title: Lamborghini Urus

text: The Urus ST-X is a racing, non-street-legal variant of the standard Urus, built by the Squadra Corse Division of Lamborghini. The concept was unveiled in 2018, at the Lamborghini World Finals. Designed to meet FIA regulations, the production ST-X features a full roll-cage, fire suppression system, and an FT3 fuel tank. The air intakes have been enlarged to better optimize the heat exchange of the 4-liter twin-turbo V8. Power and torque remain the same as the street-legal Urus, with the same and of torque. The car has hexagonal racing exhausts, and 21-inch alloy wheels fitted with Pirelli tires. These changes give a 25% weight reduction compared to the street-legal car. Customer deliveries are scheduled for 2020.


title: Lamborghini Urus

text: The Urus Performante was unveiled by Lamborghini in August 2022 and is a more powerful variant of the SUV. Unlike other Urus special variants, the Performante saw a drastic change in design and performance specifications. It came with better power and downforce while being 104 pounds lighter than other variants.


title: Lamborghini Urus

text: In early December 2020, the NHTSA recalled 2019 and 2020 model year Uruses equipped with the 4.0 litre twin-turbo V8 engine due to a fire risk, since high engine compartment temperatures can cause the fuel line quick connectors to rise to temperatures above the design operating specification limit. These elevated temperatures can cause the quick connect material to soften, which could result in a fuel leak. All affected models will be retired from showrooms starting on 18 December.


title: Lamborghini Urus

text: On 4 December 2017, the Urus was unveiled at Lamborghini's Sant'Agata Bolognese headquarters, making it the brand's first SUV since the LM002.


title: Lamborghini Urus

text: Production began in February 2018 and Lamborghini plans to build 1,000 units in the first year of production, and 3,500 in 2019. However, Lamborghini had to expand their factory in Sant'Agata Bolognese to meet the higher demand. In July 2020, the company announced the 10,000th unit of the Urus.


title: Lamborghini Urus

text: Lamborghini had trademarked the name "Urus" before the introduction of the Lamborghini Estoque at the 2008 Paris Motor Show, and automotive news blogs "Jalopnik" and "Autoblog" believed that the name would be applied to what was eventually found to be the Estoque.


title: Tulum

text: Tulum (, ) is the site of a pre-Columbian Mayan walled city which served as a major port for Coba, in the Mexican state of Quintana Roo. The ruins are situated on cliffs along the east coast of the Yucatán Peninsula on the Caribbean Sea. Tulum was one of the last cities built and inhabited by the Maya and achieved its greatest prominence between the 13th and 15th centuries. Maya continued to occupy Tulum for about 70 years after the Spanish began occupying Mexico, but the city was abandoned by the end of the 16th century. Tulum is one of the best-preserved coastal Maya sites, and today a popular site for tourists.


title: Tulum

text: The site might have been called Zama, meaning "City of Dawn," because it faces the sunrise. Tulum stands on a bluff facing east toward the Caribbean Sea. "Tulúm" is also the Yucatán Mayan word for "fence", "wall" or "trench." The walls surrounding the site allowed the Tulum fort to be defended against invasions. Tulum had access to both land and sea trade routes, making it an important trade hub, especially for obsidian. From numerous depictions in murals and other works around the site, Tulum appears to have been an important site for the worship of the Diving or Descending god.


title: Tulum

text: Tulum was first mentioned by Juan Díaz, a member of Juan de Grijalva's Spanish expedition of 1518, the first Europeans to spot Tulum. The first detailed description of the ruins was published by John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood in 1843 in the book "Incidents of Travel in Yucatan". As they arrived from the sea, Stephens and Catherwood first saw a tall building that impressed them greatly, most likely the great Castillo of the site. They made accurate maps of the site's walls, and Catherwood made sketches of the Castillo and several other buildings. Stephens and Catherwood also reported an early classic stele at the site, with an inscribed date of AD 564 (now in the British Museum's collection). This has been interpreted as meaning that the stele was likely built elsewhere and brought to Tulum to be reused.


title: Tulum

text: Work conducted at Tulum continued with that of Sylvanus Morley and George P. Howe, beginning in 1913. They worked to restore and open the public beaches. The work was continued by the Carnegie Institution from 1916 to 1922, Samuel Lothrop in 1924 who also mapped the site, Miguel Ángel Fernández in the late 1930s and early 1940s, William Sanders in 1956, and then later in the 1970s by Arthur G. Miller. Through these later investigations done by Sanders and Miller, it has been determined that Tulum was occupied during the late Postclassic period around AD 1200. The site continued to be occupied until contact with the Spanish was made in the early 16th century. By the end of the 16th century, the site was abandoned completely.


title: Tulum

text: In 2020, an underwater archaeological expedition led by Jerónimo Avilés again excavated the cave and revealed the skeleton of a female about 30 years of age that lived at least 9,900 years ago. According to craniometric measurements, the skull is believed to conform to the mesocephalic pattern, like the other three skulls found in Tulum caves. Three different scars on the skull of the woman showed that she was hit with something hard and her skull bones were broken. Her skull also had crater-like deformations and tissue deformities that appeared to be caused by a bacterial relative of syphilis.


title: Tulum

text: According to study lead researcher Wolfgang Stinnesbeck, "It really looks as if this woman had a very hard time and an extremely unhappy end of her life. Obviously, this is speculative, but given the traumas and the pathological deformations on her skull, it appears a likely scenario that she may have been expelled from her group and was killed in the cave, or was left in the cave to die there”.


title: Tulum

text: The newly discovered skeleton was 140 meters away from the Chan Hol 2 site. Although archeologists assumed the divers found the remains of the missing Chan Hol 2, the analysis proved that these assumptions were erroneous in a short time. Stinnesbeck compared the new bones to old photographs of Chan Hol 2 and showed that the two skeletons represent different individuals.


title: Tulum

text: Due to their distinctive features, study co-researcher Samuel Rennie suggest the existence of at least two morphologically diverse groups of people living separately in Mexico during the transition from Pleistocene to Holocene.


title: Tulum

text: Tulum has architecture typical of Maya sites on the east coast of the Yucatán Peninsula. This architecture is recognized by a step running around the base of the building which sits on a low substructure. Doorways of this type are usually narrow with columns used as support if the building is big enough. As the walls flare out there are usually two sets of molding near the top. The room usually contains one or two small windows with an altar at the back wall, roofed by either a beam-and-rubble ceiling or being vaulted. This type of architecture resembles what can be found in the nearby Chichen Itza, just on a much smaller scale.


title: Tulum

text: Tulum was protected on one side by steep sea cliffs and on the landward side by a wall that averaged about in height. The wall also was about thick and long on the side parallel to the sea. The part of the wall that ran the width of the site was slightly shorter and only about on both sides. Constructing this massive wall would have taken an enormous amount of energy and time, which shows how important defense was to the Maya when they chose this site. On the southwest and northwest corners there are small structures that have been identified as watch towers, showing again how well defended the city was. There are five narrow gateways in the wall with two each on the north and south sides and one on the west. Near the northern side of the wall a small cenote provided the city with fresh water. It is this impressive wall that makes Tulum one of the most well-known fortified sites of the Maya.


title: Tulum

text: There are three major structures of interest at the Tulum archeological site. El Castillo, the Temple of the Frescoes, and the Temple of the Descending God.


title: Tulum

text: Among the more spectacular buildings here is the Temple of the Frescoes that included a lower gallery and a smaller second story gallery. The Temple of the Frescoes was used as an observatory for tracking the movements of the sun. Niched figurines of the Maya "diving god" or Venus deity decorate the facade of the temple. This "diving god" is also depicted in the Temple of the Diving God in the central precinct of the site. Above the entrance in the western wall a stucco figure of the "diving god" is still preserved, giving the temple its name. A mural can still be seen on the eastern wall that resembles that of a style that originated in highland Mexico, called the Mixteca-Puebla style, though visitors are no longer permitted to enter.


title: Tulum

text: The Temple of the Descending God consists of a single room with a door to the west and a narrow staircase that was built on top of another temple that served as its base.


title: Tulum

text: In the niche located at the top of the door stands a sculpture that's found throughout Tulum. He has wings, a headdress, and holds an object in his hands.


title: Tulum

text: Also in the central precinct is the pyramid, which is tall. The Castillo was built on a previous building that was colonnaded and had a beam and mortar roof. The lintels in the upper rooms have serpent motifs carved into them. The construction of the Castillo appears to have taken place in stages. A small shrine appears to have been used as a beacon for incoming canoes. This shrine marks a break in the barrier reef that is opposite the site. Here there is a cove and landing beach in a break in the sea cliffs that would have been perfect for trading canoes coming in. This characteristic of the site may be one of the reasons the Maya founded the city of Tulum exactly here, as Tulum later became a prominent trading port during the late Postclassic.


title: Tulum

text: Both coastal and land routes converged at Tulum. A number of artifacts found in or near the site show contacts with areas all over Central Mexico and Central America. Copper artifacts from the Mexican highlands have been found near the site, as have flint artifacts, ceramics, incense burners, and gold objects from all over the Yucatán. Salt and textiles were among some of the goods brought by traders to Tulum by sea that would be dispersed inland. Typical exported goods included feathers and copper objects that came from inland sources. These goods could be transported by sea to rivers such as the Río Motagua and the Río Usumacincta/Pasión system, which could be traveled inland, giving seafaring canoes access to both the highlands and the lowlands.


title: Tulum

text: The Río Motagua starts from the highlands of Guatemala and empties into the Caribbean. The Río Pasión/Ucamacincta river system also originates in the Guatemalan highlands and empties into the Gulf of Mexico. It may have been one of these seafaring canoes that Christopher Columbus first encountered off the shores of the Bay Islands of Honduras. Jade and obsidian appear to be some of the more valuable found here. The obsidian would have been brought from Ixtepeque in northern Guatemala, which was nearly away from Tulum. This huge distance, coupled with the density of obsidian found at the site, show that Tulum was a major center for the trading of obsidian.


title: Tulum

text: Tulum archaeological site is relatively compact compared with many other Maya sites in the vicinity, and is one of the best-preserved coastal Maya sites. Its proximity to the modern tourism developments along the Mexican Caribbean coastline and its short distance from Cancún and the surrounding "Riviera Maya" has made it a popular Maya tourist site in the Yucatán Península. Daily tour buses bring a constant stream of visitors to the site. The Tulum ruins are the third most-visited archeological site in Mexico, after Teotihuacan and Chichen Itza, receiving over 2.2 million visitors in 2017.


