 2001, ONGC-Videsh acquired 20% stake in the Sakhalin-I oil and gas project in the Russian Federation, and has invested about US$1.7 billion in the project. Gazprom, the Russian company, and Gas Authority of India have collaborated in joint development of a block in the Bay of Bengal. Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project with two units of 1000 MW each is a good example of Indo-Russian nuclear energy co-operation. Both sides have expressed interest in expanding cooperation in the energy sector.


title: India–Russia relations

text: In December 2008, Russia and India signed an agreement to build civilian nuclear reactors in India during a visit by the Russian president to New Delhi.


title: India–Russia relations

text: During Russia's invasion of Ukraine, India imported a lot of discounted Russian oil, Russia rose to become India's second biggest supplier of oil in May, pushing Saudi Arabia into third place but still behind Iraq which remains No. 1, data from trade sources showed, accounts for 18% of India's crude imports. India increased its energy reliance with Russia in the aftermath of the Ukraine conflict, as imports for Russian liquid gas, crude oil and coal tripled to almost US$5 billion in the first half of 2022.


title: India–Russia relations

text: The North–South Transport Corridor is the ship, rail, and road route for moving freight between India, Russia, Iran, Europe and Central Asia. The route primarily involves moving freight from India, Iran, Azerbaijan and Russia via ship, rail and road. The objective of the corridor is to increase trade connectivity between major cities such as Mumbai, Moscow, Tehran, Baku, Bandar Abbas, Astrakhan, Bandar Anzali etc. Dry runs of two routes were conducted in 2014, the first was Mumbai to Baku via Bandar Abbas and the second was Mumbai to Astrakhan via Bandar Abbas, Tehran and Bandar Anzali. The objective of the study was to identify and address key bottlenecks. The results showed transport costs were reduced by "$2,500 per 15 tons of cargo". Other routes under consideration include via Armenia, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan. р


title: India–Russia relations

text: The ongoing collaboration in the field of science & technology, under the Integrated Long-Term Programme of Co-operation (ILTP) is the largest co-operation programme in this sphere for both India and Russia. ILTP is coordinated by the Department of Science and Technology from the Indian side and by the Academy of Sciences, Ministry of Science and Education, and Ministry of Industry and Trade from the Russian side. Development of SARAS Duet aircraft, semiconductor products, super computers, poly-vaccines, laser science and technology, seismology, high-purity materials, software & IT and Ayurveda have been some of the priority areas of co-operation under the ILTP. Under this programme, eight joint Indo-Russian centres have been established to focus on joint research and development work. Two other Joint Centres on Non-ferrous Metals and Accelerators and Lasers are being set up in India. A Joint Technology Centre based in Moscow to bring cutting-edge technologies to the market is also under processing. An ILTP Joint Council met in Moscow on 11–12 October 2007 to review co-operation and give it further direction. In August 2007, an MoU was signed between Department of Science and Technology and Russian Foundation of Basic Research, Moscow to pursue scientific co-operation.


title: India–Russia relations

text: In June 2010, the Russian-Indian Science and Technology Center (RI STC) was established in Moscow as a structure of effective innovative interaction in order to find forms of commercialization of the results of joint scientific and technical research. In April 2012, the official opening of the Delhi branch of the RI STC took place.


title: India–Russia relations

text: There has been a long history of cooperation between the Soviet Union and India in space. Examples include Aryabhata, India's first satellite, named after an Indian astronomer of the same name. It was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975 from Kapustin Yar using a Kosmos-3M launch vehicle. The only Indian to visit space, Rakesh Sharma, was also launched by the Soviet Union under Interkosmos space program. During President Vladimir Putin's visit to India in December 2004, two space-related bilateral agreements were signed viz. Intergovernmental umbrella Agreement on co-operation in the outer space for peaceful purposes and the Inter Space Agency Agreement on co-operation in the Russian satellite navigation system GLONASS. Subsequently, a number of follow-up agreements on GLONASS have been signed. In November 2007, the two countries have signed an agreement on joint lunar exploration. These space co-operation programmes are under implementation.


title: India–Russia relations

text: Chandrayaan-2 was a joint lunar exploration mission proposed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and the Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA) and had a projected cost of ₹4.25 billion (US$90 million). The mission, proposed to be launched in 2017 by a Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV), included a lunar orbiter and a rover made in India as well as one lander built by Russia. But due to the repeated delays in the joint venture, the Indian side ultimately decided to develop its own lander and borne all costs of the mission by itself. Later on ISRO developed its own lander named Vikram and launched Chandrayaan-2 mission successfully on July 22, 2019, from SDSC SHAR, Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.


title: India–Russia relations

text: In December 2021, Russia and India signed an agreement on measures to protect technologies in the field of space. The two countries agreed to expand and strengthen partnership relations between the Russian Roscosmos and the Indian Space Research Organization, as well as cooperation in the field of manned space programs and satellite navigation. In addition, Russia and India planned to explore the prospects for developing cooperation in the field of launch vehicle development and planetary exploration.


title: India–Russia relations

text: On February 10, 2020, Glavkosmos JSC and the Manned Space Flight Center of the Indian Space Research Organization, within the framework of an agreement to provide India with assistance in preparing for the launch of astronauts, began training Indian Air Force pilots. Indian astronaut candidates have undergone physical and medical training, studied the Russian language, designs, layouts and systems of the Soyuz manned transport spacecraft. On March 22, 2021, the head of Roscosmos, Dmitry Rogozin, announced the completion of the Indian cosmonaut training program.


title: India–Russia relations

text: In October 2022, Glavkosmos JSC supplied the Indian side with systems and equipment for the Gaganian manned transport spacecraft, as well as individual equipment (spacesuits, armchairs and lodgments produced by the Russian JSC Zvezda Scientific and Production Enterprise) for Indian cosmonauts.


title: India–Russia relations

text: On 7 November 2009, India signed a new nuclear deal with Russia apart from the deals that were agreed upon by the two countries earlier. India and Russia are in discussion for construction of two more nuclear power units at Kudankulam. Two units of the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant are already operational. During Russian president Vladimir Putin's visit to India for the 13th annual summit, a co-operative civilian nuclear energy road map was agreed to. Running until 2030, sixteen to eighteen new reactors will be constructed, with installed capacity of 1,000 MW each. A 1,000 MW reactor costs around $2.5 billion so the deal may touch $45 billion in worth.


title: India–Russia relations

text: In November 2011, Russia and Bangladesh signed an intergovernmental agreement on cooperation in the construction of the first Bangladeshi NPP "Ruppur", consisting of two power units with Russian VVER type reactors with an electric capacity of 1200 MW each, the life cycle of which is 60 years, with the possibility of extension for another 20 years. On December 23, 2015, during the visit of Rosatom CEO Sergey Kiriyenko to Bangladesh, a general contract for the construction of the first Bangladeshi nuclear power plant was signed. At the beginning of 2017 Russia has provided India with a loan of $11.38 billion to finance the main stage of the NPP construction. The construction of the nuclear power plant began in 2021. Currently, work is underway on the first and second power units. Based on the latest schedule, the power units will be put into operation in February 2024 and at the end of the same year, respectively.


title: India–Russia relations

text: Indo–Russian relations in the field of culture are historical. One of the first Russian visitors to India was Afanasiy Nikitin a merchant from Tver in Russia. His famous journey (1466-1472) was documented in the book "A Journey Beyond the Three Seas". Nikitin spent three years in India (1469-1472) travelling to its many regions and documenting its people, culture, economy, technology, history, society and food. Nikitin's journey was portrayed by Soviet actor Oleg Strizhenov alongside Hindi screen legend Nargis Dutt in the 1950s film Journey Beyond Three Seas.


title: India–Russia relations

text: Astrakhan in Russia has historically been a trading centre for Indian merchants since the 16th century. In 1722 Peter the Great met with Anbu-Ram the leader of the Indians merchants in Astrakhan. In the meeting Peter the Great agreed to Anbu-Ram's request for full free trade including transit rights.


title: India–Russia relations

text: The first Russian translation of the Bhagavad Gita was published in 1788 by decree on the orders of Catherine the Great. Russian pioneers who travelled to India and studied Indian culture include Gerasim Lebedev who studied ancient Indian languages in the 1780s and later Nicholas Roerich who studied Indian philosophy. Roerich was influenced by the philosophy of Ramakrishna and Vivekananda, the poetry of Rabindranath Tagore, and the Bhagavad Gita. The 130th birth anniversary of Nicholas Roerich and 100th birth anniversary of Svetoslav Roerich were celebrated in India in October 2004.


title: India–Russia relations

text: Leading Russian Indiologist such as Ivan Minayev, Sergey Oldenburg, Fyodor Shcherbatskoy, Yuri Knorozov, Alexandr Kondratov, Nikita Gurov and Eugene Chelyshev focused their research in understanding the Indus Script, Sanskrit and Indian literature.


