title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: In September 2016, Rich's parents and girlfriend appeared on the syndicated television show "Crime Watch Daily" to speak about the murder case. In October 2016, a plaque and bike rack outside the DNC headquarters were dedicated to Rich's memory. In February 2017, the Beth El Synagogue in Omaha named after Rich an existing scholarship that helps Jewish children attend summer camps.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: The Rich family accepted the "pro bono" public relations services of Republican lobbyist Jack Burkman in September 2016. The Rich family and Burkman held a joint press conference on the murder in November 2016. In January 2017, Burkman launched an advertising campaign in Northwest D.C. searching for information regarding Seth's death. This included billboard advertisements and canvassing with flyers. In late February, Burkman told media outlets he had a lead that the Russian government was involved in Rich's death, and the Rich family then distanced itself from Burkman. On March 19, 2017, Rich's brother, Aaron, started a GoFundMe campaign to try to raise $200,000 for private investigation, public outreach activities, and a reward fund.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: The Rich family was approached by Ed Butowsky (a friend of Trump advisor Steve Bannon and a frequent Fox News contributor), who recommended having Fox News contributor and former homicide detective Rod Wheeler investigate Seth's murder. Butowsky said Wheeler had been recommended to him. The family gave Wheeler permission to investigate, though they did not hire him. When questioned by CNN, Butowsky denied involvement in the case, but later admitted he was involved and had offered to pay Wheeler's fees. After Wheeler asserted links between Rich and Wikileaks in a Fox affiliate interview on May 15, 2017—an assertion he later backpedaled from—the family spokesman said that the family regretted working with Wheeler. Wheeler then sued Fox News on August 1, 2017, for mental anguish and emotional distress, alleging that he had been misquoted in a story that was then published on the urging of Trump.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: The Metropolitan Police Department of the District of Columbia (MPDC) posted its customary reward of $25,000 for information about the death.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: On August 9, 2016, WikiLeaks announced a $20,000 reward for information about Rich's murder leading to a conviction, which was subsequently increased to $125,000. Rich's family said they were unable to verify this reward offer. WikiLeaks stated that this offer should not be taken as implying Rich had been involved in leaking information to it.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: In November 2016, Republican lobbyist Jack Burkman said he was personally offering a $100,000 reward in addition to those announced by the police department and WikiLeaks, and he added another $5,000 to his offer in December and another $25,000 in January. Burkman said he hoped the money would help "get to the truth of what happened here and will either debunk the conspiracy theories or validate them."


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: Political conspiracy theories and racially charged comments started to appear on social media the day after Rich's death.<ref name="WaPo_7/9/19"></ref> Within days, right-wing conspiracy theories began circulating, including false claims that his murder was connected to the DNC email leak of 2016 or the FBI's investigation of the Clinton Foundation.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: A post on Twitter before Rich's memorial service spread the idea that his killing was a political assassination. Subsequently, the conspiracy theory was spread on the subreddit /r/The Donald, and on July 29, 2016, the website "Heat Street" reported on these Reddit posts. Reddit users attempted to tie the homicide to prior "Clinton Body Count" conspiracy theories. The conspiracy theory was later popularized by Donald Trump political adviser Roger Stone via his Twitter account.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: According to British journalist Duncan Campbell, the Russian intelligence agency, GRU, tried to implicate Rich as the source of the stolen DNC emails in order to draw attention away from themselves as the real perpetrators of the theft. Datestamps on the DNC files were altered to show the data had been obtained on July 5, 2016, five days before Rich's death, and the time zone was changed to Eastern Time, within which Washington, D.C., falls. Guccifer 2.0, the alleged GRU front that provided the emails to Wikileaks, then reported that Rich had been their source. Based partly on their acceptance of the false dates, some experts then concluded that the emails had been copied in the DNC offices, and had not been hacked from outside.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: Julian Assange, the founder of WikiLeaks, fueled the speculation in an interview with "Nieuwsuur" published on August 9, 2016, which touched on the topic of risks faced by WikiLeaks' sources. Unbidden, Assange brought up the case of Seth Rich. When asked directly whether Rich was a source, Assange said "we don't comment on who our sources are". Subsequent statements by WikiLeaks emphasized that the organization was not naming Rich as a source, as they do with other leaks. It subsequently came to light that WikiLeaks communicated with the Trump campaign over other issues.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: According to the Mueller Report, WikiLeaks had received an email containing an encrypted file named "wk dnc link I .txt.gpg" from the Guccifer 2.0 GRU persona on July 14, which was four days after Seth Rich died. In April 2018, Twitter direct messages revealed that even as Assange was suggesting publicly that WikiLeaks had obtained emails from Seth Rich, Assange was trying to obtain more emails from Guccifer 2.0, who was at the time already suspected of being linked to Russian intelligence. "BuzzFeed" described the messages as "the starkest proof yet that Assange knew a likely Russian government hacker had the Democrat leaks he wanted. And they reveal the deliberate bad faith with which Assange fed the groundless claims that Rich was his source, even as he knew the documents' origin." Mike Gottlieb, a lawyer for Rich's brother, noted that WikiLeaks received the file of stolen documents from the Russian hackers on July 14, four days after Rich was shot. Gottlieb described the chronology as "damning".


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: The conspiracy theories were promoted by Mike Cernovich, Sean Hannity, Geraldo Rivera, Kim Dotcom, Paul Joseph Watson, Newt Gingrich, Jack Posobiec, Tim Pool, and others.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: The same venues that fomented the false Pizzagate conspiracy theory helped to promulgate the Seth Rich murder conspiracy theories, and each shared similar features. Both were promoted by individuals subscribing to far-right politics, and by campaign officials and individuals appointed to senior-level national security roles by Donald Trump. After prior coordination on Facebook, each theory was spread on Twitter by automated bots using a branded hashtag, with the goal of becoming a trending topic. Both the Pizzagate conspiracy theory and the Seth Rich murder conspiracy theory were spread in the subreddit forum /r/The_Donald. In both conspiracy theories, the promoters attempted to shift the burden of proof — asking others to attempt to disprove their claims, without citing substantiated evidence. "Slate"s Elliot Hannon called the claims about Seth Rich a "PizzaGate-like conspiracy theory surrounding Rich's death", "The Huffington Post" described it as "the 'alt-right' idiocy of Pizzagate all over again", NPR's David Folkenflik said Fox News coverage of it "evokes the pizza-gate terrible allegations utterly unfounded", and Margaret Sullivan wrote for "The Washington Post": "The Seth Rich lie has become the new Comet Ping Pong ... Crazy, baseless and dangerous."


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: On July 9, 2019, a Yahoo! News article stated that an alleged Russian Foreign Intelligence Service bulletin dated July 13, 2016 was the original source of the conspiracy theory. An analysis by the "Washington Post" disputed the conclusion while crediting the report for highlighting the roles played by "InfoWars", Fox News, and Hannity in promoting the misinformation.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: Law enforcement stated that the conspiracy theories were unfounded, while fact-checking websites like PolitiFact.com, Snopes.com, and FactCheck.org came to the conclusion that the theories were false and baseless.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: The Metropolitan Police Department of the District of Columbia described the murder as related to a bungled attempted robbery, and said "the assertions put forward by Mr. Wheeler are unfounded." Assistant Police Chief Peter Newsham said the police had no information suggesting a connection between Rich's death and data obtained by WikiLeaks, and MPD officers considered the murder to be the result of a botched robbery attempt. A spokesman for the Washington, D.C., mayor's office, who said, "All claims made by Mr. Wheeler are false and take fake news to a whole new level. The family deserves better and everyday MPD continues to work diligently to solve this case."


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: People who worked with Rich said he was not an expert computer hacker helping to leak information to foreigners. Andrew Therriault, a data scientist who had mentored Rich, said although he had recently been working as a programmer, he did not have a programming background; another co-worker said Rich was very upset when he heard hackers associated with Russian intelligence services had broken into the DNC computers and could be interfering with the election.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: Conspiracy theories falsely claimed that the FBI was investigating the case; in fact, the DC's MPD investigated the murder, and the FBI was not involved.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: Newt Gingrich promoted the conspiracy theory of a tie between Rich and Wikileaks, claiming that Rich "apparently was assassinated" subsequent to "having given WikiLeaks something like ... 53,000 [DNC] emails and 17,000 attachments". No evidence supported Gingrich's false and baseless claim, and there was no evidence of any link between Rich and Wikileaks.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: The fabrications were described as fake news and falsehoods by "The New York Times". "The New York Times" cited the conspiracy theories as an example of the persistence of false claims, concluding: "fake news dies hard". The "Los Angeles Times" called the conspiracy theories "unsubstantiated rumors".


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: "The Washington Post" cited the conspiracy theories as an example of the power of fake news to spread virally online. The paper used the example as a case study of the persistence of fake news, and found that television news media can be a soft target for such false stories. "The Washington Post" further found that the proliferation of fake news via Facebook had decreased, but remained powerful on Twitter due to spread via online bots. They found that the conspiracy theories with the largest potential to spread on the Internet were those that held attraction for both the alt-right movements and the political left wing. "The Washington Post" concluded that even if a particular false story had been sufficiently debunked, such fact-checking was unable to stop the spread of the falsehoods online.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: On May 15, 2017, Fox 5 DC (WTTG) reported the uncorroborated and later largely retracted claims by Rod Wheeler, a Fox News contributor and former homicide detective, that there was evidence Seth Rich had contacted WikiLeaks and that law enforcement were covering this up, claims that were never independently verified by Fox. The next day, Fox News published a lead story on its website and provided extensive coverage on its cable news channel about what it later said were Wheeler's uncorroborated claims about the murder of Seth Rich; in the lead story Fox News removed from their website a few days later, they stated that Wheeler's claims had been "corroborated by a federal investigator who spoke to Fox News." In reporting these claims, the Fox News report re-ignited conspiracy theories about the killing. According to NPR, within a day of the original Fox report, "Google searches for Rich had overtaken searches for James Comey, even amid continuous news about the former FBI director's conversations with Trump." "The Washington Post"s Callum Borchers noted Fox News chose to lead with this story at a time when most other media outlets were covering Donald Trump's disclosure of classified information to Russia.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: Other news organizations revealed Wheeler was a Donald Trump supporter, a paid Fox News contributor, and according to NBC News had "developed a reputation for making outlandish claims, such as one appearance on Fox News in 2007 in which he warned that underground networks of pink pistol-toting lesbian gangs were raping young women". "The Washington Post" noted it is "rare for a news organization to have such a close relationship with the people it is covering", as Wheeler was "playing three roles at once: as a Fox source, as a paid contributor to the network and as a supposedly independent investigator of the murder". When Wheeler appeared on Sean Hannity's Fox News shows, these multiple roles were not disclosed to viewers. After Wheeler's Fox News interview on May 15, 2017, Brad Bauman, a communications professional and spokesman for the Rich family, said the family was asking Fox News and the Fox affiliate to retract their reports and apologize for damaging their son's legacy.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: The family spokesperson, the Washington, D.C., police department, the Washington, D.C., mayor's office, the FBI, and law enforcement sources familiar with the case all disputed Wheeler's claims. The family said, "We are a family who is committed to facts, not fake evidence that surfaces every few months to fill the void and distract law enforcement and the general public from finding Seth's murderers." Bauman criticized Fox News for its reporting, saying he believed that the outlet was motivated by a desire to deflect attention from the Trump-Russia story: "I think there's a very special place in hell for people that would use the memory of a murder victim in order to pursue a political agenda."