title: Tulum

text: A large number of cenotes are located in the Tulum area such as Maya Blue, Naharon, Temple of Doom, Tortuga, Vacaha, Grand Cenote, Abejas, Nohoch Kiin, Calavera,and Zacil-Ha


title: Tulum

text: The tourist destination is now divided into four main areas: the archeological site, the "pueblo" (or town), the "zona hotelera" (or hotel zone), and the biosphere reserve of Sian Ka'an.


title: Tulum

text: The impact of tourism on Tulum is a subject of growing controversy. Director Rachel Appel filmed a documentary entitled "The Dark Side of Tulum" in 2018 as an exposé of the environmental impacts of the local tourist industry.


title: Tulum

text: Considered a tropical savanna climate typically with a pronounced dry season. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Aw" (Tropical Savanna Climate).


title: 2022 Los Angeles mayoral election

text: The 2022 Los Angeles mayoral election was held on November 8, 2022, to elect the mayor of Los Angeles, California. A top-two primary was held on June 7, 2022. Candidates could win the election outright by receiving more than 50% of the vote, but no candidate received a majority. More than forty candidates formed committees to run. Twenty-seven filed their declaration of intention to collect signatures for the ballot, and of these twelve qualified.


title: 2022 Los Angeles mayoral election

text: Incumbent Mayor Eric Garcetti was ineligible to seek a third term due to term limits but was serving an extended second term due to a law moving election dates. In July 2021, Garcetti was nominated to become United States Ambassador to India. If Garcetti left office before his mayoral term ended, the Los Angeles City Council would have appointed an interim replacement to finish the remainder of that term. This nomination was later withdrawn. All local elections in California are nonpartisan.


title: 2022 Los Angeles mayoral election

text: U.S. Representative Karen Bass and real estate developer Rick Caruso advanced to the general election. On November 16, Bass was declared the winner becoming the first woman, as well as the second black, mayor of Los Angeles.


title: 2022 Los Angeles mayoral election

text: There were a total of 2,120,515 registered voters within the City of Los Angeles and 1,018,139 votes received as of November 22, 2022 as of the last update there were 15,105 ballots outstanding within Los Angeles County,


title: 2022 Los Angeles mayoral election

text: With an open race for mayor, Karen Bass announced that she would retire from Congress and run for Los Angeles mayor. Bass was widely seen as the favorite frontrunner with other moderates and progressives polling much lower and divided amongst themselves. The wide lead led to speculation that Bass would have been able to avoid a runoff all together. Real estate developer Rick Caruso had announced that he would run after speculation in past races and polled in the single digits. However, during the spring of 2022, Caruso saw a surge of support rivaling that of Bass.


title: 2022 Los Angeles mayoral election

text: As the primary neared, many prominent candidates dropped out and endorsed the two frontrunners, Bass representing the progressive element of the race and Caruso representing the moderate element. This had been shown with two former mayoral candidates: Joe Buscaino, a City Councilmember, endorsed Caruso, and Mike Feuer, the Los Angeles City Attorney, endorsed Bass. Councilmember Kevin de León also had significant support but lagged behind Bass and Caruso, and ultimately did not advance to the general election.


title: 2022 Los Angeles mayoral election

text: On December 12, 2021, the Stonewall Democratic Club hosted a forum with candidates Bass, Feuer, Lall, and Greiwe. Buscaino and de León cancelled last minute due to scheduling conflicts. On February 22, 2022, Loyola Marymount University alongside Spectrum News 1 hosted the first formal debate between candidates, with Caruso absent because of a scheduling issue. During the debate, protesters started heckling them, resulting in them attempting to rush the stage near the end of the debate.


title: 2022 Los Angeles mayoral election

text: On March 22, 2022, FOX 11 along with the Los Angeles Times hosted a debate at the University of Southern California with Bass, Buscaino, Caruso, de León, and Feuer. Although most of the other candidates attacked Caruso, many people said that Caruso had won the debate.


title: 2022 Los Angeles mayoral election

text: On April 28, 2022, ABC7 announced that they would be hosting a debate at California State University, Los Angeles with the top five leading candidates. In response to the list, candidates Craig Greiwe, Alex Gruenenfelder Smith, Gina Viola, and Mel Wilson criticized their exclusion at the debates and the organizers. Candidate Ramit Varma later released a statement criticizing his exclusion at debates. During the Sunday debate, police removed Melina Abdullah, a professor at Cal State LA and Black Lives Matter founder, as well as other protesters from the room as they did not have a tickets to the event.


title: 2022 Los Angeles mayoral election

text: The issues talked at the debates were homelessness, the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, crime, and climate change.


title: Linus Sebastian

text: Linus Gabriel Sebastian (born August 20, 1986) is a Canadian YouTuber. He is the creator and host of the YouTube channel Linus Tech Tips (LTT). He is also the founder of Linus Media Group Inc. and has served as its CEO since 2013.


title: Linus Sebastian

text: Sebastian is best known for creating and hosting four technology YouTube channels, Linus Tech Tips (LTT), Techquickie, TechLinked, and ShortCircuit, which have a combined subscriber base of over 22 million. From 2007 to 2013, he was a regular presenter of technology videos for the now defunct Canadian computer retailer NCIX.


title: Linus Sebastian

text: , "Linus Tech Tips" is ranked the most-watched technology channel on YouTube. In 2014, Tubefilter named the channel as being within the "top 1% of Google's preferred advertising channels" on YouTube for the technology category. In 2015, "Inc." magazine ranked Sebastian fourth in a list of the "Top 30 Power Players in Tech".


title: Linus Sebastian

text: Sebastian was working for the now-defunct Canadian online computer store NCIX. He was asked by the company to be the host for its technology channel, which was created to help demonstrate products. Sebastian was assisted by an unidentified cameraperson and editor, and worked with limited resources, shooting videos with a camera borrowed from the son of the company's president.


title: Linus Sebastian

text: Due to high costs and low viewership during the early days of the channel, Sebastian was instructed to create the "Linus Tech Tips" channel as a cheaper offshoot of the NCIX channel, to allow for lower production values without affecting the NCIX brand. He described TigerDirect and Newegg as competitors. "Linus Tech Tips" was created on November 24, 2008. He eventually left NCIX following a dispute regarding company management, negotiating an agreement in which he could keep the channel as long as he signed a non-compete clause.


title: Linus Sebastian

text: Sebastian founded Linus Media Group (LMG) in January 2013 out of a garage. The group developed the "Linus Tech Tips" channel as an independent venture. Since 2017, LMG has hosted an annual event known as the "LTX Expo", a "convention featuring tech-focused content creators and personalities". The show went on hiatus from 2020 to 2022 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and is expected to return at the end of July 2023.


title: Linus Sebastian

text: On January 2, 2016, "Linus Tech Tips" released a video demonstrating a computer capable of supporting seven individual users at once, with an estimated total cost of $30,000. The video made technology news on a number of websites.


title: Linus Sebastian

text: In August 2017, the "Linus Tech Tips" channel uploaded a two part video where they were able to game at 16K resolution (15360 by 8640 pixels) using 16 4K monitors in a 4 by 4 configuration.


title: Linus Sebastian

text: In April 2018, the "Linus Tech Tips" channel uploaded a video claiming that Apple refused to repair his iMac Pro (paid, non-warranty repairs) after they damaged it in a product teardown, an act (refusal to repair) that has been speculated by "VentureBeat" to be illegal.


title: Linus Sebastian

text: In December 2018, "Linus Tech Tips" released a four-part series detailing their experience buying a gaming PC from 6 systems integrators representing 3 different market tiers. The series has gained over 12 million views and was covered in "PC Gamer".


title: Linus Sebastian

text: In 2021, "Linus Tech Tips" released a three-part series showing the process of making an 18-carat gold Xbox Series X controller. The first video showed the prototyping, the second showed the making of the gold shells, and the third showing the reactions of employees at their headquarters.


title: Linus Sebastian

text: Linus Gabriel Sebastian was born on August 20, 1986. He grew up on a farm with siblings and has been married to Yvonne Ho since May 20, 2011. In a 2014 interview with technology startup website Tech.co, Sebastian said that his favourite YouTubers were TotalBiscuit, Marques Brownlee, and Austin Evans.


title: Linus Sebastian

text: In January 2020, Sebastian claimed he was thinking about retiring. However, he later said he had changed his mind.


title: John C. Bogle

text: John Clifton "Jack" Bogle (May 8, 1929 – January 16, 2019) was an American investor, business magnate, and philanthropist. He was the founder and chief executive of The Vanguard Group, and is credited with creating the first index fund. An avid investor and money manager himself, he preached investment over speculation, long-term patience over short-term action, and reducing broker fees as much as possible. The ideal investment vehicle for Bogle was a low-cost index fund held over a lifetime with dividends reinvested and purchased with dollar cost averaging.


title: John C. Bogle

text: His 1999 book "Common Sense on Mutual Funds: New Imperatives for the Intelligent Investor" became a bestseller and is considered a classic within the investment community.


title: John C. Bogle

text: John Bogle was born on May 8, 1929, in Montclair, New Jersey, to William Yates Bogle, Jr. and Josephine Lorraine Hipkins.


title: John C. Bogle

text: His family was harmed by the Great Depression. They lost their money and had to sell their home, with his father falling into alcoholism, which resulted in his parents' divorce.


title: John C. Bogle

text: Bogle and his twin, David, attended Manasquan High School near the New Jersey shore for a time. Their academic record there enabled them to transfer to Blair Academy on work scholarships. At Blair, Bogle showed a particular aptitude for mathematics, with numbers and computations fascinating him. In 1947, Bogle graduated from Blair Academy cum laude and was accepted at Princeton University, where he studied economics and investment. During his university years, Bogle studied the mutual fund industry. Bogle spent his junior and senior years working on his thesis "The Economic Role of the Investment Company".


title: John C. Bogle

text: Bogle graduated magna cum laude from Princeton in 1951 and was soon hired by Walter L. Morgan, founder of the Wellington Fund, reportedly as a result of Morgan reading his 130-page thesis paper.