title: India–Russia relations

text: Traditionally, there has been strong collaboration in the field of cinema between India and the USSR. Several generations of Russians grew up watching subtitled Indian films (mainly Bollywood) and vice versa for Indians watching Russian films. Popular Indian films in the USSR included "Awara", "Bobby", "Barood", "Mamta" and "Disco Dancer". Recent contemporary films entirely shot in Russia include "". However, after the collapse of the USSR Bollywood's market share decreased in Russia. Recently, however, there has been increase due to viewers having access through cable and satellite channels. The Russian Deputy Minister of Culture, Elena Milovzorova, stated in an interview that an Indian-Russian joint working group (JWG) would discuss procedures to allow for both countries film industries to collaborate in film production together. The Krasnodar Region has been discussed among officials as a possible area for shooting future Bollywood films. Former Russian President Dmitry Medvedev, known to be an admirer of Bollywood films, visited the film set of Yash Raj Studios and met Bollywood stars such as Shah Rukh Khan, Yash Chopra and Kareena Kapoor during his state visit to India. He stated in an interview, "Our country is one of the places where Indian culture is most admired" in addition stated, "Russia and India are the only countries where satellite channels broadcast Indian movies 24/7."


title: India–Russia relations

text: Yoga in Russia has been growing and becoming increasingly popular since the 1980s, particularly in majors cities and urban centres, mainly due to its reputation for health benefits. However, it has its roots much earlier in Russia during the time of noted Russian actor and trainer Constantin Stanislavski who was significantly influenced by Yoga and Indian philosophy.


title: India–Russia relations

text: Russia's Rossotrudnichestvo Representative Office (RRO) established in 1965 has five Russian Centres of Science and Culture (RCSC) in India they include New Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and Trivandrum. The head of RRO and director of RCSC, Fyodor Rozovsky, expects cultural ties to grow between both countries. He and other officials also expects the number of Indian students studying in Russia to increase once both countries sign an agreement on joint recognition of higher education diplomas. There is a Hindi Department, in the University of Moscow along with five Chairs relating to Indology in Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Kazan and Vladivostok.


title: India–Russia relations

text: Days of Russian Culture were held in India in November 2003, in Delhi, Kolkata and Mumbai. "Days of Indian Culture" in Russia were organised from September to October 2005 in Russia. Chief Minister of National Capital Territory of Delhi led a delegation for participating in the event "Days of Delhi in Moscow" from 28 May 1 June 2006. The "Year of Russia in India" was held in 2008. It was followed by the "Year of India in Russia" in 2009.


title: India–Russia relations

text: In the period from 2018 to 2019, the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the Russian organization ROSSCONCERT. The document opened the possibility for troupes of artists from both countries to visit India and Russia alternately. In 2019, four groups from India – "Kathak", "Hindustani Kalari", "Bollywood" and "Shehnai" visited a number of regions of the Russian Federation. In addition, Indian-Russian working groups and a cultural exchange program have been established, which also meet the cultural and tourist needs of both countries.


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: The Avatar: The Last Airbender comics are an official continuation of the original Nickelodeon animated television series, "", created by Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko. The series includes "The Lost Adventures", published from 2005 to 2011 and set between episodes of the original series, and the graphic novel trilogies, published since 2012 and set a few years after the original series. A related comic continuation, taking place seven decades later, "The Legend of Korra", began publication in 2017.


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: Since 2011, there have been six short comics of "Avatar: The Last Airbender" or "The Legend of Korra" at Free Comic Book Day offerings from Dark Horse Comics.


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: The "" graphic novel is a collection of long-out-of-print, fan-favorite comics previously published in Nickelodeon Magazine and the between 2005 and 2011. It also includes the Free Comic Book Day issue "Relics" and all-new comics. Published 15 June 2011, it is an anthology that includes twenty-eight stories by various writers and artists, many of whom worked on the original animated series.


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: "" is the second anthology book, collecting the 2013–2015 Free Comic Book Day stories along with all-new stories. The book was released on 2 October 2019. Creators include Gene Luen Yang, Dave Scheidt, Sara Goetter, Ron Koertge, Kiku Hughes, Faith Erin Hicks, Ryan Hill, Carla Speed McNeil, Little Corvus, and Coni Yovaniniz.


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: Dark Horse Comics published a series of graphic novels that serve as a continuation of "Avatar: The Last Airbender" television series. It consists of trilogies and stand-alone graphic novels. The first five stories are written by Gene Luen Yang and drawn by artist team Gurihiru. In December 2018, Faith Erin Hicks took over as writer with Peter Wartman as artist.


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: The stories are collected in oversized hardcover library edition featuring notes from the creators and a sketchbook section. They are also collected in paperback omnibuses, printed at digest size.


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: "The Promise" is the first comic to continue right after the show ended on Nickelodeon and picks up right after what the series left off. For example, in the last episode of the series, Katara and Aang start their relationship and "The Promise" "Part One" explores their new romance. The comic also explores Toph's metal bending practices and Zuko's reign as Fire Lord. The audience sees more of the dynamic between Avatar Aang and Fire Lord Zuko as they both work with the Earth King over a conflict: the Fire Nation colonies in Earth kingdom territory. This issue escalates as Yu Dao, one of the Fire Nation colonies, fights against this order. In "The Promise Part Two," Team Avatar begins to try to resolve the Yu Dao issue, while Fire Lord Zuko aims to receive advice from his father who was previously Fire Lord. Zuko experiences an internal war, in which he feels the need to do what is best for the four nations but he fears becoming like his tyrant father. The issue becomes tense as Earth King Kuei and Zuko come closer to war. In "The Promise Part Three," tensions escalate between as Zuko and Kuei both aim to keep Yu Dao through military means. As both send their armies to fight, Avatar Aang has to decide what he needs to do to maintain peace between the four nations, even if that means killing Fire Lord Zuko, his best friend.


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: In June 2012, "The Promise Part Two" was a "New York Times" Bestseller and the top of the BookScan charts. Critics say that this comic is great at displaying the characters authentically and the illustrations are a "great success."


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: "The Search" is about Fire Lord Zuko's adventure to find his presumably deceased mother Ursa who left the Fire Nation in order to save his life when he was a child. This comic also includes a large piece of Ursa's life, her lover and heartbreak. The plot goes from the past, Ursa's life with her lover, and the present, Zuko's quest to find her. In "The Search Part One," Zuko makes a deal with his sister Azula: she has to help him find his mother and he releases her from the mental institution. Zuko, Azula and Team Avatar set out to find his mother by going to Hira'a, the town where Ursa grew up. By the end of "The Search, Part One", Zuko finds out that his biological father was a man named Ikem that his mother was in love with before marrying Ozai.


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: In July 2013, "The Search Part Two" was a New York Times Bestseller. Critics say that this comic explained the missing pieces Zuko's mother well, but the story only expanded the narrative with coincidences rather than purpose.


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: "The Rift" mostly revolves around Aang's roots: the Air Nation. This comic also explores Toph's past, specifically her complicated relationship with her father. In "The Rift Part One", Aang wants his friends to celebrate Yangchen's festival. This festival was one of the most sacred Air Nomad holidays but was not celebrated in 100 years due to the Air Nomad genocide. Aang meets with Avatar Yangchen and finds out that a jointly owned Fire Nation and Earth Kingdom factory is on Air Nomad sacred land. Toph reunites with her father, whom she had not seen in two years. In "The Rift Part Two," Team Avatar continues to try to save sacred air nomadic land from industrialists. Aang and Air Acolytes enter the Spirit World and she speaks about her experience with a man named General Old Iron and his grudge against the city of Boma for the death of Lady Tienhai. As they speak, the place is hit by an Earthquake. In "The Rift Part Three," Aang connects with Avatar Yangchen and learns that the only way to prevent the bitter spirit of General Old Iron to return is to destroy the town. Toph does not agree with this solution, as she respects the refinery's symbol of international cooperation between the Fire and Earth nations. Ultimately, Aang fights General Old Iron and wins. After meeting with Lady Tenhai in the Spirit World, Aang recognizes that spirits deserve to live with human civilization in peace and creates the "Spirits Friendship Festival."


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: In March 2014, "The Rift Part One" was a New York Times Bestseller. Critics say that the message of this comic, that tradition should influence the present, but it should not prohibit progress, is a suitable transition to "Avatar: Legend of Korra."


