title: Waka Flocka Flame

text: In April 2015 Waka Flocka did a collaboration campaign with Rolling Stone magazine in which he pretended to run for president. Although he was 7 years too young to be considered president, the campaign, directed by Sam Lipman Stern of Live from the Streets, went viral and was picked up by dozens of media outlets such as CNN, La Times, Washington Post and many more.


title: Waka Flocka Flame

text: On January 3, 2011, Waka Flocka turned himself in to authorities in Atlanta following a previous raid on his home. He was booked on possession of marijuana, hydrocodone, possession of a firearm by a convicted felon, and violation of probation for driving on a suspended license. On January 5, 2011, he was released after posting bail.


title: Waka Flocka Flame

text: On October 10, 2014, Waka Flocka was arrested at Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport when a security scan turned up a loaded handgun in his luggage. He was released two hours later.


title: Waka Flocka Flame

text: On March 15, 2013, Gucci Mane announced that frequent collaborator and close friend Waka Flocka Flame was "dropped" from 1017 Brick Squad Records. The two rappers proceeded to throw insults back and forth on Twitter. Though it was reported that Gucci's Twitter account was hacked, Waka stated, "Dont let da media fool u. This shit real Shawty." On March 27, 2013, during an MTV Jams interview with Sway Calloway, Waka explained that he would never do music nor business with Gucci ever again. Neither of the rappers have explained where the controversy originated from. Waka has stated, "I guess we both be at the finish line we just going our own routes. That's all I can say. What's the reason? Sometimes it's none of your fuckin' business what's the reason. Just understand two men went they own ways but it's no problem." In October 2013, Waka Flocka released a diss track towards Gucci Mane titled "Ice Cream".


title: Waka Flocka Flame

text: On November 19, 2013, it was revealed Gucci Mane had filed a lawsuit against Waka Flocka Flame, Waka's mother Debra Antney, OJ Da Juiceman, rapper Khia Stone and producer Zaytoven. The lawsuit accuses the parties of fraud, racketeering, and breach of contract. According to Gucci Mane, Waka's mother Antney took control of his 1017 Brick Squad Records, LLC., without permission, and used it to create three separate offshoot labels. Gucci also accused the parties in the lawsuit of withholding royalties and inflating the cost of label expenditures. In his lawsuit, Gucci Mane also says that Antney took more than the typical 20 percent management fee. Gucci Mane also alleges that Antney's actions led to his having money and tax problems.


title: Waka Flocka Flame

text: Waka Flocka Flame would post a tweet on September 20, 2014, to his verified Twitter account that included an old picture of himself and Gucci Mane with the caption "… #NoBeef ", confirming that the two had buried the hatchet.


title: Waka Flocka Flame

text: In a February 2017 BBC Radio interview, Waka Flocka addressed his relationship with Gucci Mane, questioning his former mentor's street credibility and nixing the possibility of a Brick Squad reunion. Several days later, Waka released "Was My Dawg", a diss track aimed at Gucci Mane, with cover art featuring the other rapper's silhouette.


title: Waka Flocka Flame

text: In April 2015, Malphurs announced that he was running for president, despite the fact he was below the constitutionally required age of 35, as he was only 30 by the time of the 2016 United States presidential election. His platform included legalizing marijuana, raising the minimum hourly wage to $15, and creating better trade opportunities for school students. His other proposals included banning dogs from restaurants and making it illegal for people with shoe sizes above 13 to walk on the street. He also seemed to be dismissive of Congress, and had an anti-war stance. Former professional wrestler Ric Flair was his running mate.


title: Waka Flocka Flame

text: Waka Flocka is of African American, Native American, European (including Italian) and Dominican descent.


title: Waka Flocka Flame

text: In December 2013, Waka Flocka's younger brother and fellow rapper KayO Redd committed suicide at his home in Henry County, Georgia. On January 24, 2014, during an interview, Waka Flocka spoke on his brother's passing:


title: Waka Flocka Flame

text: Waka Flocka is a passionate supporter of Atlanta United FC, regularly attending games in Atlanta, traveling to away games, and serving as a team ambassador.


title: Waka Flocka Flame

text: On October 3, 2020, Waka Flocka received an honorary doctorate in philanthropy and humanitarianism from the Bible Institute of America Theological Seminary, credited to his charity and mental health advocacy.


title: Bastard!!

text: Hagiwara is an enthusiastic fan of heavy metal music and "Dungeons & Dragons", using ideas from both of these in the "Bastard!!" story. Many characters and places in the story, for instance, are named after members of Hagiwara's favorite bands.


title: Bastard!!

text: The manga was adapted into a six-episode original video animation (OVA) series by AIC, released from 1992 to 1993. The OVA was released in North America by Pioneer in 1998. An original net animation (ONA) adaptation of the same name, by Liden Films, premiered on Netflix worldwide in June 2022.


title: Bastard!!

text: "Bastard!!" is one of Shueisha's best-selling manga series of all time, with over 30 million copies in circulation.


title: Bastard!!

text: Four centuries ago, Earth suffered a cataclysm caused by the demon Anthrasax before she was slain by the Dragon Knight, plunging the world into a new dark age. In the present, the Kingdom of Metallicana is attacked by the Dark Rebel Army who seek to resurrect Anthrasax. This prompts the high priest to ask his daughter to awaken Dark Schneider, a dark wizard and founding leader of the Dark Rebel Army who reincarnated himself within the body of 14-year-old Lucien Renlen. In time, Dark’s allies learn of his true nature and ties to the calamity that befell the Old World.


title: Bastard!!

text: "Bastard!!"s history is about sorcery, revenge, and other power struggles in a "Dungeons & Dragons"–like world. It is a dystopian world, where people need magic to survive against wild beasts, and evil monsters. There are four kingdoms, each one the protector of one of the four seals that keep the God of Destruction in stasis.


title: Bastard!!

text: "Bastard!!" is written and illustrated by Kazushi Hagiwara. The series began serialization in Shueisha's "shōnen" manga magazine "Weekly Shōnen Jump" on March 14, 1988, and ran on a regular basis in the magazine until August 21, 1989. The first "tankōbon" volume was published on August 10, 1988. The series was then switched to the "Weekly Shōnen Jump Specials" quarterly magazine, where it ran on an irregular basis. It was later published again in "Weekly Shōnen Jump", on an irregular "monthly" basis, from 1997 to 2000. The series was transferred to the "seinen" manga magazine "Ultra Jump", starting on December 19, 2000. The manga is published in the magazine on an irregular schedule. Its latest chapter was published on May 19, 2010. Twenty-seven volumes have been released as of March 2012. Shueisha re-released the series in a new "kanzenban"-like edition, titled "Bastard!! Complete Edition", which updates Hagiwara's art style, improving his backgrounds, screentone and includes redrawing of some characters. Volumes were released from December 2000 to December 2009. In 2014, Shueisha released a nine-volume "bunkoban" edition from May to September.


title: Bastard!!

text: In North America, Viz Media announced the license of "Bastard!!" in July 2001. The Viz edition is based on "Bastard!! Complete Edition". Viz edition differs in a few ways from Japan release. Including graphic sexual scenes being censored, the major differences are the changing of place names. The series names places, spells and some people after various heavy metal bands, such as Metallica, Judas Priest, Whitesnake, Anthrax, Megadeth, Venom, Guns N' Roses, and Helloween. Fearing lawsuits, Viz Media (and Pioneer for the OVA adaptation) took the Japanese transliterations of these band names and changed them somewhat, then transliterating them back to English, e.g., Anthrax became "Anslasax", Iron Maiden into "Aian Meide", and the main city in which the story takes place, Metallicana, was changed to "Meta-Rikana". Viz Media published the first five volumes in a left-to-right edition from August 2002 to December 2003. The volumes were later republished in its original right-to-left version starting from November 2003. The manga stopped its publication after the release of volume 19 in September 2009.


title: Bastard!!

text: A six-episode original video animation (OVA) series by AIC was released between August 25, 1992 and June 25, 1993. The OVA cover the story up through the Four Lords of Havoc's battle against Abigail (volumes 6–7 of the manga).


title: Bastard!!

text: In North America, Pioneer Entertainment released the series on three VHS set tapes with an English dub between August 28 and December 8, 1998. Pioneer re-released the OVA on DVD on June 5, 2001.


title: Bastard!!

text: An original net animation (ONA) adaptation by Liden Films was announced on February 3, 2022. The 24-episode ONA is directed by Takaharu Ozaki, with scripts written by Yōsuke Kuroda, character designs by Sayaka Ono, and music composed by Yasuharu Takanashi. The first 13 episodes were released worldwide on Netflix on June 30, 2022, while the remaining 11 episodes were released on September 15 of the same year. The opening theme is "Bloody Power Fame" by Coldrain, while the ending theme is "Blessless" by Tielle.


title: Bastard!!

text: A 1994 "Bastard!!" 3D fighting game was released for Super Famicom. A role-playing video game with turn-based fighting elements, titled , was released for PlayStation on December 27, 1996.


title: Bastard!!

text: A MMOG platformer called "Bastard!! Online" was also in development by the Japanese publisher Tecmo and software developer Shaft. A beta test was released in 2006; however, Tecmo announced that they had canceled its development in December 2009.


title: Bastard!!

text: Video game designer and producer Daisuke Ishiwatari said "Bastard!!"s fantasy setting was a major influence on creating "Guilty Gear".


title: Empress Ki (TV series)

text: Empress Ki () is a South Korean historical drama television series starring Ha Ji-won as the titular Empress Ki. It aired on MBC from October 28, 2013, to April 29, 2014, on Mondays and Tuesdays at 21:55 for 51 episodes.


title: Empress Ki (TV series)

text: A domestic and overseas hit, the series received the Golden Bird Prize for Serial Drama at the 9th Seoul International Drama Awards. Ha Ji-won also won the Grand Prize at the MBC Drama Awards for her performance.


title: Empress Ki (TV series)

text: The early working title was "Hwatu" (; lit. "Battle of Flowers") but the title was changed to prevent confusion with the similarly named playing cards.


title: Empress Ki (TV series)

text: The series revolves around Ki Seungnyang, a Goryeo-born woman who ascends to power despite the restrictions of the era's class system, and later marries Toghon Temür (emperor of the Yuan dynasty) to become a Yuan empress, instead of her first love, Wang Yu. It managed to highlight the deep love the Emperor embedded in Lady Ki and depicts her loves and political ambitions.