title: John C. Bogle

text: After graduating from Princeton, Bogle sought a position in banking or investments. Hired by Morgan at the Wellington Fund, Bogle was promoted to assistant manager in 1955, at which time he was able to analyze the company and its investment department. Bogle persuaded the Wellington management to change its strategy of concentration on a single fund and create a new fund. Eventually he succeeded, and the new fund became a turning point in his career. After successfully climbing through the ranks, Bogle replaced Morgan as chairman of Wellington in 1970, but was later fired for an "extremely unwise" merger that he had approved. It was a poor decision which he later considered his biggest mistake, stating, "The great thing about that mistake, which was shameful and inexcusable and a reflection of immaturity and confidence beyond what the facts justified, was that I learned a lot."


title: John C. Bogle

text: In 1974, Bogle founded The Vanguard Group, which is now one of the most respected and successful companies in the investment world. In 1999, "Fortune" magazine named Bogle as "one of the four investment giants of the twentieth century".


title: John C. Bogle

text: In 1976, influenced by the works of Paul Samuelson, Bogle created the First Index Investment Trust (a precursor to the Vanguard 500 Index Fund) as the first index mutual fund available to the general public. It was not immediately well received by individuals or the investment industry, but is now lauded by investment-legend Warren Buffett, among others. In a 2005 speech, Samuelson ranked "this Bogle invention along with the invention of the wheel, the alphabet, Gutenberg printing".


title: John C. Bogle

text: Bogle suffered heart issues in the 1990s, subsequently relinquishing his role as Vanguard CEO in 1996. His successor was John J. Brennan, his handpicked successor and second-in-command, whom he had hired in 1982. Bogle, who was then 66 and "considered past the age for a healthy heart transplant", had a successful heart transplant in 1996.


title: John C. Bogle

text: His subsequent return to Vanguard with the title of senior chairman led to conflict between Bogle and Brennan. Bogle left the company in 1999 and moved to Bogle Financial Markets Research Center, a small research institute not directly connected to Vanguard but located on the Vanguard campus.


title: John C. Bogle

text: Bogle's innovative idea was creating the world's first index mutual fund in 1975. Bogle's idea was that instead of beating the index and charging high costs, the index fund would mimic the index performance over the long run—thus achieving higher returns with lower costs than the costs associated with actively managed funds.


title: John C. Bogle

text: Bogle's idea of index investing offers a clear yet prominent distinction between investment and speculation. The main difference between investment and speculation lies in the time horizon and the risk of capital. Investment is concerned with capturing returns on the long run with lower risk of destruction of capital, while speculation is concerned with achieving returns over a short period of time, with potentially destructive risk to capital. The speculator is often only concerned with the price of a security and not the underlying business as a whole, while the investor is concerned with the underlying business and not the price of the security. Even if a business is steady in cash flow, the market quotations of a security are anything but, as a result of speculators driving up prices and bringing down prices based on hope, fear and greed. Bogle believed this is an important analysis to be taken into account as short-term, risky investments have been flooding the financial markets.


title: John C. Bogle

text: Bogle was known for his insistence, in numerous media appearances and in writing, on the superiority of index funds over traditional actively managed mutual funds. He contended that it is folly to attempt to pick actively managed mutual funds and expect their performance to beat a low-cost index fund over a long period of time, after accounting for the fees that actively managed funds charge.


title: John C. Bogle

text: Bogle argued for an approach to investing defined by simplicity and common sense. Below are his eight basic rules for investors:


title: John C. Bogle

text: His investment philosophy is the founding principle of the eponymous "Bogleheads" forum. This group is now supported by the John C. Bogle Center for Financial Literacy and hosts national conferences in addition to its online forum. Members of the group have collaborated to write three books expanding upon Bogle's investment philosophy.


title: John C. Bogle

text: Later in his life, Bogle expressed concerns that the growing popularity of passive indexing would lead to a concentration of corporate voting power for leaders of the three largest investment firms (Vanguard, BlackRock and State Street), adding: "I do not believe that such a concentration would serve the national interest."


title: John C. Bogle

text: Bogle married Eve Sherrerd on September 22, 1956, and had six children: Barbara, Jean, John Clifton, Nancy, Sandra, and Andrew. They resided in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania.


title: John C. Bogle

text: At age 31, Bogle suffered from his first of several heart attacks, and at age 38, he was diagnosed with the rare heart disease arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia. He received a heart transplant in 1996 at age 66.


title: John C. Bogle

text: Bogle was a member of the board of trustees at Blair Academy. He was an advisory board member of the Millstein Center for Corporate Governance and Performance at the Columbia Law School. Bogle received honorary doctorates from Princeton University in 2005 and Villanova University in 2011. Bogle served on the board of trustees of the National Constitution Center in Philadelphia, a museum dedicated to the U.S. Constitution. He had previously served as chairman of the board from 1999 through 2007. He was named chairman emeritus in January 2007, when former president George H. W. Bush was named chairman.


title: John C. Bogle

text: Politically, Bogle was a Republican (a self-described Teddy Roosevelt Republican), although he voted for Bill Clinton, Barack Obama in 2008 and 2012, and Hillary Clinton in 2016. He supported the Volcker rule and tighter rules on money market funds, and was critical of what he believed was the US government's lack of regulation of the financial sector. Bogle said the current system in the US had "gotten out of balance", and advocated for "taxes to discourage short-term speculation, limits on leverage, transparency for financial derivatives, stricter punishments for financial crimes, and a unified fiduciary standard for all money managers". In 2017, Bogle stated that President Donald Trump's policies were good for the market in the short term, but dangerous for society as a whole in the long term.


title: John C. Bogle

text: Bogle died on January 16, 2019, at his home in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania. After Bogle's death, Warren Buffett attributed Bogle's contribution to help individual investors to steer in a better "direction" in the field of investing. "Jack did more for American investors as a whole than any individual I've known", Buffett told in a CNBC interview. Bogle was also previously mentioned in Berkshire Hathaway's 2016 annual letter for his contribution of developing the investment landscape.


title: John C. Bogle

text: During his high-earning years at Vanguard, he regularly gave half his salary to charity, including Blair Academy and Princeton. In 2016, the Bogle Fellowship was established at Princeton University by John C. Bogle Jr, Bogle's son. The fellowship sponsors 20 first year students in each class.


title: Peter Weir

text: Peter Lindsay Weir ( ; born August 21, 1944) is a retired Australian film director. He's known for directing films crossing various genres over forty years with films such as "Picnic at Hanging Rock" (1975), "Gallipoli" (1981), "Witness" (1985), "Dead Poets Society" (1989), "Fearless" (1993), "The Truman Show" (1998), "" (2003), and "The Way Back" (2010). He's received five Academy Award nominations ultimately winning the Academy Honorary Award in 2022 for his lifetime achievement career.


title: Peter Weir

text: Early in his career as a director, Weir was a leading figure in the Australian New Wave cinema movement (1970–1990). Weir made his feature film debut with "Homesdale" and continued with the mystery drama "Picnic at Hanging Rock" (1975), the supernatural thriller "The Last Wave" (1977) and the historical drama "Gallipoli" (1981). Weir gained tremendous success with the multinational production "The Year of Living Dangerously" (1982).


title: Peter Weir

text: After the success of "The Year of Living Dangerously", Weir directed a diverse group of American and international films covering most genres–many of them major box office hits–including Academy Award-nominated films such as the thriller "Witness" (1985), the drama "Dead Poets Society" (1989), the romantic comedy "Green Card" (1990), the social science fiction comedy-drama "The Truman Show" (1998) and the epic historical drama "" (2003). Since 2003, Weir has made only one feature, the well-received "The Way Back" (2010). In 2022, Weir received the Academy Honorary Award from The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences at the Governors Awards.


title: Peter Weir

text: Peter Lindsay Weir was born in Sydney, New South Wales, in 1944, the son of Peggy (née Barnsley Sutton) and Lindsay Weir, a real estate agent. Weir attended The Scots College and Vaucluse Boys High School before studying arts and law at the University of Sydney. His interest in film was sparked by his meeting with fellow students, including Phillip Noyce and the future members of the Sydney filmmaking collective Ubu Films.


title: Peter Weir

text: After leaving university in the mid-1960s, he joined Sydney television station ATN-7, where he worked as a production assistant on the groundbreaking satirical comedy program "The Mavis Bramston Show". During this period, using station facilities, Weir made his first two experimental short films, "Count Vim's Last Exercise" and "The Life and Flight of Reverend Buckshotte".


title: Peter Weir

text: In 1969, the founders of Producers Authors Composers and Talent (now PACT Centre for Emerging Artists) attended a Sydney University Architecture Revue, with sets by Geoffrey Atherden and Grahame Bond. They invited Bond, Atherden, Weir, and Weir's friend, composer Peter Best, a chance to do a show at the National Art School. Sir Robert Helpmann saw the show and took it to the Adelaide Festival. Soon afterward Weir and Best were commissioned to write a Christmas special TV show for ABC Television, called "Man on a Green Bike".


title: Peter Weir

text: Weir took a position with the Commonwealth Film Unit (later renamed Film Australia), for which he made several documentaries, including a short documentary about an underprivileged outer Sydney suburb, "Whatever Happened to Green Valley", in which residents were invited to make their own film segments. Another notable film in this period was the short rock music performance film "Three Directions in Australian Pop Music" (1972), which featured in-concert colour footage of three of the most significant Melbourne rock acts of the period, Spectrum, The Captain Matchbox Whoopee Band, and Wendy Saddington. He also directed one section of the three-part, three-director feature film "Three To Go" (1970), which won an AFI award.


title: Peter Weir

text: After leaving the CFU, Weir made his first major independent film, the short feature "Homesdale" (1971), an offbeat black comedy. It co-starred rising young actress Kate Fitzpatrick and musician and comedian Grahame Bond, who came to fame in 1972 as the star of "The Aunty Jack Show"; Weir also played a small role, but this was to be his last significant screen appearance. "Homesdale" and Weir's two aforementioned CFU shorts have been released on DVD.