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: Later that day, Wheeler told CNN he had no evidence that Rich had contacted Wikileaks. Wheeler claimed that Fox had presented his quotes misleadingly and that he only learned about the possible existence of the evidence from a Fox News reporter. Despite this, Sean Hannity's show and "Fox & Friends" continued to promote the conspiracy theory for the remainder of the week. On May 18, 2016, Hannity's guest on the show was Jay Sekulow who said that Rich's killing "... undercuts this whole Russia argument;" neither one mentioned that Sekulow had just been hired as one of Trump's lead lawyers in the Mueller investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections. Former House Speaker Newt Gingrich and Geraldo Rivera took part in spreading the conspiracy. Hannity had on his program Tom Fitton of Judicial Watch, who said the organization filed Freedom of Information Act requests for documents from Washington, D.C., mayor Muriel E. Bowser, and from the Metropolitan Police. Sean Hannity furthermore promoted the uncorroborated claims of Kim Dotcom, a New Zealand resident sought by the United States on fraud charges who claimed without evidence that Rich had been in contact with him before his death. Fox News host Julie Roginsky was critical of the conspiracy theory peddlers, stating on Twitter and on her television show: "The exploitation of a dead man whose family has begged conspiracy theorists to stop is really egregious. Please stop." Fox News was also criticized by conservative outlets, such as the "Weekly Standard", "National Review", and conservative columnists, such as Jennifer Rubin, Michael Gerson, and John Podhoretz. In September 2017, "NPR" noted that Fox News had yet to apologize for its false story or explain what went wrong; "When a story of this scale crumbles, most news organizations feel obligated to explain what happened and why. Not so far at Fox."


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: By November 2020, Malia Zimmermann, the reporter behind the retracted Fox News story, was no longer working at Fox.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: Fox News issued a retraction of the story on May 23, 2017, and removed the original article and did not apologize or specify what went wrong or how it did so. Despite this, Hannity, who pushed the theory, remained unapologetic, saying "I retracted nothing" and "I am not going to stop trying to find the truth." In their May 23 statement, Fox News said, "The article was not initially subjected to the high degree of editorial scrutiny we require for all our reporting. Upon appropriate review, the article was found not to meet those standards and has since been removed." Media ethics writer Kelly McBride criticized the retraction as "woefully inadequate", writing that it did not specify exactly what was inaccurate or provide correct information in place of the retracted story.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: The same day, Hannity stated on his show that he would cease discussing the issue. Hannity said his decision to cease commenting on the matter was related to the family of the murder victim: "Out of respect for the family's wishes, for now, I am not discussing the matter at this time." In the same statement wherein he promised to cease discussion of the topic, he vowed to pursue facts in the future: "I promise you I am not going to stop trying to find the truth." Several advertisers including Crowne Plaza Hotels, Cars.com, Leesa Mattress, USAA, Peloton and Casper Sleep pulled their marketing from his program on Fox News. Crowne Plaza Hotels later said that it was not their policy to advertise on political commentary shows and that they had not been aware of their sponsorship of the show. USAA soon returned to advertising on Fox News after receiving customer input.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: On August 1, 2017, Rod Wheeler, the private investigator hired by Butowsky who was the first to claim links between Seth Rich's murder and the DNC hack on Fox, but who later appeared to retract his claims, filed a lawsuit (Case 1:17-cv-05807 Southern District of New York) in which 21st Century Fox, the Fox News Channel, Fox News reporter Malia Zimmerman and Ed Butowsky were named as defendants, stating that quotes attributed to him in the original Fox News piece were fabricated. The lawsuit also alleged that the fabricated quotes were included in the Fox News story at the urging of the Trump White House.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: Text messages and audio apparently supporting this assertion were included in the filing of the lawsuit. About a month before the story was aired on Fox News, Wheeler and Butowsky met at the White House with the White House press secretary, Sean Spicer, to review the planned story on Seth Rich's murder. After talking to Wheeler and Butowsky, Zimmerman sent Wheeler a draft of a story without any quotes from Wheeler on May 11. On May 14, Butowsky texted Wheeler saying "Not to add any more pressure but the president just read the article. He wants the article out immediately. It's now all up to you. But don't feel the pressure." Butowsky also left a voicemail for Wheeler which said "We have the full, uh, attention of the White House on this. And tomorrow, let's close this deal, whatever we've got to do."


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: Butowsky said Seymour Hersh confirmed a link between Rich and the FBI. Hersh confirmed the conversation with Butowsky but told NPR the link was "gossip" and that Butowsky exaggerated its significance.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: In an email to Fox News, Butowsky also wrote about the purpose behind the Seth Rich story: "One of the big conclusions we need to draw from this is that the Russians did not hack our computer systems and ste[a]l emails and there was no collusion (between) Trump and the Russians." He also instructed Wheeler that "[T]he narrative in the interviews you might use is that you and [Zimmerman's] work prove that the Russians didn't hack into the DNC and steal the emails and impact our elections ... If you can, try to highlight this puts the Russian hacking story to rest."


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: When the story aired on Fox News, it included supposed quotes from Wheeler and was written as if the accusations against the DNC came from him. Wheeler alleges that the quotes were fabricated and should not have been attributed to him.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: In later recordings Butowsky told Wheeler that the claims being attributed to him were false but says that "One day you're going to win an award for having said those things you didn't say." He also says "I know that's not true, if I'm under oath, I would say I never heard him say that."


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: The lawsuit was dismissed in August 2018, alongside Rich's family lawsuit against Fox, with the presiding judge ruling that there was no evidence that Fox has manipulated claims he had made on recordings, while other statements that Wheeler claimed were defamatory were considered opinion. However, information learned from the discovery phase of the lawsuit on how Fox News was handling the story were subsequently used by Rich's family in its lawsuit against the network after they successfully appealed the dismissal.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: In May 2017, Seth Rich's brother Aaron Rich issued a statement saying, "We simply want to find his killers and grieve. Instead, we are stuck having to constantly fight against non-facts, baseless allegations, and general stupidity to defend my brother's name and legacy." The family spokesperson said "At this point, only people with transparent political agendas or sociopaths are still perpetuating Seth Rich conspiracies."


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: His parents authored a piece in "The Washington Post" on May 23, 2017, titled: "We're Seth Rich's parents. Stop politicizing our son's murder," in which they wrote:


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: In March 2018, Aaron Rich sued Butowsky, Couch, America First Media, and "The Washington Times" for suggesting he had played a role in the purported theft of emails from the DNC. On October 1, 2018, as part of a settlement they had reached with Aaron Rich, "The Washington Times" retracted the relevant articles and apologized to Rich and his family.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: In March 2018, Rich's family filed a lawsuit against Fox News, Fox reporter Malia Zimmerman, and Fox contributor Ed Butowsky, for publishing a news report about Seth Rich. The suit alleges that the report fueled conspiracy theories about Rich's death and caused the family emotional distress. Judge George B. Daniels dismissed the lawsuit in August 2018 alongside the case against Fox News from Wheeler. Judge Daniels ruled that, although it was reasonable for plaintiffs to believe their son's death was being used for political purposes, the plaintiffs failed to allege "intentional infliction" of emotional distress on the part of defendants, as that standard is determined under New York state law: "defamatory statements to news outlets 'fall well short of meeting the high standards for extreme and outrageous conduct.' They would have had to prove more extreme and persistent distress under the law."