title: Empress Ki (TV series)

text: The series attained high ratings during its run, ranking first in its timeslot with a peak viewership rating of 33.9 percent. According to a report by Taiwan's drama channel ETTV, the series was ranked as the best foreign program for 2014 with 5.35% viewership rating, becoming the second Korean drama after "Jewel in the Palace" (2003) to do so. It also received positive reviews for its strong acting skills, gripping background and elaborate scenes.


title: Empress Ki (TV series)

text: Despite its popularity, the series was criticized for its inclusion of fictional elements regarding the characters and storyline. Much concern was raised over the series' depiction of the titular Empress Ki, who was portrayed as a brave warrior in the series. Historians were worried that the audience would overlook the fact that the real-life Empress Ki was responsible for attacking her native land.


title: Empress Ki (TV series)

text: It aired on GMA Network from October 20, 2014, to April 14, 2015, on Mondays to Thursdays at 10:00 PM PST for 100 episodes. Each episode runs 1 hour including commercial breaks. It was pre-empted on December 31, 2014, to give way to the "Countdown to 2015 GMA New Year Special" and on April 2 to 3, 2015 to give way on the "Holy Week" programming. The entire series was dubbed in Filipino. It was the highest rated Korean drama in the Philippines for 2015.


title: Domestic pigeon

text: The domestic pigeon (Columba livia domestica or Columba livia" "forma" "domestica) is a pigeon subspecies that was derived from the rock dove (also called the rock pigeon). The rock pigeon is the world's oldest domesticated bird. Mesopotamian cuneiform tablets mention the domestication of pigeons more than 5,000 years ago, as do Egyptian hieroglyphics. Research suggests that domestication of pigeons occurred as early as 10,000 years ago.


title: Domestic pigeon

text: Pigeons have made contributions of considerable importance to humanity, especially in times of war. In war the homing ability of pigeons has been put to use by making them messengers. So-called war pigeons have carried many vital messages and some have been decorated for their services. Medals such as the Croix de Guerre, awarded to Cher Ami, and the Dickin Medal awarded to the pigeons G.I. Joe and Paddy, amongst 32 others, have been awarded to pigeons for their services in saving human lives.


title: Domestic pigeon

text: Despite this, city pigeons today are seen as pests, mainly due to their droppings. Feral pigeons are considered invasive in many parts of the world, though they have a positive impact on wild bird populations, serving as an important prey species of birds of prey.


title: Domestic pigeon

text: Pigeons have served key roles in human society, such as food, pets, holy animals, messengers and in other roles for thousands of years. The earliest recorded mention of pigeons comes from Mesopotamia some 5,000 years ago. Pigeon Valley in Cappadocia has rock formations that were carved into dovecotes, perhaps an example of the earliest man-made structures to house pigeons.


title: Domestic pigeon

text: Despite the long history of pigeons, little is known about the specifics of their initial domestication. Which subspecies of "C. livia" was the progenitor of domestics, exactly when, how many times, where and how they were domesticated, and how they spread, remains unknown. Their fragile bones and similarity to wild birds make the fossil record a poor tool for their study. Thus most of what is known comes from written accounts, which almost certainly do not cover the first stages of domestication. There is strong evidence that some divergences in appearance between the wild-type rock dove and domestic pigeons, such as checkered wing patterns and red/brown coloration, may be due to introgression by cross-breeding with the speckled pigeon.


title: Domestic pigeon

text: Ancient Egyptians kept vast quantities of them, and would sacrifice tens of thousands at a time for ritual purposes. Akbar the Great traveled with a coterie of thousands of pigeons.


title: Domestic pigeon

text: As the New World was colonized, the domestic pigeon was brought there as an easy source of food and as swift messengers. Around the 18th century, European interest in fancy pigeons began, and breeders there greatly expanded the variety of pigeons, importing birds from the Middle East and South Asia and mixing different breeds to create new ones.


title: Domestic pigeon

text: From a genetic perspective, there are two loose ancestral clades of pigeons, but there is striking genetic homogeneity due to frequent interbreeding and human directed cross-breeding. The first ancestral clade contains pigeons with exaggerated crops, tails, and manes; the second contains tumblers (the most diverse group), homing pigeons, owl pigeons, and those with exaggerated wattles.


title: Domestic pigeon

text: Because domestic and feral pigeons have extensively interbred with wild rock doves, wild-type pigeons may not truly exist anymore, or are nearly extinct. This frequent breeding further muddies the true origins of pigeons.


title: Domestic pigeon

text: Domestic pigeons reproduce exactly as wild rock pigeons, settling in a safe nook, building a flimsy stick nest, and laying two eggs that are incubated for a little longer than two weeks. Some breeds are so overbred that they may require human intervention to produce squabs successfully. A pigeon keeper may select breeding partners, but in an open loft the birds choose their own mate. Crop milk or pigeon milk produced by both male and female parent birds may occasionally be replaced with artificial substitutes. Pigeons are extremely protective of their eggs and young, and may defend them vigorously from nest predators, which may include their own keepers. Baby pigeons are called "squabs", "squeakers", or "peeps", the latter two in reference to their cry when hungry.


title: Domestic pigeon

text: Pigeons bred for meat are generally called squab and harvested from young birds. Pigeons grow to a very large size in the nest before they are fledged and able to fly, and in this stage of their development (when they are called squabs) they are prized as food. For commercial meat production a breed of large white pigeon, the King pigeon, has been developed by selective breeding. Breeds of pigeons developed for their meat are collectively known as utility pigeons.


title: Domestic pigeon

text: Trained domestic pigeons are able to return to the home loft if released at a location that they have never visited before and that may be up to away. This ability a pigeon has to return home from a strange location necessitates two sorts of information. The first, called "map sense" is their geographic location. The second, "compass sense" is the bearing they need to fly from their new location in order to reach their home. Both of these senses, however, respond to a number of different cues in different situations. The most popular conception of how pigeons are able to do this is that they are able to sense the Earth's magnetic field with tiny magnetic tissues in their head (magnetoception). Another theory is that pigeons have compass sense, which uses the position of the sun, along with an internal clock, to work out direction. However, studies have shown that if magnetic disruption or clock changes disrupt these senses, the pigeon can still manage to get home. The variability in the effects of manipulations to these sense of the pigeons indicates that there is more than one cue on which navigation is based and that map sense appears to rely on a comparison of available cues


title: Domestic pigeon

text: A special breed, called homing pigeons, has been developed through selective breeding to carry messages, and members of this variety of pigeon are still being used in the sport of pigeon racing and the white release dove ceremony at weddings and funerals.


title: Domestic pigeon

text: Pigeon fanciers developed many exotic forms of pigeon. These are generally classed as fancy pigeons. Fanciers compete against each other at exhibitions or shows and the different forms or breeds are judged to a standard to decide who has the best bird. Among those breeds are the English carrier pigeons, a variety of pigeon with wattles and a unique, almost vertical, stance (pictures). There are many ornamental breeds of pigeons, including the "Duchess" breed, which has as a prominent characteristic feet that are completely covered by a sort of fan of feathers. The fantail pigeons are also very ornamental with their fan-shaped tail feathers.


title: Domestic pigeon

text: Pigeons are also kept by enthusiasts for the enjoyment of Flying/Sporting competitions. Breeds such as tipplers are flown in endurance contests by their owners.


title: Domestic pigeon

text: Domestic pigeons are model organisms; commonly used in laboratory experiments in biology, to test medicines, and in cognitive science.


title: Domestic pigeon

text: Pigeons have been trained to distinguish between cubist and impressionist paintings, for instance. In Project Sea Hunt, a US coast guard search and rescue project in the 1970s/1980s, pigeons were shown to be more effective than humans in spotting shipwreck victims at sea. Research in pigeons is widespread, encompassing shape and texture perception, exemplar and prototype memory, category-based and associative concepts, and many more unlisted here (see pigeon intelligence).


title: Domestic pigeon

text: Pigeons are able to acquire orthographic processing skills, which form part of the ability to read, and basic numerical skills equivalent to those shown in primates.


title: Domestic pigeon

text: In the United States, some pigeon keepers illegally trap and kill hawks and falcons to protect their pigeons. In American pigeon-related organizations, some enthusiasts have openly shared their experiences of killing hawks and falcons, although this is frowned upon by the majority of fanciers. None of the major clubs condone this practice. It is estimated that almost 1,000 birds of prey have been killed in Oregon and Washington, and that 1,000–2,000 are killed in southern California annually. In June 2007, three Oregon men were indicted with misdemeanour violations of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act for killing birds of prey. Seven Californians and a Texan were also charged in the case.


title: Domestic pigeon

text: In the West Midlands region of the United Kingdom pigeon fanciers have been blamed for a trap campaign to kill peregrine falcons. Eight illegal spring-loaded traps were found close to peregrine nests and at least one of the protected birds died. The steel traps are thought to have been set as part of a "concerted campaign" to kill as many of the birds as possible in the West Midlands.


title: Domestic pigeon

text: Pigeon breeders sometimes suffer from an ailment known as "bird fancier's lung" or "pigeon lung". A form of hypersensitivity pneumonitis, pigeon lung is caused by the inhalation of the avian proteins found in feathers and dung. It can sometimes be combated by wearing a filtered mask.


title: Domestic pigeon

text: Other pigeon related pathogens causing lung disease are "Chlamydophila psittaci" (which causes psittacosis), "Histoplasma capsulatum" (which causes histoplasmosis) and "Cryptococcus neoformans," which causes cryptococcosis.


title: Domestic pigeon

text: Many domestic birds have escaped or been released over the years, and have given rise to the feral pigeon. These show a variety of plumages, although some look very much like pure rock pigeons. The scarcity of the pure wild species is partly due to interbreeding with feral birds. Domestic pigeons can often be distinguished from feral pigeons because they usually have a metal or plastic band around one (sometimes both) legs which shows, by a number on it, that they are registered to an owner.


title: Domestic pigeon

text: Feral pigeons bear striking genetic resemblance to homing pigeons, supporting the idea that most feral pigeons trace their origins to homing pigeons who did not find their way home, or were otherwise sired by homing pigeons.


title: Germania

text: Germania ( ; ), also called Magna Germania (English: "Great Germania"), Germania Libera (English: "Free Germania"), or Germanic Barbaricum to distinguish it from the Roman province of the same name, was a large historical region in north-central Europe during the Roman era, which was associated by Roman authors with the Germanic peoples. The region stretched roughly from the Middle and Lower Rhine in the west to the Vistula in the east. It also extended as far south as the Upper and Middle Danube and Pannonia, and to the known parts of Scandinavia in the north. Archaeologically, these peoples correspond roughly to the Roman Iron Age of those regions. While apparently dominated by Germanic peoples, Magna Germania was also inhabited by Celts.