title: Peter Weir

text: Weir's first full-length feature film was the underground cult classic, "The Cars That Ate Paris" (1974), a low-budget black comedy about the inhabitants of a small country town who deliberately cause fatal car crashes and live off the proceeds. It was a minor success in cinemas but proved very popular on the then-thriving drive-in circuit. The plot of "Cars" had been inspired by a press report Weir had read about two young English women who had vanished while on a driving holiday in France. With this film, along with the earlier "Homesdale", Weir set the basic thematic pattern which has persisted throughout his career: nearly all his feature films deal with people who face some form of crisis after finding themselves isolated from society in some way – either physically ("Witness", "Mosquito Coast", "The Truman Show", "Master and Commander"), socially/culturally ("Picnic at Hanging Rock", "The Last Wave", "Dead Poets Society", "Green Card"), or psychologically ("Fearless").


title: Peter Weir

text: Weir's major breakthrough in Australia and internationally was the lush, atmospheric period mystery "Picnic at Hanging Rock" (1975), made with substantial backing from the state-funded South Australian Film Corporation and filmed on location in South Australia and rural Victoria. Based on the novel by Joan Lindsay and set at the turn of the 20th century, the film relates the purportedly "true" story of a group of students from an exclusive girls' school who mysteriously vanish from a school picnic on Valentine's Day 1900. Widely credited as a key work in the "Australian film renaissance" of the mid-1970s, "Picnic" was the first Australian film of its era to gain both critical praise and be given substantial international theatrical releases. It also helped launch the career of internationally renowned Australian cinematographer Russell Boyd. It was widely acclaimed by critics, many of whom praised it as a welcome antidote to the so-called "ocker film" genre, typified by "The Adventures of Barry McKenzie" and "Alvin Purple".


title: Peter Weir

text: Weir's next film, "The Last Wave" (1977), was a supernatural thriller about a man who begins to experience terrifying visions of an impending natural disaster. It starred American actor Richard Chamberlain, who was well known to Australian and world audiences as the eponymous physician in the popular "Dr. Kildare" TV series. He later starred in the major series "The Thorn Birds", set in Australia. "The Last Wave" was a pensive, ambivalent work that expanded on themes from "Picnic", exploring the interactions between the native Aboriginal and European cultures. It co-starred the Aboriginal actor David Gulpilil, whose performance won the Golden Ibex (Oscar equivalent) at the Tehran International Festival in 1977, but it was only a moderate commercial success at the time.


title: Peter Weir

text: Between "The Last Wave" and his next feature, Weir wrote and directed the offbeat low-budget telemovie "The Plumber" (1979). It starred Australian actors Judy Morris and Ivar Kants and was filmed in three weeks. Inspired by an account told to him by friends, it is a black comedy about a woman whose life is disrupted by a subtly menacing plumber.


title: Peter Weir

text: Weir scored a major Australian hit and further international praise with his next film, the historical adventure-drama "Gallipoli" (1981). Scripted by the Australian playwright David Williamson, it is regarded as classic Australian cinema. "Gallipoli" was instrumental in making Mel Gibson ("Mad Max") into a major star, although his co-star Mark Lee, who also received high praise for his role, has made relatively few screen appearances since.


title: Peter Weir

text: The climax of Weir's early career was the $6 million multi-national production "The Year of Living Dangerously" (1982), again starring Gibson, playing opposite top Hollywood female lead Sigourney Weaver in a story about journalistic loyalty, idealism, love and ambition in the turmoil of Sukarno's Indonesia of 1965. It was an adaptation of the novel by Christopher Koch, which was based in part on the experiences of Koch's journalist brother Philip, the ABC's Jakarta correspondent and one of the few western journalists in the city during the 1965 attempted coup. The film also won Linda Hunt (who played a man in the film) an Oscar for Best Actress in a Supporting Role. The film was produced by Jim McElroy, who with his brother Hal McElroy had also (co-)produced Weir's first three films, "The Cars That Ate Paris", "Picnic at Hanging Rock" and "The Last Wave".


title: Peter Weir

text: Weir's first American film was the successful thriller "Witness" (1985), the first of two films he made with Harrison Ford, about a boy who sees the murder of an undercover police officer by corrupt coworkers and has to be hidden in his Amish community to protect him. Weir directed Ford in his only performance to receive an Academy Award nomination, while child star Lukas Haas also received wide praise for his debut film performance. "Witness" also earned Weir his first Academy Award nomination as Best Director, and was his first of several films to be nominated for an Academy Award for Best Picture, it later won 2 for Best Film Editing & Best Original Screenplay.


title: Peter Weir

text: It was followed by the darker, less commercial "The Mosquito Coast" (1986), Paul Schrader's adaptation of Paul Theroux's novel. Ford played a man obsessively pursuing his dream to start a new life in the Central American jungle with his family. These dramatic parts provided Harrison Ford with important opportunities to break the typecasting of his career-making roles in the "Star Wars" and "Indiana Jones" series. Both films showed off his ability to play more subtle and substantial characters and he was nominated for a Best Actor Oscar for his work in "Witness", the only Academy Awards recognition in his career. "The Mosquito Coast" is also notable for a performance by the young River Phoenix.


title: Peter Weir

text: Weir's next film, "Dead Poets Society", was a major international success, with Weir again receiving credit for expanding the acting range of its Hollywood star. Robin Williams was mainly known for his anarchic stand-up comedy and his popular TV role as the wisecracking alien in "Mork & Mindy"; in this film he played an inspirational teacher in a dramatic story about conformity and rebellion at an exclusive New England prep school in the 1950s. The film was nominated for four Oscars, including Best Picture and Best Director for Weir, it later won for Best Original Screenplay and launched the acting careers of young actors Ethan Hawke and Robert Sean Leonard. It became a major box-office hit and is one of Weir's best-known films to mainstream audiences.


title: Peter Weir

text: Weir's first romantic comedy "Green Card" (1990) was another casting risk. Weir chose French screen icon Gérard Depardieu in the lead—Depardieu's first English-language role—and paired him with American actress Andie MacDowell. "Green Card" was a box-office hit but was regarded as less of a critical success, although it helped Depardieu's path to international fame. Weir received an Oscar nomination for his original screenplay.


title: Peter Weir

text: "Fearless" (1993) returned to darker themes and starred Jeff Bridges as a man who believes he has become invincible after surviving a catastrophic air crash. Though well reviewed, particularly the performances of Bridges and Rosie Perez—who received an Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actress—the film was less commercially successful than Weir's two preceding films. It was entered into the 44th Berlin International Film Festival.


title: Peter Weir

text: After five years, Weir returned to direct his biggest success to date, "The Truman Show" (1998), a fantasy-satire of the media's control of life. "The Truman Show" was both a box office and a critical success, receiving positive reviews and numerous awards, including three Academy Award nominations: Andrew Niccol for Best Original Screenplay, Ed Harris for Best Actor in a Supporting Role, and Weir himself for Best Director. In addition to the Academy Award nominations, the film won the 1999 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation.


title: Peter Weir

text: In 2003, Weir returned to period drama with "", starring Russell Crowe. A screen adaptation from various episodes in Patrick O'Brian's blockbuster adventure series set during the Napoleonic Wars, it was well received by critics, but only mildly successful with mainstream audiences. Despite another nomination for Best Picture and —for frequent collaborator Russell Boyd's cinematography and for sound effects editing—the film's box office success was moderate ($93 million at the North American box office). The film grossed slightly better overseas, gleaning an additional $114 million.


title: Peter Weir

text: Weir wrote and directed his next film, "The Way Back" (2010), a historical epic about escapees from a Soviet gulag, which was generally well received critically but not a financial success.


title: Peter Weir

text: Following "The Way Back", Weir did not work on any more projects. As years passed, without an official announcement, he started to be described as "retired". Speaking in 2022, speculating about Weir's unannounced retirement, Ethan Hawke said, "I think [Weir] lost interest in movies. He really enjoyed that work when he didn't have actors giving him a hard time. Russell Crowe and Johnny Depp broke him."


title: Peter Weir

text: On 14 June 1982, Weir was appointed a Member of the Order of Australia (AM) for his service to the film industry.


title: Kvass

text: Kvass is a fermented cereal-based low alcoholic beverage with a slightly cloudy appearance, light-brown colour and sweet-sour taste. It may be flavoured with berries, fruits, herbs or honey.


title: Kvass

text: Kvass stems from the northeastern part of Europe, where the grain production is thought to have been insufficient for beer to become a daily drink. The first written mention of kvass is found in the "Primary Chronicle", describing the celebration of Vladimir the Great's baptism in 996. In the traditional method, kvass is made from a mash obtained from rye bread or rye flour and malt soaked in hot water, fermented for about 12 hours with the help of sugar and bread yeast or baker's yeast at a room temperature. In industrial methods, kvass is produced from wort concentrate combined with various grain mixtures. It is a popular drink in Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Baltic countries, Finland and some parts of China.


title: Kvass

text: The word "kvass" is ultimately from Proto-Indo-European base *"kwh₂et-" ('to become sour'). In English it was first mentioned in a text around 1553 as "quass". Nowadays, the name of the drink is almost the same in most languages: in Belarusian: , '; Russian: , '; Ukrainian: , ; in Polish: ' (, to differentiate it from "kwas", 'acid', originally from "kwaśny", 'sour'); Latvian: '; Romanian: '; Hungarian: '; Serbian: '; Chinese: , ; Eastern Finnish: '. Non-cognates include Estonian ', Finnish ', Latvian ' (), Latgalian dzyra (, similar to Lithuanian "gira"), Lithuanian ' (, similar to Latvian '), and Swedish ' ().


title: Kvass

text: In the traditional method, either dried rye bread or a combination of rye flour and rye malt is used. The dried rye bread is extracted with hot water and incubated for 12 hours at room temperature, after which bread yeast and sugar is added to the extract and fermented for 12 hours at . Alternatively, rye flour is boiled, mixed with rye malt, bread yeast, sugar, and baker's yeast and then fermented for 12 hours at .


title: Kvass

text: In the simplest industrial method, kvass is produced from a wort concentrate. The concentrate is warmed up and mixed with a water and sugar solution to create wort with a sugar concentration of 5–7% and pasteurized to stabilize it. After that, the wort is pumped into a fermentation tank, where baker's yeast and lactic acid bacteria culture is added and the solution is fermented for 12–24 hours at . Only around 1% of the extract is fermented out into ethanol, carbon dioxide and lactic acid. Afterwards, the kvass is cooled to , clarified through either filtration or centrifugation, and adjusted for sugar content, if necessary.