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: The United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit overturned the dismissal in September 2019 saying, "the Riches plausibly alleged what amounted to a campaign of emotional torture." In subsequent proceedings, the Rich family used information from the failed Wheeler lawsuit to support further allegations towards Fox News. Among that information included the level of involvement that Butowsky had in preparing and coaching the Fox News hosts in the days before they broke their version of the Seth Rich story, his hiring of Wheeler, and his meeting with Spicer. On October 12, 2020, Fox News reached a settlement with the Rich family. The terms of the settlement were not disclosed, but were reported to be in the seven figures. The settlement also dismissed the actions against Zimmerman and Butowsky, which eliminated the need for Fox News hosts like Hannity and Dobbs to give testimony. The settlement contained the provision that it had to be kept secret for a month.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: In April 2018, the BBC broadcast the documentary "Conspiracy Files: Murder in Washington" examining the death of Rich and subsequent theories about the death.


title: Murder of Seth Rich

text: In May 2022, Netflix broadcast a documentary where an episode called "Web of Make Believe: Death, Lies and the Internet" which examines the murder of Seth Rich, a political staff member which goes into detail about the unfounded conspiracy theories and his family.


title: Rugrats (2021 TV series)

text: Rugrats is an American computer-animated streaming television series created by Arlene Klasky, Gábor Csupó, and Paul Germain. It has been described as both a revival and reboot of the original TV series of the same name that ran from 1991 to 2004. The series premiered on May 27, 2021, on Paramount+; it is the second Nickelodeon-based series created for the streaming service. As with previous incarnations of the franchise, the series is produced by Klasky Csupo.


title: Rugrats (2021 TV series)

text: Just like the original series, "Rugrats" focuses on the experiences of a courageous, adventurous one-year-old baby named Tommy Pickles and his group of playmates and other infants and toddlers.


title: Rugrats (2021 TV series)

text: The surviving voice actors of the titular "Rugrats" reprise their roles from the original series, though the adult roles from the original series have been recast, including Betty DeVille who was originally voiced by the returning Kath Soucie.


title: Rugrats (2021 TV series)

text: In early September 2015, it was announced on "Variety" that Nickelodeon may "seek to experiment with retooled versions of classics" that could include "Rugrats". The following day, "The Independent" announced that ""Rugrats" could soon be back on our screens too." In July 2016, it was revealed that Nickelodeon was in talks with Klasky Csupo and Paul Germain about a possible revival of the TV series.


title: Rugrats (2021 TV series)

text: In late July 2016, Arlene Klasky stated that she would be willing to work on a revival of the series, along with co-creators Gabor Csupó and Paul Germain. In October 2016, a Nickelodeon senior vice president stated in response to a fan question that "Rugrats" was among other shows being considered for revival.


title: Rugrats (2021 TV series)

text: In mid-July 2018, it was announced that Nickelodeon had given a series order to a 26-episode revival of the series, executive produced by Klasky, Csupó, and Germain. In May 2020, it was announced that the revival series was delayed until 2021.


title: Rugrats (2021 TV series)

text: In late February 2021, it was announced that the reboot would premiere on Paramount+ in late spring 2021. A sneak peek was also uploaded to social media platforms. In March, an all-new cast for the parents were revealed.


title: Rugrats (2021 TV series)

text: The reboot premiered on Paramount+ on May 27, 2021 and began airing on Nickelodeon on August 20, 2021. A second batch of episodes was released on October 7, 2021. Regular Nickelodeon airings began on February 25, 2022.


title: Rugrats (2021 TV series)

text: On September 21, 2021, the series was renewed for a 13-episode second season. The series has a holiday episode that was released on December 2, 2021.


title: Rugrats (2021 TV series)

text: On July 21, 2022, it was announced that an additional 13 episodes had been ordered for season two, and that the series was renewed for a 13-episode third season.


title: Rugrats (2021 TV series)

text: As a continuity reboot, the 2021 series has notable differences to the original 1991 series; some of which was done to accommodate the 30-year difference between the two. The most notable change came with the character Betty DeVille. Originally portrayed as a strong feminist woman with a "weak" husband in Howard, Betty is now portrayed as a lesbian, and Howard is absent. Betty's voice actress, Natalie Morales, stated about the change that "anyone who watched the original show may have had an inkling Betty was a member of the alphabet mafia."


title: Rugrats (2021 TV series)

text: Susie and the Carmichael family are already established as neighbors (as opposed to the 1991 series, when they debuted during its second season). Susie is also now two years old instead of three and is no longer able to talk to the adults. Charlotte Pickles also is present from the beginning; in the 1991 series, she did not appear until the second season, being an unseen character up until then. Kimi Watanabe is now three and a half years old, and has already moved with her mother Kira from Paris to the United States by the time she meets the cast. Kira and Chas meet in "Lucky Smudge", when it is revealed she won piano lessons he submitted for a raffle at a fair.


title: Rugrats (2021 TV series)

text: Fluffy, the cat already long belonging to Drew, Charlotte, and Angelica by the time of its first appearances in the original series, is adopted in "Fluffy Moves In" in this series.


title: Maanagaram

text: Maanagaram () is a 2017 Indian Tamil-language hyperlink action thriller film that was written and directed by Lokesh Kanagaraj, and produced by S. R. Prabhu. The film stars Sri, Sundeep Kishan, and Regina Cassandra, and its soundtrack was composed by Javed Riaz.


title: Maanagaram

text: Sri, an engineering graduate from small-town Trichy, arrives in Chennai to interview for an IT job in Business Process Outsourcing. Sri passes his interview with HR officer Regina Cassandra and celebrates at a bar with his friends.


title: Maanagaram

text: Another man at the bar, Sundeep Kishan, has had an unrequited love for Regina since they were in college. In a flashback, goons threaten to throw acid in Regina's face if she falls in love with Sundeep. Enraged, Sundeep punched one of the goons. In the present, the goons recognize Sundeep in the bar and hire some gang members to beat him. However, the gang members mistake Sri for their target and beat him when he leaves the bar, knocking him unconscious and stealing his phone and bag, throwing the latter into a taxi cab.


title: Maanagaram

text: Charle came to the city to seek medical treatment for his son while driving a taxi rented from gangster PKP. He finds Sri's bag in his taxi with his academic certificates, which he takes to the police station. In the morning, Sri awakens in the street and calls a friend to take him home. He boards a bus to his new job, to explain about his missing academic certificates.


title: Maanagaram

text: Sundeep boards the same bus to attend a job interview at Regina's company. He recognizes the goon who threatened Regina and attacks him with acid then escapes with his friends. Sri is detained by the police, having unwittingly passed the bottle of acid to Sundeep. Fatigued by the hostility of the city, Sri argues with the police inspector who beats him until a constable intervenes. The constable talks with Sri at a tea stall, where Sri recognizes the man who told him to pass the acid bottle, and the constable arrests him.


title: Maanagaram

text: The gang members plot to kidnap schoolboy Karthi for ransom, sending a man named Winnings to trick his teachers. Winnings is unprepared when there are five boys named Karthi, one of whom volunteers to go with Winnings in order to avoid a mathematics test. They take the boy but later realize he is the son of gangster PKP.


title: Maanagaram

text: Sri tells Regina that he no longer wants the job. She asks him to take the company's training so that she won't be held responsible for his quitting. They begin to argue about it and Sundeep, who is waiting for his interview, intervenes. The police arrive and take Sundeep away, saddening Regina who loves Sundeep but cannot accept his carefree nature. Sri tells Regina that he lost his academic certificates, and she agrees to cover for him for a day.


title: Maanagaram

text: PKP orders his henchmen to hunt down his enemies in a search for Karthi. The gang demand a  crore (10 million rupees) ransom and PKP agrees to follow their instructions. Meanwhile, Sundeep is released by the police inspector, who is his uncle. Sundeep waits for Regina at a bus stop outside her hostel. Regina sees Karthi, who had escaped the kidnappers, hiding in a truck and instructs Sundeep to take Karthi home. Sundeep tries to call PKP but his phone is off. He then meets his uncle and leaves Karthi in the police inspector's custody. Winnings, who is terrified of PKP, confesses the kidnapping to the inspector, who commands Winnings to go through with the ransom exchange. Sundeep arrives and realizes the situation. The inspector shoots PKP and tries to shoot Winnings but Sundeep shoots the inspector in the leg and instructs Winnings to take PKP and Karthi to the hospital.


title: Maanagaram

text: Meanwhile, Sri is riding in Charle's taxi when they are stopped and attacked by the gang who believe they are spying for PKP. They threaten to kill Charle if Sri does not bring PKP. To allow Charle to escape and take care of his sick son, Sri fights back against the gang who he recognizes as his attackers from the bar.


title: Maanagaram

text: Sri's lost academic certificates are returned to his home address. Outside the hospital, Sri and Sundeep each talk to their girlfriends. They are about to introduce themselves to each other when they are challenged by another gang hired by the goon Sundeep punched. Sundeep and Sri charge toward the gang to defend themselves.


title: Maanagaram

text: In April 2015, actor Sundeep Kishan began working on the project with writer and director Lokesh Kanagaraj, produced by S. R. Prabhu's production house Potential Studios. Sundeep had earlier expressed an interest in producing the film himself, but later became busy with other commitments. Lokesh had previously worked as a director in Karthik Subbaraj's anthology film project, "Aviyal" (2016), in which his short film "Kalam" was included. The story was discussed with associate directors Maharajothi, Krisha, Archana and Gopi, titled "Maanagaram" and promoted as a dark comedy thriller. Actor Sri and Regina Cassandra were signed on to play other lead roles, with filming beginning later that month. Actors Charle and Munishkanth were subsequently signed and the project was completed by September 2015. The film was revealed to be based on hyperlink cinema with Regina's role constant throughout the film. The film was shot and completed within a period of 46 days. Potential Studios began promoting the film in February 2016, but later postponed efforts until early 2017 to get a better date for a theatrical release.


title: Maanagaram

text: The film's score and soundtrack were composed by Javed Riaz. The album was released on 22 August 2016 as part of Madras Day celebrations. Riaz previously collaborated with Kanagaraj for a segment in "Aviyal". The song "Yendi Unna Pidikkuthu" was praised.


title: Maanagaram

text: Prior to release, the producers held preview shows for the film in Chennai. Both screenings were attended by film personalities, who widely praised the film.


title: Maanagaram

text: The film had a simultaneous release for its Telugu dubbed version, "Nagaram", while the Hindi dubbed version, "Dadagiri 2", was released in 2019 by Goldmines Telefilms. In 2020, the film was dubbed into Malayalam as "Metro City".


title: Maanagaram

text: The film became a commercial success at the box office, with screens being increased in its second week after it gained positive word-of-mouth reviews. After release, several other Tamil film personalities including Rajinikanth and Suriya voiced their praise for the film.


title: Maanagaram

text: The "Deccan Chronicle" called the film "an absorbing emotional thriller that is a must-watch", adding "with a solid story, deft handling and a seamless screenplay (despite a complex script), extracting the best of performances from the entire cast, picture-perfect frames (Selvakumar), engrossing music (Javed Riaz) and crisp editing (Philomin Raj), Lokesh has weaved a captivating thriller which is not to be missed". The satellite rights of the film were sold to STAR Vijay. Sify.com stated ""Maanagaram" is a gripping film that seizes your full attention" and that it was "one of most genuine films in recent times". Similarly, a critic from "The Times of India" noted "director Lokesh Kanagaraj gives us an exquisite, even-handed thriller — handsomely shot, tightly edited and propped up by a grungy score — that unobtrusively makes its points while narrating a gripping story". S. Shivakumar of "The Hindu" opined that "Each scene makes you eagerly await the next with a climax that is befitting". Baradwaj Rangan of "Film Companion" wrote "The air-tight deliberateness of this structure is given room to breathe by the randomness of the characters, who behave in ways we don’t expect."