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: "Smoke and Shadow" continues Zuko's and Ursa's relationship where "The Search" leaves off. This comic also goes further in depth with Zuko's family in general. This comic mostly revolves around Zuko's and Aang's mission to settle both issues in the physical and spiritual world. In "Smoke and Shadow Part One," mysterious figures called the Kemurikage spirits tell a prophecy that Zuko must leave the throne or the Fire Nation will collapse. The New Ozai Society begin to organize a plan to remove Zuko from the throne and children begin to disappear in the Fire Nation Capitol. In "Smoke and Shadow Part Two," Aang and the rest of Team Avatar aim to make sense of the disappearances of the children. The leader of the Kemurikage is revealed to Zuko and Aang as Azula. In "Smoke and Shadow Part Three," Zuko attempts to catch Azula. In doing so, he fights Azula and she tells him that she wants Zuko to be the Fire Lord she wanted to be- one who leads with fear rather than compassion. In this way, she rules through him. Azula and the rest of the Kemurikage disappear in the smoke. Aang and the rest of Team Avatar save the children by fighting the Kemurikage spirits. After the battle, Zuko gives a speech about his failures, and makes a promise to do right. Azula and two other Kemurikage watch, and when Zuko finishes, they vanish. The ending of the comic consists of Ursa meeting Ozai again in his cell, after all these years. Ursa sees her former husband for the man he was, a small man trying to act big.


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: In May 2016, "Smoke and Shadow Part Three" was a New York Times Bestseller. Critics say that this comic was good at portraying Zuko's family with further character development. However, critics also say that some of the themes, like Zuko's insecurity with being Fire Lord, became repetitive.


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: "North and South" revolves around Katara and Sokka's roots: the Southern Water Tribe. In "North and South Part One," Katara and Sokka return to their home and are surprised by the flourishing place it has become from the little village where they grew up. They find out that their father, Hakoda, was in charge and Malina, a woman from the Northern Water Tribe, had a huge role in progressing the Southern Water Tribe. By the end of part one, Katara and Sokka walk in on their father and Malina in the middle of a kiss. In "North and South Part Two," Southern Gilak tries to kidnap Katara and Sokka and leaves a note on Hakoda's door which says, "Soon you will see the truth Chieftain." Katara is suspicious of the integration of the Northern and Southern Water Tribes. Gilak exposes Milan for her integration of both tribes and claims that she only aims to exploit the natural resources of the Southern Water Tribe for the benefit of the Northern Water Tribe. Milan apologizes but Gilak's troops attack her and her brother Maliq. Team Avatar steps in and fights off the troops. Gilak is escorted to his prison cell, but an officer who says she never liked the Northerners gives him the key to his cell. In "North and South Part Three," Fire Lord Zuko and the Earth King Kuei come to the Southern Water tribe and approve of the full integration of the tribes. Amid this, Gilak breaks free and causes a rebellion. They then kidnap Earth King Kuei, threatening that if Hakoda does not give himself up to Southern justice at the Bridge of No Return, Gilak will kill Kuei. It breaks out into a fight; Gilak dies and Malina is saved by Katara.


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: Afterwards, Katara goes to her mother's grave and mourns. The ending is when the kids cook food for the grandparents, and they sit in a circle, eating food from all corners of the world.


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: Some critics say that "North and South" was "disappointing" and a "victim of its own making." Other critics say that the antagonist, Gilak, was not nearly as threatening as other villains which made the comic less exciting.


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: "Imbalance" surrounds the tension between benders and nonbenders at the Earthen Fire Industries. In "Imbalance Part One," Team Avatar arrive at the Earthen Fire Industries and to their surprise, they are met with disapproval as there are increased disputes among the benders and the nonbenders. In "Imbalance Part Two," Team Avatar aims to solve the conflict between the benders and nonbenders. In "Imbalance Part Three," the conflict comes to an all time high and it is up to Aang to come up with a solution to satisfy both parties. This comic as a whole sets up the majority of the plot of "Avatar: The Legend of Korra" as it explores increasing political tension as well as industrialization.


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: Critics say that this comic goes slow in the beginning, as it starts off with a broad dispute among benders and nonbenders, but increases pace as the narrative explores the idea of modernization.


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: Released on October 13, 2020, "Katara and the Pirate's Silver" is the first stand alone graphic novel (as compared to previous graphic novels released as trilogies) from the Avatar Universe. Furthermore, unlike previously released graphic trilogies which were set after the events of the show, Katara and the Pirate's Silver is set during the events of the show.


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: Set in the Avatar universe after the events of the episode "Bitter Work", "Katara and the Pirate's Silver" follows Katara as she gets separated from the rest of Team Avatar when while passing through a Fire Nation blockade, Appa accidentally flings Katara from his back in the course of evading Fire Nation launched projectiles. Unable to rendezvous with Aang, Toph, and Sokka, Katara must avoid capture by aligning herself with a band of pirates who offer her passage beyond the blockade. In doing so, Katara is forced to prove that she has the grit and toughness to stand up to anyone.


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: The graphic novel was generally well received by critics. Brenton Stewart of Comic Books Resources said that "after being usually relegated to the sidelines, Katara shines as the story's chief protagonist in a long-overdue starring role that's just one of several smart storytelling decisions." He went on to say, "Attachments to the original series aside, the comic is just an enjoyable and fun adventure showcasing Katara's strength and revealing more of the ever-more fascinating world of "Avatar" as we gain an insight into the life of pirates".


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: Released on February 17, 2021, "Toph Beifong's Metalbending Academy" is a standalone graphic novel set in the "Avatar" universe after the events of "The Rift" and before the events of "Smoke and Shadow". The graphic novel follows Toph as she settles into an easy life turning Earthbenders into Metalbenders after building up enough infrastructure for her metalbending academy. However, Toph finds the grind tedious, so her former students Penga, Ho Tun and the Dark One help carry her workload and when Sokka and Suki visit to invite Toph to a concert they hope the change may offer her excitement.


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: The third standalone and final graphic novel from the Avatar universe, "Suki, Alone", was released on July 27, 2021. Originally, it was scheduled to be released on June 22, 2021.


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: It follows the story of Suki, the Kyoshi Warrior somewhere between "Appa's Lost Days" and "The Boiling Rock".


title: Avatar: The Last Airbender (comics)

text: During San Diego Comic-Con 2022, it was revealed that a new comic would be slated for the summer of 2023. Faith Erin Hicks will return to write with art by Peter Wartman. The story will be a standalone story following Azula.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: The Turkish Air Force () is the aerial warfare service branch of the Turkish Armed Forces. The Turkish Air Force can trace its origins back to June 1911 when it was founded by the Ottoman Empire, however, the air force as it is known today did not come into existence until 1923 with the creation of the Republic of Turkey. It is considered to be the third largest airforce in NATO.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: In 1998, the Turkish Armed Forces announced a program of modernization worth US$160 billion over a twenty-year period in various projects. $45 billion was earmarked to go to the overhaul of the Turkish Air Force, and includes commissioning new combat aircraft (consisting of multi-role and fifth generation stealth fighters) and helicopters (consisting of heavy lift, attack, medium lift and light general purpose helicopters).


title: Turkish Air Force

text: According to Flight International (Flightglobal.com) and the International Institute for Strategic Studies, the Turkish Air Force has an active strength of 50,000 military personnel and operates approximately 1,248 manned aircraft (2020).


title: Turkish Air Force

text: The world's first black pilot Ahmet Ali Çelikten and first female fighter pilot Sabiha Gökçen both served in the TAF.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: The history of Ottoman military aviation dates back to between June 1909 and July 1911. In 1911 the former commander of the Action Army Mahmud Sevket Pasa achieved to send some Turkish military officers to the French Bleriot aviation school. The same year the establishment of a Turkish airforce was taken into consideration. During the Italian Turkish war of 1911, the Ottomans had to admit their disadvantage of not possessing an air force. Subsequently the Ottomans employed German and French engineers who helped them to establish an air force with a dozen airplanes. The Ottoman Aviation Squadrons participated in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) and World War I (1914–1918). The fleet size reached its apex in December 1916, when the Ottoman Aviation Squadrons had 90 active combat aircraft. Some early help for the Ottoman Aviation Squadrons came from the Imperial German "Fliegertruppe" (known by that name before October 1916), with future Central Powers 13-victory flying ace Hans-Joachim Buddecke flying with the Turks early in World War I as just one example. The General Inspectorate of Air Forces ("Kuva-yı Havaiye Müfettiş-i Umumiliği") By July 1918, the Aviation Squadrons were reorganized as the General Inspectorate of Air Forces.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: After the Armistice of Mudros and the occupation of the Ottoman Empire by the Allies in 1919, some Turkish aviators tried to build new units in Istanbul, İzmir, Konya, Elazığ and Diyarbakır with planes left over from World War I and tried to bring together flight personnel. During the Turkish War of Independence, Turkish pilots joined the Konya Air Station ("Konya Hava İstasyonu"). With the formation of the Grand National Assembly (GNA) by Mustafa Kemal and his colleagues on April 23, 1920, in Ankara, and the reorganization of the army, the Branch of Air Forces ("Kuva-yı Havaiye Şubesi") was established under the Office of War ("Harbiye Dairesi") of the GNA. A few damaged aircraft belonging to the GNA were repaired, and afterwards used in combat.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: In July 1922, it was reorganized as the Inspectorate of Air Forces ("Kuva-yı Havaiye Müfettişliği") at Konya.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: After the establishment of the Republic of Turkey on 29 October 1923, plans were made to form a modern air force. Originally consisting of three normal and one naval aviation units, and an air school, the number of units was increased to 10 normal and three naval aviation units. Starting in 1924, personnel were sent abroad for flight education. In 1925, the Air School was re-established in Eskişehir and its first students graduated that same year. The Inspectorate of Air Forces was reorganized as the Undersecretariat of the Ministry of Defense in 1928 and new schools were found for non-pilot personnel. Some personnel were sent to the United Kingdom and France for training; others were sent to the United States and Italy in 1930.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: From 1932, the air regiments were considered to be a separate combat arm and started training its own personnel. Turkish aviators wore blue uniforms from 1933.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: Sabiha Gökçen became the first female fighter pilot in military history in 1937. Another key event in 1937 was the establishment of the Air War College ("Hava Harp Akademisi").