title: Kvass

text: Initially, it was filled in large containers, from which the kvass was sold on streets, but nowadays the vast majority of industrially produced kvass is filled and sold in 1–3-litre plastic bottles, and has a shelf life of 4–6 weeks.


title: Kvass

text: The exact origins of kvass are unclear and whether it was invented by Slavic people or any other Eastern European ethnicity is unknown, although some Polish sources claim that kvass was invented by Slavs. Kvass has existed in the northeastern part of Europe, where the grain production is thought to have been insufficient for beer to become a daily drink. It has been known among the Early Slavs since the 10th century. The first written mention of kvass is found in the "Primary Chronicle", describing the celebration of Vladimir the Great's baptism in 996 when kvass along with mead and food was given out to the citizens of Kyiv. Kvass making remained a daily household activity well into the 19th century.


title: Kvass

text: In the second half of the 19th century, with military engagement, increasing industrialization and large-scale projects, such as the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, created a growing need to supply large numbers of people with foodstuff for extended periods of time, commercial kvass producers began appearing in the Russian Empire. Many of them specialised in the use of different raw ingredients and more than 150 kvass varieties, such as apple, pear, mint, lemon, chicory, raspberry and cherry kvass, are recorded. As commercial kvass producers began selling it in barrels on the streets, domestic kvass making started to decline. For example, in the year ended 30 June 1912, there were 17 factories in the Governorate of Livonia producing a total of 437,255 gallons of kvass.


title: Kvass

text: In the 1890s, the first scientific studies into the production of kvass were conducted in Kyiv, and in the 1960s, commercial mass production technology of kvass was further developed by chemists in Moscow.


title: Kvass

text: Possibly invented in the Kievan Rus' and known there since at least the 10th century, kvass later became a national beverage of Russia and Ukraine in the 16th century.


title: Kvass

text: Although the massive flood of western soft drinks after the fall of the USSR such as Coca-Cola and Pepsi substantially shrank the market share of kvass in Russia, in recent years it has regained its original popularity, often marketed as a national soft drink or "patriotic" alternative to cola. For example, the Russian company Nikola has promoted its brand of kvass with an advertising campaign emphasizing "anti cola-nisation." Moscow-based Business Analytica reported in 2008 that bottled kvass sales had tripled since 2005 and estimated that per-capita consumption of kvass in Russia would reach three litres in 2008. Between 2005 and 2007, cola's share of the Moscow soft drink market fell from 37% to 32%. Meanwhile, kvass' share more than doubled over the same time period, reaching 16% in 2007. In response, Coca-Cola launched its own brand of kvass in May 2008. This is the first time a foreign company has made an appreciable entrance into the Russian kvass market. Pepsi has also signed an agreement with a Russian kvass manufacturer to act as a distribution agent. The development of new technologies for storage and distribution, and heavy advertising, have contributed to this surge in popularity; three new major brands have been introduced since 2004.


title: Kvass

text: Belarus has several breweries producing kvass: Alivaria Brewery, , and . It also has a variety of kvass tasting and entertainment festivals. The largest show takes place in the city of Lida. Numerous Ukrainian brands of kvass are also sold on the Polish market.


title: Kvass

text: Kvass may have appeared in Poland as early as the 10th century, it quickly became a very popular beverage thanks to it easy and cheap method of production as well as its thirst-quenching and digestion-aiding qualities. By the time of Władysław II Jagiełło's rule kvass was universal. It was at first commonly drunk by peasants in the eastern parts of the country, but eventually the drink spread to the szlachta. One example of this is "kwas chlebowy sapieżyński kodeński", an old type of Polish kvass that is still sold as a contemporary brand. Its origins can be traced back to the 1500s, when founded the town of Kodeń on land granted by the Polish king. He then bought the mills and 24 villages of the surrounding areas from their previous landowners. It was then that the taste of kvass became known among the Polish szlachta, who used it for its supposed healing qualities. Throughout the 19th century, kvass remained popular among Poles who lived in the Congress Poland of Imperial Russia and in Austrian Galicia, especially the inhabitants of rural areas. Up until the 19th century, recipes for local variants of kvass remained well-guarded secrets of families, religious orders, and monasteries.


title: Kvass

text: Production of the beverage in Poland on an industrial scale can be traced back to the more recent interwar period, when the Polish state regained independence as the Second Polish Republic. In interwar Poland, kvass was brewed and sold in mass numbers by magnates of the Polish drinks market like the Varsovian brewery Haberbusch i Schiele or the "Karpiński" company. Kvass remained particularly popular in eastern Poland. However, with the collapse of many prewar businesses and much of the Polish industry during World War II, kvass lost popularity following the aftermath of the war. It also gradually lost favour throughout the 20th century upon the introduction of mass-produced soft drinks and carbonated water onto the Polish market. In the early 21st century kvass experienced a renaissance in Poland due to the heightened interest in healthy diets, natural products, and traditions.


title: Kvass

text: Kvass can be found in some supermarkets and grocery stores where it is known in Polish as "kwas chlebowy" (). Commercial bottled versions of the drink are the most common variant, as there are companies that specialise in manufacturing a more modern version of the drink (some variants are manufactured in Poland whilst others are imported from its neighbouring countries, Lithuania and Ukraine being the most popular source). However, old recipes for a traditional version of kvass exist; some of them originate from eastern Poland, others from more central regions include adding honey for flavour. Although commercial kvass is much easier to find in Polish shops, Polish manufacturers of more natural and healthier variants of kvass have become increasingly popular both within and outside of the country's borders. A less healthy alternative of quick to make variants using kvass concentrate can also be purchased in shops. One colloquial Polish name for "kwas chlebowy" is "wiejska oranżada" ("rural orangeade"). In some Polish villages, such as Zaława and its surroundings, kvass was traditionally produced on every farm.


title: Kvass

text: In Latvian, kvass was also called "dzersis". After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the street vendors disappeared from the streets of Latvia due to new health laws that banned its sale on the street, and economic disruptions forced many kvass factories to close. The Coca-Cola Company moved in and began to quickly dominate the market for soft drinks. In 1998, the local soft drink industry adapted by starting to sell bottled kvass and launching aggressive marketing campaigns. This surge in sales was stimulated by the fact that kvass sold for about half the price of Coca-Cola. In just three years, kvass constituted as much as 30% of the soft drink market in Latvia, while the market share of Coca-Cola fell from 65% to 44%. The Coca-Cola Company had losses in Latvia of about $1 million in 1999 and 2000. Coca-Cola responded by purchasing kvass manufacturers as well as producing kvass at their own soft drink plants.


title: Kvass

text: On 30 September 2010, the Saeima adopted quality and classification requirements for kvass, defining it as "a beverage obtained by fermenting a mixture of kvass wort with a yeast of microorganism cultures to which sugar and other food sources and food additives are added or not added after the fermentation" with a maximum ABV of 1.2 percent, and differentiating it from an unfermented non-alcoholic mixture of grain product extract, water, flavourings, preservatives, and other ingredients, which is designated as a "kvass (malt) beverage".


title: Kvass

text: In 2014 Latvian kvass producers won seven medals at the Russian Beverage exposition in Moscow with Ilgezeem's "Porter Tanheiser" kvass winning two gold medals. In 2019, "Iļģuciema kvass" ranked second in the Most Loved Latvian Beverage Brand Top, and first in the subsequent 2020 top.


title: Kvass

text: In Lithuania, kvass is known as "gira" and is widely available in bottles and draft. First written records of kvass and kvass recipes in Lithuania appear in the 16th century. Many restaurants in Vilnius make their own kvass', which they sell on the premises. Some brands of mass-produced Lithuanian kvass are also sold on the Polish market. Strictly speaking, "gira" can be made from anything fermentable—such as caraway tea, beetroot juice, or berries—but it is made mainly from black bread, or from barley or rye malt.


title: Kvass

text: In Estonia, kvass is known as "kali". Initially, it was made from either brewer's spent grain or wort left to ferment in a closed container, but later special kvass bread ("kaljaleib") or industrially produced malt concentrate was started to be used. Nowadays, "kali" generally is industrially produced with the use of pasteurization, the addition of preservatives and artificial carbonation.


title: Kvass

text: In Finland, a fermented drink made from a mixture of rye flour and rye malt, which in parts of Eastern Finland was heated in the oven, was very common. It was called "kalja" (which can also be used to refer to small beer) or "vaasa" (in Eastern Finnish), while nowadays the drink is often known as "kotikalja" () and is available in many work canteens, gas stations, and lower-end restaurants.


title: Kvass

text: Traditionally, "kalja" was usually made in households once a week from a mixture of malted and unmalted rye grains. Other grains, such as oats or barley, were also sometimes used and, occasionally, leftover potatoes or pieces of bread were added as well. Everything was mixed with water in a metal cauldron or a clay pot and kept warm in the oven or by the stove for at least six hours for the mixture to darken and sweeten. Sometimes, the grain solids were filtered out through lautering. In Eastern Finland, the mixture was formed into large loaves and briefly baked for the crust to turn brown. The porridge or pieces of the malt bread were mixed into a wooden cask with water and fermented for one or two days with a previous batch, a sourdough starter, spontaneously or in more recent times with commercial baker's yeast. In the early 20th century, with sugar becoming more readily available, it started replacing the malting process and modern "kalja" is made from dark rye malt, sugar and baker's yeast.


title: Kvass

text: Kvass was also made in Sweden, where it was known as ' (), although it was very likely limited only to areas where rye bread was the standard bread as opposed to crispbread, which was more common in Western Sweden and did not stale. ' was still being made in Öland farms up until 1935.


title: Kvass

text: In mid 19th century, kvass was introduced in Xinjiang, where it became known as "kavas" and eventually became one of the region's signature drinks. It is usually consumed cold together with barbecue. In 1900, Russian merchant Ivan Churin founded Harbin Churin Food in Heilongjiang, offering kvass and other specialties and by 2009 the company was already producing 5,000 tons of kvass a year making up 90% of the local market. In 2011, it moved its kvass factory to Tianjin increasing its sales to 20,000 tons in the first year.


title: Kvass

text: In the UK, following the influx of immigrants due to the 2004 enlargement of the European Union, a number of stores selling cuisine and beverages from Eastern Europe were established, many of them stock kvass. In 2019, kvass began being produced domestically in the United Kingdom. In recent years, kvass has also become more popular in Serbia.