title: Maanagaram

text: The film is being remade in Hindi as "Mumbaikar" by Santhosh Sivan with Vikrant Massey, Hridhu Haroon, and Tanya Maniktala playing the lead roles. Vijay Sethupathi will reprise Munishkanth's role in the film.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: Angelos Postecoglou (, ; born 27 August 1965) is an Australian association football manager and former player, who is the current manager of Scottish Premiership club Celtic.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: Born in Greece, he moved to Melbourne at the age of five. He spent most of his club career as a defender for South Melbourne Hellas, and played four games for the Australia national team in the late 1980s. He began managing at South Melbourne Hellas in 1996, winning the National Soccer League in twice and the OFC Champions League in 1999. He then led the national under-17 and under-20 teams.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: Postecoglou managed Brisbane Roar and Melbourne Victory in the A-League, winning the Premiership in 2011 and the Championship in 2011 and 2012 for the former. He was the senior national manager from 2013 to 2017, winning the AFC Asian Cup in 2015 and also going to the 2014 FIFA World Cup. He won the J1 League with Yokohama F. Marinos in 2019 and the Scottish Premiership and Scottish League Cup for Celtic in 2021–22.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: Postecoglou was born in the Nea Filadelfia neighbourhood of Athens, Greece. After his father, Dimitris ("Jim"), lost his business following the 1967 Greek military coup, Postecoglou emigrated to Australia by boat in 1970 at the age of five, growing up in Melbourne, Victoria.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: Postecoglou rose through the youth ranks to play 193 games from 1984 to 1993 for them in the National Soccer League as a one-club player.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: As a player, he was involved in their 1984 and 1990–91 titles, the latter as captain in a famous win over rivals Melbourne Knights. He was coached by Hungarian Ferenc Puskás, a renowned player who his father had told him about as a child. According to Postecoglou, Puskás played a 4–3–3 formation with rigid full-backs and attacking wingers. Postecoglou built on this strategy in his own coaching, however his use of attacking full backs in a non-traditional inverted position differs from Puskás.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: A knee injury would prematurely end Postecoglou's promising career. In 2000, Postecoglou would be named as the starting left back in South Melbourne's team of the century as voted by fans and an expert panel.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: Postecoglou represented Australia at a senior level four times between 1986 and 1988 as well as representing Australia at youth level in 1985.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: Following his retirement, Postecoglou took up the role of an assistant coach at South Melbourne. Postecoglou gained the head coaching position in 1996, following the firing of Frank Arok.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: He led South to consecutive National Soccer League titles in 1997–98 (ending a 7-year drought) and 1998–99, as well as winning the 1999 Oceania Club Championship, which in turn led to South's participation in the 2000 FIFA Club World Championship.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: After the 1999–2000 NSL season, he stood down from the South Melbourne coaching role when he was appointed coach of the Australian youth team. He is the only person to have been involved in all four of South Melbourne's NSL title-winning teams, the first two as a player and the latter two as coach.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: Following his domestic coaching success, Postecoglou became coach of Australia's youth sides in 2000. During his tenure, he played a role in identifying and developing Australian players. Postecoglou was involved in an on-air argument with football pundit Craig Foster on The World Game. He was replaced as coach in February 2007 after Australia failed to qualify for the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup. After his departure as coach of the Australian youth teams, Postecoglou worked as a football pundit for Fox Sports and as an elite consultant to Football Federation Victoria.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: Feeling that his much-publicised argument with Foster had made him unemployable, Postecoglou coached Panachaiki in the Greek third division, and Whittlesea Zebras back in Melbourne, while running coaching clinics in the city.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: On 16 October 2009, Postecoglou was signed as the new Brisbane Roar coach, replacing Frank Farina. Postecoglou started rebuilding the team by releasing Liam Reddy, Craig Moore, Bob Malcolm and Charlie Miller. Tommy Oar, Michael Zullo and Adam Sarota were bought by Dutch club FC Utrecht and striker Sergio van Dijk went to Adelaide United. Postecoglou, who asked to be judged a year from the time he took over, proved the critics wrong by winning and playing an entertaining brand of football.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: The 4–0 win against Adelaide United in round 13 was highly praised in the media as some of the best football the A-League has ever seen. Postecoglou led the Roar to the Premiership and Championship in the 2010–11 season, winning the Grand Final 4–2 on penalties against the Central Coast Mariners in front of 52,168 people at Lang Park. The Roar only lost one game all season and went on a 36-game unbeaten run, which broke the previous Australian football record. On 18 March 2011, he signed a two-year extension with the club keeping him until the 2013–14 season.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: In the 2011–12 season, Brisbane Roar became the first team to win back-to-back A-League championships and Postecoglou became the most successful Australian domestic football (soccer) coach, with four national titles.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: On 24 April 2012, Postecoglou announced his resignation as head coach of Brisbane Roar. Postecoglou left the Roar after two-and-a-half years, during which he led the club to back-to-back A-League championships, a premiership and consecutive qualification for the AFC Champions League.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: On 26 April 2012, it was announced that he had signed a three-year contract with A-League club Melbourne Victory as head coach. Postecoglou started rebuilding the team by releasing Matthew Kemp, Grant Brebner, Rodrigo Vargas, Tom Pondeljak, Ante Čović, Carlos Hernández, Harry Kewell and Fabio Alves, with Jean Carlos Solórzano and Ubay Luzardo returned to their respective clubs after their loan deals had expired. Postecoglou rounded up his squad by signing Jonathan Bru, Guilherme Finkler, Adama Traoré, Marcos Flores, Mark Milligan, Theo Markelis, Sam Gallagher and Spase Dilevski.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: Postecoglou's first game in charge of Melbourne Victory was the Round 1 clash against crosstown rivals Melbourne Heart, an encounter which the Victory lost 2–1. His first win came against Adelaide United in Round 4, with the Victory prevailing 2–1. The following year, Melbourne Victory made the A-League Preliminary Final after beating Perth Glory in an Elimination Final 2–1 at Docklands Stadium. Melbourne Victory then played in the Preliminary Final against Central Coast Mariners and lost 2–0.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: Postecoglou was appointed head coach of the Australia national team on 23 October 2013 on a five-year contract, replacing German Holger Osieck. Postecoglou was tasked with regenerating the Australian national team, which was deemed to have been too reliant on members of their Golden Generation of 2006, subsequently leading to a stagnation of results that culminated in successive 6–0 defeats to Brazil and France. In his first game as Australia's manager, a home friendly match against Costa Rica, Australia won 1–0, courtesy of a goal from Tim Cahill.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: For the 2014 FIFA World Cup, Australia were drawn in Group B alongside holders Spain, 2010 runners-up the Netherlands and Chile. The team lost to Chile 3–1 and the Netherlands 3–2 to be eliminated from Group B, and concluded with a 3–0 loss to also eliminated Spain. Australia's competitive performances in a difficult group led to belief that a new Golden Generation was about to begin.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: Postecoglou coached Australia in 2015 AFC Asian Cup, where they beat Kuwait (4–1) and Oman (4–0), but lost to South Korea (0–1) in the group stage. They then beat China 2–0 in the quarter-final and the United Arab Emirates 2–0 in the semi-final. Australia beat South Korea 2–1 after extra time to win in the final for its first AFC Asian Cup.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: Two weeks after Australia qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, on 22 November 2017, Postecoglou announced his resignation as Socceroos coach.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: On 19 December 2017 Yokohama F. Marinos announced they had appointed Postecoglou as head coach at the Succession of the 2017 Japanese Emperor's Cup. Postecoglou's first domestic game as coach of Yokohama ended with a 1–1 draw against Cerezo Osaka at Yanmar Stadium, Osaka. After an initial difficult start to the season, which saw Yokohama F. Marinos facing potential relegation, Postecoglou guided the club to the final of the J-League Cup, and a 12th place finish in the league. Although the club finished with the second highest number of goals scored in the season, they also conceded the third most goals of any club during the season.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: After receiving interest from the Greece national team to become their new manager, Postecoglou extended his contract with Yokohama F. Marinos. Yokohama's belief in Postecoglou was rewarded during the 2019 season when he guided the club to their first J. League title in 15 years. In doing so, he became the first Australian manager to win a league title in Japan.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: Postecoglou became the manager of Scottish Premiership club Celtic on 10 June 2021, signing a 12-month rolling contract, making him the first Australian manager to coach a major club in Europe. Celtic, who had just lost their league title to Rangers for the first time in a decade, had abruptly missed out on hiring English manager Eddie Howe. The new appointment was mocked by Celtic fan and Talksport presenter Alan Brazil, who apologised on his show a year later, after Postecoglou had won the league. Australian Celtic player Tom Rogic reflected on the atmosphere at the appointment: "I laugh sometimes when I look back. Although I knew him quite well, there was a perception of: 'Who's this guy?'".


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: Postecoglou made his debut in a UEFA Champions League qualifier on 20 July, drawing 1–1 against Danish Superliga club FC Midtjylland; a 2–1 loss in the second leg in Denmark led to elimination eight days later. He lost his first league game 2–1 away to Heart of Midlothian on 31 July.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: On 19 December 2021, Celtic won the Scottish League Cup after defeating Hibernian 2–1 at Hampden Park in the final. The following 2 February, a 3–0 win over rivals Rangers put Celtic to the top of the league table for the first time in the season, ending a 13-game unbeaten start for opposing manager Giovanni van Bronckhorst. Having not let their lead slip, the league title was sealed on 11 May with a game remaining, after a 1–1 draw at Dundee United. Postecoglou became the first Australian to win a league title in Europe. He was the league Manager of the Month five times in his first season, for October 2021 and January to April 2022, while winning the PFA Scotland Manager of the Year and SFWA Manager of the Year.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: Postecoglou grew up in Melbourne, Victoria. From an early age he started playing Australian rules football and became a lifelong supporter of the Carlton Football Club in the Australian Football League.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: Postecoglou is married to Georgia, who worked at South Melbourne as a marketing manager when he served as manager of the club. Together they have three sons, James, Max and Alexi.