title: Turkish Air Force

text: By 1940, Turkish air brigades had more than 500 combat aircraft in its inventory, becoming the largest air force in the Balkans and the Middle East. The growing inventory of air brigades required another structural change, which was made in 1940. The Air Undersecretariat under the Ministry of National Defense for logistical affairs and the General Staff for educational affairs were united to form the Air Force Command ("Hava Kuvvetleri Komutanlığı") in 1944. Thus, the Air Force became a separate branch of the Turkish Armed Forces. The first Commander of the Turkish Air Force was General Zeki Doğan. Turkey did not enter World War II on the side of the Allies until February 1945. However, the Turkish Armed Forces went on full alert and were prepared for war following the military alliance between neighbouring Bulgaria and the Axis Powers which was formalized in March 1941, and the occupation of neighbouring Greece by the Axis Powers in April 1941. Within a year, Turkey's borders were surrounded by German forces in the northwest and west, and Italian forces in the southwest. The Turkish Air Force made daily reconnaissance flights over Bulgaria, Greece, the Greek Islands in the Aegean Sea, and the Dodecanese Islands which then belonged to Italy, to monitor the positions of the Axis forces. The large cities in western Turkey were darkened at nights, and anti-aircraft guns and searchlights were deployed for defence against possible enemy planes. Almost all available money in the Turkish Government Treasury was used to purchase new weapons from any available provider in the world. The Turkish Air Force received large numbers of new aircraft in this period, including Supermarine Spitfire Mk.I/V/IX/XIX, Curtiss Falcon CW-22R/B, Fairey Battle-I, Avro Anson-I, Hawker Hurricane I/II, Morane-Saulnier M.S.406, Curtiss P-40 Tomahawk, Curtiss P-40 Kittyhawk, Westland Lysander-I, Consolidated B-24D Liberator B-24, Bristol Blenheim IV/V, Bristol Beaufort, Bristol Beaufighter Mk.I/X, Focke-Wulf Fw 190-A3, Martin 187 Baltimore, De Havilland DH.98 Mosquito Mk.III/IV, Douglas B-26B/C Invader, P-47D Thunderbolt and Douglas C-47A/B Dakota.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: The Air Machinist School ("Hava Makinist Okulu") was reorganized as Aircraft Maintenance School ("Hava Uçak Bakım Okulu") on 2 January 1950 to unite schools responsible for training non-pilot Air Force personnel. In 1950 it also was decided to upgrade the Air Force fleet through the inclusion of jets. Eight pilots were sent to the United States for jet pilot training. They graduated in 1951 and started training jet pilots in the Turkish Air Force. In the same year, the 9th Fighter Wing (9uncu Ana Jet Üssü) was founded in Balıkesir as Turkey's first fighter wing; the 191st, 192nd, and 193rd squadrons being the first ones which were established. Further training in the United States followed, usually involving jet manufacturers. In 1951 the Air Force Academy was formed with integrating some air schools in Eskişehir and its first academic year started on 1 October 1951. In 1956 the "Hava Eğitim Kolordu Komutanlığı" (Air Education Corps Command) was founded and all education was united under this command. The command was renamed as "Hava Eğitim Komutanlığı" (Air Education Command) in 1957.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: Upon Turkey's membership to NATO in 1952, the process of modernization was accelerated. In 1962 the "Taktik Hava Kuvveti" (Tactical Air Force) was founded by upgrading the "Hava Tümeni" (Air Division) units to corps-level organizations. In 1974 the Air Force was employed in the Cyprus War. With the arrival of 3rd generation fighter jets in 1980, the Air Force was reorganized.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: The headquarters of NATO's Allied Air Component Command for Southern Europe (formerly designated as AIRSOUTH and originally headquartered in Naples, Italy) was established in İzmir, Turkey, on 11 August 2004. Allied Air Command İzmir was deactivated on 1 June 2013, when the Allied Air Command (AIRCOM) at the Ramstein Air Base in Germany became the sole Allied Air Component Command of NATO.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: Turkey is one of five NATO member states which are part of the nuclear sharing policy of the alliance, together with Belgium, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands. A total of 90 B61 nuclear bombs are hosted at the Incirlik Air Base, 40 of which are allocated for use by the Turkish Air Force in case of a nuclear conflict, but their use requires the approval of NATO. , the United States is considering withdrawing these nuclear bombs from Turkey, and from several other foreign locations in Europe.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: In 1984 Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI) was established and Turkey started to produce fighter aircraft locally under license, including a total of 232 F-16 Fighting Falcon (Block 30/40/50) aircraft for the air force. The air force had previously received 8 F-16s that were purchased directly from the United States, bringing the total number of F-16s received by the air force to 245. TAI in 2007 built 30 F-16 block 50+ for the airforce And applied CCIP modernization program to 117 its block 40 & 50 F-16s, bringing 117 of the block 40/50 F-16s to a block 50+ configuration Dozens of TAI-built F-16s were also exported to other countries, particularly in the Middle East. A total of 46 TAI-built F-16s have been exported to the Egyptian Air Force under the Peace Vector IV Program (1993–1995), making it TAI's second-largest F-16 customer after the Turkish Air Force. Turkey is one of only five countries in the world which locally produce the F-16 Fighting Falcon.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: On July 11, 2002 Turkey became a Level 3 partner of the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) development program, and on January 25, 2007, Turkey officially joined the production phase of the JSF program, agreeing to initially purchase 116 F-35A Lightning II aircraft. Turkey placed an order for 6 F-35 Lightning II's with four delivered to Luke Air Force Base. In June 2018 the US Senate passed a defense spending bill prevents the Turkish Air Force from obtaining the F-35 stealth fighter due to the country's acquisition of the S-400 SAM systems from Russia. Tensions between the US and Turkey are to blame for the cancelled contract, and now may put Turkey in a position to become the first customer for Russia's Su-57. Turkey also has a national fifth generation fighter aircraft project named the TAI TFX.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: A total of four Boeing 737 AEW&C Peace Eagle () aircraft (together with ground support systems) were ordered by the Turkish Air Force, with an option for two more aircraft. Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI) is the primary subcontractor for the Peace Eagle parts production, aircraft modification, assembly and tests. Another subcontractor, HAVELSAN, is responsible for system analysis and software support.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: Signed on 23 July 2003, the contract to Boeing valued at US$1.385 billion, which was later reduced by US$59 million because some of the requirements were not met. The down payment to Boeing amounted to US$637 million. The project consists of the delivery of 737-700 airframes, ground radars and control systems, ground control segments for mission crew training, mission support and maintenance support.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: Peace Eagle 1 is modified and tested by Boeing Integrated Defense Systems in Seattle, Washington, USA. Peace Eagle 2, 3 and 4 are modified and tested at the facilities of TAI in Ankara, Turkey, with the participation of Boeing and a number of Turkish companies. As of 2006, the four Peace Eagle airplanes were scheduled to be delivered in 2008. As of mid-2007, systems integration was ongoing and airworthiness certification works continued. In September 2007, Boeing completed the first test flight of Turkey's AEW&C 737.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: On 4 June 2008, it was announced that Turkish Aerospace Industries completed the first in-country modification of a Boeing 737-700 into an airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) platform for Turkey's Peace Eagle program.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: The first Peace Eagle aircraft, named "Kuzey" (meaning North) was formally accepted into Turkish Air Force inventory on 21 February 2014. The remaining three aircraft will be named "Güney" (South), "Doğu" (East) and "Batı" (West).