title: Germania

text: The Latin name "Germania" means "land of the Germani", but the etymology of the name "Germani" itself is uncertain. During the Gallic Wars of the 1st century BC, the Roman general Julius Caesar encountered peoples originating from beyond the Rhine. He referred to these people as "Germani" and their lands beyond the Rhine as "Germania". In subsequent years, the Roman emperor Augustus sought to expand across the Rhine towards the Elbe, but these efforts were hampered by the victory of Arminius at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD. The prosperous Roman provinces of Germania Superior and Germania Inferior, sometimes collectively referred to as "Roman Germania", were subsequently established in northeast Roman Gaul, while territories east of the Rhine remained independent of Roman control.


title: Germania

text: From the 3rd century AD, Germanic peoples moving out of Magna Germania began encroaching upon and occupying parts of Roman Germania. This contributed to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD, after which territories of Roman Germania were captured and settled by migrating Germanic peoples. Large parts of Germania subsequently became part of the Frankish Empire and later East Francia. The name of Germany in English and many other languages is derived from the name "Germania".


title: Germania

text: In Latin, the name "Germania" means "lands where people called Germani live". Modern scholars do not agree on the etymology of the name "Germani". Celtic, Germanic, Illyrian and Latin etymologies have been suggested.


title: Germania

text: The main source on the origin of the names "Germania" and "Germani" is the book "Germania" (98 AD) by Tacitus. Tacitus writes that the name "Germania" was "modern and newly introduced". According to Tacitus, the name "Germani" had once been applied only to the Tungri, west of the Rhine, but it became an "artificial name" ("invento nomine") for supposedly-related peoples east of the Rhine. Many modern scholars consider Tacitus's story to be plausible, but they are unsure whether the name was commonly used by "Germani" to refer to themselves.


title: Germania

text: The boundaries of Germania are not clearly defined, particularly at its northern and eastern fringes. Magna Germania stretched approximately from the Rhine in the west to beyond the Vistula river in the east, and from the Danube in the south and northwards along the North and Baltic seas, including Scandinavia. Germania Superior encompassed parts of modern-day Switzerland, southwest Germany and eastern France, while Germania Inferior encompassed much of modern-day Belgium and Netherlands.


title: Germania

text: In his "Geography" (150 AD), the Roman geographer Ptolemy provides descriptions of the geography of Germania. Modern scholars have been able to localize many of the place names mentioned by Ptolemy, and associated them with place names of the present day.


title: Germania

text: Germania was inhabited by a large number of peoples, and there was not much unity among them. It appears that Germania was not entirely inhabited by Germanic peoples. Hydronymy provides evidence for the presence of another Indo-European group, which probably lived under Germanic domination.


title: Germania

text: During the Gallic Wars of the 1st century BC, the Roman general Julius Caesar came into contact with peoples originating east of the Rhine. In his "Commentarii de Bello Gallico", Caesar refers to these peoples as the Germani, and the lands from where they originated as Germania. The Romans appear to have borrowed the name from the Gauls. Having defeated the Germanic chieftain Ariovistus in Gaul, Caesar built bridges across the Rhine and conducted punitive expeditions in Germania. He writes the area was composed of numerous Germanic states, which were not entirely united. According to Caesar, the Gallic Volcae Tectosages had once crossed the Rhine and colonized parts of Germania, but had since become militarily inferior to the Germani. He also writes that Germani had once crossed the Rhine into northeast Gaul and driven away its Gallic inhabitants, and that the Belgae claimed to be largely descended from these Germanic invaders.


title: Germania

text: In the late 1st century BC, the Roman emperor Augustus launched campaigns across the Rhine, and incorporated areas of Germania as far east as the Elbe into the Roman Empire, creating the short-lived Roman province of Germania Antiqua in 7 BC, with further aims of establishing a greater province of Magna Germania, with headquarters at Colonia (modern-day Cologne). The Roman campaign was severely hampered by the victory of Arminius at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD. The outcome of this battle dissuaded the Romans from their ambition of conquering Germania, and is thus considered one of the most important events in European history. The Rhine eventually became the border between the Roman Empire and Magna Germania. Areas of northeast Gaul bordering the Rhine remained under Roman control, and are often referred to as "Roman Germania". Four Roman legions were stationed there, and a Roman fleet, the "Classis Germanica", was also established. The area was effectively governed as Roman provinces.


title: Germania

text: Areas of Germania independent of Roman control were referred to as "Magna Germania". Modern scholars sometimes refer to the Magna Germania as "Free Germania" (Latin: "Germania Libera") or Germanic Barbaricum. As parts of Roman social engineering efforts, large numbers of Germani, including Ubii and Sicambri, were settled within Roman Germania in order to prevent revolts by resident Gauls. Roman Germania became characterized by a mixed Celtic, Germanic and Roman population, which became progressively Romanized.


title: Germania

text: By the mid 1st century AD, between eight and ten Roman legions were stationed in Roman Germania to protect the frontiers. From 69–70 AD, Roman Germania was heavily affected by the Revolt of the Batavi. Tacitus writes that the leader of the revolt, Gaius Julius Civilis, recruited a vast amount of warriors from his self-described "kinsmen" all over Germania, and hailed Arminius for having liberated Germania from slavery. Civilis' rebels seized Colonia, capital of Roman Germania and home of the Germanic Ubii, who according to Tacitus were considered traitors by other Germani for having "forsworn its native country". After initially seeking to raze all of Colonia to the ground, the forces of Civilis declared the city returned "into the unity of the German nation and name" and "an open city for all Germans". Although initially declaring the rebels and "other Germans" their "kinsmen by blood", the Ubii eventually assisted the Romans in recapturing the Colonia.


title: Germania

text: In the late 1st century AD, under the leadership of the Flavian dynasty, the provinces of Germania Inferior (headquartered at Colonia) and Germania Superior (headquartered at Mogontiacum) were created out of Roman Germania and other eastern parts of Roman Gaul. They hosted a large military force and carried out lucrative trade with Magna Germania, which greatly contributed to the wealth of Roman Gaul. "Germania" (98 AD) by Tacitus provided vivid descriptions of the peoples of Magna Germania.


title: Germania

text: In the late 1st and early 2nd century AD, the Romans reoccupied areas lying between the Rhine, Main, and Danube rivers. This area became known as the Agri Decumates. Additional numbers of Germani were settled by the Romans within this area. The Roman fortifications on the border with Magna Germania were known as the "Limes Germanicus". The 3rd century AD saw the emergence of several powerful Germanic confederations in Magna Germania, such as the Alemanni and Franks. The Crisis of the Third Century included raids on Roman Germania by Alemanni and Franks, and the area briefly became part of the Gallic Empire established by the usurper Postumus. Around 280 AD, the Agri Decumates were evacuated by the Romans and occupied by Alemanni.


title: Germania

text: Under Diocletian (3rd century AD), Germania Superior was renamed "Germania Secunda", while Germania Inferior was renamed "Maxima Sequanorum". Both provinces were under the Diocese of Gaul. The provinces of Roman Germania continued to be subjected to repeated Alemannic and Frankish attacks. In the late 4th century AD and early 5th century AD, Gothic Wars in the Balkans forced the Romans to withdraw troops from Roman Germania. In 406, a large number of people fleeing the Huns crossed the Rhine from Magna Germania into Roman Germania and Gaul, leading to the eventually collapse of Roman rule there, and the emigration of large numbers of Romans, particularly Roman elites. Roman Germania was subsequently occupied by Alemanni and Franks. During subsequent centuries, peoples of Germania played a major role in dismembering what was left of the Western Roman Empire. Large parts of Germania, including all of Roman Germania, were eventually incorporated into the Frankish Empire.


title: Germania

text: From the 1st to the 4th century AD, Magna Germania corresponds archaeologically to the Roman Iron Age. In recent years, progress in archaeology has contributed greatly to the understanding of Germania. Areas of Magna Germania were largely agrarian, and display archaeological commonalities with each other, while being strongly differentiated from that of Roman Germania, largely due to the absence of cities and independent coinage. Archaeological discoveries testify to flourishing trade between Magna Germania and the Roman Empire. Amber was a primary export out of Magna Germania, while Roman luxury goods were imported on a large scale. Such goods have been found as far as Scandinavia and Western Russia.


title: Germania

text: The name Germania is attested in Old English translations of Bede and Orosius. Since the 17th century, the most common name of Germany in English has been derived from the name "Germania".


title: Princess Elisabeth, Duchess of Brabant

text: Princess Elisabeth, Duchess of Brabant (; ; born 25 October 2001) is the heir apparent to the Belgian throne. The eldest child of King Philippe and Queen Mathilde, she acquired her position after her grandfather King Albert II abdicated in favour of her father on 21 July 2013.


title: Princess Elisabeth, Duchess of Brabant

text: The first child of the then Duke and Duchess of Brabant, Elisabeth was delivered by Caesarean section at 21:58 CET on 25 October 2001 at the Erasmus Hospital, the teaching hospital of Université libre de Bruxelles in Anderlecht, Brussels. She was baptized on 9 December 2001 in the chapel of Ciergnon Castle in the Belgian Ardennes, by Cardinal Godfried Danneels, the Archbishop of Mechelen-Brussels. Her godparents are Archduke Amedeo of Austria-Este (paternal cousin), and Countess Hélène d'Udekem d'Acoz (maternal aunt).


title: Princess Elisabeth, Duchess of Brabant

text: Elisabeth studied at St John Berchmans College in the Marollen district of Brussels, which had been attended by her older cousins, the children of her paternal aunt, Princess Astrid of Belgium. This is a significant change in the habits of the royal family, as it is the first time that a future Belgian monarch's education has begun in Dutch. In 2018, she continued her secondary education at UWC Atlantic College in Wales and received her International Baccalaureate Diploma in 2020. She also attended the Yale Young Global Scholars Program at Yale University.


title: Princess Elisabeth, Duchess of Brabant

text: After her secondary school graduation in 2020, she spent a year at the Royal Military Academy Belgium in Brussels, studying Social and Military Sciences. She began studying history and politics at Lincoln College, University of Oxford in October 2021, while she continues to attend Royal Military Academy Belgium's annual summer camps and other practical and theoretical military classes.