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: He said in a 2018 interview that his father, who died the very same year, worked hard every day of his life: "People say they go to another country for a better life. My parents did not have a better life, they went to Australia to provide opportunities for me to have a better life." Father and son had time together only during their outings together to association football games, from where young Ange got a life-long "fascination" with the sport. He said of his management "My motivation is always to produce teams [my] dad would enjoy watching."


title: Ange Postecoglou

text: In November 2022, Postecoglou was inducted into the Football Australia Hall of Fame for his outstanding contribution to Australian football on and off the field as a player and as a coach.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Myles Richard Bass (born November 27, 1969), known professionally as Myles Kennedy, is an American singer, guitarist, and songwriter. He is the lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist of the rock band Alter Bridge and the lead vocalist in guitarist Slash's backing band, known as Myles Kennedy and the Conspirators. A former guitar instructor from Spokane, Washington, Kennedy has worked as a session musician and songwriter, making both studio and live appearances with several artists, and has been involved with several projects throughout his career.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Born in Boston, Massachusetts, and raised in Northern Idaho and Spokane, Kennedy attended Spokane Falls Community College to study music theory. He began his music career in 1990 as the lead guitarist of the instrumental jazz ensemble Cosmic Dust, with which he released one studio album. His second band, Citizen Swing, released two studio albums before disbanding in 1996. With fellow Citizen Swing member Craig Johnson, Kennedy founded the rock band The Mayfield Four, for which he provided lead vocals and guitar. The band released two studio albums and broke up in 2002. After declining an offer to audition as the lead vocalist of Velvet Revolver, he was asked to join Alter Bridge by Mark Tremonti in late 2003, formally joining in 2004, and he has been with the band ever since. He has released seven studio albums with Alter Bridge.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: While Alter Bridge was on tour in 2008, Kennedy and former members of Led Zeppelin met and improvised as a group in an informal jam session, but the band never fully materialized. He then started working with Slash, featuring on the guitarist's 2010 eponymous solo album on two tracks and later serving as Slash's vocalist on tour.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: In 2012, Kennedy filled in with short notice for Guns N' Roses lead singer Axl Rose when Rose refused to show up for the band's Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction ceremony.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: With Slash, Myles Kennedy and the Conspirators have recorded three studio albums. Kennedy's debut solo album, "Year of the Tiger", was released in 2018, and his second solo album, "The Ides of March", was released in 2021.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Kennedy was born as Myles Richard Bass on November 27, 1969, in Boston, Massachusetts, and subsequently lived in Northern Idaho. As a child, he moved to Spokane, Washington, where he grew up in a Christian Science family on a farm. His father, Richard Bass, died when he was four years old and his mother subsequently went on to marry a Methodist minister, and the family took the surname Kennedy. Before Kennedy attended Mead High School (which he attended with football player Jason Hanson and Everclear bassist Craig Montoya), he found musical inspiration from Led Zeppelin, Marvin Gaye, Stevie Wonder, and John Sykes' Blue Murder band. Kennedy began playing trumpet at the age of ten and was in a teen air guitar band with then best friends Michael Murphy, Mark Terzenbach and Bruce Kidd at 13. He later traded for a real guitar copying the playing style of Jimmy Page.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: He found his singing voice by listening to his parents' Marvin Gaye and Stevie Wonder records, and also states that he was influenced by Robert Plant. He played guitar in the school's jazz band and trumpet in the school's marching band. He also spent some time playing in a local heavy metal band called Bittersweet with some of his friends Zia Uddin on drums, Jason Stewart as lead vocal, Mark Terzenbach (and later, Chris Steffens) on bass and Myles on lead guitar. After graduating in 1988, he enrolled in Spokane Falls Community College to study music.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Upon graduating from high school in 1988, Kennedy enrolled in a Commercial Music/Jazz Studies program at Spokane Falls Community College. Using the skills he learned from this course, in 1990 he began playing guitar for a jazz group called the Cosmic Dust Fusion Band, which was formed by keyboardist Jim Templeton in 1990. Kennedy's guitar work with Cosmic Dust was advanced; using his knowledge of jazz theory in conjunction with his advanced technical abilities, interweaving difficult techniques such as chord changes on impulse and precise shredding with rock music, he became a well-respected guitarist among local musicians. Cosmic Dust's first album, "Journey", was released in 1991. The album was well received by critics. In 1993, the song "Spiritus" was awarded the Washington State Artist Trust Grant for $5,000.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: After the release of "Journey", Kennedy left Cosmic Dust to begin working on a new band that would become Citizen Swing, for which Kennedy provided both lead vocals and lead guitar. They were described as "a band that combined the sounds of funk, soul, R&B, blues and alternative into a unique and cohesive sound" and as " meets Stevie Wonder and then some." They released their first album, "Cure Me with the Groove", in 1993. This album featured Kennedy (who helped produce the album), rhythm guitarist Craig Johnson, bassist Dave Turner (also of Cosmic Dust), drummer/percussionist Mike Tschirgi, and trumpeter Geoff Miller. Citizen Swing's second and final album was called "Deep Down" and was released in 1995. The band disbanded the same year. All the music and lyrics on that album were written by Kennedy. "Journey", "Cure Me with the Groove", and "Deep Down" are rare albums and are sought after by fans.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: In 1995, Kennedy started teaching guitar in a store called Rock City Music. By August 1996, he became the lead vocalist and lead guitarist of The Mayfield Four, a rock band he formed with his childhood friends Zia Uddin, Marty Meisner, and Craig Johnson (also of Citizen Swing). They signed a contract with Epic Records thanks to a critically acclaimed demo called "Thirty Two Point Five Hours" that the band recorded in 1996, followed by a live extended play called "Motion" in 1997. The Mayfield Four's debut album, "Fallout", was supported with a fifteen-month tour with bands such as Creed, Big Wreck, and Stabbing Westward. The album was praised by critics, but it failed to chart, and ultimately became the only album by the band to feature rhythm guitarist Craig Johnson, who was fired from the band due to undisclosed reasons.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Following the "Fallout" tour, Kennedy made an appearance in the 2001 drama film "Rock Star" starring Mark Wahlberg and Jennifer Aniston. He said that he got a call from his manager telling him that the filmmakers needed someone who could sing high and that his name was suggested. On the set of the film, he met Wahlberg along with Zakk Wylde and Jason Bonham, who also appeared in the movie alongside several other notable musicians. Kennedy was the only actor in the movie whose actual singing voice was used. In the movie, directly paralleling a scene at the beginning of the film, Kennedy's character (Mike, also known as "Thor") is noticed by Wahlberg's character, Chris "Izzy" Cole, the lead singer of Thor's favorite band, Steel Dragon. Izzy pulls Thor onstage and sings the rest of the song with him, eventually telling him to finish the rest of the band's concert. The film was met with mostly mixed reviews, garnering a 52% "Rotten" score on Rotten Tomatoes.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: The Mayfield Four's second and final album, "Second Skin", was released in June 2001. Kennedy has since said that it is one of the most personal records he has made. The album has been critically acclaimed and Kennedy has commented on how it and "Fallout" are much more popular now than when they were released.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Though popular, The Mayfield Four never garnered enough exposure to break into the mainstream. In 2002, the future of the band began to look unlikely, and Kennedy began recording new music, which he described as "Daniel Lanois meets Massive Attack." The band went on hiatus that year, and would ultimately disband. In an interview with "Pulse Weekly" in 2004, Kennedy said that it was because he was "burned out with the whole rock industry at that point." However, three previously unreleased songs appeared on a fan-run Myspace page dedicated to and approved by The Mayfield Four in early 2010, causing rumors of a possible reunion to begin circulating. However, when asked about this during an interview, Kennedy replied that he does not see it happening.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: After The Mayfield Four's unforeseen breakup, and due to a hearing disorder called tinnitus that he developed because of listening to music that he was recording at earsplitting volumes, Kennedy fell into depression in 2002. He said about music, "I can't do it any more. My ears won't let me." He said that he had grown "disillusioned with music and the music business," so he took a hiatus from playing music and went back to teaching guitar.<ref name="11/30/10 interview"></ref> However, in 2002, he was contacted by former Guns N' Roses guitarist Slash, who was looking for a vocalist for a band he was forming, but Kennedy declined the offer. Other sources state that Kennedy had sent in a demo tape but still ultimately declined an invitation to audition after being approached by Matt Sorum. Kennedy recalls, "They had reached out to me in 2002 when they were just getting together. They had sent me a demo tape, and I kind of sat on it for a month, and I didn't really follow up on it."