title: Kvass

text: Naturally fermented kvass contains 5.9%±0.02 carbohydrates, of which 5.7%±0.02 are sugars (mostly fructose, glucose and maltose), as well as 0.71±0.09, 1.28±0.12, and 18.14±0.48 mg/100 g of thiamine, riboflavin and niacin respectively. In addition to that, 19 different aroma volatile compounds have also been identified in naturally fermented kvass, most notably 4-penten-2-ol (10.05×10 PAU), which has a fruity odour, carvone (2.28×10 PAU) originating from caraway fruits used as an ingredient in rye bread, and ethyl octanoate (1.03×10 PAU), which has an odour of fruit and fat.


title: Kvass

text: Traditional kvass made from rye wholemeal bread has been found to have on average two times higher dietary fibre content, 60% higher antioxidant activity (due to the addition of caramel and citric acid to the bread) and three times lower reducing sugar content than industrially produced kvass.


title: Kvass

text: Historically, alcohol by volume (ABV) of kvass varied depending on the ingredients, microbial flora, as well as temperature and length of fermentation, but nowadays it is usually not higher than 1.5%. The wide availability and consumption of kvass, including by children of all ages, together with the lacking indication of ABV for kvass on the labels and in advertisements has been named a possible contributor to chronic alcoholism in the former Soviet Union.


title: Kvass

text: Apart from drinking, kvass is also used by families (especially the poor ones) as the basis for many dishes. Traditional cold summertime soups of Russian cuisine, such as okroshka, botvinya and tyurya, are based on kvass.


title: Kvass

text: There is a Russian expression "Перебиваться с хлеба на квас" (literally "to clamber from bread to kvass"), which means "to live from hand to mouth" or to "scrape by" referring to the frugal practice amongst the poor peasants of making kvass from stale leftovers of rye bread. Another kvass-related term in Russian is "" (квасной патриотизм) dating back to a 1823 letter by the Russian poet Pyotr Vyazemsky, where he defines it as "unqualified praise of everything that is your own".


title: Kvass

text: In the Polish language, a number of traditional sayings that reference "kwas chlebowy" exist. There is also an old Polish folk rhyming song. It shows the history of kvass in the country as having been drunk by generations of Polish reapers as a thirst-quenching beverage used during periods of hard work during the harvest season, long before it became popular as a medicinal drink among the szlachta. The words of the song go as follows:


title: Kvass

text: In the Polish village of Zaława, there is a customary game known as "wulkan" ("volcano") that is associated with the beverage. The fermentation of sugars makes kvass slightly carbonated, thus when shaken or heated it can cause the liquid to suddenly and rapidly rise out of an open vessel. Playing "wulkan" consists of vigorously shaking a bottle of kvass shortly before handing it to someone else who is going to drink it; the sudden "shooting out" of the beverage onto the person opening the bottle is a source of entertainment for the youth of Zaława and a well-known prank during regional fesitivities.


title: Kvass

text: In Tolstoy's "War and Peace", French soldiers are aware of kvass on entering Moscow, enjoying it but referring to it as "pig's lemonade". In Sholem Aleichem's "Motl, Peysi the Cantor's Son", diluted kvass is the focus of one of Motl's older brother's get-rich-quick schemes.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: Messianic Judaism ( or , ) is a modernist and syncretic movement of Protestant Christianity that incorporates some elements of Judaism and other Jewish traditions into evangelicalism.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: It emerged in the 1960s and 1970s from the earlier Hebrew Christian movement, and was most prominently propelled through the non-profit organization "Jews for Jesus" founded in 1973 by Martin "Moishe" Rosen, an American minister under the Conservative Baptist Association.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: Evangelical Protestants who identify as Messianic Jews believe that Jesus (referred to by the Hebrew-language name among adherents) is the Jewish Messiah prophesied in the Hebrew Bible, and that the Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament) and the New Testament are the authoritative scriptures of mankind. Salvation in Messianic Judaism is achieved only through the acceptance of Jesus as one's saviour, and not through adherence to Jewish rabbinical law. Belief in Jesus as a messianic figure and as divine (i.e. God the Son) is considered by Jews to be one of the most defining distinctions between Judaism and Christianity.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: Among other evangelical groups, Messianic Judaism is usually accepted as a form of Christianity. However, adherents of Messianic Judaism believe that the movement is instead a form of Judaism. In the Hebrew language, they tend to identify themselves with the terms (, ) and (, ) in opposition to being identified as (, ). Jewish organizations inside and outside of Israel reject this framing; the Supreme Court of Israel has also rejected this claim in cases related to the Israeli Law of Return, and Messianic Judaism is recognized only as a Christian movement in the country. In this context, there is discourse among scholars as to whether Messianic Judaism should be labeled a Jewish or Christian religious sect.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: From 2003 to 2007, the movement grew from 150 Messianic houses of worship in the United States to as many as 438, with over 100 in Israel and more worldwide; congregations are often affiliated with larger Messianic organizations or alliances. , Messianic population estimates were between 175,000 and 250,000 members in the United States, between 10,000 and 20,000 members in Israel, and an estimated total worldwide membership of 350,000.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: Efforts by Jewish Christians to proselytize to Jews began in the 1st century, when Paul the Apostle preached at the synagogues in each city that he visited. However, by the 4th century CE, non-biblical accounts of missions to the Jews do not mention converted Jews playing any leading role in proselytization. Notable converts from Judaism who attempted to convert other Jews are more visible in historical sources beginning around the 13th century, when Jewish convert Pablo Christiani attempted to convert other Jews. This activity, however, typically lacked any independent Jewish-Christian congregations, and was often imposed through force by organized Christian churches.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: In the 19th century, some groups attempted to create congregations and societies of Jewish converts to Christianity, though most of these early organizations were short-lived. Early formal organizations run by converted Jews include: the Anglican London Society for promoting Christianity among the Jews of Joseph Frey (1809), which published the first Yiddish New Testament in 1821; the "Beni Abraham" association, established by Frey in 1813 with a group of 41 Jewish Christians who started meeting at Jews' Chapel, London for prayers Friday night and Sunday morning; and the London Hebrew Christian Alliance of Great Britain founded by Dr. Carl Schwartz in 1866.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: The September 1813 meeting of Frey's "Beni Abraham" congregation at the rented "Jews' Chapel" in Spitalfields is sometimes pointed to as the birth of the semi-autonomous Hebrew Christian movement within Anglican and other established churches in Britain. However, the minister of the chapel at Spitalfields evicted Frey and his congregation three years later, and Frey severed his connections with the Society. A new location was found and the Episcopal Jew's Chapel Abrahamic Society registered in 1835.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: In Eastern Europe, Joseph Rabinowitz established a Hebrew Christian mission and congregation called "Israelites of the New Covenant" in Kishinev, Bessarabia, in 1884. Rabinowitz was supported from overseas by the Christian Hebraist Franz Delitzsch, translator of the first modern Hebrew translation of the New Testament. In 1865, Rabinowitz created a sample order of worship for Sabbath morning service based on a mixture of Jewish and Christian elements. Mark John Levy pressed the Church of England to allow members to embrace Jewish customs.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: In the United States, a congregation of Jewish converts to Christianity was established in New York City in 1885. In the 1890s, immigrant Jewish converts to Christianity worshiped at the Methodist "Hope of Israel" mission on New York's Lower East Side while retaining some Jewish rites and customs. In 1895, the 9th edition of Hope of Israel's "Our Hope" magazine carried the subtitle "A Monthly Devoted to the Study of Prophecy and to Messianic Judaism", the first use of the term "Messianic Judaism". In 1894, Christian missionary Leopold Cohn, a convert from Judaism, founded the Brownsville Mission to the Jews in the Brownsville section of Brooklyn, New York as a Christian mission to Jews. After several changes in name, structure, and focus, the organization is now called Chosen People Ministries.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: Missions to the Jews saw a period of growth between the 1920s and the 1960s. In the 1940s and 1950s, missionaries in Israel, including the Southern Baptists, adopted the term (, "messianics") to counter negative connotations of the word (, "Christians"). The term was used to designate all Jews who had converted to Protestant Evangelical Christianity.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: The Messianic Jewish movement emerged in the United States in the 1960s. Prior to this time, Jewish converts assimilated into gentile Christianity, as the church required abandoning their Jewishness and assuming gentile ways to receive baptism. Peter Hocken postulates that the Jesus movement which swept the nation in the 1960s triggered a change from Hebrew Christians to Messianic Jews, and was a distinctly charismatic movement. These Jews wanted to "stay Jewish while believing in Jesus". This impulse was amplified by the results of the Six-Day War and the restoration of Jerusalem to Jewish control.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: In 2004, there were 300 Messianic congregations in the United States, with roughly half of all attendants being gentiles, and roughly one third of all congregations consisting of 30 or fewer members. Many of these congregations belong to the International Association of Messianic Congregations and Synagogues (IAMCS), the Union of Messianic Congregations (UMJC), or Tikkun International.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: The Messianic Jewish Alliance of America (MJAA) began in 1915 as the Hebrew Christian Alliance of America (HCAA). As the idea of maintaining Jewish identity spread in the late 1960s, the Hebrew Christian Alliance of America (HCAA) changed its name to the Messianic Jewish Alliance of America (MJAA). David Rausch writes that the change "signified far more than a semantical expression—it represented an evolution in the thought processes and religious and philosophical outlook toward a more fervent expression of Jewish identity." The MJAA was and still is an organization of individual Jewish members. In 1986, the MJAA formed a congregational branch called the International Alliance of Messianic Congregations and Synagogues (IAMCS).