title: Turkish Air Force

text: The six-year delay was a result of Boeing experiencing difficulties while developing some features required by the Turkish Air Force. Turkey demanded compensation of US$183 million from Boeing for the delay. The payment of the penalty is requested in the form of increased start-up support period from an initially planned two years to five years, as well as three years of software maintenance service and around US$32 million in spare parts.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: In 1994 the Turkish Air Force signed a deal to lease two and purchase seven Boeing KC-135R Stratotanker aerial refueling tanker aircraft. Following the arrival of all seven purchased aircraft, the two leased KC-135Rs were returned to the United States. All seven KC-135R Stratotanker aircraft of the Turkish Air Force have received the Pacer CRAG (Compass, Radar And GPS) upgrade. The KC-135R-CRAG Stratotanker aerial refueling tanker aircraft of the Turkish Air Force are operated by the 101st Squadron, stationed at the Incirlik Air Base.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: Turkey is a partner nation in the Airbus A400M Atlas production program. The Turkish Air Force has ordered a total of ten A400M Atlas aircraft. The first two A400M Atlas were delivered to the Turkish Air Force in 2014. All A400M Atlas deliveries to the Turkish Air Force are scheduled to be completed by 2018. Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI) produces several components of the A400M Atlas, including the middle-front fuselage, emergency exit doors, rear fuselage upper panels, rear upper escape doors, ailerons and spoilers; which are sent to the Airbus Military factory in Spain for assembly.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: Although the Airbus A400M Atlas is essentially a heavy tactical lift aircraft, it can also be transformed into an aerial refueling tanker aircraft at short notice.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: The Turkish Air Force also uses the CASA CN-235, C-130 Hercules and C-160 Transall military transport aircraft.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: At present, the Turkish Air Force operates MALE UAVs such as the TAI Anka, Bayraktar TB2 and the IAI Heron. Having been unable to purchase the armed version of Predator UCAVs from the United States, Turkey has fitted these drones with indigenous MAM series munitions. Turkish Armed Forces currently stands as one of the top countries that uses UCAVs in combat effectively. TAI was once the leading partner in the Talarion UCAV project of EADS.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: Turkish Air Force operate an intelligence satellite named Göktürk-2, with plans to commission more in years ahead. These include a 0.8m resolution reconnaissance satellite (Project Göktürk-1) for use by the Turkish Armed Forces and a 2m resolution reconnaissance satellite (Project Göktürk-2) for use by the National Intelligence Organization. The production of Göktürk-2 is completed by the Turkish Aerospace Industries, while Göktürk-1 is still in the production stage. Some electro-optical parts that are required for the Göktürk-1 (0.8m resolution) satellite were beyond TAI's technological know-how, thus a foreign partner was sought. The official bidders for the project were EADS Astrium (U.K.), OHB-System (Germany) and Telespazio (Italy); and the contract was won by Telespazio of Italy.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: Göktürk-2 was launched from Jiuquan Launch Area 4 / SLS-2 in China by a Long March 2D space launch vehicle at 16:12:52 UTC on December 18, 2012. It was placed into a low Earth orbit of at 16:26 UTC. The first signal from Göktürk-2 was received at 17:39 UTC by the Tromsø Satellite Station, northern Norway.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: In 2013 Turkey approved the construction by Roketsan of its first satellite launching center, initially for low earth orbit satellites.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: On January 8, 2021, Turkey launched the Türksat 5A satellite, greatly extending the range of drone operations from the West of Europe to the east of Kazakhstan, with more resistance against jamming, rejection and wiretapping; high-definition live streams of targets and commanding of munitions drops.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: For a long period, the combat units of the Turkish Air Force were organized into a 1st Air Force (deployed in the western part of the country and headquartered in Eskişehir) and a 2nd Air Force (deployed in the eastern part of the country and headquartered in Diyarbakır). On August 5, 2014, the two have been fused into the newly formed Combatant Air Force and Air Defence Command with headquarters in Eskişehir. Due to its involvement in the coup d'état attempt on July 15, 2016, the 4th Main Jet Air Base Command near Ankara was disbanded and its F-16s were dispersed to other bases.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: In 2008, HAVELSAN of Turkey and Boeing of the United States were in the process of developing a next generation, high-altitude ballistic missile defence shield. It was envisaged that the system would be used by Turkey, the U.S. and other NATO members.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: In 2011, Turkey's Undersecretariat for Defense Industries (SSM), signed an agreement with TAI for the conceptual development of basic capabilities of a national fifth generation fighter aircraft project named the TAI TF-X On June 30, 2021, the Turkish Air Force made an official presentation about the TF-X program to the press.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: On 28 March 2013, the Turkish Secretary of the Defence Industry of the Ministry of National Defence of Turkey Murat Bayar announced intentions to replace the F-16 fighter with domestically produced multi-role fighters by 2023.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: Following the agreement signed on 22 July 2018 between the Turkish Air Force and TAI, the program for developing an advanced jet trainer, TAI Hürjet, was initiated to replace the existing T-38 Talon aircraft. The Hürjet is expected to be operational by 2025.


title: Turkish Air Force

text: The CEO of the UAV-giant in Turkey, Baykar, announced that Turkey is developing an unmanned fighter jet and bomber, the Baykar Kızılelma (MIUS). The fighter is expected to make its first flight in 2023.


title: Niacin

text: Niacin, also known as nicotinic acid, is an organic compound and a form of vitaminB, an essential human nutrient. It can be manufactured by plants and animals from the amino acid tryptophan. Niacin is obtained in the diet from a variety of whole and processed foods, with highest contents in fortified packaged foods, meat, poultry, red fish such as tuna and salmon, lesser amounts in nuts, legumes and seeds. Niacin as a dietary supplement is used to treat pellagra, a disease caused by niacin deficiency. Signs and symptoms of pellagra include skin and mouth lesions, anemia, headaches, and tiredness. Many countries mandate its addition to wheat flour or other food grains, thereby reducing the risk of pellagra.


title: Niacin

text: The amide derivative nicotinamide (niacinamide) is a component of the coenzymes nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+). Although niacin and nicotinamide are identical in their vitamin activity, nicotinamide does not have the same pharmacological, lipid-modifying effects or side effects as niacin, i.e., when niacin takes on the "-amide" group, it does not reduce cholesterol nor cause flushing. Nicotinamide is recommended as a treatment for niacin deficiency because it can be administered in remedial amounts without causing the flushing, considered an adverse effect.


title: Niacin

text: Niacin is also a prescription medication. Amounts far in excess of the recommended dietary intake for vitamin functions will lower blood triglycerides and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and raise blood high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C, often referred to as "good" cholesterol). There are two forms: immediate-release and sustained-release niacin. Initial prescription amounts are 500 mg/day, increased over time until a therapeutic effect is achieved. Immediate-release doses can be as high as 3,000 mg/day; sustained-release as high as 2,000 mg/day. Despite the proven lipid changes, niacin has not been found useful for decreasing the risk of cardiovascular disease in those already on a statin. A 2010 review had concluded that niacin was effective as a mono-therapy, but a 2017 review incorporating twice as many trials concluded that prescription niacin, while affecting lipid levels, did not reduce all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, myocardial infarctions, nor fatal or non-fatal strokes. Prescription niacin was shown to cause hepatotoxicity and increase risk of type 2 diabetes. Niacin prescriptions in the U.S. had peaked in 2009, at 9.4million, declining to 800thousand by 2020.


title: Niacin

text: Niacin has the formula and belongs to the group of the pyridinecarboxylic acids. As the precursor for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, niacin is involved in DNA repair.


title: Niacin

text: Niacin is both a vitamin, i.e., an essential nutrient, marketed as a dietary supplement, and in the US, a prescription medicine. As a vitamin, it is precursor of the coenzymes nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP). These compounds are coenzymes for many dehydrogenases, participating in many hydrogen transfer processes. NAD is important in catabolism of fat, carbohydrate, protein, and alcohol, as well as cell signaling and DNA repair, and NADP mostly in anabolism reactions such as fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis. Vitamin intake recommendations made by several countries are that intakes of 14–18 mg/day are sufficient to meet the needs of healthy adults. Niacin or nicotinamide (niacinamide) are used for prevention and treatment of pellagra, a disease caused by lack of the vitamin. When niacin is used as a medicine to treat elevated cholesterol and triglycerides, daily doses range from 500 to 3,000 mg/day. High-dose nicotinamide does not have this medicinal effect.