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Kennedy is best known as the lead vocalist and one of the two lead guitarists in the band, alongside Mark Tremonti, of the American hard rock band Alter Bridge. The band's origins lie in late 2003 when Kennedy was contacted by former Creed guitarist Mark Tremonti, who was interested in having Kennedy lay down vocal tracks for some songs he had recently written. Tremonti and drummer Scott Phillips had reunited with former bassist Brian Marshall who had left Creed in 2000 to form a new band. Alter Bridge, taking its name from an actual bridge that used to be located near Tremonti's home in Detroit, was officially formed in January 2004. Coinciding with the official announcement of Alter Bridge's formation was an announcement regarding their debut album, "One Day Remains", along with the release of that album's lead single, "Open Your Eyes." "One Day Remains" was released in 2004 on Wind-up Records. It received generally mixed to negative reviews and was certified Gold by the RIAA. Two other singles, "Find the Real" and "Broken Wings" were released. "One Day Remains" was the only album by a band with Kennedy as an official member that does not feature his guitar playing, before his 2014 album "World On Fire" as a part of Slash featuring Myles Kennedy and the Conspirators.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Following a successful tour in support of the album, Alter Bridge announced plans for a second release. The album, "Blackbird", was released in 2007 on Universal Republic to mostly positive reviews. Unlike "One Day Remains", which was largely written by Tremonti, "Blackbird" featured Kennedy's guitar playing as well as more of his songwriting contributions. Alter Bridge toured in support of "Blackbird" throughout 2007 and 2008, recording a concert film titled "Live from Amsterdam" and releasing it in 2009 via Amazon.com. It would later be released in stores in early 2011 after several delays.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Alter Bridge took a temporary break in early 2009 with its members working on other projects, but the band continued writing music throughout the year. The band regrouped later that year to begin work on their third album, "AB III", which was released in 2010 on Roadrunner Records worldwide, except for North America where the album was self-released on Alter Bridge Recordings via EMI. For the album, Kennedy chose to write lyrics based on his own personal experiences with faith and believing. As such, it is lyrically the band's darkest album, with Kennedy calling it the most personal album he had made since The Mayfield Four's "Second Skin". "AB III" has received critical acclaim. A second concert film, "Live at Wembley", was released on March 26, 2012. The band reunited in late 2012 and recorded from April to July 2013 their fourth album titled "Fortress", which was released on September 30, 2013. The band reconvened in January 2016 and, through that July, recorded their fifth album "The Last Hero", which was released on October 7, 2016. "Walk the Sky" was released on October 18, 2019.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Having joined Alter Bridge primarily as lead vocalist, Kennedy began to play rhythm guitar during live performances following the release of "One Day Remains". He has since played rhythm guitar on the band's subsequent studio releases, and also played lead tracks on a number of songs and during live performances.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Kennedy received a great amount of press coverage in late 2008, owing to a rumour that he was to join Led Zeppelin.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: After Zeppelin's one-off reunion in 2007, guitarist Jimmy Page and bassist John Paul Jones reportedly felt the band "still had something to offer." As reported by BBC News, Page and Jones were in the studio with Jason Bonham writing and recording material that was reportedly to be used for a new Zeppelin album. According to Bonham, singer Robert Plant was not involved. Page, Jones, and Bonham auditioned singers, fuelling rumours when they were reported to have attended an Alter Bridge concert. Twisted Sister frontman Dee Snider said that they were offering Kennedy the job to persuade Plant to reconsider. Alter Bridge guitarist Mark Tremonti said Kennedy "deserves" to play with Zeppelin.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Kennedy remained mostly silent about the rumours until January 2009. "I am not singing in Led Zeppelin or any offshoot of Led Zeppelin," he said. "I did have a great opportunity and it was something that I'm very grateful for. But Alter Bridge will go on, and that's that." He later confirmed, however, that he had written and rehearsed with Page, Jones and Bonham. He also said that it was Bonham who "got the ball rolling", since the two had met on the set of the 2001 film "Rock Star".


title: Myles Kennedy

text: "Working with them felt surreal," he recalled a decade later. "Jimmy played the Les Paul, and just being in the room with that guitar would have been enough for me. But standing next to him as he's playing those iconic riffs, the hairs on the back of my neck are standing up. We played 'No Quarter', 'Kashmir'… We did 'Carouselambra', which was a really challenging arrangement. A lot of wonderful moments."


title: Myles Kennedy

text: It is unconfirmed if the songs he wrote with Page, Jones, and Bonham will ever be released. Kennedy maintains that the band, had it materialised, would not have been called Led Zeppelin.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Kennedy has performed two solo benefit concerts: one hosted by Paul Reed Smith and PRS Guitars to benefit cancer patients, and another to benefit abused children. The latter was called Bofest 2009 and was headlined by Kennedy on October 17, 2009. In early 2009, Kennedy announced a solo side project. He described the material as "dreamy" and "[not] aggressive", saving those songs for Alter Bridge. He also said, "It's more singer/songwriter based. I will say it's going to be interesting." He later posted on his Myspace page that he is working with some "great people" and that he has details coming at a future date. Slash announced via Facebook on February 1, 2010, that he would be appearing on Kennedy's solo record, and Kennedy confirmed this via Myspace. Kennedy had originally hoped that his album would be released in early 2010, digitally first and then on CD, but he has since put its release on hold. However, he recently said that he is still too busy to release the album as he stated that he would like to tour to promote it, but he wanted to release it on December 21, 2012, as a joke, although a firm release date has not yet been announced.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: When asked if the record would be a departure from his previous work, he replied that it is different and again referred to the singer-songwriter approach that would be featured on it and that it would not be a hard rock album. He also said that "it was maybe the most difficult thing I've ever done in the sense that I didn't have a band." He also said that the music is very intimate and that it features piano as well. In an interview with "Guitarist" UK magazine, he said that some of the songs will feature jazz, blues, and R&B influences, while others still "get quite atmospheric and ethereal," comparing the sound to Daniel Lanois and Massive Attack, while assuring fans that the rock style will still be present. In the same "Guitarist" interview, he confirmed the titles of three songs that will appear on his record: "The Light of Day", "Complicated Man", and "The Bar Fly". Most recently, he confirmed that another song will be titled "Love Rain Down". He said in an interview with CraveOnline that "Love Rain Down" differs from anything else he has ever written. In 2017, he said he shelved the songs he had written and started over. His debut solo album, "Year of the Tiger", was released on March 9, 2018. Kennedy's second solo album, "The Ides of March", was released on May 14, 2021.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Kennedy has become very well known for his collaborations with Guns N' Roses lead guitarist Slash. In late 2009, it was reported that they would be working together on Slash's self-titled debut solo album. Slash later confirmed that Kennedy was chosen to sing and co-write the final song, "Starlight", on his album. Other musicians who appeared on the album include Ozzy Osbourne, Adam Levine of Maroon 5, Dave Grohl of the Foo Fighters, Kid Rock, and Chris Cornell of Soundgarden. Then, according to MusicRadar, Slash asked Kennedy to co-write and sing another song, "Back from Cali", which was added to the album at the last minute, making him the only musician to appear on more than one song on the album's standard track listing. The album was released in April 2010.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: On February 3, 2010, Slash announced that Kennedy would be the lead vocalist for his band on tour. On tour, Kennedy performed a number of songs found throughout Slash's catalog. Slash and Kennedy were also the supporting act on Ozzy Osbourne's tour in 2010. The other members of Slash's band are rhythm guitarist Bobby Schneck (replaced as of the Apocalyptic Love tour with Frank Sidoris), bassist Todd Kerns (formerly of Age of Electric), and drummer Brent Fitz (formerly of Theory of a Deadman). In late 2010, Kennedy and Slash appeared on "That Metal Show", a talk show on VH1 Classic. On November 14, 2011, Slash released a concert film and live album titled "Made in Stoke 24/7/11" featuring Kennedy and the rest of his band.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Slash's second solo album featured Myles Kennedy, this time as the sole vocalist. It was also announced that band mates Bobby Schneck, Todd Kerns, and Brent Fitz, along with Slash, would complete the lineup for the album. In an interview with MusicRadar, Slash confirmed that it would be less of an actual solo album and more of a collaboration album with Kennedy, and that he was not sure if the album will be billed to Slash or a new name entirely. As of December 2011, three songs had been recorded: "Halo", "Standing in the Sun", and "Bad Rain". Slash has described the music as "very heavy". The album was released on May 22, 2012. A behind-the-scenes video was also released with this announcement. Titled "Apocalyptic Love", the album will be billed to "", featuring Kennedy, Kerns, and Fitz as members of Slash's band. The band performed the album in its entirety on April 11, 2012, at the "Revolver" Golden God Awards. The first single, "You're a Lie", was released to rock radio on February 27, 2012; a 30-second preview of the song was released online. Kennedy has reportedly said that some of the lyrics on the album are about his earlier experiences with drugs. On April 14, 2012, Kennedy performed three Guns N' Roses songs with five former members of Guns N' Roses during their Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction in Axl Rose's absence. In 2013, he also toured with Kings of Chaos, along with Slash and other ex-Guns N' Roses members. The band's second collective album "World on Fire", produced by Michael "Elvis" Baskette, was released on September 16, 2014. The band's third album "Living the Dream", again produced by Michael "Elvis" Baskette, was released on September 21, 2018. The fourth record, titled "4" and produced by Dave Cobb, was released on February 11, 2022.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Kennedy is further well known for his work as a session musician and songwriter, having collaborated with several artists. In 2001, he appeared on the album "Striped Suit: Lo-Fi" by the jazz-rock band Mulligan, playing guitar solos on the songs "Faron" and "Make It Three". In that same year, he provided backing vocals to the song "Breakthrough" by Big Wreck from "The Pleasure and the Greed". He also worked with the Spokane based nu-metal band Five Foot Thick on their 2003 album "Blood Puddle", providing backing vocals to the song "Ducked Out". In 2005, he sang the chorus of "Nameless Faceless" by Fozzy with Fozzy frontman Chris Jericho from their album "All That Remains". In 2008, he sang a duet with Sevendust lead vocalist Lajon Witherspoon on Sevendust's song "Sorrow" from "". Also in 2008, Kennedy made a guest appearance on Mark Tremonti's guitar instructional DVD "The Sound & the Story", to which Kennedy provided an in-depth lesson on how to play his guitar solo on the Alter Bridge song "Blackbird". In 2009, he appeared on Slash's self-titled album, co-writing and singing lead vocals on the songs "Back from Cali" and "Starlight". In addition, he has made live appearances with Sevendust and Gov't Mule. In 2011 it was announced that he will appear on a planned tribute album to Tommy Bolin. Further details were announced in January 2012 that the album would be called "". It was released on March 27, 2012, on 429 Records, and Kennedy appeared on a song called "Dreamer" with Nels Cline of Wilco. Other contributors include Steve Lukather, Joe Bonamassa, Peter Frampton, and Glenn Hughes. In 2016, he collaborated with rapper Darryl McDaniels and Disturbed bassist John Moyer on the song "Flames". Also in 2016, he sang on "Black & White" on the Richards/Crane debut album, "World Stands Still".