title: Messianic Judaism

text: In June 1979, 19 congregations in North America met at Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania and formed the Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations (UMJC). In 2022, it would have 75 congregations in 8 countries.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: In 2016, Douglas Hamp founded The Way Congregation near Denver, CO. with the concept of recognizing fundamentalist Christian beliefs and yet embracing One Law Theology, Two House Theology (see sections below), and Commonwealth Theology. Their website states the fellowship was founded "to serve as a bridge between the Jews and the gentile Church." Non-Jewish congregants are not encouraged to convert to Judaism and Jewish attendants are encouraged to celebrate their Jewish heritage. Hamp blames the heretic Marcion for mainstream Christianity's juxtaposition of Law and Grace. On the other hand, the Congregation meets on the Sabbath, celebrates the Feasts, and teaches conformance to the Dietary Laws given through Moses.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: The Messianic Seal of Jerusalem is a symbol used by Messianic Judaism. The symbol is a depiction of the Temple Menorah, an ancient Jewish symbol, together with the Ichthys, an ancient depictive representation of Christian faith and the community of Jesus followers, creating a Star of David at the intersection. The Messianic Seal is not the only symbol of Messianic Judaism, which has other symbols such the cross in the Star of David, and the dolphin.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: There is an ongoing dispute as to whether or not the seal dates from the 1st century CE, or if it is a 20th-century invention.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: As with many religious faiths, the exact tenets held vary from congregation to congregation. In general, essential doctrines of Messianic Judaism include views on:


title: Messianic Judaism

text: Certain additional doctrines are more open to differences in interpretation, including those on sin and atonement and on faith and works.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: Many Messianic Jews affirm the doctrine of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit as three representations of the same divinity.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: Both the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament are usually considered to be the established and divinely inspired biblical scriptures by Messianic Jews. With a few exceptions, Messianic believers generally consider the written Torah, the five books of Moses, to remain in force as a continuing covenant, revised by Jesus and the Apostles in the New Testament, that is to be observed both morally and ritually. Jesus did not annul the Torah, but its interpretation is revised through the Apostolic scriptures.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: There is no unanimity among Messianic congregations on the issue of the Talmud and the Oral Torah. There are congregations which believe that adherence to the Oral Law, as encompassed by the Talmud, is against Messianic beliefs. Similarly, there are congregations which deny the authority of the Pharisees, believing that they were superseded, and their teachings contradicted, by Messianism. There are adherents which call rabbinic commentaries such as the Mishnah and the Talmud "dangerous", and state that followers of rabbinic and halakhic explanations and commentaries are not believers in Jesus as the Messiah. Other congregations are selective in their applications of Talmudic law, and may believe that the rabbinic commentaries such as the Mishnah and the Talmud, while historically informative and useful in understanding tradition, are not normative and may not be followed where they differ from the New Testament. Still others encourage a serious observance of Jewish halakha.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: Messianic Jews generally consider the entire Christian Bible to be sacred scripture. Theologian David H. Stern in his "Jewish New Testament Commentary" argues that the writings and teachings of Paul the Apostle are fully congruent with Messianic Judaism, and that the New Testament is to be taken by Messianic Jews as the inspired Word of God.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: There are a number of Messianic commentaries on various books of the Bible, both Tanakh and New Testament texts, such as Matthew, Acts, Romans, Galatians, and Hebrews. David H. Stern has released a one-volume Jewish New Testament Commentary, providing explanatory notes from a Messianic Jewish point of view. Other New Testament commentary authors include Arnold Fruchtenbaum of Ariel Ministries, who has written commentaries on the Epistles, Judges and Ruth, Genesis, and 7 systematic doctrinal studies.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: Some Messianic believers define sin as transgression of the Law of God and include the concept of original sin. Some adherents atone for their sins through prayer and repentance – the acknowledgment of the wrongdoing and seeking forgiveness for their sins (especially on Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement). Disagreeing with these rites and practices, other Messianics hold to a belief that all sin (whether committed yet or not) is already atoned for because of Jesus's death and resurrection.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: Messianic Jews believe God's people have a responsibility to spread his name and fame to all nations. It is believed that the Children of Israel were, remain, and will continue to be the chosen people of the God, and are central to his plans for existence. Most Messianic believers, whether Jewish or non-Jewish, can be said to oppose supersessionism (popularly referred to as replacement theology), the view that the Church has replaced Israel in the mind and plans of God.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: There exist among Messianic believers a number of perspectives regarding who exactly makes up God's chosen people. Most commonly, Israel is seen as distinct from the church; Messianic Jews, being a part of both Israel and the church, are seen as the necessary link between the gentile people of God and the commonwealth of God's people of Israel. The two-house view, and the one law/grafted-in view are held by many identifying as Messianic, although some Messianic groups do not espouse these theologies. According to certain branches of Messianic Judaism, Jews are individuals who have one or more Jewish parents, or who have undergone halakhic conversion to Judaism. Others consider as Jewish any person who professes a belief in Jesus.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: One Law theology (also known as "One Torah for All") teaches that anyone who is a part of Israel is obligated to observe the Covenant and its provisions as outlined in the Torah. Dan Juster of Tikkun, and Russ Resnik of the UMJC, have argued against the One Law movement's insistence on gentiles being required to observe the entirety of Torah in the same way as Jews. Tim Hegg responded to their article defending what he believes to be the biblical teaching of "One Law" theology and its implications concerning the obligations of Torah obedience by new Messianic believers from the nations. The Coalition of Torah Observant Messianic Congregations (CTOMC) likewise rejects bi-lateral Ecclesiology in favor of the One Torah for All (One Law) position.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: Proponents of Two House theology espouse their belief that the phrase "House of Judah" in scripture refers to Jews, while "the House of Israel" refers to the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel, or Ephraim. Where scripture states the House of Israel and Judah will again be "one stick" (), it is believed to be referring to the End Times, immediately prior to the Second Coming, when many of those descended from Israel will come back to Israel. Advocates of this theology postulate that the reason so many gentiles convert to Messianic Judaism is that the vast majority of them are truly Israelites. Like One Law groups, the Two House movement has many superficial similarities to Messianic Judaism, such as their belief in the ongoing validity of the Mosaic Covenant. While much of the Two House teaching is based on interpretations of Biblical prophecy, the biggest disagreements are due to inability to identify the genealogy of the Lost Tribes. Organizations such as the Messianic Jewish Alliance of America and Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations have explicitly opposed the Two House teaching.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: Historically, Christianity has taught supersessionism (replacement theology), which implies or outright states that Christianity has superseded Judaism, and that the Mosaic Covenant of the Hebrew Bible has been superseded by the New Covenant of Jesus, wherein salvation is brought about by the grace of God, and not by obedience to the Torah. This is generally complemented with the concept of God having transferred the status of "God's people" from the Jews to the Christian Church. Messianic Jews, in varying degrees, challenge both thoughts, and instead believing that although Israel has rejected Jesus, it has not forfeited its status as God's chosen people. Often cited is Romans 11:29: "for God's gifts and his call are irrevocable". The core of supersessionism, in which the Mosaic Covenant is canceled, is less agreed upon. Though the mitzvot may or may not be seen as necessary, most are still followed, especially the keeping of Shabbat and other holy days.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: All Messianic Jews hold to certain eschatological beliefs such as the End of Days, the Second Coming of Jesus as the conquering Messiah, the re-gathering of Israel, a rebuilt Third Temple, a resurrection of the dead, and many believe in the Millennial Sabbath, although some are Amillenialist. Some Messianic Jews believe that all of the Jewish holidays, and indeed the entire Torah, intrinsically hint at the Messiah, and thus no study of the End Times is complete without understanding the major Jewish Festivals in their larger prophetic context. To certain believers, the feasts of Pesach and Shavuot were fulfilled in Jesus's first coming, and Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, and Sukkot will be at his second. Some also believe in a literal 7000-year period for the human history of the world, with a Millennial Messianic kingdom prior to a final judgment.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: There is a variety of practice within Messianic Judaism regarding the strictness of Torah observance. Generally, Torah observant congregations observe Jewish prayers, biblical feasts, and the Sabbath. While most traditional Christians deny that the ritual laws and specific civil laws of the Torah apply to gentiles, certain passages regarding Torah observance in the New Testament are cited by some Messianic believers as proof that the Torah was not abolished for Jews. They point out that in Acts 21:17–36, Jewish believers in Jerusalem are described as "zealous for the Law".


title: Messianic Judaism

text: Some Messianic Jews observe Shabbat on Saturdays. Worship services are generally held on Friday evenings () or Saturday mornings. According to the Southern Baptist Messianic Fellowship (SBMF), services are held on Saturday to "open the doors to Jewish people who also wish to keep the Sabbath". The liturgy used is similar to that of a Jewish with some important differences including the omission of "salvation by works" as the Messianic belief is salvation through Jesus. Other branches of the movement have attempted to "eliminate the elements of Christian worship [such as frequent communion] that cannot be directly linked to their Jewish roots". Almost all such congregations in Israel observe Jewish holidays, which they understand to have their fulfillment in Jesus."


title: Messianic Judaism

text: The Messianic Jewish Rabbinical Council recommends the observance of Jewish holidays. Most larger Messianic Jewish congregations follow Jewish custom in celebrating the three biblical feasts (Pesach, Shavuot, and Sukkot), as well as Yom Kippur and Rosh Hashanah.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: The observance of the dietary laws is a subject of continued debate among Messianic Jews. Some Messianic believers keep kosher purely for the purposes of evangelism to Jewish people. Most avoid pork and shellfish, but there is disagreement on more strict adherence to kosher dietary laws.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: Large numbers of those calling themselves Messianic Jews are not of Jewish descent, but join the movement as they "enjoy the Messianic Jewish style of worship". Messianic perspectives on "Who is a Jew?" vary. The Messianic Jewish Rabbinical Council, acknowledges a Jew as one born to a Jewish mother, or who has converted to Judaism. Copying from the Reform stream of Judaism, the Council also recognizes as a Jew one who was born to a Jewish father but not a Jewish mother on the condition that the family of the child, or the individual as an adult, has undertaken public and formal acts of identification of the individual with the Jewish faith and people. The MJAA accepts gentiles into their congregations, but views gentiles and Jews as spiritually distinct and conversion as an "unbiblical practice".


title: Messianic Judaism

text: Messianic Jews practice baptism, calling it a ("cistern", from Leviticus 11) rather than the term ("baptism" () in the Hebrew New Testament).