title: Niacin

text: Severe deficiency of niacin in the diet causes the disease pellagra, characterized by diarrhea, sun-sensitive dermatitis involving hyperpigmentation and thickening of the skin (see image), inflammation of the mouth and tongue, delirium, dementia, and if left untreated, death. Common psychiatric symptoms include irritability, poor concentration, anxiety, fatigue, loss of memory, restlessness, apathy, and depression. The biochemical mechanism(s) for the observed deficiency-caused neurodegeneration are not well understood, but may rest on: A) the requirement for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) to suppress the creation of neurotoxic tryptophan metabolites, B) inhibition of mitochondrial ATP generation, resulting in cell damage; C), activation of the poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) pathway, as PARP is a nuclear enzyme involved in DNA repair, but in the absence of NAD+ can lead to cell death; D) reduced synthesis of neuro-protective brain-derived neurotrophic factor or its receptor tropomyosin receptor kinase B; or E) changes to genome expression directly due to the niacin deficiency.


title: Niacin

text: Niacin deficiency is rarely seen in developed countries, and it is more typically associated with poverty, malnutrition or malnutrition secondary to chronic alcoholism. It also tends to occur in less developed areas where people eat maize (corn) as a staple food, as maize is the only grain low in digestible niacin. A cooking technique called nixtamalization i.e., pretreating with alkali ingredients, increases the bioavailability of niacin during maize meal/flour production. For this reason, people who consume corn as tortillas or hominy are at less risk of niacin deficiency.


title: Niacin

text: For treating deficiency, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends administering niacinamide i.e., nicotinamide, instead of niacin, to avoid the flushing side effect commonly caused by the latter. Guidelines suggest using 300 mg/day for three to four weeks. Dementia and dermatitis show improvement within a week. Because deficiencies of other B-vitamins may be present, the WHO recommends a multi-vitamin in addition to the niacinamide.


title: Niacin

text: Hartnup disease is a hereditary nutritional disorder resulting in niacin deficiency. It is named after an English family with a genetic disorder that resulted in a failure to absorb the essential amino acid tryptophan, tryptophan being a precursor for niacin synthesis. The symptoms are similar to pellagra, including red, scaly rash and sensitivity to sunlight. Oral niacin or niacinamide is given as a treatment for this condition in doses ranging from 50 to 100 mg twice a day, with a good prognosis if identified and treated early. Niacin synthesis is also deficient in carcinoid syndrome, because of metabolic diversion of its precursor tryptophan to form serotonin.


title: Niacin

text: Plasma concentrations of niacin and niacin metabolites are not useful markers of niacin status. Urinary excretion of the methylated metabolite N1-methyl-nicotinamide is considered reliable and sensitive. The measurement requires a 24-hour urine collection. For adults, a value of less than 5.8 μmol/day represent deficient niacin status and 5.8 to 17.5 μmol/day represents low. According to the World Health Organization, an alternative mean of expressing urinary N1-methyl-nicotinamide is as mg/g creatinine in a 24-hour urine collection, with deficient defined as <0.5, low 0.5-1.59, acceptable 1.6-4.29, and high >4.3 Niacin deficiency occurs before the signs and symptoms of pellagra appear. Erythrocyte nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) concentrations potentially provide another sensitive indicator of niacin depletion, although definitions of deficient, low and adequate have not been established. Lastly, plasma tryptophan decreases on a low niacin diet because tryptophan converts to niacin. However, low tryptophan could also be caused by a diet low in this essential amino acid, so it is not specific to confirming vitamin status.


title: Niacin

text: The U.S. Institute of Medicine (renamed National Academy of Medicine in 2015) updated Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for niacin in 1998, also Tolerable upper intake levels (ULs). In lieu of an RDA, Adequate Intakes (AIs) are identified for populations for which there is not sufficient evidence to identify a dietary intake level that is sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of most people. (see table).


title: Niacin

text: The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values (DRV), with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. For the EU, AIs and ULs have the same definition as in the US, except that units are milligrams per megajoule (MJ) of energy consumed rather than mg/day. For women (including those pregnant or lactating), men and children the PRI is 1.6 mg per megajoule. As the conversion is 1 MJ = 239 kcal, an adult consuming 2390 kilocalories should be consuming 16 mg niacin. This is comparable to US RDAs (14 mg/day for adult women, 16 mg/day for adult men).


title: Niacin

text: ULs are established by identifying amounts of vitamins and minerals that cause adverse effects, and then selecting as an upper limit amounts that are the "maximum daily intake unlikely to cause adverse health effects." Regulatory agencies from different countries do not always agree. For the US, 30 or 35 mg for teenagers and adults, less for children. The EFSA UL for adults is set at 10 mg/day - about one-third of the US value. For all of the government ULs, the term applies to niacin as a supplement consumed as one dose, and is intended as a limit to avoid the skin flush reaction. This explains why for EFSA, the recommended daily intake can be higher than the UL.


title: Niacin

text: Both the DRI and DRV describe amounts needed as niacin equivalents (NE), calculated as 1 mg NE = 1 mg niacin or 60 mg of the essential amino acid tryptophan. This is because the amino acid is utilized to synthesize the vitamin.


title: Niacin

text: For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For niacin labeling purposes 100% of the Daily Value is 16 mg. Prior to 27 May 2016 it was 20 mg, revised to bring it into agreement with the RDA.


title: Niacin

text: Compliance with the updated labeling regulations was required by 1 January 2020 for manufacturers with US$10 million or more in annual food sales, and by 1 January 2021 for manufacturers with lower volume food sales. A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake.


title: Niacin

text: Niacin is found in a variety of whole and processed foods, including fortified packaged foods, meat from various animal sources, seafoods, and spices. In general, animal-sourced foods provide about 5–10 mg niacin per serving, although dairy foods and eggs have little. Some plant-sourced foods such as nuts, legumes and grains provide about 2–5 mg niacin per serving, although in some grain products this naturally present niacin is largely bound to polysaccharides and glycopeptides, making it only about 30% bioavailable. Fortified food ingredients such as wheat flour have niacin added, which is bioavailable. Among whole food sources with the highest niacin content per 100 grams:


title: Niacin

text: Vegetarian and vegan diets can provide adequate amounts if products such as nutritional yeast, peanuts, peanut butter, tahini, brown rice, mushrooms, avocado and sunflower seeds are included. Fortified foods and dietary supplements can also be consumed to ensure adequate intake.


title: Niacin

text: Niacin naturally found in food is susceptible to destruction from high heat cooking, especially in the presence of acidic foods and sauces. It is soluble in water, and so may also be lost from foods boiled in water.


title: Niacin

text: Countries fortify foods with nutrients to address known deficiencies. As of 2020, 54 countries required food fortification of wheat flour with niacin or niacinamide; 14 also mandate fortification of maize flour, and 6 mandate fortification of rice. From country to country, niacin fortification ranges from 1.3 to 6.0 mg/100 g.


title: Niacin

text: In the United States, niacin is sold as a non-prescription dietary supplement with a range of 100 to 1000 mg per serving. These products often have a Structure/Function health claim allowed by the US Food & Drug Administration (FDA). An example would be "Supports a healthy blood lipid profile." The American Heart Association strongly advises against the substitution of dietary supplement niacin for prescription niacin because of potentially serious side effects, which means that niacin should only be used under the supervision of a health care professional, and because manufacture of dietary supplement niacin is not as well-regulated by the FDA as prescription niacin. More than 30 mg niacin consumed as a dietary supplement can cause skin flushing. Face, arms and chest skin turns a reddish color because of vasodilation of small subcutaneous blood vessels, accompanied by sensations of heat, tingling and itching. These signs and symptoms are typically transient, lasting minutes to hours; they are considered unpleasant rather than toxic.


title: Niacin

text: In the United States, prescription niacin, in immediate-release and slow-release forms, is used to treat primary hyperlipidemia and hypertriglyceridemia. It is used either as a monotherapy or in combination with other lipid-modifying drugs. Dosages start at 500 mg/day and are often gradually increased to as high as 3000 mg/day for immediate release or 2000 mg/day for slow release (also referred to as sustained release) to achieve the targeted lipid changes (lower LDL-C and triglycerides, and higher HDL-C). Prescriptions in the US peaked in 2009, at 9.4million and had declined to 800thousand by 2020.


title: Niacin

text: Systematic reviews found no effect of prescription niacin on all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, myocardial infarctions, nor fatal or non-fatal strokes despite raising HDL cholesterol. Reported side effects include an increased risk of new-onset type 2 diabetes.


title: Niacin

text: Niacin reduces synthesis of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL-C), lipoprotein(a) and triglycerides, and increases high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C). The lipid-therapeutic effects of niacin are partly mediated through the activation of G protein-coupled receptors, including hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2 (HCA)and hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 3 (HCA), which are highly expressed in body fat. HCA and HCA inhibit cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) production and thus suppress the release of free fatty acids (FFAs) from body fat, reducing their availability to the liver to synthesize the blood-circulating lipids in question. A decrease in free fatty acids also suppresses liver expression of apolipoprotein C3 and PPARg coactivator-1b, thus increasing VLDL-C turnover and reducing its production. Niacin also directly inhibits the action of diacylglycerol O-acyltransferase 2 (DGAT2) a key enzyme for triglyceride synthesis.