title: Princess Elisabeth, Duchess of Brabant

text: Elisabeth's first public appearance was on 21 July 2006, when she accompanied her parents during a Te Deum for National Day celebrations in the Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula. A year later, on 13 June 2007, Princess Elisabeth and her parents attended the opening of a new Technopolis youth interactive at Mechelen.


title: Princess Elisabeth, Duchess of Brabant

text: In 2009, Elisabeth gave her name to the Princess Elisabeth Antarctica Station, a Belgian scientific polar research station. In September 2011, the nine-year-old princess gave her first public speech (in Dutch) at the opening of Princess Elisabeth Children’s Hospital, part of Ghent University Hospital in Ghent. She gave her first official speech in 2014 during commemorations of the centenary of the outbreak of World War I. Princess Elisabeth became godmother of a patrol vessel named "Pollux P902" on 6 May 2015 in Zeebrugge. In June 2019, the Duchess of Brabant and her mother traveled to Kenya for the United Nations Children's Fund, where they visited the Kakuma refugee camp. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Princess Elisabeth had conversations over the phone with elderly people in residential care centers in order to encourage and support them. On 21 July 2021, she was among the fellow students of the Royal Military Academy Belgium to parade during the Belgian National Day.


title: Princess Elisabeth, Duchess of Brabant

text: On 12 May 2022, Princess Elisabeth accompanied her aunt Princess Astrid on a visit to St Hilda's College. There, she and her aunt met St Hilda’s Principal Professor Dame Sarah Springman and Vice Chancellor of the University of Oxford Professor Louise Richardson. On 17 June 2022, together with her mother the Queen, she was among the royal guests invited to the celebrations of the 18th birthday of Princess Ingrid Alexandra of Norway. This was her first public event outside of Belgium and the occasion for the Princess to wear publicly the tiara her parents gave her as a gift on her own 18th birthday for the first time. She carried her two first solo official engagements in the following week by christening the Belgian oceanographic research vessel RV "Belgica" and inaugurating KU Leuven's Princess Elisabeth Additive Manufacturing Lab. Elisabeth volunteers to help children with learning difficulties, the elderly, the homeless and people with a handicap.


title: Princess Elisabeth, Duchess of Brabant

text: Ten years prior to Elisabeth's birth, a new act of succession was put into effect which introduced absolute primogeniture, meaning that she comes first in the line of succession because she is the eldest child. On 21 July 2013, once Elisabeth's father had taken the oath of office as King of the Belgians (his father, King Albert II, having abdicated shortly before), she became heir apparent to the throne and as such bears the title of Duchess of Brabant. If she ascends to the throne as expected, she will be Belgium's first female monarch.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: The germ theory of disease is the currently accepted scientific theory for many diseases. It states that microorganisms known as pathogens or "germs" can lead to disease. These small organisms, too small to be seen without magnification, invade humans, other animals, and other living hosts. Their growth and reproduction within their hosts can cause disease. "Germ" refers to not just a bacterium but to any type of microorganism, such as protists or fungi, or even non-living pathogens that can cause disease, such as viruses, prions, or viroids. Diseases caused by pathogens are called infectious diseases. Even when a pathogen is the principal cause of a disease, environmental and hereditary factors often influence the severity of the disease, and whether a potential host individual becomes infected when exposed to the pathogen.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: Pathogens are disease-carrying agents that can pass from one individual to another, both in humans and animals. Infectious diseases are caused by biological agents such as pathogenic microorganisms (viruses, bacteria, and fungi) as well as parasites.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: Basic forms of germ theory were proposed by Girolamo Fracastoro in 1546, and expanded upon by Marcus von Plenciz in 1762. However, such views were held in disdain in Europe, where Galen's miasma theory remained dominant among scientists and doctors.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: By the early 19th century, smallpox vaccination was commonplace in Europe, though doctors were unaware of how it worked or how to extend the principle to other diseases. A transitional period began in the late 1850s with the work of Louis Pasteur. This work was later extended by Robert Koch in the 1880s. By the end of that decade, the miasma theory was struggling to compete with the germ theory of disease. Viruses were initially discovered in the 1890s. Eventually, a "golden era" of bacteriology ensued, during which the germ theory quickly led to the identification of the actual organisms that cause many diseases.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: The miasma theory was the predominant theory of disease transmission before the germ theory took hold towards the end of the 19th century; it is no longer accepted as a correct explanation for disease by the scientific community. It held that diseases such as cholera, chlamydia infection, or the Black Death were caused by a (, Ancient Greek: "pollution"), a noxious form of "bad air" emanating from rotting organic matter. Miasma was considered to be a poisonous vapor or mist filled with particles from decomposed matter (miasmata) that was identifiable by its foul smell. The theory posited that diseases were the product of environmental factors such as contaminated water, foul air, and poor hygienic conditions. Such infections, according to the theory, were not passed between individuals but would affect those within a locale that gave rise to such vapors.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: In the Sushruta Samhita, the ancient Indian physician Sushruta theorized: "Leprosy, fever, consumption, diseases of the eye, and other infectious diseases spread from one person to another by sexual union, physical contact, eating together, sleeping together, sitting together, and the use of same clothes, garlands and pastes." The book has been dated to about the sixth century BC.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: The Mosaic Law, within the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, contains the earliest recorded thoughts of contagion in the spread of disease, standing in contrast with classical medical tradition and the Hippocratic writings. Specifically, it presents instructions on quarantine and washing in relation to leprosy and venereal disease.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: In Antiquity, the Greek historian Thucydides ( – ) was the first person to write, in his account of the plague of Athens, that diseases could spread from an infected person to others.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: One theory of the spread of contagious diseases that were not spread by direct contact was that they were spread by spore-like "seeds" (Latin: "semina") that were present in and dispersible through the air. In his poem, "De rerum natura" (On the Nature of Things, c. 56 BC), the Roman poet Lucretius ( – ) stated that the world contained various "seeds", some of which could sicken a person if they were inhaled or ingested.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: The Roman statesman Marcus Terentius Varro (116–27 BC) wrote, in his "Rerum rusticarum libri III" (Three Books on Agriculture, 36 BC): "Precautions must also be taken in the neighborhood of swamps ... because there are bred certain minute creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes, which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and there cause serious diseases."


title: Germ theory of disease

text: The Greek physician Galen (AD 129 – ) speculated in his "On Initial Causes" ( that some patients might have "seeds of fever". In his "On the Different Types of Fever" (), Galen speculated that plagues were spread by "certain seeds of plague", which were present in the air. And in his "Epidemics" (), Galen explained that patients might relapse during recovery from fever because some "seed of the disease" lurked in their bodies, which would cause a recurrence of the disease if the patients did not follow a physician's therapeutic regimen.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: A basic form of contagion theory dates back to medicine in the medieval Islamic world, where it was proposed by Persian physician Ibn Sina (known as Avicenna in Europe) in "The Canon of Medicine" (1025), which later became the most authoritative medical textbook in Europe up until the 16th century. In Book IV of the "El-Kanun", Ibn Sina discussed epidemics, outlining the classical miasma theory and attempting to blend it with his own early contagion theory. He mentioned that people can transmit disease to others by breath, noted contagion with tuberculosis, and discussed the transmission of disease through water and dirt.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: The concept of invisible contagion was later discussed by several Islamic scholars in the Ayyubid Sultanate who referred to them as "najasat" ("impure substances"). The fiqh scholar Ibn al-Haj al-Abdari (–1336), while discussing Islamic diet and hygiene, gave warnings about how contagion can contaminate water, food, and garments, and could spread through the water supply, and may have implied contagion to be unseen particles.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: During the early Middle Ages, Isidore of Seville (–636) mentioned "plague-bearing seeds" ("pestifera semina") in his "On the Nature of Things" (c. AD 613). Later in 1345, Tommaso del Garbo (–1370) of Bologna, Italy mentioned Galen's "seeds of plague" in his work "Commentaria non-parum utilia in libros Galeni" (Helpful commentaries on the books of Galen).


title: Germ theory of disease

text: The Italian scholar and physician Girolamo Fracastoro proposed in 1546 in his book "De Contagione et Contagiosis Morbis" that epidemic diseases are caused by transferable seed-like entities ("seminaria morbi") that transmit infection by direct or indirect contact, or even without contact over long distances. The diseases were categorised based on how they were transmitted, and how long they could lie dormant.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: Italian physician Francesco Redi provided early evidence against spontaneous generation. He devised an experiment in 1668 in which he used three jars. He placed a meatloaf and egg in each of the three jars. He had one of the jars open, another one tightly sealed, and the last one covered with gauze. After a few days, he observed that the meatloaf in the open jar was covered with maggots, and the jar covered with gauze had maggots on the surface of the gauze. However, the tightly sealed jar had no maggots inside or outside it. He also noticed that the maggots were found only on surfaces that were accessible by flies. From this he concluded that spontaneous generation is not a plausible theory.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: Microorganisms are said to have been first directly observed in the 1670s by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, an early pioneer in microbiology, considered "the Father of Microbiology". Leeuwenhoek is said to be the first to see and describe bacteria (1674), yeast cells, the teeming life in a drop of water (such as algae), and the circulation of blood corpuscles in capillaries. The word "bacteria" didn't exist yet, so he called these microscopic living organisms "animalcules", meaning "little animals". Those "very little animalcules" he was able to isolate from different sources, such as rainwater, pond and well water, and the human mouth and intestine. Yet German Jesuit priest and scholar Athanasius Kircher may have observed such microorganisms prior to this. One of his books written in 1646 contains a chapter in Latin, which reads in translation "Concerning the wonderful structure of things in nature, investigated by Microscope", stating "who would believe that vinegar and milk abound with an innumerable multitude of worms." Kircher defined the invisible organisms found in decaying bodies, meat, milk, and secretions as "worms." His studies with the microscope led him to the belief, which he was possibly the first to hold, that disease and putrefaction (decay) were caused by the presence of invisible living bodies. In 1646, Kircher (or "Kirchner", as it is often spelled), wrote that "a number of things might be discovered in the blood of fever patients." When Rome was struck by the bubonic plague in 1656, Kircher investigated the blood of plague victims under the microscope. He noted the presence of "little worms" or "animalcules" in the blood and concluded that the disease was caused by microorganisms. He was the first to attribute infectious disease to a microscopic pathogen, inventing the germ theory of disease, which he outlined in his "Scrutinium Physico-Medicum" (Rome 1658). Kircher's conclusion that disease was caused by microorganisms was correct, although it is likely that what he saw under the microscope were in fact red or white blood cells and not the plague agent itself. Kircher also proposed hygienic measures to prevent the spread of disease, such as isolation, quarantine, burning clothes worn by the infected, and wearing facemasks to prevent the inhalation of germs. It was Kircher who first proposed that living beings enter and exist in the blood.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: In 1700, physician Nicolas Andry argued that microorganisms he called "worms" were responsible for smallpox and other diseases.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: In 1720, Richard Bradley theorised that the plague and "all pestilential distempers" were caused by "poisonous insects", living creatures viewable only with the help of microscopes.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: In 1762, the Austrian physician Marcus Antonius von Plenciz (1705–1786) published a book titled "Opera medico-physica". It outlined a theory of contagion stating that specific animalcules in the soil and the air were responsible for causing specific diseases. Von Plenciz noted the distinction between diseases which are both epidemic and contagious (like measles and dysentery), and diseases which are contagious but not epidemic (like rabies and leprosy). The book cites Anton van Leeuwenhoek to show how ubiquitous such animalcules are and was unique for describing the presence of germs in ulcerating wounds. Ultimately, the theory espoused by von Plenciz was not accepted by the scientific community.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: The Italian Agostino Bassi was the first person to prove that a disease was caused by a microorganism when he conducted a series of experiments between 1808 and 1813, demonstrating that a "vegetable parasite" caused a disease in silkworms known as "calcinaccio" which was devastating the French silk industry at the time. The "vegetable parasite" is now known to be a fungus pathogenic to insects called "Beauveria bassiana" (named after Bassi).