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Kennedy is influenced by a wide range of artists of several genres. His earliest influence was Led Zeppelin, although he drew his singing influences from jazz, blues, rhythm and blues, and soul artists when he discovered Stevie Wonder and Marvin Gaye albums in his parents' record collection. He said that he owned Stevie Wonder's 1982 compilation album "Stevie Wonder's Original Musiquarium I", which was one of his earliest inspirations as a singer. From there, he discovered "Songs in the Key of Life", which he has since stated is one of his favorite albums, and today cites Stevie Wonder as a major influence on his singing. He has also cited other jazz players and soul singers John Coltrane, Al Green, Mike Stern, Miles Davis, Otis Redding, Frank Gambale, Pat Metheny, Lyle Mays, and Curtis Mayfield as early influences. He also loves blues music. Additional influences include Guns N' Roses, U2, AC/DC, Mastodon, and Radiohead.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Kennedy's favorite singers include Jeff Buckley, Robert Plant, Bon Scott, Chris Whitley, and k.d. lang. He has stated on several occasions that Jeff Buckley was, and is, a major influence on him as a singer. When asked to describe his vocal style, he said, "I wanted to fuse together my favorite elements of rock and soul singers into something I could call my own. The inflections of Stevie Wonder with the soaring qualities of someone like Buckley." He states that Buckley's "emotional intensity" was one of the most inspirational things for him when it came to singing, and that it made him accept and embrace the fact that he is a tenor. He often performs Buckley's famous cover of "Hallelujah" (originally by Leonard Cohen) during acoustic performances. At one point, he received lessons from Ron Anderson, a bel canto vocal coach who has worked with a wide range of singers, including Axl Rose, Shania Twain, Enrique Iglesias, Chris Cornell, Ozzy Osbourne, Eddie Vedder, Kelly Clarkson, and several others. When asked about his number one secret when it came to singing, Kennedy replied, "Dig deep into your soul and sing as if your life depends on it. Leave your mark. People react to emotion more than technique." Kennedy, who possesses a four-octave vocal range, has been praised for his ability as a singer. Velvet Revolver guitarist Slash, whose touring band consists of Kennedy, has called him "fucking amazing", calling his style "surreal". About Kennedy's ability to recreate Guns N' Roses songs on tour, Slash said, "Myles is fucking amazing. It's very surreal how he handles the stuff he sings. I'm doing GN'R songs I've never done solo before, and Myles manages to own them without changing the style or trajectory of the song. Which is a fantastic fucking ability." Kennedy is often compared to Soundgarden vocalist Chris Cornell.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Kennedy, a former guitar instructor, is also recognized as an accomplished guitarist. He began learning how to play the guitar by listening to Led Zeppelin records and mimicking Jimmy Page's guitar parts. He said in an interview, "I started off strictly as a lead guitar player. When I first started playing 25 years ago, that was all I’d do is sit in my room and learn solos." He also recalled being inspired by Eddie Van Halen: "When I was in my early teens, I heard 'Eruption' one day and was like, 'That is the most incredible thing I’ve ever heard,' and I begged my mother to give me an advance on my allowance for the next month and go buy that record." Over the next few years, and throughout the 1990s, Kennedy played primarily lead guitar. His early work with Cosmic Dust and Citizen Swing featured a jazz-influenced rock flavor, combining several advanced techniques used in jazz. He would later join Alter Bridge primarily as a lead vocalist, but began playing rhythm guitar on the band's first tour. Mark Tremonti said, "We knew Myles was an amazing singer, that’s why we hired him. What we found out when we toured the first record was that he’s also an incredibly gifted guitar player and songwriter, as well as a vocalist."


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Kennedy played rhythm guitar on "Blackbird" and has since played co-lead on several Alter Bridge tracks. In an article about Kennedy as a guitarist on "Lemon Squeezings", writer Steve Sauer noted his dexterity and steady rhythm playing. Doug Clark, a writer for "The Spokesman-Review" and one of Kennedy's former guitar students, wrote that "his six-string skills are pyrotechnically brilliant." Kennedy notes that his job as a guitar player, especially recently with Alter Bridge, is to add texture and colors to the music.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: In addition, Kennedy is the primary lyricist of Alter Bridge and his previous band, The Mayfield Four. His lyrics, which are usually fairly straightforward stylistically, often touch on dark subjects such as death and addiction. On Alter Bridge's first two albums (the lyrics of the former were primarily written by Tremonti, however), the lyrics are about "hope and perseverance in the face of adversity." However, he has been known to write darker lyrics, as heard most notably on Alter Bridge's third album, "AB III", which is a loose concept album based on his own personal struggles with faith and spirituality. Similarly, the lyrical themes of The Mayfield Four's second album, "Second Skin", touch on struggling with love and substance abuse. "Second Skin", "Apocalyptic Love", "World on Fire" and "The Ides of March" are the only albums to feature lyrics written by Kennedy that contain profanity.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Kennedy currently resides in Spokane, Washington with his wife, Selena, whom he married on June 14, 2003. According to Alter Bridge lead guitarist Mark Tremonti, Kennedy is an atheist, although in an article titled "Losing My Religion" from a November 2010 issue of "Kerrang!" magazine, Kennedy said he places himself "somewhere in the middle" between being an atheist and a Christian. In an interview on the "Blairing Out with Eric Blair Show" at NAMM 2009, Kennedy mentioned that despite being raised in a Christian household, he is not a religious person and he does not believe in any organized religion. In an interview with CraveOnline, he said "I would consider myself a part of the growing segment of people who question authority and scrutinize concepts that no longer seem as logical as they once did. [...] I don't find peace in the same concepts that many hold as truth. Believe me, I tried. It's not like I didn't spend most of my life submersed in the bosom of doctrine or dogma." In 2014, he identified himself as an agnostic.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Kennedy has been identified as an avid reader and he says that he especially enjoys the work of John Irving, describing Irving's "A Prayer for Owen Meany" as one of his favorite novels. He has also cited "Effortless Mastery" by Kenny Werner as one of his favorites. When asked about his hobbies, he replied: "I guess I have been pretty fortunate since I have turned what was a hobby into a living. Music pretty much consumes me. If I’m not writing, performing or listening I am probably trying to learn more about its history." He has five tattoos: a dragon on his left forearm, a koi fish on his right forearm, an octopus on his right upper arm, and two elephant heads on his chest. He describes the dragon and the fish as symbols of strength, while the octopus was originally supposed to be a small squid but became much larger than he had intended. He got the dragon tattoo first because of a toy he brought back from Japan as a child, and the koi was added a year later after he learned of an ancient Chinese legend of koi swimming up the Yellow River to become dragons. He has said he wants to get more tattoos in the future.


title: Myles Kennedy

text: Kennedy has served on the board of directors for the Mead Food Bank since 2003. In addition, he co-founded the Future Song Foundation, a charity organization "that provides funding to ensure that kids have access to musical instruction and instruments which are fundamental parts of a complete education", with his wife in 2015. He serves as a director of the program. A proponent of wildlife conservation efforts, Kennedy is a supporter of the International Fund for Animal Welfare and is outspoken of his criticism of the ivory trade on Twitter.


title: 2022 in professional wrestling

text: 2022 in professional wrestling describes the current year's events in the world of professional wrestling.


title: 2022 in professional wrestling

text: Beginning in March 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic severely affected the professional wrestling industry worldwide, with many promotions presenting shows behind closed doors. Some events were canceled while others were rescheduled to occur in 2021 and then some in 2022. Larger companies such as WWE resumed live touring with full-capacity crowds in July 2021 – further companies also began readmitting fans to events in 2022.


title: 2022 in professional wrestling

text: Raw and SmackDown each have a world championship, a secondary championship, a women's championship, and a male tag team championship.


title: 2022 in professional wrestling

text: These titles are not brand exclusive. The colors indicate the home brand of the champions (names without a color are former WWE wrestlers, Hall of Famers, or non-wrestlers).


title: Firmament

text: In biblical cosmology, the firmament is the vast solid dome created by God during his creation of the world to divide the primal sea into upper and lower portions so that the dry land could appear. The concept was adopted into the subsequent Classical/Medieval model of heavenly spheres, but was dropped with advances in astronomy in the 16th and 17th centuries. Today it survives as a synonym for "sky" or "heaven".


title: Firmament

text: In English, the word "firmament" is recorded as early as 1250, in the "Middle English Story of Genesis and Exodus".


title: Firmament

text: It later appeared in the King James Bible. The same word is found in French and German Bible translations, all from Latin "firmamentum" (a firm object), used in the Vulgate (4th century). This in turn is a calque of the Greek (), also meaning a solid or firm structure (Greek = rigid), which appears in the Septuagint, the Greek translation made by Jewish scholars around 200 BCE.


title: Firmament

text: These words all translate the Biblical Hebrew word "rāqīaʿ" (), used for example in Genesis 1.6, where it is contrasted with "shamayim" (), translated as "heaven(s)" in Genesis 1.1. "Rāqīaʿ" derives from the root "rqʿ" (), meaning "to beat or spread out thinly". Gerhard von Rad explains:


title: Firmament

text: Perhaps beginning with Origen, the different identifiers used for heavens in the Book of Genesis, "caelum" and "firmamentum", sparked some commentary on the significance of the order of creation ("caelum" identified as the heaven of the first day, and "firmamentum" as the heaven of the second day). Some of these theories identified "caelum" as the higher, immaterial and spiritual heaven, whereas firmamentum was of corporeal existence.


title: Firmament

text: Christian theologians of note writing between the 5th and mid-12th century were generally in agreement that the waters, sometimes called the "crystalline orb", were located above the firmament and beneath the fiery heaven that was also called empyrean (from Greek ἔμπυρος). One medieval writer who rejected such notions was Pietro d'Abano who argued that theologians "assuming a crystalline, or aqueous sphere, and an empyrean, or firey sphere" were relying on revelation more than Scripture.


title: Firmament

text: About this Ambrose wrote: "Wise men of the world say that water cannot be over the heavens"; the firmament is called such, according to Ambrose, because it held back the waters above it.