title: Niacin

text: The mechanism behind niacin increasing HDL-C is not totally understood, but seems to occur in various ways. Niacin increases apolipoprotein A1 levels by inhibiting the breakdown of this protein, which is a component of HDL-C. It also inhibits HDL-C hepatic uptake by suppressing production of the cholesterol ester transfer protein (CETP) gene. It stimulates the ABCA1 transporter in monocytes and macrophages and upregulates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, resulting in reverse cholesterol transport.


title: Niacin

text: Extended release niacin was combined with lovastatin (Advicor), and with simvastatin (Simcor), as prescription drug combinations. The combination niacin/lovastatin was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2001. The combination niacin/simvastatin was approved by the FDA in 2008. Subsequently, large outcome trials using these niacin and statin therapies were unable to demonstrate incremental benefit of niacin beyond statin therapy alone. The FDA withdrew approval of both drugs in 2016. The reason given: "Based on the collective evidence from several large cardiovascular outcome trials, the Agency has concluded that the totality of the scientific evidence no longer supports the conclusion that a drug-induced reduction in triglyceride levels and/or increase in HDL-cholesterol levels in statin-treated patients results in a reduction in the risk of cardiovascular events." The drug company discontinued the drugs.


title: Niacin

text: Prescription immediate release (Niacor) and extended release (Niaspan) niacin are contraindicated for people with either active or a history of liver disease because both, but especially Niaspan, have been associated with instances of serious, on occasion fatal, liver failure. Both products are contraindicated for people with existing peptic ulcer disease, or other bleeding problems because niacin lowers platelet count and interferes with blood clotting. Both products are also contraindicated for women who are pregnant or expecting to become pregnant because safety during pregnancy has not been evaluated in human trials. These products are contraindicated for women who are lactating because it is known that niacin is excreted into human milk, but the amount and potential for adverse effects in the nursing infant are not known. Women are advised to either not nurse their child or discontinue the drug. High-dose niacin has not been tested or approved for use in children under 16 years.


title: Niacin

text: The most common adverse effects of medicinal niacin () are flushing (e.g., warmth, redness, itching or tingling) of the face, neck and chest, headache, abdominal pain, diarrhea, dyspepsia, nausea, vomiting, rhinitis, pruritus and rash. These can be minimized by initiating therapy at low dosages, increasing dosage gradually, and avoiding administration on an empty stomach.


title: Niacin

text: The acute adverse effects of high-dose niacin therapy () – which is commonly used in the treatment of hyperlipidemias – can further include hypotension, fatigue, glucose intolerance and insulin resistance, heartburn, blurred or impaired vision, and macular edema. With long-term use, the adverse effects of high-dose niacin therapy (750 mg per day) also include liver failure (associated with fatigue, nausea, and loss of appetite), hepatitis, and acute liver failure; these hepatotoxic effects of niacin occur more often when extended-release dosage forms are used. The long-term use of niacin at greater than or equal to 2 grams per day also significantly increases the risk of cerebral hemorrhage, ischemic stroke, gastrointestinal ulceration and bleeding, diabetes, dyspepsia, and diarrhea.


title: Niacin

text: Flushing – a short-term dilatation of skin arterioles, causing reddish skin color – usually lasts for about 15 to 30 minutes, although sometimes can persist for weeks. Typically, the face is affected, but the reaction can extend to neck and upper chest. The cause is blood vessel dilation due to elevation in prostaglandin GD (PGD2) and serotonin. Flushing was often thought to involve histamine, but histamine has been shown not to be involved in the reaction. Flushing is sometimes accompanied by a prickly or itching sensation, in particular, in areas covered by clothing.


title: Niacin

text: Prevention of flushing requires altering or blocking the prostaglandin-mediated pathway. Aspirin taken half an hour before the niacin prevents flushing, as does ibuprofen. Taking niacin with meals also helps reduce this side effect. Acquired tolerance will also help reduce flushing; after several weeks of a consistent dose, most people no longer experience flushing. Slow- or "sustained"-release forms of niacin have been developed to lessen these side effects.


title: Niacin

text: Niacin in medicinal doses can cause modest elevations in serum transaminase and unconjugated bilirubin, both biomarkers of liver injury. The increases usually resolve even when drug intake is continued. However, less commonly, the sustained release form of the drug can lead to serious hepatotoxicity, with onset in days to weeks. Early symptoms of serious liver damage include nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain, followed by jaundice and pruritus. The mechanism is thought to be a direct toxicity of elevated serum niacin. Lowering dose or switching to the immediate release form can resolve symptoms. In rare instances the injury is severe, and progresses to liver failure.


title: Niacin

text: The high doses of niacin used to treat hyperlipidemia have been shown to elevate fasting blood glucose in people with type 2 diabetes. Long-term niacin therapy was also associated with an increase in the risk of new-onset type 2 diabetes.


title: Niacin

text: High doses of niacin can also cause niacin maculopathy, a thickening of the macula and retina, which leads to blurred vision and blindness. This maculopathy is reversible after niacin intake ceases. Niaspan, the slow-release product, has been associated with a reduction in platelet content and a modest increase in prothrombin time.


title: Niacin

text: Activating HCA has effects other than lowering serum cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations: antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, antithrombotic, improved endothelial function and plaque stability, all of which counter development and progression of atherosclerosis.


title: Niacin

text: Niacin inhibits cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP2E1, CYP2D6 and CYP3A4. Niacin produces a rise in serum unconjugated bilirubin in normal individuals and in those with Gilbert's Syndrome. However, in the Gilbert's Syndrome, the rise in bilirubin is higher and clearance is delayed longer than in normal people. One test used to aid in diagnosing Gilbert's Syndrome involves intravenous administration of nicotinic acid (niacin) in a dose of 50 mg over a period of 30 seconds.


title: Niacin

text: Both niacin and niacinamide are rapidly absorbed from the stomach and small intestine. Absorption is facilitated by sodium-dependent diffusion, and at higher intakes, via passive diffusion. Unlike some other vitamins, the percent absorbed does not decrease with increasing dose, so that even at amounts of 3-4 grams, absorption is nearly complete. With a one gram dose, peak plasma concentrations of 15 to 30 μg/mL are reached within 30 to 60 minutes. Approximately 88% of an oral pharmacologic dose is eliminated by the kidneys as unchanged niacin or nicotinuric acid, its primary metabolite. The plasma elimination half-life of niacin ranges from 20 to 45 minutes.


title: Niacin

text: Niacin and nicotinamide are both converted into the coenzyme NAD. NAD converts to NADP by phosphorylation in the presence of the enzyme NAD+ kinase. High energy requirements (brain) or high turnover rate (gut, skin) organs are usually the most susceptible to their deficiency. In the liver, niacinamide is converted to storage nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD). As needed, liver NAD is hydrolyzed to niacinamide and niacin for transport to tissues, there reconverted to NAD to serve as an enzyme cofactor. Excess niacin is methylated in the liver to N-methylnicotinamide (NMN) and excreted in urine as such or as the oxidized metabolite N-methyl-2-pyridone-5-carboxamide (2-pyridone). Decreased urinary content of these metabolites is a measure of niacin deficiency.


title: Niacin

text: In addition to absorbing niacin from diet, niacin can be synthesized from the essential amino acid tryptophan, a five-step process with the penultimate compound being quinolinic acid (see figure). Some bacteria and plants utilize aspartic acid in a pathway that also goes to quinolinic acid. For humans, the efficiency of conversion is estimated as requiring 60mg of tryptophan to make 1mg of niacin. Riboflavin, vitamin B and iron are required for the process. Pellagra is a consequence of a corn-dominant diet because the niacin in corn is poorly bioavailable and corn proteins are low in tryptophan compared to wheat and rice proteins.


title: Niacin

text: Nicotinic acid was first synthesized in 1867 by oxidative degradation of nicotine. Niacin is prepared by hydrolysis of nicotinonitrile, which, as described above, is generated by oxidation of 3-picoline. Oxidation can be effected by air, but ammoxidation is more efficient. In the latter process, nicotinonitrile is produced by ammoxidation of 3-methylpyridine. Nitrile hydratase is then used to catalyze nicotinonitrile to nicotinamide, which can be converted to niacin. Alternatively, ammonia, acetic acid and paraldehyde are used to make 5-ethyl-2-methyl-pyridine, which is then oxidized to niacin. New "greener" catalysts are being tested using manganese-substituted aluminophosphates that use acetyl peroxyborate as non-corrosive oxidant, avoiding producing nitrogen oxides as do traditional ammoxidations.