title: Germ theory of disease

text: In 1838 French specialist in tropical medicine Louis-Daniel Beauperthuy pioneered using microscopy in relation to diseases and independently developed a theory that all infectious diseases were due to parasitic infection with "animalcules" (microorganisms). With the help of his friend M. Adele de Rosseville, he presented his theory in a formal presentation before the French Academy of Sciences in Paris. By 1853, he was convinced that malaria and yellow fever were spread by mosquitos. He even identified the particular group of mosquitos that transmit yellow fever as the "domestic species" of "striped-legged mosquito", which can be recognised as "Aedes aegypti", the actual vector. He published his theory in 1854 in the Gaceta Oficial de Cumana ("Official Gazette of Cumana"). His reports were assessed by an official commission, which discarded his mosquito theory.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: Ignaz Semmelweis, a Hungarian obstetrician working at the Vienna General Hospital ("Allgemeines Krankenhaus") in 1847, noticed the dramatically high maternal mortality from puerperal fever following births assisted by doctors and medical students. However, those attended by midwives were relatively safe. Investigating further, Semmelweis made the connection between puerperal fever and examinations of delivering women by doctors, and further realized that these physicians had usually come directly from autopsies. Asserting that puerperal fever was a contagious disease and that matter from autopsies were implicated in its development, Semmelweis made doctors wash their hands with chlorinated lime water before examining pregnant women. He then documented a sudden reduction in the mortality rate from 18% to 2.2% over a period of a year. Despite this evidence, he and his theories were rejected by most of the contemporary medical establishment.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: Gideon Mantell, the Sussex doctor more famous for discovering dinosaur fossils, spent time with his microscope, and speculated in his "Thoughts on Animalcules" (1850) that perhaps "many of the most serious maladies which afflict humanity, are produced by peculiar states of invisible animalcular life".


title: Germ theory of disease

text: John Snow was a skeptic of the then-dominant miasma theory. Even though the germ theory of disease pioneered by Girolamo Fracastoro had not yet achieved full development or widespread currency, Snow demonstrated a clear understanding of germ theory in his writings. He first published his theory in an 1849 essay "On the Mode of Communication of Cholera," in which he correctly suggested that the fecal–oral route was the mode of communication, and that the disease replicated itself in the lower intestines. He even proposed in his 1855 edition of the work, that the structure of cholera was that of a cell.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: Snow's 1849 recommendation that water be "filtered and boiled before it is used" is one of the first practical applications of germ theory in the area of public health and is the antecedent to the modern boil-water advisory. In 1855 he published a second edition of his article, documenting his more elaborate investigation of the effect of the water supply in the Soho, London epidemic of 1854.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: By talking to local residents, he identified the source of the outbreak as the public water pump on Broad Street (now Broadwick Street). Although Snow's chemical and microscope examination of a water sample from the Broad Street pump did not conclusively prove its danger, his studies of the pattern of the disease were convincing enough to persuade the local council to disable the well pump by removing its handle. This action has been commonly credited as ending the outbreak, but Snow observed that the epidemic may have already been in rapid decline. Snow's study was a major event in the history of public health and geography. It is regarded as one of the founding events of the science of epidemiology.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: After the cholera epidemic had subsided, government officials replaced the handle on the Broad Street pump. They had responded only to the urgent threat posed to the population, and afterward, they rejected Snow's theory. To accept his proposal would have meant accepting the fecal–oral method transmission of disease, which they dismissed.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: The more formal experiments on the relationship between germ and disease were conducted by Louis Pasteur between the years 1860 and 1864. He discovered the pathology of the puerperal fever and the pyogenic vibrio in the blood, and suggested using boric acid to kill these microorganisms before and after confinement.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: Pasteur further demonstrated between 1860 and 1864 that fermentation and the growth of microorganisms in nutrient broths did not proceed by spontaneous generation. He exposed freshly boiled broth to air in vessels that contained a filter to stop all particles passing through to the growth medium, and even with no filter at all, with air being admitted via a long tortuous tube that would not pass dust particles. Nothing grew in the broths: therefore the living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, as spores on dust, rather than being generated within the broth.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: Pasteur discovered that another serious disease of silkworms, "pébrine", was caused by a microscopic organism now known as "Nosema bombycis" (1870). Pasteur saved France's silk industry by developing a method to screen silkworms eggs for those that were not infected, a method that is still used today to control this and other silkworm diseases.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: Robert Koch is known for developing four basic criteria (known as Koch's postulates) for demonstrating, in a scientifically sound manner, that a disease is caused by a particular organism. These postulates grew out of his seminal work with anthrax using purified cultures of the pathogen that had been isolated from diseased animals.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: Koch's postulates were developed in the 19th century as general guidelines to identify pathogens that could be isolated with the techniques of the day. Even in Koch's time, it was recognized that some infectious agents were clearly responsible for disease even though they did not fulfill all of the postulates. Attempts to rigidly apply Koch's postulates to the diagnosis of viral diseases in the late 19th century, at a time when viruses could not be seen or isolated in culture, may have impeded the early development of the field of virology. Currently, a number of infectious agents are accepted as the cause of disease despite their not fulfilling all of Koch's postulates. Therefore, while Koch's postulates retain historical importance and continue to inform the approach to microbiologic diagnosis, fulfillment of all four postulates is not required to demonstrate causality.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: Koch's postulates have also influenced scientists who examine microbial pathogenesis from a molecular point of view. In the 1980s, a molecular version of Koch's postulates was developed to guide the identification of microbial genes encoding virulence factors.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: However, Koch abandoned the universalist requirement of the first postulate altogether when he discovered asymptomatic carriers of cholera and, later, of typhoid fever. Asymptomatic or subclinical infection carriers are now known to be a common feature of many infectious diseases, especially viruses such as polio, herpes simplex, HIV, hepatitis C, and COVID-19. As a specific example, all doctors and virologists agree that poliovirus causes paralysis in just a few infected subjects, and the success of the polio vaccine in preventing disease supports the conviction that the poliovirus is the causative agent.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: The third postulate specifies "should", not "must", because as Koch himself proved in regard to both tuberculosis and cholera, not all organisms exposed to an infectious agent will acquire the infection. Noninfection may be due to such factors as general health and proper immune functioning; acquired immunity from previous exposure or vaccination; or genetic immunity, as with the resistance to malaria conferred by possessing at least one sickle cell allele.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: The second postulate may also be suspended for certain microorganisms or entities that cannot (at the present time) be grown in pure culture, such as prions responsible for Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: In summary, a body of evidence that satisfies Koch's postulates is sufficient but not necessary to establish causation.


title: Germ theory of disease

text: In the 1870s, Joseph Lister was instrumental in developing practical applications of the germ theory of disease with respect to sanitation in medical settings and aseptic surgical techniques—partly through the use of carbolic acid (phenol) as an antiseptic.


title: Ford Escape

text: The Ford Escape is a compact crossover SUV sold by Ford since 2000 over four generations. The first generation was jointly developed with Mazda which also created the Mazda Tribute and Mercury Mariner as the twin model. Second generations of the Ford Escape, Mercury Mariner, and Mazda Tribute were released in 2007 for the 2008 model year, but mostly restricted to North America. In other markets, the first generation models were either replaced by updated first generation versions, or replaced by the Mazda CX-7 (2006) and Ford Kuga (2008). Unlike the collaborative approach taken with the previous model, this time the design and engineering was carried out solely by Ford. Since 2013, the model has been paralleled with the Kuga sold outside North America, making them essentially identical. A hybrid option was again available.


title: Ford Escape

text: Ford released the third generation model in 2012 for the 2013 model year. For the third-generation, Ford unified the model with the Europe-designed Ford Kuga as per the "One Ford" plan of having only one vehicle per segment internationally. It continues to the fourth-generation in which the North American Escape is identical to the Kuga with a minor cosmetic redesign. Hybrid and plug-in hybrid options are available for the fourth-generation model.


title: Ford Escape

text: The first generation of Ford Escape was released in 2000 for the 2001 model year. It was jointly developed with Mazda, in which Ford owned a controlling interest, and was released simultaneously with the Mazda Tribute. Although the Escape and Tribute shared the same underpinnings constructed from the Ford CD2 platform (based on Mazda GF underpinnings), the only panels common to the two vehicles were the roof and floor pressings. Powertrains were supplied by Mazda with respect to the base inline-four engine, with Ford providing the optional V6. At first, the twinned models were assembled by Ford in the US for North American consumption, with Mazda in Japan supplying cars for other markets. This followed a long history of Mazda-derived Fords, starting with the Ford Courier in the 1970s.