title: Firmament

text: This matter of the position of the "waters" above the firmament was considered by Augustine in "De Genesi ad litteram" (perhaps his least studied work): "only God knows how and why [the waters] are there, but we cannot deny the authority of Holy Scripture which is greater than our understanding".


title: Firmament

text: Early Christian writers wrote at length about the material nature of the firmament, the problem arising from the barrier said to be created when it divided the waters above and below it. At issue was the reconciliation of Scripture with Aristotle's cosmology.


title: Firmament

text: Saint Basil rejected the notion that the firmament is made of solid ice, although Bede in Hexaemeron ignores the problem of the motion of celestial bodies (stars) in a solid firmament and declares that the "siderum caelum" (heaven of the celestial bodies) was made firm ("firmatum") in the midst of the waters so should be interpreted as having the firmness of crystalline stone ("cristallini Iapidis").


title: Firmament

text: The ancient Hebrews, like all the ancient peoples of the Near East, believed the sky was a solid dome with the Sun, Moon, planets and stars embedded in it. Around the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE the Greeks, under the influence of Aristotle who argued that the heavens must be perfect and that a sphere was the perfect geometrical figure, exchanged this for a spherical Earth surrounded by solid spheres. This became the dominant model in the Classical and Medieval world-view, and even when Copernicus placed the Sun at the centre of the system he included an outer sphere that held the stars (and by having the earth rotate daily on its axis it allowed the firmament to be completely stationary). Tycho Brahe's studies of the nova of 1572 and the Comet of 1577 were the first major challenges to the idea that orbs existed as solid, incorruptible, material objects, and in 1584 Giordano Bruno proposed a cosmology without a firmament: an infinite universe in which the stars are actually suns with their own planetary systems. After Galileo began using a telescope to examine the sky it became harder to argue that the heavens were perfect, as Aristotelian philosophy required, and by 1630 the concept of solid orbs was no longer dominant.


title: Hyperinflation

text: In economics, hyperinflation is a very high and typically accelerating inflation. It quickly erodes the real value of the local currency, as the prices of all goods increase. This causes people to minimize their holdings in that currency as they usually switch to more stable foreign currencies. When measured in stable foreign currencies, prices typically remain stable.


title: Hyperinflation

text: Unlike low inflation, where the process of rising prices is protracted and not generally noticeable except by studying past market prices, hyperinflation sees a rapid and continuing increase in nominal prices, the nominal cost of goods, and in the supply of currency. Typically, however, the general price level rises even more rapidly than the money supply as people try ridding themselves of the devaluing currency as quickly as possible. As this happens, the real stock of money (i.e., the amount of circulating money divided by the price level) decreases considerably.


title: Hyperinflation

text: Almost all hyperinflations have been caused by government budget deficits financed by currency creation. Hyperinflation is often associated with some stress to the government budget, such as wars or their aftermath, sociopolitical upheavals, a collapse in aggregate supply or one in export prices, or other crises that make it difficult for the government to collect tax revenue. A sharp decrease in real tax revenue coupled with a strong need to maintain government spending, together with an inability or unwillingness to borrow, can lead a country into hyperinflation.


title: Hyperinflation

text: In 1956, Phillip Cagan wrote "The Monetary Dynamics of Hyperinflation", the book often regarded as the first serious study of hyperinflation and its effects (though "The Economics of Inflation" by C. Bresciani-Turroni on the German hyperinflation was published in Italian in 1931). In his book, Cagan defined a hyperinflationary episode as starting in the month that the monthly inflation rate exceeds 50%, and as ending when the monthly inflation rate drops below 50% and stays that way for at least a year. Economists usually follow Cagan's description that hyperinflation occurs when the monthly inflation rate exceeds 50% (this is equivalent to a yearly rate of 12874.63%).


title: Hyperinflation

text: The International Accounting Standards Board has issued guidance on accounting rules in a hyperinflationary environment. It does not establish an absolute rule on when hyperinflation arises, but instead lists factors that indicate the existence of hyperinflation:


title: Hyperinflation

text: While there can be a number of causes of high inflation, almost all hyperinflations have been caused by government budget deficits financed by currency creation. Peter Bernholz analysed 29 hyperinflations (following Cagan's definition) and concludes that at least 25 of them have been caused in this way. A necessary condition for hyperinflation is the use of paper money instead of gold or silver coins. Most hyperinflations in history, with some exceptions, such as the French hyperinflation of 1789–1796, occurred after the use of fiat currency became widespread in the late 19th century. The French hyperinflation took place after the introduction of a non-convertible paper currency, the assignat.


title: Hyperinflation

text: Monetarist theories hold that hyperinflation occurs when there is a continuing (and often accelerating) rapid increase in the amount of money that is not supported by a corresponding growth in the output of goods and services.


title: Hyperinflation

text: The increases in price that can result from rapid money creation can create a vicious circle, requiring ever growing amounts of new money creation to fund government deficits. Hence both monetary inflation and price inflation proceed at a rapid pace. Such rapidly increasing prices cause widespread unwillingness of the local population to hold the local currency as it rapidly loses its buying power. Instead, they quickly spend any money they receive, which increases the velocity of money flow; this in turn causes further acceleration in prices. This means that the increase in the price level is greater than that of the money supply. The real stock of money, M/P, decreases. Here M refers to the money stock and P to the price level.


title: Hyperinflation

text: This results in an imbalance between the supply and demand for the money (including currency and bank deposits), causing rapid inflation. Very high inflation rates can result in a loss of confidence in the currency, similar to a bank run. Usually, the excessive money supply growth results from the government being either unable or unwilling to fully finance the government budget through taxation or borrowing, and instead it finances the government budget deficit through the printing of money.


title: Hyperinflation

text: Governments have sometimes resorted to excessively loose monetary policy, as it allows a government to devalue its debts and reduce (or avoid) a tax increase. Monetary inflation is effectively a flat tax on creditors that also redistributes proportionally to private debtors. Distributional effects of monetary inflation are complex and vary based on the situation, with some models finding regressive effects but other empirical studies progressive effects. As a form of tax, it is less overt than levied taxes and is therefore harder to understand by ordinary citizens. Inflation can obscure quantitative assessments of the true cost of living, as published price indices only look at data in retrospect, so may increase only months later. Monetary inflation can become hyperinflation if monetary authorities fail to fund increasing government expenses from taxes, government debt, cost cutting, or by other means, because either


title: Hyperinflation

text: Theories of hyperinflation generally look for a relationship between seigniorage and the inflation tax. In both Cagan's model and the neo-classical models, a tipping point occurs when the increase in money supply or the drop in the monetary base makes it impossible for a government to improve its financial position. Thus when fiat money is printed, government obligations that are not denominated in money increase in cost by more than the value of the money created.


title: Hyperinflation

text: From this, it might be wondered why any rational government would engage in actions that cause or continue hyperinflation. One reason for such actions is that often the alternative to hyperinflation is either depression or military defeat. The root cause is a matter of more dispute. In both classical economics and monetarism, it is always the result of the monetary authority irresponsibly borrowing money to pay all its expenses. These models focus on the unrestrained seigniorage of the monetary authority, and the gains from the inflation tax.


title: Hyperinflation

text: In neo-classical economic theory, hyperinflation is rooted in a deterioration of the monetary base, that is the confidence that there is a store of value that the currency will be able to command later. In this model, the perceived risk of holding currency rises dramatically, and sellers demand increasingly high premiums to accept the currency. This in turn leads to a greater fear that the currency will collapse, causing even higher premiums. One example of this is during periods of warfare, civil war, or intense internal conflict of other kinds: governments need to do whatever is necessary to continue fighting, since the alternative is defeat. Expenses cannot be cut significantly since the main outlay is armaments. Further, a civil war may make it difficult to raise taxes or to collect existing taxes. While in peacetime the deficit is financed by selling bonds, during a war it is typically difficult and expensive to borrow, especially if the war is going poorly for the government in question. The banking authorities, whether central or not, "monetize" the deficit, printing money to pay for the government's efforts to survive. The hyperinflation under the Chinese Nationalists from 1939 to 1945 is a classic example of a government printing money to pay civil war costs. By the end, currency was flown in over the Himalayas, and then old currency was flown out to be destroyed.


title: Hyperinflation

text: Hyperinflation is a complex phenomenon and one explanation may not be applicable to all cases. In both of these models, however, whether loss of confidence comes first, or central bank seigniorage, the other phase is ignited. In the case of rapid expansion of the money supply, prices rise rapidly in response to the increased supply of money relative to the supply of goods and services, and in the case of loss of confidence, the monetary authority responds to the risk premiums it has to pay by "running the printing presses."


title: Hyperinflation

text: A number of hyperinflations were caused by some sort of extreme negative supply shock, sometimes but not always associated with wars or natural disasters.


title: Hyperinflation

text: Since hyperinflation is visible as a monetary effect, models of hyperinflation center on the demand for money. Economists see both a rapid increase in the money supply and an increase in the velocity of money if the (monetary) inflating is not stopped. Either one, or both of these together are the root causes of inflation and hyperinflation. A dramatic increase in the velocity of money as the cause of hyperinflation is central to the "crisis of confidence" model of hyperinflation, where the risk premium that sellers demand for the paper currency over the nominal value grows rapidly. The second theory is that there is first a radical increase in the amount of circulating medium, which can be called the "monetary model" of hyperinflation. In either model, the second effect then follows from the first—either too little confidence forcing an increase in the money supply, or too much money destroying confidence.


title: Hyperinflation

text: In the "confidence model", some event, or series of events, such as defeats in battle, or a run on stocks of the specie that back a currency, removes the belief that the authority issuing the money will remain solvent—whether a bank or a government. Because people do not want to hold notes that may become valueless, they want to spend them. Sellers, realizing that there is a higher risk for the currency, demand a greater and greater premium over the original value. Under this model, the method of ending hyperinflation is to change the backing of the currency, often by issuing a completely new one. War is one commonly cited cause of crisis of confidence, particularly losing in a war, as occurred during Napoleonic Vienna, and capital flight, sometimes because of "contagion" is another. In this view, the increase in the circulating medium is the result of the government attempting to buy time without coming to terms with the root cause of the lack of confidence itself.