title: Niacin

text: The demand for commercial production includes for animal feed and for food fortification meant for human consumption. According to "Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry", worldwide 31,000 tons of nicotinamide were sold in 2014.


title: Niacin

text: This colorless, water-soluble solid is a derivative of pyridine, with a carboxyl group (COOH) at the 3-position. Other forms of vitamin B include the corresponding amide nicotinamide (niacinamide), where the carboxyl group has been replaced by a carboxamide group ().


title: Niacin

text: Niacin is incorporated into multi-vitamin and sold as a single-ingredient dietary supplement. The latter can be immediate or slow release.


title: Niacin

text: Nicotinamide (niacinamide) is used to treat niacin deficiency because it does not cause the flushing adverse reaction seen with niacin. Nicotinamide may be toxic to the liver at doses exceeding 3g/day for adults.


title: Niacin

text: Prescription products can be immediate release (Niacor, 500 mg tablets) or extended release (Niaspan, 500 and 1000 mg tablets). Niaspan has a film coating that delays release of the niacin, resulting in an absorption over a period of 8–12 hours. This reduces vasodilation and flushing side effects, but increases the risk of hepatotoxicity compared to the immediate release drug.


title: Niacin

text: Prescription niacin in combination with statin drugs (discontinued) is described above. A combination of niacin and laropiprant had been approved for use in Europe and marketed as Tredaptive. Laropiprant is a prostaglandin D2 binding drug shown to reduce niacin-induced vasodilation and flushing side effects. A clinical trial showed no additional efficacy of Tredaptive in lowering cholesterol when used together with other statin drugs, but did show an increase in other side effects. The study resulted in the withdrawal of Tredaptive from the international market.


title: Niacin

text: One form of dietary supplement sold in the US is inositol hexanicotinate (IHN), also called inositol nicotinate. This is inositol that has been esterified with niacin on all six of inositol's alcohol groups. IHN is usually sold as "flush-free" or "no-flush" niacin in units of 250, 500, or 1000 mg/tablets or capsules. In the US, it is sold as an over-the-counter formulation, and often is marketed and labeled as niacin, thus misleading consumers into thinking they are getting an active form of the medication. While this form of niacin does not cause the flushing associated with the immediate-release products, there is not enough evidence to recommend IHN to treat hyperlipidemia.


title: Niacin

text: Niacin as a chemical compound was first described by chemist Hugo Weidel in 1873 in his studies of nicotine, but that predated by many years the concept of food components other than protein, fat and carbohydrates that were essential for life. Vitamin nomenclature was initially alphabetical, with Elmer McCollum calling these fat-soluble A and water-soluble B. Over time, eight chemically distinct, water-soluble B vitamins were isolated and numbered, with niacin as vitamin B.


title: Niacin

text: Corn (maize) became a staple food in the southeast United States and in parts of Europe. A disease that was characterized by dermatitis of sunlight-exposed skin was described in Spain in 1735 by Gaspar Casal. He attributed the cause to poor diet. In northern Italy it was named "pellagra" from the Lombard language ("agra" = holly-like or serum-like; "pell" = skin). In time, the disease was more closely linked specifically to corn. In the US, Joseph Goldberger was assigned to study pellagra by the Surgeon General of the United States. His studies confirmed a corn-based diet as the culprit, but he did not identify the root cause.


title: Niacin

text: Nicotinic acid was extracted from liver by biochemist Conrad Elvehjem in 1937. He later identified the active ingredient, referring to it as "pellagra-preventing factor" and the "anti-blacktongue factor." It was also referred to as "vitamin PP", "vitamin P-P" and "PP-factor", all derived from the term "pellagra-preventive factor". In the late 1930s, studies by Tom Douglas Spies, Marion Blankenhorn, and Clark Cooper confirmed that niacin cured pellagra in humans. The prevalence of the disease was greatly reduced as a result.


title: Niacin

text: In 1942, when flour enrichment with nicotinic acid began, a headline in the popular press said "Tobacco in Your Bread." In response, the Council on Foods and Nutrition of the American Medical Association approved of the Food and Nutrition Board's new names "niacin" and "niacin amide" for use primarily by non-scientists. It was thought appropriate to choose a name to dissociate nicotinic acid from nicotine, to avoid the perception that vitamins or niacin-rich food contains nicotine, or that cigarettes contain vitamins. The resulting name "niacin" was derived from "cotinic id" + "vitam".


title: Niacin

text: Carpenter found in 1951, that niacin in corn is biologically unavailable, and can be released only in very alkaline lime water of pH 11. This explains why a Latin-American culture that used alkali-treated cornmeal to make tortilla was not at risk for niacin deficiency.


title: Niacin

text: In 1955, Altschul and colleagues described large amounts of niacin as having a lipid-lowering property. As such, niacin is the oldest known lipid-lowering drug. Lovastatin, the first 'statin' drug, was first marketed in 1987.


title: Niacin

text: In animal models and "in vitro", niacin produces marked anti-inflammatory effects in a variety of tissues – including the brain, gastrointestinal tract, skin, and vascular tissue – through the activation of hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2 (HCA2), also known as niacin receptor 1 (NIACR1). Unlike niacin, nicotinamide does not activate NIACR1; however, both niacin and nicotinamide activate the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) "in vitro".


title: Æthelwulf, King of Wessex

text: Æthelwulf (; Old English for "Noble Wolf"; died 13 January 858) was King of Wessex from 839 to 858. In 825 his father, King Ecgberht, defeated King Beornwulf of Mercia, ending a long Mercian dominance over Anglo-Saxon England south of the Humber. Ecgberht sent Æthelwulf with an army to Kent, where he expelled the Mercian sub-king and was himself appointed sub-king. After 830, Ecgberht maintained good relations with Mercia, and this was continued by Æthelwulf when he became king in 839, the first son to succeed his father as West Saxon king since 641.


title: Æthelwulf, King of Wessex

text: The Vikings were not a major threat to Wessex during Æthelwulf's reign. In 843, he was defeated in a battle against the Vikings at Carhampton in Somerset, but he achieved a major victory at the Battle of Aclea in 851. In 853 he joined a successful Mercian expedition to Wales to restore the traditional Mercian hegemony, and in the same year his daughter Æthelswith married King Burgred of Mercia. In 855 Æthelwulf went on pilgrimage to Rome. In preparation he gave a "decimation", donating a tenth of his personal property to his subjects; he appointed his eldest surviving son Æthelbald to act as King of Wessex in his absence, and his next son Æthelberht to rule Kent and the south-east. Æthelwulf spent a year in Rome, and on his way back he married Judith, the daughter of the West Frankish king Charles the Bald.


title: Æthelwulf, King of Wessex

text: When Æthelwulf returned to England, Æthelbald refused to surrender the West Saxon throne, and Æthelwulf agreed to divide the kingdom, taking the east and leaving the west in Æthelbald's hands. On Æthelwulf's death in 858 he left Wessex to Æthelbald and Kent to Æthelberht, but Æthelbald's death only two years later led to the reunification of the kingdom. In the 20th century Æthelwulf's reputation among historians was poor: he was seen as excessively pious and impractical, and his pilgrimage was viewed as a desertion of his duties. Historians in the 21st century see him very differently, as a king who consolidated and extended the power of his dynasty, commanded respect on the continent, and dealt more effectively than most of his contemporaries with Viking attacks. He is regarded as one of the most successful West Saxon kings, who laid the foundations for the success of his son, Alfred the Great.


title: Æthelwulf, King of Wessex

text: At the beginning of the 9th century, England was almost completely under the control of the Anglo-Saxons, with Mercia and Wessex the most important southern kingdoms. Mercia was dominant until the 820s, and it exercised overlordship over East Anglia and Kent, but Wessex was able to maintain its independence from its more powerful neighbour. Offa, king of Mercia from 757 to 796, was the dominant figure of the second half of the 8th century. King Beorhtric of Wessex (786–802), married Offa's daughter in 789. Beorhtric and Offa drove Æthelwulf's father Ecgberht into exile, and he spent several years at the court of Charlemagne in Francia. Ecgberht was the son of Ealhmund, who had briefly been King of Kent in 784. Following Offa's death, King Coenwulf of Mercia (796–821) maintained Mercian dominance, but it is uncertain whether Beorhtric ever accepted political subordination, and when he died in 802 Ecgberht became king, perhaps with the support of Charlemagne. For two hundred years three kindreds had fought for the West Saxon throne, and no son had followed his father as king. Ecgberht's best claim was that he was the great-great-grandson of Ingild, brother of King Ine (688–726), and in 802 it would have seemed very unlikely that he would establish a lasting dynasty.