title: Ford Escape

text: At the time, larger sport-utility vehicles tended to use pickup truck-based, body-on-frame designs. Other car makers, Jeep, Toyota and Honda had been offering smaller unibody designs, the Jeep Cherokee (XJ), RAV4 and CR-V respectively. Solid rear axles were commonly used on the full-sized truck-based SUVs and Jeep Cherokee due to their ability to carry heavy loads at the expense of a comfortable ride and good handling. Ford and Mazda decided to offer a car-like, unibody design with a fully independent suspension and rack and pinion steering similar to the RAV4 and CR-V in the Escape. Although not meant for serious off-roading, a full-time all-wheel-drive (AWD) system supplied by Dana was optional, which included a locking center differential activated by a switch on the dashboard. The AWD system normally sends most of the power from the engine to the front wheels. If slipping is detected at the front, more power will be sent to the rear wheels in a fraction of a second. The four wheel drive system was a newer version of Ford's "Control Trac" 4x4 system, dubbed the Control Trac II 4WD in the Escape. This system allowed the front wheels to receive 100% of the torque until a slip was detected. Using a Rotary Blade Coupling, the rear wheels could be sent up to 100% of the power in fractions of a second. When switching the system from "Auto" to "On," the front and rear axles are locked at a 50/50 split; the reaction time necessary to engage the rear wheels is reduced via an integrated bypass clutch. The Control Trac II system allows for a four-wheel drive vehicle without the use of a center differential. The entire braking system was built by Continental Teves, including the ABS and various related suspension components.


title: Ford Escape

text: Ford also sold the first generation Escape in Europe and China as the Ford Maverick, replacing the previous Nissan-sourced model. Then in 2004, for the 2005 model year, Ford's Mercury division released a rebadged version called the Mercury Mariner, sold mainly in North America. The first iteration Escape remains notable as the first SUV to offer a hybrid drivetrain option, released in 2004 for the 2005 model year to North American markets only. CKD production began in 2002 at Ford Lio Ho Motor Co. in Taiwan for various Asian markets. One difference between the Tribute and the Ford Escape is that, in an effort to culture a sporty image, the Tribute's suspension is tuned for a firmer ride than the Escape.


title: Ford Escape

text: Mainstream production of the first generation Escape/Tribute ended in late 2006. For Asia-Pacific markets, both received respective facelifts in 2006 and had production fully transferred to Ford Lio Ho in Taiwan. Extended production of the Mazda lasted until 2010, and until 2012 for Ford.


title: Ford Escape

text: In North America, it slotted below the larger, truck-based Explorer in Ford's lineup, but was marginally larger than the small SUV offerings from Honda and Toyota. Although it is technically a crossover vehicle, it is marketed by Ford as part of its traditional SUV lineup (Escape, Explorer, Expedition) rather than its separate crossover lineup (Edge, Flex) due to its more conventional SUV styling.


title: Ford Escape

text: From 2001 to 2004, the Ford Escape was sold in Europe under the Maverick name, and replaced a rebadged version of the Nissan Mistral/Terrano II. Only two versions were made, the 2.0 L Zetec inline 4 engine with manual transmission and 3.0 L Duratec V6 with automatic transmission, both using gasoline as fuel. The absence of a diesel version did not help sales and the vehicle was temporarily discontinued in late 2003. However, the Maverick, in the UK for example, was only available in XLT trim. Plus, the dashboard was not the same as the US Escape; it was instead taken from the Mazda Tribute. The Maverick was reintroduced in 2005 in certain European markets with the Duratec V6 engine. The Maverick was assembled in Russia for the Russian market. As of 2006, the Maverick was no longer sold in Europe, leaving Ford without a compact SUV until the 2008 Ford Kuga was introduced. The Maverick was primarily designed for on-road use – sold with normal road tires, and to be used with front-wheel drive most of the time.


title: Ford Escape

text: In the Philippines, Ford introduced the Escape in 2001. It originally came in two grades; "XLT" & "XLS", but by early 2004, Ford axed the "XLT" (all-wheel drive model) and replaced it with the newly introduced "V6" trim. The "XLS" is powered by Ford's 2.3L Duratec inline-four engine paired to a 4-speed automatic. It came with keyless entry, fabric upholstery, 4 speakers, 6 CD audio system, among other features. The "V6" is powered by Ford's 3.0L V6 engine paired to a 4-speed automatic. It featured a power moon roof, leather upholstery, automatic seat adjusters & recliners, keyless entry & immobilizer.


title: Ford Escape

text: Crash-test results for the Escape have been mixed. In the New Car Assessment Program administered by the USA-based National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, the car received five out of five stars for driver protection and four out of five stars for passenger protection in a frontal impact. The SUV received five stars for both driver and rear passenger in the side impact test. In the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety's frontal offset test, 2001–2004 Escapes received a score of "Marginal". In the side impact crash test, vehicles equipped with the optional side air bags received a score of "Good" in the , while those without the optional air bags received a score of "Poor".


title: Ford Escape

text: All Escapes are equipped with a passive 'Immobiliser' called SecuriLock. This feature includes an 'RFID' chip embedded in the key, which the car reads each time the driver inserts the key. If the key doesn't provide a valid confirmation signal, the vehicle does not run, even if the key is perfectly cut to match the original. Theft, injury, and collision losses reported to insurance companies for the Escape are among the lowest in its class.


title: Ford Escape

text: In the United States, all Escapes included standard equipment such as power windows with an automatic driver's side window, power door locks, anti-lock braking system (ABS), keyless entry, a folding rear-bench seat, 16-inch wheels, and air conditioning. In addition, an Escape buyer could choose from one of several different trim levels that were available, which included:


title: Ford Escape

text: XLS (2001–2007): As the most basic trim level of the Escape, the XLS included: the 2.0-liter "Zetec" (2001–2004) and the 2.3-liter "DuraTec" (2005–2007) engines, a five-speed manual transmission, 15-inch steel wheels, an AM/FM stereo with cassette and CD players (later, just a single-CD player in 2005, adding MP3 capability in 2007 along with SIRIUS) and four speakers, high-back front bucket seats, and cloth-and-vinyl seating surfaces. Options include 15- or 16-inch alloy wheels, the 3.0-liter V6 engine (2001–2004), and a four-speed automatic transmission (some of which was available as the XLS Popular Group).


title: Ford Escape

text: XLT (2001–2007): As the top-of-the-line trim level of the Escape in 2001, and the most popular trim level of the Escape throughout its entire run (2001–2007), the XLT added the following equipment to the base XLS trim level: 16-inch alloy wheels, security alarm, cloth seating surfaces, and an enhanced interior. Options included an AM/FM stereo with a six-disc, in-dash CD changer (which later became standard equipment on all Escapes), the 3.0-liter V6 engine, a four-speed automatic transmission, a power sunroof, leather-and-vinyl-trimmed seating surfaces, and the seven-speaker premium audio system with amplifier and rear-mounted subwoofer.


title: Ford Escape

text: XLT Sport (2002–2007): The XLT Sport was one of the more popular trim levels of the Escape from 2002 to 2007. It added equipment to the standard XLT equipment: the V6 engine, four-speed automatic transmission, sport interior trim, and 16-inch machined alloy wheels. Options were the same as the standard XLT trim level.


title: Ford Escape

text: Limited (2002–2007): As the top-of-the-line trim level of the Escape from 2002 to 2007, the Limited trim level added the following equipment to the XLT Sport trim level: an AM/FM stereo with six-disc in-dash CD/MP3 changer, the seven-speaker premium audio system with amplifier and rear-mounted subwoofer, low-back front bucket seats, leather-trimmed seating surfaces, dual power heated front bucket seats, a security system, color-keyed exterior trim, luxury interior trim, and a unique front grille. Options were limited, but included a power sunroof.


title: Ford Escape

text: Hybrid (2005–2007): Based on the midrange XLT trim level, the Hybrid included: the 2.3-liter "DuraTec" inline-four engine with an electric motor, power front bucket seats, low-back front bucket seats, enhanced partially-recycled cloth seating surfaces, and unique 16-inch alloy wheels. Options included a powered sunroof, a unique integrated GPS navigational system with hybrid information system, Sirius Satellite Radio, the seven-speaker premium audio system with amplifier and rear-mounted subwoofer, leather-trimmed seating surfaces, and a "two-tone" exterior paint scheme, with silver-painted lower exterior trim and front and rear bumpers.


title: Ford Escape

text: The Escape and Tribute were updated in February 2004 for the 2005 model year with a new base engine (the 2.3 L Duratec 23), which replaced the Zetec 2.0 L 4-cylinder. The most powerful engine remained the Duratec 3.0 L V6, with new engine mounts. Ford also added advanced airbag and seatbelt safety systems, an intelligent AWD system, and exterior minor changes, which included a redesigned front bumper. The 2005 model year was the first with an automatic transmission available on the base four-cylinder models. The automatic shifter was moved from the column to the console on all models equipped with automatic transmissions. Ford also deleted the recline feature on the rear seats to improve the safety of occupants in the rear seats in the case of a rear crash.


title: Ford Escape

text: Previewed by the Ford Equator Concept in 2005, a revamped ZC Escape designed in Taiwan by Ford Lio Ho went on sale in the second half of 2006 for the Asian and Pacific markets (except South Korea, where the North American-market Escape is sold). Major external changes included a redesigned front bumper, grille, headlights and hood, and rear bumper, as well as LED taillights.


title: Ford Escape

text: On the inside, changes included a floor-mounted automatic-transmission shifter, in place of the column shifter, as well as a redesigned center stack containing audio and climate controls. Climate control is automatic on all models except the XLS. The Limited model also featured full color-coded bumpers, wheel arches and side moldings, as well as side mirrors with integrated LED indicators. Rear drum brakes have been replaced by disc brakes all round.


title: Ford Escape

text: The 3.0 L V6 has been modified to reduce fuel consumption by over 10%, while the 2.3 L 4-cylinder has improved midrange torque and an electronic throttle, as well as a slight increase in power to . Both engines had been certified to meet Euro III emission regulations. A four-speed automatic carried over and was the sole transmission choice. Two different four-speed automatic transmissions were used, CD4E for 3.0 L V6 and GF4AX-EL for 2.3 L 4-cylinder.


title: Ford Escape

text: Previewed by the Ford Escape Adventure Concept, the ZD Escape designed in Taiwan by Ford Lio Ho for Asia-Pacific markets went on sale in mid-2008, bringing numerous changes. In Australia, the V6 engine was dropped, leaving only the 2.3-liter four-cylinder.