title: Messianic Judaism

text: Some within the Ephraimite movement seek to convert themselves for identification with Israel, but most Messianic governing bodies acknowledge the presence of gentiles in the congregations, and do not see a need for them to convert to worship in the Messianic style and understanding. When conversion is sincerely desired by a gentile Messianic believer, Messianic Jewish halachic standards (including circumcision) are imposed to maintain integrity among the world Messianic Jewish community.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: The movement generally avoids common Christian terms, such as Jesus, Christ, or cross and prefers to use Hebrew or Aramaic terms.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: Messianic Jewish hymns differ from evangelical Christian ones in their focus on Israel's role in history and messianic hope. Other differences include reference to Jesus—usually using the name —as the "Savior of Israel". Messianic hymnals often incorporate Israeli songs. The movement has several recording artists who consider their music to be Messianic in message, such as Joel Chernoff of the duo Lamb, Ted Pearce, and Chuck King.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: In the United States, the emergence of the Messianic Jewish movement created some stresses with other Jewish-Christian and missionary organization. In 1975, the Fellowship of Christian Testimonies to the Jews condemned several aspects of the Messianic Jewish movement.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: In Israel, the linguistic distinction between Messianic Jews and mainstream Christians is less clear, and the name (, 'messianic') is commonly used by churches in lieu of (, 'Christian'). The Israel Trust of the Anglican Church, based at Christ Church, Jerusalem, an organization that is ecumenical in outlook and operates an interfaith school in Jerusalem, gives some social support to Messianic Jews in Israel.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: As in traditional Jewish objections to Christian theology, opponents of Messianic Judaism hold that Christian proof texts, such as prophecies in the Hebrew Bible purported to refer the Messiah's suffering and death, have been taken out of context and misinterpreted. Jewish theology rejects the idea that the Messiah, or any human being, is a divinity. Belief in the Trinity is considered idolatrous by most rabbinic authorities. Even if considered (literally, "partnership")—an association of other individuals with the God of Israel—this is only permitted for gentiles, and that only according to some rabbinic opinions. It is universally considered idolatrous for Jews. Further, Judaism does not view the role of the Messiah to be the salvation of the world from its sins, an integral teaching of Christianity and Messianic Judaism.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: Jewish opponents of Messianic Judaism often focus their criticism on the movement's radical ideological separation from traditional Jewish beliefs, stating that the acceptance of Jesus as Messiah creates an insuperable divide between the traditional messianic expectations of Judaism, and Christianity's theological claims. They state that while Judaism is a messianic religion, its messiah is not Jesus, and thus the term is misleading. All denominations of Judaism, as well as national Jewish organizations, reject Messianic Judaism as a form of Judaism. Regarding this divide, Reconstructionist Rabbi Carol Harris-Shapiro observed: "To embrace the radioactive core of goyishness—Jesus—violates the final taboo of Jewishness.[…] Belief in Jesus as Messiah is not simply a heretical belief, as it may have been in the first century; it has become the equivalent to an act of ethno-cultural suicide."


title: Messianic Judaism

text: B'nai Brith Canada considers Messianic activities as antisemitic incidents. Rabbi Tovia Singer, founder of the anti-missionary organization Outreach Judaism, noted of a Messianic rabbi in Toledo: "He's not running a Jewish synagogue.[…] It's a church designed to appear as if it were a synagogue and I'm there to expose him. What these irresponsible extremist Christians do is a form of consumer fraud. They blur the distinctions between Judaism and Christianity in order to lure Jewish people who would otherwise resist a straightforward message."


title: Messianic Judaism

text: Association by a Jewish politician with a Messianic rabbi, inviting him to pray at a public meeting, even though made in error, resulted in nearly universal condemnation by Jewish congregations in Detroit in 2018, as the majority opinion in both Israeli and American Jewish circles is to consider Messianic Judaism as Christianity and its followers as Christians.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: Messianic Jews are considered eligible for the State of Israel's Law of Return only if they can also claim Jewish descent. An assistant to one of the two lawyers involved with an April 2008 Supreme Court of Israel case explained to the Jerusalem Post that Messianic Jews who are not Jewish according to Jewish rabbinic law, but who had sufficient Jewish descent to qualify under the Law of Return, could claim automatic new immigrant status and citizenship despite being Messianic. The state of Israel grants (right of return) and citizenship to Jews, and to those with Jewish parents or grandparents who are not considered Jews according to halakha, such as people who have a Jewish father but a non-Jewish mother. The old law had excluded any "person who has been a Jew and has voluntarily changed his religion", and an Israeli Supreme Court decision in 1989 had ruled that Messianic Judaism constituted another religion. However, on April 16, 2008, the Supreme Court of Israel ruled in a case brought by a number of Messianic Jews with Jewish fathers and grandfathers. Their applications for had been rejected on the grounds that they were Messianic Jews. The argument was made by the applicants that they had never been Jews according to , and were not therefore excluded by the conversion clause. This argument was upheld in the ruling.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: The International Religious Freedom Report 2008, released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor in the US, stated that discrimination against Messianic Jews in Israel was increasing. Some acts of violence have also occurred; in one incident on March 20, 2008, a bomb concealed as a Purim gift basket was delivered to the house of a prominent Messianic Jewish family in Ariel, in the West Bank, which severely wounded the son. Eventually, Yaakov Teitel was arrested for the attempted murder.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: This antagonism has led to harassment and some violence, especially in Israel, where there is a large and militant Orthodox community. Several Orthodox organizations, including Yad L'Achim, are dedicated to rooting out missionary activity in Israel, including the Messianic Jewish congregations. One tactic is to plaster posters asking Israelis to boycott shops where Messianic Jews are owners or employees; another is to report Messianic Jews to the Interior ministry, which is charged with enforcing an Israeli law forbidding proselytizing. In another incident, the mayor of Or Yehuda, a suburb of Tel Aviv, held a public book-burning of literature passed out to Ethiopian immigrants. He later apologized for the action.


title: Messianic Judaism

text: The US Navy made a decision that Messianic Jewish chaplains must wear as their insignia the Christian cross, and not the tablets of the law, the insignia of Jewish chaplains. According to Yeshiva World News, the Navy Uniform Board commanded that Michael Hiles, a candidate for chaplaincy, wear the Christian insignia. Hiles resigned from the program, rather than wear the cross. Rabbi Eric Tokajer, a spokesman for the Messianic Jewish movement, responded that "This decision essentially bars Messianic Jews from serving as chaplains within the U.S. Navy because it would require them to wear an insignia inconsistent with their faith and belief system."


title: Messianic Judaism

text: A Birmingham, Alabama police employee's religious discrimination case was settled in her favor after she filed suit over having to work on the Jewish Sabbath.


title: Mercedes-Benz E-Class (W213)

text: The W213 Mercedes-Benz E-Class is the fifth-generation of the Mercedes-Benz E-Class. Sold from 2016 (as a 2017 model), it is the successor to the W212/S212 E-Class models. The coupe/convertible models share the same platform as the sedan/wagon, in contrast to the previous generation. The high-performance Mercedes-AMG E 63 and E 63 S versions of the W213 have been available as well from 2016 (as a 2017 model), and these are the only versions with V8 engines.


title: Mercedes-Benz E-Class (W213)

text: Since the mid 1990s, the Mercedes-Benz E-Class has been equipped with quad headlights and a differentiated design compared to the C-Class and S-Class. With the 2017 model, Mercedes decided to take a more streamlined direction, first seen with the 2014 E-Class mid-generational refresh and then going in an entirely new direction with the all-new 2017 model.


title: Mercedes-Benz E-Class (W213)

text: Launched in spring 2016 following a world debut at the 2016 North American International Auto Show in January, the 2017 E-Class was the most technologically advanced car Mercedes had ever produced at the time. This current generation of the Mercedes E-Class has won many plaudits from automotive publications, including the 2021 Motor Trend Car of the Year, the first time Mercedes-Benz has ever won this award.


title: Mercedes-Benz E-Class (W213)

text: The whole development process stretched over 48 months. In that time, Mercedes-Benz produced 1,200 prototypes and drove a combined 12 million kilometres in some of the world's toughest conditions, from sub-zero temperatures in the snow through to the world's hottest deserts. In testing the car, Mercedes-Benz also had its prototypes conduct over 10,000 autonomous braking procedures and 5,000 automated lane changes as part of the Distronic suite of semi-autonomous driving features. Moreover, it took 1,200 engineers to make the fifth-generation E-Class.


title: Mercedes-Benz E-Class (W213)

text: After Mercedes-Benz invested close to €1 Billion into the development of the extensive refresh to the 2014 mid-life facelift of W212 E-Class, the W213 E-Class was unveiled at the 2016 North American International Auto Show. The 2017 E-Class has a design similar to that of the larger W222 S-Class and the smaller W205 C-Class. While its predecessor had a tighter surface and harder edges, the 2017 model is curvier and more flowing. An official design sketch was released in late December 2015, which confirmed that the new E-Class mirrors the styling of the C-Class and S-Class. Official photos of the 2017 E-Class were leaked on the internet on 4 January 2016 ahead of its unveiling.


title: Mercedes-Benz E-Class (W213)

text: The W213 was first released in the saloon configuration, which went on sale in the summer 2016. The Estate, offering a similar 695-litre luggage capacity to its predecessor, went to sale towards the end of 2016. A two-door Coupe arrived in 2017, before the Convertible completes the line-up towards the end of 2017. The W213 E-class was deemed one of "Car and Driver's" "10 Best vehicles" in 2019.


title: Mercedes-Benz E-Class (W213)

text: Stylistically, the 2017 E-Class followed the latest C-Class, the GLA, and the S-Class coupé. Its front end features Mercedes’ familiar bullet-shaped headlights and an upright grille, while its rear end gets a pair of LED taillights, with similarities to the 2014 E-Class models, that extend into the quarter panels. As on other recent models, the 2017 E-Class features two distinct front-end treatments: a traditional chrome grille and a more sporting blade grille. The aerodynamic efficiency have been refined as the drag coefficient improved from 0.25 in the previous model to a class-leading 0.23.


title: Mercedes-Benz E-Class (W213)

text: The W213 adopts Mercedes’ modular MRA platform, as used by the contemporary C-Class and S-Class models. The W213 E-Class grew 43 mm in length to . Wheelbase was also extended 65 mm to , resulting in shorter overhangs. It is 2 mm narrower and 6 mm lower than its predecessor. The increased use of high-strength steel and aluminium is claimed to make the car up to 100 kg lighter than the W212 E-Class.


title: Mercedes-Benz E-Class (W213)

text: The W213 E-Class is based on the F800 Style design language, previously used on the larger W222 S-Class (2013) and the smaller W205 C-Class (2014). However, the facelifted W212 (2013) also incorporates several design cues from the F800 Style, thus the two vehicles share several design traits.