title: Ford Escape

text: The model range was also simplified, with only a single specification available. Changes to the body included an all-new front bumper, grille, headlights and bonnet, featuring an enlarged Ford emblem set upon a three-bar chrome grille. At the rear, new, slimmer tail lights were featured, which were arranged horizontally, rather than vertically. In addition, the B-pillar was now painted black, rather than body-colour. Compared with the previous model, all external bumpers, mirrors, and cladding were painted the same colour as the body (previously, this was only available on the upscale Limited model). Equipment levels have also improved. Compared to the base model ZC Escape, the ZD included standard side airbags, automatic climate control, 16" alloy wheels, and mirrors with integrated indicators. Unlike most other competitors in its class, curtain airbags and electronic stability control were not available.


title: Ford Escape

text: In 2009, another facelift of the ZD Escape developed by Ford Lio Ho brought about a new grille and front bumper. Chrome trim was completely removed from the grille, replaced with a smaller, black honeycomb grille as the last Ford Escape. In its final years, it was sold side by side with its successor, Ford Kuga until the Kuga replaced it in 2013.


title: Ford Escape

text: Introduced in 2004 for the 2005-model-year refresh of the Ford Escape in the US, Ford's Mercury division released a version called the Mercury Mariner. The Mariner is Mercury's first car-based SUV, and was slotted below the Mercury Mountaineer in its lineup. The Mariner was officially offered in the US, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the UAE. The Mariner includes stylistic differences, such as a two-tone interior, turn signal repeaters borrowed from the European-market Ford Maverick (the Escape's name in Europe), monotone cladding, and the Mercury "waterfall" front grille. Unlike its counterparts, Mercury did not offer a manual transmission as part of the powertrain lineup. The Mariner was the first Mercury with a four-cylinder since the Mercury Cougar was dropped in 2002. For 2006, the lineup was expanded with the introduction of the Mariner Hybrid. Sales ended after the 2007 model, replaced by a second generation, again a rebadged Ford Escape.


title: Ford Escape

text: On September 7, 2006, Ford delivered a special "Presidential Edition" Mercury Mariner Hybrid to former President Bill Clinton. Its custom features include: LED lighting, 120V outlet, rear bucket seats, center console & rear seat fold-out writing desks, personal DVD players for each seat, refrigerator, increased rear seat legroom. There have also been several undisclosed security modifications made to the vehicle.


title: Ford Escape

text: The Mariner Hybrid powertrain was identical to its sibling, the Ford Escape Hybrid. It was launched to the U.S. market in 2006 and was discontinued in 2010 (in the second generation) when the Mercury car division itself was discontinued by Ford. The Mariner hybrid sold a total of 12,300 units.


title: Ford Escape

text: Like the Ford Escape Hybrid, the Mariner Hybrid is a "full" hybrid electric system, meaning the system can switch automatically between pure electric power, pure gasoline engine power, or a combination of electric battery and gasoline engine operating together, for maximum performance and efficiency at all speeds and loads. When braking or decelerating, the Mariner's hybrid system uses regenerative braking, where the electric drive motor becomes a generator, converting the vehicle's momentum back to electricity for storage in the batteries. With , the Mariner Hybrid has nearly the same acceleration performance as the conventional V6 Mariner. Again, just like the Escape Hybrid, it gets a respectable average of and is sometimes said to be the most fuel efficient sport utility vehicle on the road.


title: Ford Escape

text: The Ford Escape Hybrid and Mercury Mariner Hybrid are the gasoline-electric hybrid powered versions that launched in the U.S. in 2004 for the 2005 model year. Assembled in Kansas City, Missouri, it was the first hybrid SUV produced for sale and the first hybrid from an American manufacturer (alongside the Chevrolet Silverado/GMC Sierra Hybrids during the same model year). According to the Environmental Protection Agency, the first-generation Ford Escape Hybrid is 70% more efficient than the regular Escape. While the Mercury Mariner was also offered as a hybrid, the option was not available on the Mazda Tribute.


title: Ford Escape

text: Escape hybrid versions can be identified by the "Hybrid" badges located on the front driver's and passenger's doors as well as near the right tailgate. In addition, the driver's side window in the cargo area is smaller to accommodate a ventilation slot for the high voltage battery. There was also a "Special Appearance Package" available as an option on the 2005–2007 Hybrid models. This package replaced the traditional lower cladding of the Escape with a silver finish. Standard equipment on the Escape Hybrid includes: an eight-way power adjustable driver's seat, dual-zone automatic air conditioning, cruise control, a six-CD stereo, 16-inch alloy wheels, power door locks with remote keyless entry, and power windows.


title: Ford Escape

text: Ford built 17,000 Escape Hybrids in the second half of 2004, four times as many as it had originally planned. Starting in 2005 New York City and other cities in the world began using the Ford Escape Hybrid as taxicabs. The Ford Escape Hybrid won the "North American Truck of the Year" award in 2005.


title: Ford Escape

text: The Escape Hybrid uses hybrid technology similar to that used in the Toyota Prius. Ford engineers realized their technology may conflict with patents held by Toyota, which led to a 2004 patent-sharing accord between the companies, licensing Ford's use of some of Toyota's hybrid technology in exchange for Toyota's use of some of Ford's diesel and direct-injection engine technology. Ford maintains that Ford received no technical assistance from Toyota in developing the hybrid powertrain, but that some hybrid engine technologies developed by Ford independently were found to be similar to technologies previously patented by Toyota, so licenses were obtained. Aisin Seiki Co. Ltd., a Japanese automotive components supplier belonging to the Toyota Group, supplies the HD-10 hybrid continuously variable transmission for the Escape Hybrid. While Toyota produces its third-generation Prius transmission in-house, Aisin is the only supplier of hybrid transmissions to other manufacturers. Friction has arisen concerning Aisin's allocation of limited production capacity and engineering resources to Ford. Sanyo Electric Co. built the , 330 volt 5.5 Ah (would make it 1.8kWh storage), 250-cell nickel metal hydride (NiMH) battery pack for the 2005 Escape Hybrid.


title: Ford Escape

text: The Escape Hybrid is a full hybrid, meaning the system can switch automatically between pure electric power, pure gasoline engine power, or a combination of electric battery and gasoline engine operating together, for maximum performance and efficiency at all speeds and loads. When braking or decelerating, the Escape's hybrid system uses regenerative braking, where the electric drive motor becomes a generator, converting the vehicle's momentum back to electricity for storage in the batteries. The Escape Hybrid's 133 horsepower (99 kW) Atkinson cycle gasoline I4 engine and electric motor combine to give , which gives the Hybrid Escape nearly the same acceleration performance as the conventional V6 Escape due to the electric motor's torque being available from zero rpm.


title: Ford Escape

text: The hybrid is said to give approximately 75% greater efficiency, the FWD version has EPA ratings of 30 mpg and 28 highway, with combined 29 mpg. The AWD version EPA ratings 28 city and 26 highway, combined 27 mpg in city traffic, and has demonstrated it can travel 400–500 miles (644–805 km) on a single mpg (7.6L-8.1 L/100 km; 35–37 mpg) on the highway. To obtain these mileage figures, the owners manual states that pure gasoline, not ethanol blends, must be used. In 2006, Ford showed an Escape that could run on E85 fuel.


title: Ford Escape

text: Unlike conventional vehicles, hybrids often achieve better figures in the city because they do not waste power idling and can recover some power when stopping (by using regenerative braking) that would be wasted in a conventional vehicle.


title: Ford Escape

text: In April 2014, Ford issued a recall on 386,000 Ford Escapes and Mazda Tributes for model years 2001–2004 for Escapes manufactured October 22, 1999, through January 23, 2004, for Canada and the northern "salt belt" states in the US. Subframe rust can result in the lower control arm mount breaking or detaching from the subframe, resulting in a loss of steering control and the risk of crash. Dealers have installed a crossbrace reinforcement to any vehicle affected by the recall. Model years 2005–2007 were not affected.


title: Ford Escape

text: The second generation Ford Escape debuted at the 2006 Los Angeles International Auto Show. The North American-market Escape and its Mazda Tribute and Mercury Mariner siblings were redesigned to stay competitive with other new compact SUVs, however most of the internals have been carried over for the 2008 model year. The Escape still uses the CD2 platform. Ford also included an electronic stability control system standard on the 2008 Escape. The Mercury version lasted until late 2010, withdrawn from the market as part of the closure of the Mercury brand, with Mazda's Tribute ending production in late 2011. Ford ended manufacture of the second series Escape in 2012.


title: Ford Escape

text: The updated Escape received some styling cues from the Explorer, Edge, and Expedition. Changes include a new grille with larger headlamps in the front fascia, while the sides were revised with cleaner lines and rounder wheel arches. The interior is also completely redesigned, including the newest standard Ford family navigation system.


title: Ford Escape

text: The 2008 Escape and its Mercury Mariner sibling were the first vehicles to feature Ford's pull-drift steering mode, an enhancement made possible by applying software control to the Electric Power Steering (EPS) system.


title: Ford Escape

text: The 2008 models of all three CD-2 versions retained the previous generation's engines and transmissions. In 2009, all three versions receceived engine and transmission upgrades that increased performance and fuel economy.


title: Ford Escape

text: Ford ended production on the second generation Escape in 2011 and moved production to its Louisville Assembly Plant in Louisville, Kentucky, where it was succeeded by a new Escape based on its European CUV counterpart, the Ford Kuga.


title: Ford Escape

text: A new concept version for the Asian market, called the "Ford Escape Adventure Concept", was revealed at the 2007 Tokyo Motor Show. It features a revised front and rear fascia, incorporating Ford's three-bar grille styling theme and restyled LED tail lamps.


title: Ford Escape

text: Starting with the 2009 model, the 2.3 L Duratec 23 was replaced by a new 2.5 L Duratec 25 4-cylinder, which boosted standard power to and of torque, while increasing fuel economy by 1 mpg (~2L/100 km) on both urban and extra-urban cycles. The optional 3.0 L Duratec 30 V6 was thoroughly updated, resulting in a increase, bringing power output to and of torque. The Duratec 30 also sees a fuel economy improvement. Another significant change was the switch to Ford's new 6F35 6-speed automatic, which became standard on all V6 equipped models and optional on the I4.


title: Ford Escape

text: The Hybrid is also upgraded to use the 2.5 L (albeit still using the Atkinson cycle for better fuel economy). Efficiency improved to city and highway according to the USEPA. The 2.5 L engine brings the Hybrid's power output up by when the electric motor is added in.


title: Ford Escape

text: Other mechanical changes include a new rear stabilizer bar, revised suspension tuning, upgrades to the 3.0 L V6 that brought power to 240 hp, and a new exhaust system on all Escapes. The braking system for the Hybrid versions has been revised with a vacuum assist unit that reviewers have said give the brakes a consistent feel over the entire travel of the brake pedal. Previous versions of the Hybrid were reported to have a slightly mushy brake feel, primarily due to the fact that for the first part of the brake travel and braking the system is regenerating power instead of engaging the brake pads against the rotors. However, the brakes, when tested, gave the Escape extremely long stops.


title: Ford Escape

text: This generation also saw the introduction of the optional "sport appearance package", which includes the upgraded 3.0L V6, changed the front grille from chrome to gloss black, added a gloss black appliqué to the front bumper, changed the rocker covers and door handles from unpainted black plastic to body-coloured, added a gloss black rear spoiler, black headlamp housings, black 17" rims, black cloth/leather interior with piano black trim and removes any exterior "V6" badging. This option was only available on the XLT trim level and only with ingot silver, sterling grey, steel blue or tuxedo black metallic paints. The "Escape" badge is entirely removed from the front doors.


title: Ford Escape

text: In 2009, Ford's SYNC system is standard on the Hybrid, Hybrid Limited, and conventional Limited models, and optional on the XLS and XLT.


title: Ford Escape

text: The Escape underwent some minor aerodynamic changes for 2009, including a revised front chin spoiler and rear tire spoilers. Along with the addition of rear tire spoilers is an optional 17" chrome-clad wheel equipped with a new Michelin "Low-Rolling-Resistance-Tire", slightly increasing ground clearance and improving traction over the standard 16" wheels and tires. Another new feature is Ford's Easy-Fuel capless fuel filling system.


title: Ford Escape

text: As of August 2009 the Escape was among the four Ford vehicles, along with the Focus, F-Series and Ranger, to benefit the most from the Cash for Clunkers program, where it showed a 49 percent increase in sales.


title: Ford Escape

text: In 2009 for the 2010 model year, the Escape will add three new features that will be standard on all trims: Ford's MyKey, trailer sway controls and Integrated Spotter Mirror for better blind spot viewing. Everything else added in the 2008 and 2009 model years will be carried over, but the optional orders have been renamed to Rapid Specification Codes (100s for XLS, 200s for XLT, and 300s for Limited).


title: Ford Escape

text: New optional features for 2010: active park assist (APA) is a new feature available since mid-2009 as an option on the 2010 Ford Escape Limited (currently only optional on the Ford Flex, Lincoln MKT, and Lincoln MKS). Active Park Assist will detect an available parallel parking space and automatically steer the vehicle into the space (hands free) while the driver controls the accelerator, gearshift and brakes. The system will visually and audibly instruct the driver to park the vehicle. Active Park Assist system uses sensors on the front and rear of the vehicle to guide the vehicle into a parking space. Rear-view camera system – uses an exterior camera embedded in the rear of the vehicle that sends images to a video display in the rearview mirror or the navigation system screen to help enhance visibility directly behind the vehicle when it is in reverse.


title: Ford Escape

text: No cosmetic changes were made for the 2011 model year. The only minor change is the standardization of SYNC Traffic & Directions on any models coming equipped with Sync.


title: Ford Escape

text: There are no cosmetic or equipment changes for the 2012 model year. The third-generation Escape was unveiled at the 2012 North American International Auto Show in Detroit.


title: Ford Escape

text: Previously unavailable Electronic Stability Control system became standard on the second generation. In Insurance Institute for Highway Safety crash tests the Escape along with its cousins, the Mercury Mariner and the Mazda Tribute, are rated "Good" in both frontal and side impact crash tests. They are rated "Good" for rear crash protection as well and were given the "Top Safety Pick" award until 2010. In roof strength tests the Escape receives a "Marginal" rating while hybrid models are rated "Poor".


title: Ford Escape

text: In 2007 for the 2008 model year, the Tribute was significantly revamped, like its Ford Escape and Mercury Mariner siblings. Originally set to be renamed the Mazda CX-5, the vehicle kept the Tribute name. The changes were significant, but fell short of a "clean sheet" redesign, as the vehicles remained on the CD2 platform, and kept the old 2.3 L MZR I4, and 3.0 L AJ V6 engines. Visible changes include all new sheet metal and interior. The interior was significantly upgraded using all new components and higher quality materials, and was generally praised by automotive journalists. However, unlike the first generation of the Tribute, which had unique exterior and interior from its siblings, the new model only differs from its siblings in the "nose" (front fenders, hood, and front fascia), tail lights and detailing. Notable changes to the exterior include higher belt line, and more pronounced wheel arches. Overall the car was to look larger and more substantial than the previous model. As a cost-saving measure, the rear brake was reverted to drum brake, with predictable criticisms.


title: Ford Escape

text: The 2008 Mazda Tribute (non-hybrid) was first unveiled at the 2007 Montreal International Auto Show, and the 2008 Mazda Tribute went on sale in March 2007. A new addition was the Hybrid model, which was previously only available on the Ford Escape and Mercury Mariner.


title: Ford Escape

text: The Tribute received additional major changes to improve performance for the 2009 model year, mostly by way of mechanical upgrades. Most significantly, all new engines replaced the increasingly outmatched 2.3L I4 and 3.0L V6. Mazda's new MZR 2.5L I4 replaced the 2.3L, boosting horsepower to and of torque at 4000 rpm. Despite increased horsepower, fuel economy also increased by on both urban and extra-urban cycles. The optional 3.0 L (AJ) V6 was thoroughly updated, resulting in a increase, bringing power output to and of torque. It also sees a 1 mpg improvement. The Tribute Hybrid was dropped after the 2009 model year.


title: Ford Escape

text: Another significant change was the switch to Ford's new 6F 6-speed automatic, which became standard on all V6 equipped models and optional on the I4. As well, new front and rear stabilizer bars were added for 2009 to improve ride handling after complaints about diminished performance following the 2008 changes. Others changes included redesigned seats, daytime running lamps, optional steering mounted audio controls, and other additional features. The Tribute was discontinued in November 2011 at the end of the 2011 model year, replaced by the Mazda CX-5 for 2012.


title: Ford Escape

text: For the 2008 model year the Mariner was significantly updated with a new look although it remained on the Ford CD2 platform used by the previous generation. The first 2008 Mercury Mariner was unveiled at the South Florida International Auto Show on October 6, 2006. The changes included a new seats, headlights, taillights, a new liftgate, a higher beltline and new doors and wheels. The interior was also significantly updated with higher quality materials and more refined features. The engines remained the same but the 3.0 L Duratec V6 has been modified to reduce fuel consumption by 10%.


title: Ford Escape

text: The 2009 Ford Escape and Mercury Mariner were unveiled at the 2008 Washington Auto Show. Sporting a 2.5-liter engine and 6-speed automatic transmission that replaced the four-speed automatic transmission, the new powertrain improved the EPA fuel economy by 1 mile per gallon and increased power by 11% to . Also, the existing 3.0-liter Duratec V6 was bumped from to . The new engine was also the new basis for Ford's hybrid models, including the Ford Escape Hybrid and Mercury Mariner Hybrid. "For every eight Escape and Mariner vehicles we sell, one of them is a hybrid, and the appeal is growing," says Sue Cischke, Ford senior vice president, Sustainability, Environment and Safety Engineering.


title: Ford Escape

text: For the 2010 model year, the Mariner added Ford's MyKey and trailer sway controls as standard on all trim levels. The Mariner engine has a Flex-Fuel option on all models—meaning they can use E85 fuel or regular unleaded only on the optional V6 engine. Ford has also done away with the Euro-style turn signal repeaters for this model year. For the 2011 model year, the Mariner featured HD Radio as a standard, but continued with the same features as the 2010 models. This version of the Mariner was its last, as Ford discontinued the Mercury brand due to declining sales. Ford ended production of the Mariner in October 2010. The last one rolled off the assembly line on October 5, 2010.


title: Ford Escape

text: The second generation Ford Escape Hybrid received some minor styling tweaks inside and out. The major cosmetic changes included new bumpers, grille, headlights and taillights to match Ford's new edge style. But the drivetrain was essentially the same mechanically but has had extensive software modifications. For 2009, a larger, more powerful engine was introduced, together with a revised suspension, addition of stability control, the debut of "Sync" voice-control system and a capless fuel filler system. The batteries and other hybrid components in a 2009 Escape hybrid added about 136 kg (300 lbs) to the vehicle. However, the added weight was blamed for an adverse effect in handling. Furthermore, from 2009 onward, rear disc brakes of previous years were swapped for drum brakes, which was criticized as a "strange step backward".


title: Ford Escape

text: The second generation Escape Hybrid was offered in two levels of specification, an undesignated "base" model and the more expensive "Limited" trim. The "base" included: a 60/40 split-fold rear bench seat, "AdvanceTrac" with roll stability control, and a single-disc four-speaker CD/MP3 stereo with Sirius Satellite Radio compatibility. The "Limited" adds: a chrome front grille, heated front seats, a six-way power driver's seat and full leather upholstery, rear park assist, ambient lighting, and 16-inch six-spoke alloy wheels. For the 2009 model year, Ford SYNC became standard on both Hybrid trims and the Ford Escape Hybrid replaced the "ESCAPE" badges on doors with ""HYBRID"," while relocating the logo for Ford hybrid models from near the driver's side doors next to the ""HYBRID"" text. 2010 models saw the addition of MyKey, trailer sway controls, and integrated spotter mirror for better blind spot viewing. New optional extras are active park assist and a rear-view camera.


title: Ford Escape

text: Ford developed a prototype E85 Hybrid Escape, the first flexible fuel hybrid electric vehicle capable of running on 85% ethanol. In 2007 Ford produced 20 demonstration Escape Hybrid E85s for real-world testing in fleets around the U.S.


title: Ford Escape

text: From 2009, the gas engine was 2.5L Atkinson-cycle four cylinder engine with 155 hp at 6,000 rpm with an electric motor that produces 94 hp at 5,000 rpm. The maximum combined output of both was 177 hp.


title: Ford Escape

text: The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) rated the fuel economy for the 2010 Escape Hybrid (FWD) at city, and highway. The following table compares fuel economy, carbon footprint, and petroleum consumption between the hybrid version and other drivetrains of the Escape family as estimated by the EPA and the U.S. Department of Energy. The Escape Hybrid met both California's SULEV and PZEV standards, with tailpipe emissions better than 90% less than the average 2003 new car and zero evaporative emissions.